Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
K. Craig 1
Mechanical System Modeling
Dr. Kevin Craig
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 2
References for Mechanical Systems
System Dynamics, E. Doebelin, Marcel Dekker,
1998. (This is the finest reference on system
dynamics available; many figures in these notes
are taken from this reference.)
Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Dynamic
Systems, W. Palm, 2
nd
Edition, Wiley, 1999.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics, 7
th
Edition, F. Beer, E.R. Johnston, and W. Clausen,
McGraw Hill, 2004.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 3
Mechanical System Elements
Three basic mechanical elements:
Spring (elastic) element
Damper (frictional) element
Mass (inertia) element
Translational and Rotational versions
These are passive (non-energy producing) devices
Driving Inputs
force and motion sources which cause elements
to respond
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 4
Each of the elements has one of two possible
energy behaviors:
stores all the energy supplied to it
dissipates all energy into heat by some kind of
frictional effect
Spring stores energy as potential energy
Mass stores energy as kinetic energy
Damper dissipates energy into heat
Dynamic Response of each element is important
step response
frequency response
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 5
Spring Element
Real-world design situations
Real-world spring is neither pure nor ideal
Real-world spring has inertia and friction
Pure spring has only elasticity - it is a
mathematical model, not a real device
Some dynamic operation requires that spring
inertia and/or damping not be neglected
Ideal spring: linear
Nonlinear behavior may often be preferable and
give significant performance advantages
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 6
Device can be pure without being ideal (e.g.,
nonlinear spring with no inertia or damping)
Device can be ideal without being pure (e.g., device
which exhibits both linear springiness and linear
damping)
Pure and ideal spring element:
K
s
= spring stiffness (N/m or N-m/rad)
1/K
s
= C
s
= compliance (softness parameter)
( )
( )
s 1 2 s
s 1 2 s
f K x x K x
T K K
= =
= =
s
s
x C f
C T
=
=
K
s
x f
f
x
C
s
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 7
Energy stored in a spring
Dynamic Response: Zero-Order Dynamic System
Model
Step Response
Frequency Response
Real springs will not behave exactly like the
pure/ideal element. One of the best ways to
measure this deviation is through frequency
response.
2 2
s s
s
C f K x
E
2 2
= =
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 8
Spring Element
( ) ( )
( )
0
s
2 2
x
s 0 s 0
s
0
Differential Work Done
f dx K x dx
Total Work Done
K x C f
K x dx
2 2
= =
= = =
= + + +
+
( )
0
0 0
x x
df
y y x x
dx
y Kx
=
+
=
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 13
Real Springs
nonlinearity of the
force/deflection curve
noncoincidence of the
loading and unloading
curves (The 2
nd
Law of
Thermodynamics
guarantees that the area
under the loading f vs. x
curve must be greater
than that under the
unloading f vs. x curve.
It is impossible to recover
100% of the energy put
into any system.)
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 14
Several Types of Practical
Springs:
coil spring
hydraulic (oil) spring
cantilever beam spring
pneumatic (air) spring
clamped-end beam spring
ring spring
rubber spring (shock mount)
tension rod spring
torsion bar spring
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 15
Spring-like Effects in
Unfamiliar Forms
aerodynamic spring
gravity spring (pendulum)
gravity spring (liquid
column)
buoyancy spring
magnetic spring
electrostatic spring
centrifugal spring
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 16
Damper Element
A pure damper dissipates all the energy supplied
to it, i.e., converts the mechanical energy to
thermal energy.
Various physical mechanisms, usually associated
with some form of friction, can provide this
dissipative action, e.g.,
Coulomb (dry friction) damping
Material (solid) damping
Viscous damping
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 17
Pure / ideal damper element provides viscous
friction.
All mechanical elements are defined in terms of
their force/motion relation. (Electrical elements
are defined in terms of their voltage/current
relations.)
Pure / Ideal Damper
Damper force or torque is directly proportional
to the relative velocity of its two ends.
1 2
dx dx dx
f B B
dt dt dt
= =
1 2
d d d
T B B
dt dt dt
= =
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 18
Forces or torques on the two ends of the
damper are exactly equal and opposite at all
times (just like a spring); pure springs and
dampers have no mass or inertia. This is NOT
true for real springs and dampers.
Units for B to preserve physical meaning:
N/(m/sec)
(N-m)/(rad/sec)
Transfer Function
( )
2
2
2
2
dx d x
Dx D x
dt dt
x x
(x)dt x dt dt
D D
Differential
Operator
Notation
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 19
Operational Transfer Functions
We assume the initial conditions are zero.
Damper element dissipates into heat all
mechanical energy supplied to it.
Force applied to damper causes a velocity in same
direction.
f BDx
T BD
=
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f T
D BD D BD
x
x 1 1
D D
f BD T BD
( )( )
2
dx dx
Power force velocity f B
dt dt
= =
0
x
f 0
f
A 1
B
A f B
= =
( )
x 1 1
i M 90
f i B B
= = =
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 24
Real Dampers
A damper element is used to model a device
designed into a system (e.g., automotive shock
absorbers) or for unavoidable parasitic effects
(e.g., air drag).
To be an energy-dissipating effect, a device
must exert a force opposite to the velocity;
power is always negative when the force and
velocity have opposite directions.
Lets consider examples of real intentional
dampers.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 25
Viscous (Piston/Cylinder) Damper
A relative velocity between the
cylinder and piston forces the
viscous oil through the clearance
space h, shearing the fluid and
creating a damping force.
2
2 2
2
2 1
2 1
3
2
6 L h R R
B R R h
h
h 2
R
2
=
= fluid viscosity
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 26
Simple Shear Damper
And
Viscosity Definition
fluid viscosity
shearing stress F/ A
velocity gradient V/ t
2A
F V
t
F 2A
B
V t
= =
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 27
Examples
of
Rotary Dampers
3
D L
B
4t
=
4
0
D
B
16t
=
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 28
Commercial Air Damper
laminar flow
linear damping
turbulent flow
nonlinear damping
(Data taken with valve shut)
Air Damper
much lower viscosity
less temperature dependent
no leakage or sealing problem
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 29
Eddy-Current Damper
Motion of the conducting
cup in the magnetic field
generates a voltage in the
cup.
A current is generated in
the cups circular path.
A current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic
field experiences a force
proportional to the current.
The result is a force
proportional to and
opposing the velocity.
The dissipated energy
shows up as I
2
R heating of
the cup.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 30
Temperature Sensitivity
Of
Damping Methods
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 31
Other Examples
of
Damper Forms
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 32
The damper element can also be used to represent
unavoidable parasitic energy dissipation effects in
mechanical systems.
Frictional effects in moving parts of machines
Fluid drag on vehicles (cars, ships, aircraft, etc.)
Windage losses of rotors in machines
Hysteresis losses associated with cyclic stresses in
materials
Structural damping due to riveted joints, welds,
etc.
Air damping of vibrating structural shapes
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 33
Hydraulic Motor Friction
and its Components
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 34
Coulomb Friction: Modeling and Simulation
In most control systems, Coulomb friction is a
nuisance.
Coulomb friction is difficult to model and
troublesome to deal with in control system design.
It is a nonlinear phenomenon in which a force is
produced that tends to oppose the motion of
bodies in contact in a mechanical system.
Undesirable effects: hangoff and limit cycling
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 35
Hangoff (or dc limit cycle) prevents the steady-
state error from becoming zero with a step
command input.
Limit Cycling is behavior in which the steady-state
error oscillates or hunts about zero.
What Should the Control Engineer Do?
Minimize friction as much as possible in the design
Appraise the effect of friction in a proposed control
system design by simulation
If simulation predicts that the effect of friction is
unacceptable, you must do something about it!
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 36
Remedies can include simply modifying the design
parameters (gains), using integral control action, or
using more complex measures such as estimating the
friction and canceling its effect.
Modeling and simulation of friction should contribute
significantly to improving the performance of motion
control systems.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 37
Modeling Coulomb Friction
V
F
f
F
slip
F
stick
" Stiction" Coulomb
Friction Model
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 38
Case Study to Evaluate Friction Model
m
k
F
f
V
0
V
m = 0.1 kg
k = 100 N/m
F
stick
= 0.25 N
F
slip
= 0.20 N (assumed independent of velocity)
V
0
= step of 0.002 m/sec at t = 0 sec
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 39
Friction Model in Simulink
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 40
Simulink Block Diagram
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 41
Example with Friction Model
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 42
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
time (sec)
2
*
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
,
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
0
.
1
*
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n
F
o
r
c
e
Position, Velocity, Friction Force vs. Time
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 43
Inertia Element
A designer rarely inserts a component for the
purpose of adding inertia; the mass or inertia
element often represents an undesirable effect
which is unavoidable since all materials have
mass.
There are some applications in which mass itself
serves a useful function, e.g., accelerometers and
flywheels.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 44
Useful Applications
of
Inertia
Flywheels are used as
energy-storage devices or as
a means of smoothing out
speed fluctuations in engines
or other machines.
Accelerometer
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 45
Newtons Law defines the behavior of mass
elements and refers basically to an idealized
point mass:
The concept of rigid body is introduced to deal
with practical situations. For pure translatory
motion, every point in a rigid body has identical
motion.
Real physical bodies never display ideal rigid
behavior when being accelerated.
The pure / ideal inertia element is a model, not
a real object.
( )( )
forces mass acceleration =
= =
+ =
= =
s
2
2
n
K
J
4 f
=
= =
Inertia Element stores
energy as kinetic energy:
2 2
Mv J
or
2 2
+ =
+ =
= = =
+
+
= =
96200 cycles/min
for a 6-inch
steel rod
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 58
Motion Transformers
Mechanical systems often include mechanisms
such as levers, gears, linkages, cams, chains, and
belts.
They all serve a common basic function, the
transformation of the motion of an input member
into the kinematically-related motion of an output
member.
The actual system may be simplified in many
cases to a fictitious but dynamically equivalent
one.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 59
This is accomplished by referring all the
elements (masses, springs, dampers) and driving
inputs to a single location, which could be the
input, the output, or some selected interior point of
the system.
A single equation can then be written for this
equivalent system, rather than having to write
several equations for the actual system.
This process is not necessary, but often speeds the
work and reduces errors.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 60
Motion Transformers
Gear Train Relations:
m
m
m
m
N
N
N
T
T
N
N N
=
2
1
1
2
1
T
m
N
1
N
2
m
T
m
m
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 61
Translational Equivalent
for
A Complex System
x
1
, x
2
,
are
kinematically related
Refer all elements and
inputs to the x
1
location
and define a fictitious
equivalent system
whose motion will be
the same as x
1
but will
include all the effects
in the original system.
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 62
Define a single equivalent spring element
which will have the same effect as the three
actual springs.
Mentally apply a static force f
1
at location x
1
and write a torque balance equation:
( )
1 s 2
1 1 s1 1 1 1 s2 2
1 1
1 se 1
2
2
se s1 s2 s
2
1 1
x K L
f L K x L x K L
L L
f K x
L 1
K K K K
L L
= + +
=
+ +
+ +
1
1
R R
R R
dq dq
q
dt dt
= +
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 87
R
R
1 R
2
O
= 30
r = 0.06 m
Rigid-Body Kinematics Example
Given:
Find:
Reference Frames:
R ground: xyz
R
1
shaft: x
1
y
1
z
1
R
2
disk: x
2
y
2
z
2
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
O
z
1
y
z
y
1
O
1
1 2
R R
R R
1
5i constant
4k constant
= =
= =
R P
a
1
1
1
i i
1 0 0
j 0 cos sin j
0 sin cos
k k
=
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 88
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
R R R R P R O R R OP R OP
R R R P R P
a a r r
a 2 v
= + +
+ +
2
2
R O
R P
R P
a 0
a 0
v 0
=
=
=
0 4 4 k
dt
4 5i k 20j
= + = +
= = +
= + =
= =
( )
20 jcos ksin = +
( ) ( )
OP
1 1
r r cos i r sin j = +
Alternate Solution:
( )
1 1 1
1 1 1
R R R R P R O R R OP R OP
R R R P R P
a a r r
a 2 v
= + +
+ +
1
1
1
R O
R R
R R R
R R
a 0
5i constant
d
0
dt
=
= =
= =
( ) ( )
OP
1 1
r r cos i r sin j = +
4k
d d
4k 0
dt dt
v v r
v 0
=
=
= = =
= +
=
( ) ( )
OP
1 1
r r cos i r sin j = +
(same result)
Mechanical System Modeling
K. Craig 91
Rigid Body Dynamics: Kinetics
Linear Momentum
Angular Momentum about point C
Equations of Motion
Point C: mass center of a rigid body of mass m.
Reference Frames
R - Ground xyz
R
1
- Body x
1
y
1
z
1
R C
L m v =
y
1
y
z
O
x
R
x
1
z
1
R
1
A
C
y
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
R R
x x x x y x z x
R R
y y x y y y z y
R R
z z x z y z z z
H I I I
H I I I
H I I I
=
1 1 1
x 1 y 1 z 1
H H i H j H k = + +
R R C
R
d v
F m
dt
dH
M
dt
=
=