1

BOUNDARIES OF CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION

Sebastian CHIRIMBU, PhD (Romania)
Adina BARBU-CHIRIMBU, PhD (Romania)


Abstract:
Globalization is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and culture can be regarded as a
dimension of globalization. The two concepts of globalization and respectively culture are closely
interconnected. The strict boundaries between countries that defined their economies and policies
for centuries and even more are no longer in place.
Globalization has many positives, including prosperity, development, and cultural diversity.
Much of it, in any case, is inevitable. In the EU, Europeans have found a tool to help them manage
these processes, taking advantage of their many benefits while protecting citizens from some of
globalization's more negative effects. The EU remains a tool for managing globalization, but it is
also an indispensable one.

Key words: frontier/border, geographical space, Balkan Peninsula, cultural interferences.

Globalization refers to the multiplicity of linkages
and interconnections between the states and
societies which make up the modern world system
(McGrew, Anthony and Lewis, Paul, 1992)

0. Introduction
Starting from the premises that the impressive contemporary transformation
processes triggered by globalization can be fully understood only if read in a cultural key,
the paper aims to demonstrate that the European Union has never lost sight of a core
truth, a truth of key importance that first of all, before being an economic or a political
whole, Europe is a cultural construction and while economically and politically Europes
age can be measured in decades, from the cultural point of view it is a centuries old
reality.
The strict boundaries between countries that defined their economies and policies
for centuries and even more are no longer in place. Besides the fall of boundaries
triggered in our part of the world by membership to the European Union, the tremendous
development of communication technologies has deeply changed the way nations and
people interact.
This change has become obvious at a cultural level as well, although nations have
always stubbornly tried to keep their cultural specificities, or better said, cultural identity;
this phenomenon is becoming a threat to globalization which is regarded as a
phenomenon that will lead to cultural uniformity.
Globalization is perhaps one of the most salient features of modern societies. It is
also one of the hardest to grasp, considering its all-embracing content and the local
particularities it acquires


1. A brief foray into globalization theories
A review of the literature on globalization shows a constant expansion of the
meaning encapsulated in the term. Globalization made its entrance in the academic world
referring to economic activity. Theodore Levitt
1
, who is credited with coining the notion
in his famous article The Globalization of Markets, epitomized: two vectors shape the

1
http://www.lapres.net/levit.pdf
2
world - technology and globalization. The first helps determine human preferences; the
second, economic realities.
2
Initially globalization was understood as an integration of
markets, which facilitates cross-border interaction of economic spaces and leads to a
denationalization of economic processes.
3
Using Dasguptas terminology, we shall
describe this dimension as capitalist globalization
4
. But as the phenomenon began to
gain momentum, it also acquired new content. Thus it came to designate (apart from
economic) either a political, technological, social, cultural, environmental, military or
legal process, or all of them together. The following definitions are a proof of the
phenomenons multifaceted nature:

Globalization refers to the multiplicity of linkages and interconnections
between the states and societies which make up the modern world system. It
describes the process by which events, decisions, and activities in one part of
the world can come to have significant consequences for individuals and
communities in quite distant parts of the globe.
5


Globalization may be thought of as a process (or set of processes) which
embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and
transactions assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and
impact - generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of
activity, interaction, and the exercise of power.
6


Globalization is not solely the devaluation of the nation state as a major
political identification focus, but also the addressing of interactions now
operating between the national levels of political, social, cultural and
economic life, and global players with varying degrees of influence
(multinational corporations, NGOs, media and so on).
7


They are also helpful in sketching essential characteristics of globalization, which
include:
- increased interconnectivity in almost every sphere of social existence, from the
economic to the ecological, fromthe intensification of world trade to the spread of
weapons of mass destruction;
8

- diffusion of national borders and stretching of social relations and activities, which
result in local happenings being influenced by events which take place in remote parts of
the world;
- enhanced mobility of human, capital and information flows which give rise to a
profusion of fluid, irregularly shaped, variously textured and constantly changing
landscapes
9
;
- the existence of influential global players acting like agents of globalization and
diminishing the role of state actors;
- compression of time and space.

2
Levitt, Theodore, The Globalization of Markets, 1983, p. 20, retrieved from
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/~caplabtb/m302w07/levitt.pdf, on April 4, 2012.
3
Schirm, Stefan A., Analytical Overview : State of the Art of Research on Globalization, in Schirm, Stefan A. (ed.),
Globalization, State of the Art and Perspectives, Routledge 2007, p. 3.
4
Dasgupta, Samir, Introduction: A Reflection on Politics of Globalization and Textual Entrails, in Dasgupta, Samir and
Pieterse, J an Nederveen (ed.), Politics of Globalization, Sage Publications, 2009, p. 9.
5
McGrew, Anthony and Lewis, Paul (ed.)., Global Politics. Globalization and the Nation-State, 1992, Cambridge: Polity,
p. 23.
6
Held, David, apud Steger, Manfred, Globalization A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 10.
7
Pesqueux, Yvon, What is Globalization? The Paradoxes of the Economic and Political Substance of Markets, in Milliot,
Eric & Tournois, Nadine (ed.), The Paradoxes of Globalization, Palgrave, 2010, p.14.
8
Held, David and McGrew, Anthony, Globalization/Anti-globalization: Beyond the Great Divide, Polity, 2007, p. 3.
9
Hay, Colin and Marsh, David, Introduction: Demystifying Globalization, in Hay, Colin and Marsh, David, Demystifying
Globalization, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2000, p.2.
3
According to Dasgupta, there are four (other) fundamental criteria which give
substance to the meaning of globalization: the first is the electronic revolution, the second
is the postcolonial revolution; the third is the creation of transnational social spaces, and
last, the apparition of qualitatively new forms of cosmopolitanism, where relations
between the national and the international can be increasingly re-conceptualized in terms
of relations between the local and the global
10
.
Paradoxically, the local-global nexus marks more than an opposition; it is the
enmeshment of the two spatial delimitations that makes it possible for events and
activities in one part of the world to have such a powerful echo in another. This is also the
case with other forces commonly associated with globalization, such as fragmentation
and de-territorialisation, for instance. As Rosenau notices, there are continuous
interactions between these forces and their opposites integration and re-
territorialisation- interactions that are sometimes cooperative, more often conflictual, but
at all times ongoing
11
. The prominent political scientist even comes up with the term
fragmegration, a combination of fragmentation and integration, which is meant to
capture the centrality of the inextricable and endless interaction between the poles for
the course of events.
12
In a radical and oversimplifying view, globalization could be
reduced to a series of dichotomies, where notions like local and global, integration and
fragmentation, de-territorialisation and re-territorialisation simultaneously entangle and
reinforce each other.
Nevertheless, this is not an exact definition of the phenomenon, since it leaves
out substantial features of globalization, and offers a unilateral perspective of a multi-
valence process. It is best to consider this yet another characteristic meant to add an extra
piece to the globalization puzzle.

2. Globalization as a multi-dimensional phenomenon
Globalization is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and culture can be regarded as
a dimension of globalization. The two concepts of globalization and respectively culture
are closely interconnected. If we have in mind the cultural dimension of globalization we
discover that globalization has a dialectic (two-way) character: globalization is not a one
direction phenomenon within which events are determined and influenced by vast global
structures; local cultural features and local intervention is also present in what is called
globalization.
The relationship between globalization and culture is a very special one; it does
not resemble the economic, political, social, etc aspects of globalization. While material
exchanges tend to localize, political exchanges institutionalize, the cultural ones - which
are symbolic exchanges globalize. The result is that the globalization of the human
society is conditioned by the extent to which cultural relationships have an effect in
relation to economic and political arrangements. Political and economic processes tend to
become global to the extent to which they are circumscribed to culture that is they are
seen as symbolic processes. Due to their symbolic nature, cultural exchanges can occur
anywhere and anytime as there are few constraints in terms of resources.
The cultural dimension of globalization is of the same importance as the political
or economic aspects of globalization. The reasons of this importance are obvious:
language, identity, life style are not abstractions but fundamental elements of our private
and public existence.
Where and how we live, who are those that influence us, why and how they
influence us which are the vehicles of change in todays world, which are the values we
believe in all these are unavoidable questions for any reasoning inhabitant of the global
village which our planet has become.

10
Dasgupta, Samir, op. cit., p.9.
11
Rosenau, J ames N., The Governance of Fragmegration: Neither a World Republic nor a Global Interstate System, 2000,
p.2, retrieved fromhttp://www.lanna-website-
promotion.com/moonhoabinh/lunar_material/GovernanceOfFragmegration.pdf, on April 7, 2012.
12
Ibidem.
4
In this context, one of the main issues raised by researchers is that of the
existence, the emergence of a global culture. To what extent the uniformization of the life
style, the growing importance of the English language, the migration of the labour force,
the imposing of technological and infrastructure standards allowing global
interconnectivity ca determine, together, the emergence of a global culture?
We believe that at the level of the European Union globalization can be perceived
in two different ways which do not exclude each other. On the one hand, the European
Union can be perceived as a successful model of globalization. Culturally speaking it
offers an original model of a space which has been trying to implement a common
cultural legislation whose main purpose is to preserve cultural diversity, a space which
has been trying to implement common linguistic guidelines while assuming and asserting
the existence of 23 official languages.
On the other hand, precisely due to regarding themselves as belonging to a
mutual cultural space sharing main features, Europeans tend to resist globalization mainly
conceived as Americanization.
Most Europeans believe that the European Union can protect them from the
downsides of globalization - and they're right. Many Europeans decided to vote against
the European constitution draft which was in effect, a vote against globalization. While
supporting European integration, these Europeans felt that the constitution did not
sufficiently protect Europe and its workers against job losses due to globalization.
This negative vote is just an example of what appears - on the surface, at least - to
be a built-in European resistance to globalization. Whether in the form of populist
political rhetoric, anti-globalization street protests, or the destruction of genetically-
modified corn fields, this activity gives the impression of a continent determined to resist
the integration of global markets and cultures.
That impression, however, is wrong, or at least highly misleading. Many
Europeans worry about globalization's effects on jobs, economic equality, European
culture, or political independence vis--vis the United States.
But the prominent anti-globalization movement is actually a small if vocal
minority. In fact, a clear majority of Europeans accepts that increasing global economic,
political, and cultural exchange can enrich their country and their lives. They believe that
a strong European Union can help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while
shielding them fromits negative effects.
Howevere, globalization and economic liberalization bring greater challenges for
Europe than for the United States. One reason is that the state plays a greater role in EU
economies: State spending in the EU averages 48 percent of its Gross Domestic Product,
compared with only around 36 percent in the United States; social expenditures average
over 25 percent, compared with just 15 percent in the United States. Europeans are also
more attached to equality and collective rights than are most Americans, who have a
proud tradition of individualism. The problem is further complicated by relatively
inflexible European labor markets. EU citizens are almost six times less likely than
Americans to move from one region to another, and workers are less likely to accept
wage or benefit cuts in order to preserve jobs threatened by trade. Finally, many
Europeans fear that globalization - in the form of "Americanization" - will threaten their
local culture.
The past 25 years certainly provide evidence of EU adaptation (versus resistance)
to globalization. As late as 1980, the major European economies were still highly
regulated, capital movements were restricted, and hundreds of non-tariff barriers
prevented true economic integration even within the EU. Today, while much progress
remains to be made, the internal EU market is complete, most industry has been
privatized, and many state subsidies and obstacles to cross-border mergers and
acquisitions have been removed.
How does the EU play this role? First, by providing a large, single market, the
EU allows its member states to take advantage of many of globalization's benefits among
relatively like-minded countries at similar levels of economic development. Europeans
5
find it easier to accept European integration than global integration because of their
similar value systems and common commitment to generous social and environmental
provisions.
Second, Europeans count on the EU to protect them from the inequalities that
globalization can create. The generous provision of "structural funds" (aid to its poorest
regions) and a social safety net make the Union safer for globalization.
Third, by aggregating the separate member states' strength, the EU increases
leverage in international negotiations - whether on trade, environment, food safety,
international finance, foreign policy, or culture. None of the individual states could ever
hope to stand up to the United States in any of these areas, but with economy and
population comparable to the United States, the EU has increasingly done so.
Finally, Europeans turn to the EU to regulate certain sectors, such as agriculture
or culture, that would be dramatically transformed by unregulated globalization. Without
the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), for example, globalization would entail the
destruction of much of European farming, especially small farms. Fromthe standpoint of
global efficiency and production, that would be a good thing. But Europeans (and not
only the farmers) apparently would rather pay a significant price - including higher food
prices - in order to maintain this aspect of their traditional culture. The EU will eventually
have to scale back its agricultural protection, but Europeans expect the EU to manage that
process without causing the pain associated with living in an entirely unregulated world.
Many Europeans will, no doubt, continue to protest against globalization - and
sometimes for good reason. Growing international interdependence challenges many
basic aspects of traditionally European political and economic systems, threatens aspects
of national cultures, and leaves the continent vulnerable to new and unprecedented
hazards.
But globalization also has many positives, including prosperity,
development, and cultural diversity. Much of it, in any case, is inevitable. In the
EU, Europeans have found a tool to help them manage these processes, taking
advantage of their many benefits while protecting citizens from some of
globalization's more negative effects. The EU remains a tool for managing
globalization, but it is also an indispensable one.

3. Linguistic globalization and the world-wide spread of English
As far as the issue of linguistic globalization is concerned, it is given a deserved
importance within the European Union.
Linguistic globalization cannot be conceived without talking about the world-
wide spread of English. In many member states of the European Union English has
become (or is in the process of becoming) the most popular foreign language in terms of
acquisition and in its use in many domains. Various sociolinguistic perspectives are
adopted to account for how English has successfully consolidated its position as the chief
language of interaction between speech communities that would not traditionally have
employed it.
Although English is so widely used and nobody can deny its role as a globalizing
factor and its role for global communication, Europe remains a privileged space of
multiculturalismand multilingualism. It acknowledges the importance of language for
preserving national identity and as a consequence, in Europe, linguistic globalization has
come to have, in our opinion, a special and original form, that of interaction, of
preservation of diversity, not of uniformization.
Translations are an example of this special phenomenon. The great importance
given to the translation of community texts on the one hand, the cultural programmes
created to support the translation of literary texts so that they could be accessible to the
whole European space on the other hand contributed to the creation of what we could call
a global cultural Europe.
6
Globalization has created awareness of the variety increases the force of
democracy, portraying an individual able to choose between more than possible
alternatives. Also, this individual can defend handling, as has the possibility to identify.
Globalization has a big role in our opinion, to annihilate the distance between cultures.
The world becomes a single place, and we are all neighbors.
The very important cultural dimension of globalization deals among many other
aspects with the way the need to learn foreign languages is perceived, as the knowledge
of foreign languages facilitates and accelerates the global flow of ideas.
The realities of the contemporary world (globalization, multilingualism,
tolerance, progress) have triggered an ever increasing interest in the learning of foreign
languages. Not only have international and especially European institutions admitted the
necessity to learn foreign languages but they have also initiated and implemented
concrete actions meant to offer eficient methodological answers to the demand to learn
and be assessed in the field of foreign languages.
In a multilingual Europe, the teaching and learning of foreign languages represent
an absolute priority, a strategic factor for the development of a knowledge based Europe
in the 21st century. In this multilingual Europe learning foreign languages, especially
English may forge a way to new oportunities. English is one of the most important
languages for communication as a third of the world population have at least basic
knowledge of it. It is the international language of trade, communication, aviation.
In Europe, the linguistic diversity is a reality that unites us in a common history and
reality. Multilingualism is the most explicit illustration of the slogan unity in diversity,
it is a tool that contributes to the creation of tight connections among people rather than
underlining the differences among societies. The linguistic diversity has a key role for
consolidating a European identity and it equally supports the development of the other
sides of our identity local, regional and national. In the context of globalization,
mobility and migration multilingualism may offer new sollutions for both individual
citizens and the society.

Conclusion
Richard Devetak, Globalizations Shadow, in R. Devetak and C.W. Hughes
(ed.) The Globalization of Political Violence, (Routledge, 2008) considers that
Understanding globalization in its various dimensions requires focusing not just on
globally scaled practices, but on locally or nationally scaled ones that are inseparable
fromthe set of global dynamics associated with globalization. Globalization therefore
denotes a variegated social process; one which is unevenly diffused and materializes
differently depending on local practices and structures.
We should never lose sight of a core truth, a truth of key importance that first of
all, before being an economic or a political whole, Europe is a cultural construction and
while economically and politically Europes age can be measured in decades, from the
cultural point of view it is a centuries old reality.
Choosing as an opening point a more general perspective upon the relationship
between culture and globalization, we will be able to understand culture in the modern
world and globalization as the core of modern culture, the cultural practices as the core of
globalization.

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