BioSummaries

Respiratorysystem
Therespiratorysystemisthebodysysteminwhichgasisexchanged.Therespiratorysystems
jobinthebodyistobringO
2
intothebodyandreleaseCO
2
andwatervapor.Thespecialized
structuresofthissystemallowforthegasexchangestohappen.Thenoseandthemouthare
entrywaysintothesystemtheairentersthemfirst.Whenairistakeninthroughthenose,
mucusliningthenasalpassageswarmsandmoistenstheaircomingthrough.Cilia,themucus
andtinyhairsliningthenasalpassages,filterdustandpathogenscollectedfromtheair.Asmall
pieceoftissuecalledtheepiglottis,locatedinthebackofthethroat,regulatestheflowofairinto
thetrachea(a.k.a.thewindpipe).Thetracheaisalongstructuremadeofsofttissuesupported
bycartilagerings.Theepiglottisblockstheentrywayintothetracheawhenweswallowtokeep
foodandsalivaawayfromtheairways.Thetracheadividesintotwobronchi,eachbranchgoing
toeachlung.ThelungsaretheorgansthattakeintheO
2
fromtheairweinhale.Withinthe
lungs,thebronchiaredividedintosmallerbranches,thesmallestbranchesbeingcalledthe
bronchioles.Clustersoftinyairsacscalledalveoliarelocatedattheendofthebronchioles.The
gasexchangeofO
2
andCO
2
occursinthealveoli,wheretheO
2
diffusesintothebloodandthe
CO
2
diffusesintothealveoli.Thelungscanhaveagreatamountofalveoli,thenumberranging
from300to600million.Theenormousnumbersofalveoliprovidesasurfaceareafortakingin
O
2
andreleasingCO
2
andwatervapor.Lungmucusandciliahelptrackandremoveforeign
pathogensandmaterials.AlthoughthelungsabsorbtheO
2
fromtheair,ourbreathinginvolves
theribcagemusclesandthediaphragm.Whenweinhale,themusclesoftheribcagecontract
andtheribcageexpands.Thediaphragm,adomeshapedmuscleatthebaseoftheribcage,
proceedstoflattenandmovedownward.Thevolumeofourlungsincreases,buttheair
pressuredecreases,causingittofallbelowtheairpressureoutsideourbodies.Gasesmove
fromareasofgreaterpressuretoareasoflowerpressuresothataircanflowintothelungs.On
theotherhand,whenweexhale,themusclesoftheribcagerelaxandtheribcagedecreasesin
size.Thediaphragmrelaxesaswell,causingittoriseandtakeadomelikeshapeagain.Airthen
flowsout,astheairpressureinsideourlungsisgreaterthantheairpressureoutsideourbodies.

Digestivesystem
Thedigestivesystemisacollectionoforgansthatbreakdownfoodintoenergy,whicharemade
usableforcells.Digestionoccursthroughtheinteractionsofenzymes,stomachacid,
hormones,bilefromtheliver,andanetworkofmusclesandnervesthroughoutthedigestive
system.Themajororgansofthesystemincludethemouth,esophagus,stomach,pancreas,
liver,gallbladder,largeandsmallintestines,rectum,andanus.Digestionbeginswhenfood
entersthemouth.Mechanicaldigestionoccurswhenwebiteintoourfood,whereaschemical
digestionoccurswhensalivaryglandsinthemouthreleasesalivathatmoistensourfoodand
releasesanenzymecalledamylase,whichbeginsthebreakdownofcomplexstarchmolecules
intosugars.Afterthefoodhasbeenmixedwithsaliva,thetonguepushesittothebackofthe
mouthandintotheesophagusasthefoodisbeingswallowed.Foodiskeptmovingdownthe
esophagusbyperistalsis,whichistheinvoluntarycontractionofthesmoothmusclesinthe
digestiveorganswalls.Thefoodisthenmovedtothestomachtocontinuethedigestion.The
stomachandsmallintestinedigestproteins,butonlythesmallintestinedigestsfatsandsugars.
Enzymeshelpwiththebreakdownofmaterials.Mechanicaldigestioninthestomachinvolves
thestomachwallscontractingoften,breakingthefoodintosmallerpiecesandmixingitwiththe
stomachsdigestivejuices.Chemicaldigestionwithinthestomachinvolvesthestomachlining,
whichreleasesgastricjuicethathashydrochloricacid andpepsin.Thegastricjuicekills
thebacteriafoundonfoodandbreaksbondsbetweenproteinmolecules.Pepsinalsohelps
breakchemicalbondsbetweentheaminoacidsinproteins.Thegastricjuiceandpepsinthen
proceedtoturnthefoodintoasemiliquidmixturecalledchyme.Thestomachisemptiedwhen
thechymeispushedintothesmallintestinethroughasphincter,haltingtheproductionofgastric
juice.Thesmallintestineisalong,narrowtubeinwhichmostofthedigestiontakesplace.
Smoothmusclecontractionsinthesmallintestinemechanicallydigestthefoodbychurningit.
Chemicaldigestionoccurswhentheenzymesandhormonesfromthepancreas,liver,and
gallbladderflowintotheduodenumtohelpbreakdownthecomplexmoleculesofthefood.The
pancreasisasmallglandthatislocatedbehindthestomachandisresponsibleforreleasingan
alkalinefluidtohelpneutralizetheacidandstoptheactionofpepsinandenzymestobreakdown
starchesintosimplesugars.Theliverproducesbile,achemicalsubstance,thathelpstodigest
fatsandisstoredinthegallbladder.Proteinsenterthesmallintestineandarebrokendownby
enzymes,whichbreakthechainsofaminoacidstoformindividualaminoacids.Whendigestion
iscompleted,nutrientsfromthebreakingdownofthefoodaretakeninbythebodyand
transportedbythecirculatorysystemandlymphaticsystemtoallofthecellsthroughthe
processofabsorption.Thesmallintestinehasthreemainstructuresthatabsorbthenutrients
fromthechyme:thelining,villi,andmicrovilli.Thefoldsoftheliningarecoveredwithvilli,small
fingerlikeprojectionscoveredwithepithelialcellsthatabsorbnutrients,andwithintheepithelial
cellsaremicrovillithataddmoresurfaceareatoabsorbnutrients.Materialthatisntdigestedis
takenoutofthebodyasliquidandsolidwastes.

Excretorysystem
Theexcretorysystemisthebodysystemresponsiblefortheeliminationofnonsolidwastes
throughsweat,urine,andexhalationinordertohelpmaintainhomeostasisinthebody.Themain
organsofthesystemaretheskin,lungs,kidneys,ureters,urinarybladder,andurethra.Through
exhalation,thelungsremoveexcessCO
2
andwatervapor,maintainingthebalanceofCO
2
and
O
2
inourblood.Sweatglandsintheskinreleaseexcesswaterandsaltsthroughthesweatthat
theyproduce,removingwastesandcoolingthebodytomaintainhomeostasis.Thekidneysare
theorgansthateliminatewastesbyfilteringandcleaningthebloodtoproduceurine.Theurine
producedbythekidneysmovestotheurethrathroughtheureter,atubethatcarriesurinefrom
thekidneystothebladder,andisreleasedthroughtheurethra.Thekidneyshaveinnerlayers
calledmedullas,andouterlayerscalledcortexes.Thecortexesarefilledwithnephrons,
individualfilteringunitsofthekidneys.Nephronscleanthebloodinathreestepprocess:
filtration,reabsorption,andexcretion.Waterandothermaterialsmoveoutofthecapillariesand
intothenephron.Then,someofthematerialsarereabsorbedandputintotheblood.The
remainingwasteproductsarethenexcretedintheurine.Kidneyshavethreefunctionsin
maintaininghomeostasis:removewasteproductsfromtheblood,maintainelectrolyte,pH,and
fluidbalancesinthebody,andreleasehormonesthathelpkeeptheboneshealthy,producered
bloodcells,andregulatebloodpressure.