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BRIEF HISTORY OF ACOUSTICAL IDEAS:

Acoustics first became associated with architecture when man began to assemble
in groups to hear speeches, listen to music and see and hear plays.
To create a favourable setting for such activities the Greek and Roman open-air
theatres and forums evolved.The typical open-air amphitheatre consists of steeply
banked benches arranged in a semicircle in front of a platform.
With the passage of time the platform evolved into a stage with massive rear and
side walls of masonry (and sometimes a ceiling) that served the acoustical
purpose of reflecting, directing and thereby re-inforcing the sound intended for
the audience.
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science of the generation, propagation, transmission,
reproduction, reception, measurement and effects of sound and of the
phenomenon of hearing.Acoustics also refers to the quality of sound as heard or
transmitted in a room or building
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is
the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a
branch of Acoustical engineering.
Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a
theatre, restaurant or railway station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert
hall or recording studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more
productive and pleasant places to work and live in.
Architectural Acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.
NEED TO STUDY ACOUSTICS
All human beings live with sound by birth . It is a medium of communication ,
which includes speech and music . We spend the majority of our time indoors, so
a good working environment is essential. In many environments where people are
present and communicate, high sound levels are perceived as one of the most
disturbing factors.
The negative sound is unwanted and we call it noise. It causes stress and affect
human wellbeing .Noise impairs productivity in the workplace and the classroom,
it also affects the patient outcomes in hospitals and aged care facilities.
A good acoustic environment is absolutely essential to maintaining a high level
satisfaction and moral health among people.A well planned sound environment
improves people ability to perform.
A good acoustic environment keeps noise at levels that do not interfere with
activities within programmed space. It also benefits teaching and learning. It
provides teachers, students and pre-school/day-care staff with the best possible
environment to support their educational ambitions.
Understanding of acoustics enables us to define the relevant descriptors to get
the best end-result.
GOOD ACOUSTICS
The term 'good acoustics' can be applied in a number of different ways, with
different meanings. Generally it means a balanced united action between
reverberation time, background noise and sound insulation.
In a room with good acoustics the required sound is emphasized, while unwanted
sounds are eliminated or reduced sufficiently so as not to cause a disturbance.
A good acoustic environment keeps noise at levels that do not interfere with
activities within programmed space.For the residence, favorable acoustic
environment refers to the sound that does not interfere with rest or sleep.
WHAT IS SOUND?
A sound is any vibration (wave) traveling through the air or other medium which
can be heard when it reaches a persons ear.
Sounds waves are:
Longitudinal - oscillations parallel to propagation.
Mechanical - require a medium to travel through
REQUIREMENTS FOR SOUND
The three basic elements for transmission and reception of sound must be
present before a sound can be produced.
They are
(1) the source (or transmitter), (2) a medium for carrying the sound (air, water,
metal, etc.), (3) the detector (or receiver).
The material through which sound waves travel is called the medium.The density
of the medium determines the ease, distance, and speed of sound transmission .
The higher the density of the medium, the slower sound travels through it.
The detector acts as the receiver of the sound wave. Because it does not surround
the source of the sound wave, the detector absorbs only part of the energy from
the wave and sometimes requires an amplifier to boost the weak signal.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND
A vibrating object produces a sequence of compressions and rarefactions in the
air surrounding it. These small fluctuations in air pressure travel away from the
source at relatively high speed, gradually dying off as their energy is absorbed by
the medium. What we call sound is simply the sensation produced by the ear when
stimulated by these vibrations.
Wavelength:
Is the distance between two pressure peaks or valleys, measured in meters (m)
and represented with the Greek alphabet l (lambda).
Amplitude:
Is the strength or power of a wave signal.It is also the "height" of a wave when
viewed as a graph.
Higher amplitudes are interpreted as a higher volume, hence the name "amplifier"
for a device which increases amplitude
Frequency:
The number of times the wavelength occurs in one second. The faster the sound
source vibrates, the higher the frequency. A commonly used unit for frequency is
the Hertz (abbreviated Hz), where
1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second
When the frequency is low, sound waves are long; when it is high, the waves are
short.Higher frequencies are interpreted as a higher pitch. For example a police
whistle
Velocity
Refers to the speed of travel of the sound wave. This varies between mediums and
is also dependant on temperature. Assuming air acts as an ideal gas, its velocity
(V in m/s) relates to temperature (T in C) as follows:
V = 331.5 + (0.6 T) (m/s)
In other materials, the speed of sound can vary quite substantially. The following
table shows the speed of sound in a number of different materials.
Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object.The
amount of energy that is transported past a given area of the medium per unit of
time is known as the intensity of the sound wave.
As a sound wave carries its energy through a two-dimensional or three-
dimensional medium, the intensity of the sound wave decreases with increasing
distance from the source.
The mathematical relationship between intensity and distance is referred to as an
inverse square relationship.
The intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. So if
the distance from the source is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the
intensity is quartered (decreased by a factor of 4).
Intensity of sound is purely a physical quantity which can be accurately measured
and is independent of the ear of the listener.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL):
intensity of a sound relative to the threshold of hearing is SPL and is measured in
dB.sound pressure level, is the result of the pressure variations in the air achieved
by the sound waves.
The lowest sound pressure which can be heard by humans is called the hearing
threshold, the highest which can be endured is known as the pain threshold.
Sound pressure at the pain threshold is a million times greater than that at the
hearing threshold.
ATTENUATION
Sound energy lessens in intensity as it disperses over a wide area. Attenuation is
the decrease in energy or pressure for each unit area of a sound wave.
Attenuation occurs as the distance from the source increases as a result of
absorption, scattering, or spreading in three dimensions.
LOUDNESS AND THE DECIBEL SCALE
One property of sound is its loudness. Loudness of a sound corresponds to the
degree of sensation depending upon the intensity of sound and sensitivity of ear
drums.
It may also happen that the same listener might give different judgments about
the loudness of sound of the same intensity but of different frequencies as the
response of the ear is found to vary with the frequency of vibration.loudness is
measured in decibel.
A decibel is a unit of measure. The decibel scale works logarithmically. This
means that when a sound increases by 10 decibels, it is 10 times louder.
QUALITY OR TIMBRE OF SOUND
The quality or timbre of sound is that characteristics which enables us to
distinguish between two notes of the same pitch and loudness played on two
different instruments or produced by two different voices.






BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND IN AN ENCLOSURE
Sound waves propagate away from the source until they encounter one of the
room's boundaries .
Then
some of the energy will be absorbed, some transmitted and the rest reflected back
into the room.
Sound arriving at a particular receiving point within a room can be considered in
two distinct parts.
1.Sound that travels directly from the sound source to the receiving point itself.
This is known as the direct sound field and is independent of room shape and
materials, but dependent upon the distance between source and receiver.
2. After the arrival of the direct sound, reflections from room surfaces begin to
arrive. These form the indirect sound field that is independent of the
source/receiver distance but greatly dependent on room properties.
BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND IN AN ENCLOSURE
On encountering barriers posed by the enclosure, sound waves are likely to
behave in the following ways: Reflection Absorption Refraction Diffusion
Diffraction Transmission
Reflection :
This occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the surface of
an obstacle. In the case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every side of
the enclosure continuously until the sound energy reduces to zero.
The amount of waves reflected depends on the smoothness, size, and softness of
the materials of enclosure. The angle of incidence of sound rays is equal to that of
the reflected rays only if the surface of the reflector is flat. But when it is curved,
the angles are different.
Absorption
When sound waves hit the surface of an obstacle, some of its energy is reflected
while some is lost through its transfer to the molecules of the barrier.The lost
sound energy is said to have been absorbed by the barrier.
The amount of sound energy absorbed depends on the thickness and nature of
the material as regards its softness and hardness
Refraction:
This is the bending of sound when it travels from one medium into another
medium. The difference in the composition of the two different media bends the
sound i.e. the angle of incidence changes into an angle of refraction as it travels
into the new medium.
Diffusion
Diffusion is described as the process of spreading or dispersing sound energy so
that it is less direct or coherent. In this process the direction of the incident ray
changes when it strikes the surface of the obstacle.
Sound diffusion is a very important consideration in acoustics because it
minimizes the coherent reflections that cause problems. It also tends to make an
enclosed space sound larger than it is.
Diffusion is an excellent alternative or complement to sound absorption in
acoustic treatment because it doesn't really remove much energy, which means it
can be used to effectively reduce reflections while still leaving an ambient or live
sounding space.

sound diffusion can effectively turn virtually any space into one that is appropriate
and useful for the purpose of recording or monitoring sound with a high degree
of accuracy.
Diffraction
Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle. Diffraction occurs when an object causes a wave to change direction and
bend around it. Diffraction is the apparent bending of waves around small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.
The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing
wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the
wavelength of the wave is smaller than the obstacle or opening, no noticeable
diffraction occurs.
Transmission
When a sound wave enters another medium, there is transmission of the wave in
the medium. A sound wave in air can be transmitted through a wall in a house. Or
sound can enter water and be transmitted in the liquid
In this phenomenon, sound wave is carried by molecules of the obstacle through
vibration and re-emitted at the other side irrespective of the medium. It can be
structure borne, air borne or impact sound.

ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
List of acoustical defects
Reverberation, Formations of echoes, Sound foci, Dead spots, Insufficient
loudness, Outdoor noises, Indoor noises
Reverberation:
In an enclosed environment sound can continue to reflect for a period of time
after a source has stopped emitting sound. This prolongation of sound is called
reverberation. Reverberant sound is the reflected sound , as a result of improper
absorption.
It occurs when sound waves hits a surface and are reflected toward another
surface which also reflects it. Some of the sound is absorbed with this continuous
reflection which gradually reduces the energy of the sound to zero.
The phenomenon can affect the audibility of sound in an enclosure,i.e
Reverberation may results in confusion with the sound created next.
The time during which the sound persists is called the reverberation time of
sound in the hall.
As per Prof. W .C. Sabins reverberation time t is given by formula :-
T = 0.16V /A where V=volume of room in cubic meters
A= total absorbing power of all the surfaces of room/ hall.
Reverberation time is the primary descriptor of an acoustic environment.
A space with a long reverberation time is referred to as a "live" environment. When
sound dies out quickly within a space it is referred to as being an acoustically
"dead" environment.
An optimum reverberation time depends highly on the use of the space. For
example, speech is best understood within a "dead" environment.
Music can be enhanced within a "live" environment as the notes blend together.
Different styles of music will also require different reverberation times
Reverberation time should remain within limits as per Indian Standard Code:
2526-1963.

Echo:
Not all sound that hits matter is absorbed. Some of it is reflected. That means
sound bounces off the solid matter the way a tennis ball bounces off a wall. Sound
reflected back to its source is an echo.
An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when the
original sound from the same source has been already heard.
Thus there is repetition of sound.The sensation of sound persists for 1/10th of a
second after the source has ceased.
Thus an echo must reach after 1/10th second of the direct sound.Multiple echoes
may be heard when a sound is reflected from a number of reflecting surfaces
placed suitably.
SOUND FOCI
Some times shape of the hall makes sound waves to concentrate in some
particular areas of hall creating a sound of large quality. These spots are called
sound foci or hot spots . The intensity of sound at hot spots is unnaturally high
and always occurs at the expense of other listening areas.
This defect can be removed by-Geometrical design shapes of the interior
faces.Providing highly absorbent materials on critical areas (curved spaces).
DEAD SPOTS
This defect is the out come of formation of sound foci.Because of high
concentration of reflected sound at sound foci , there is deficiency of related
sound at some other points . These spots are known as dead spots where sound
intensity is so low that it is insufficient for hearing.
This defect can be removed by suitably placing diffusers and reflectors .Having
right proportions of internal spaces.
FLUTTER
When sound waves are rapidly reflected back and forth between two parallel flat
or concave surfaces, there is an effect called flutter.
Flutter is a rapid succession of echoes with sufficient time between each reflection
for the listener to be aware of separate, discrete signals.We perceive flutter as a
buzzing or clicking sound. Flutter often occurs between shallow domes and hard
flat floors.The remedy for flutter is to change the shape of the reflecting surfaces
or change their parallel relationship.
Flutter echo can be reduced in one of two ways, with the use of sound absorption
or sound diffusion.
Flutter echoes can be acoustically treated with careful placement of sound
absorption materials such as foam or wall panels on the walls or ceiling tiles,
baffles or banners in the ceiling.(The idea here is to absorb the sound wave at one
or both surfaces and keep that sound wave from reflecting of the surface back
towards the noise source.)
Flutter echoes can also be acoustically treated with the use of sound
diffusers.(Sound diffusers are multi-faceted, slotted or curved materials that are
reflective in nature and are designed to scatter or redirect sound waves.)
The sound diffusers can break up flutter echo within a room by taking the sound
waves and sending them in different directions and eliminating the repetitive
reflections caused by reflective, parallel surfaces.
CREEP
The reflection of sound along a curved surface from a source near the surface is
called creep . The sound can be heard at points along the surface but is inaudible
away from the surface.
A space with concave surfaces can become a whispering gallery, a room in which
two people can stand at two related focal points of curved surfaces and hear each
others whispers with startling loudness and clarity while remaining unheard by
other people in the space.
OUTDOOR NOISE
External noises from vehicles , traffic engines , factories , machines etc. may enter
the hall either through the openings or even through walls and other structural
elements having improper sound insulation.
This defect can be removed by proper planning of the building with respect to its
surroundings and by proper sound insulation of external walls.
INDOOR NOISES
Indoor noises are those which are caused either in the same room or adjacent
rooms. And these are due to:-
Conversation of people.Moving of people .Moving of furniture.Crying of
babies.Playing of radios/ other musical instruments.Operations of water closets
and cisterns.Noise of type writer,Banging of doors etc.

GEOMETRICAL ACOUSTICS

Wave theory is based on the study of wave motion within three-dimensional
enclosures. It requires the establishment of boundary conditions which describe
mathematically the acoustical properties of the walls, ceiling and other surfaces in
the room.
When employing wave theory, a room is considered as a complex resonator
possessing many normal modes of vibration which are excited when a sound
source is introduced to the room.
The acoustic energy generated by the source acts to excite these room modes
with the resulting sound energy residing in the standing waves established in the
room.
The characteristic frequencies of these vibrations depend on the room size and
shape whereas the absorption of the resulting waves depends upon the boundary
conditions. Thus, every room imposes its own characteristics on to the sound
source present

For simplicity we assume that sound moves in straight rays, perpendicular to the
wave front, therefore we can apply the principles of light on sound waves.
Geometrical acoustics or ray acoustics is the equivalent principle of geometrical
optics applied in acoustics.
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes light propagation in terms of rays. The
ray in geometric acoustics is an abstraction, or instrument, which can be used to
approximately model how sound will propagate in an enclosed space.
In short - geometrical acoustics refer to the way in which the boundaries sculpt
the sound within a space. The ray concept is used in designing sound focusing
systems.
In an enclosed space the boundaries determine the direction(s) that sound travels,
and when it arrives at a particular location (such as the listener).
A knowledge of geometrical acoustics is therefore essential if one wants to
sculpt rooms that have particular acoustic qualities such as coming from the
right direction at the right time.
In geometrical acoustics, we are primarily interested in three key phenomena
namely reflection, diffusion and diffraction.
It is an excellent approximation, however, when the wavelength is very small
compared with the size of structures with which the sound interacts.
A rough way of finding if a room will echo or not is using a ray-diagram analysis.
By charting sound wave rays from speaker to listener in key points around the
room, one will be able to tell if a room will have a strong echo or not.
We have the direct line-of-sight sound wave ray
for each listener, 12ft and 33ft. Then we have the
reflected rays, which add up to a distance of
(11+18 = 29ft) and (16 + 26 = 42 ft). If we find
the difference of these numbers, they end up
being 17ft for the closer person, and 9 ft for the
far away person. We then apply those numbers to a table of sound-path
difference, and we see if the 'echoes' produced are small enough that they may be
neglected.

Acoustic design
The acoustical environment of a workspace is typically given little or no attention
during project planning and design. The functionality and aesthetics of the
workspace are usually the primary focus of the designer.
ROLE OF THE DESIGNER,ADDRESSING INTERIOR ACOUSTIC DESIGN
ISSUES,BLOCKING EXTERIOR NOISE,ACOUSTICS AND BUILDING CODES,REDUCING
NOISE,MASSIVE MATERIALS,REFLECTIVE MATERIALS,ACOUSTICALLY TRANSPARENT
SURFACES.

ROLE OF THE DESIGNER
When designing a building, the architect and interior designer must recognize
potential noise problems and take steps to solve them.
The acoustic design of the building should be integrated with other architectural
requirements.
By carefully planning the buildings siting and structure, the architect can reduce
noise penetration into the building.
The overall building design and function ought to be reviewed in terms of
desirable acoustic qualities.
Noise sources should be placed as far as possible from quiet areas. The internal
acoustics of individual rooms must be reviewed.
For special acoustic issues, an acoustic consultant should be brought into the
process at the earliest possible time.
By limiting sources of noise, the amount of necessary acoustic treatment can be
reduced.
When designing for an existing building, the architect and interior designer must
first define the character of the sound problem.
For new buildings, they have to imagine what noise sources can be anticipated. All
parts of the building and its surfaces are potential paths for sound travel.
Acoustic consultants are most commonly called in for buildings where loud noise
is a special problem, or where the quality of interior sound is critical.
Acoustic consultants play a role in selection of materials and the detail of
construction components. They also influence the selection and use of interior
surface materials. Their work has direct implications for the interior designer.
Acoustic consultants also design and specify sound and communications systems,
and detail components for noise and vibration controls in mechanical systems.
ADDRESSING INTERIOR ACOUSTIC DESIGN ISSUES
Acoustic attenuation is the term used for the reduction of the magnitude of a
sound signal by a variety of means.
This reduction may be a result of separating a sound source from the listener,
enclosing the source to isolate the sound, absorbing the sound with materials that
change the sound energy to heat, or canceling sound waves by electronic means.
Changes in the ways buildings are designed and built have had an effect on the
amount of noise produced and transmitted indoors.How sound behaves in a given
room depends on the shape, size, and proportions of the room.
The amounts of sound of various frequencies that are absorbed, reflected, and
diffracted from the rooms surfaces and contents also determine acoustic effects.
The sounds of cars, trucks, airplanes, and trains outside the building vary with the
time of day and volume of traffic.
Traffic noise ranges from higher pitched horns and squealing brakes to low-
frequency truck motors.
Other noise sources coming from the buildings neighborhood might include
construction noise, playgrounds , industrial plants, and sports arenas.
On-site noises can include childrens play areas, refuse collection, and delivery or
garage areas.
Sound can also be reflected from other buildings.
Changes in the ways buildings are designed and built have an effect on the
amount of noise produced and transmitted indoors.

ACOUSTICS AND BUILDING CODES
Long periods of exposure, such as an eight-hour work day , result in permanent
hearing impairment. It is required that workers be protected from high noise
levels. Continual exposure to high noise levels results in a degree of temporary
deafness in the majority of people .
Therefore-
City and town regulations or zoning bylaws set standards, regulations, criteria,
and ordinances for noise. Building codes have recently added limits on noise as
well. The Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA), the
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and
Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) all include acoustic
standards. Federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
OSHA sets the safe upper limit at 85 dB. A continual 75- to 85-dB level produces
or contributes to physical and psychological ailments such as headache, digestive
problems, heart problems, anxiety, and nervousness.
REDUCING NOISE
The noise inside a building comes from the activities of the buildings occupants
and the operation of building services. Additional sound comes in a building from
outside the building.
The first principle of noise reduction in a building is to reduce the noise at its
source. This usually involves proper selection and installation of mechanical
equipment.
The second step is to reduce noise transmission from point to point along the
transmission path by selecting appropriate construction materials and
construction techniques.
Finally, noise can be reduced at the listeners end by acoustic treatment of the
space.
MASSIVE MATERIALS
Many of the structural materials used in building construction attenuate airborne
sound very well. Heavy, dense materials prevent outdoor sound from carrying to
the inside of the building
REFLECTIVE MATERIALS
Reflective materials bounce sound back into the space of origin.
ACOUSTICALLY TRANSPARENT SURFACES
Soft, porous, acoustically absorbent materials are often covered with perforated
metal or other materials for protection and stiffness. These coverings are
designed to be acoustically transparent except at higher frequencies.
With even smaller holes, the higher frequencies can also pass through. Staggering
the holes improves absorption.Open weave fabric is almost completely
transparent to sound, and provides a decorative cover on absorbent wall
coverings.
SOUND ABSORPTION WITHIN A SPACE
If noise problem is not coming from outside the room but is a result of the sound
inside the room bouncing around, you need to address noise reduction within the
space.
The acoustic treatment of a space starts with reducing the source of the noise as
much as possible.
unwanted sound reflections need to be controlled. Speech privacy is another
major acoustic concern for the interior designer. Sometimes it is also necessary to
decrease or increase reverberation time for sound clarity and quality.
Noise is reduced within a building by intercepting the sound energy before it
reaches your ears. This is accomplished by changing acoustic energy into heat
energy.The contents of the space control the noise levels within the space, while
the structure of the building controls the transmission of noise between spaces.
In a normally constructed room without acoustical treatment , sound waves strike
walls or the ceiling, which then transmit a small portion of the sound. The walls or
ceiling absorb another small amount, while most of the sound is reflected back
into the room.
The amount of transmission to an adjoining space is determined primarily by the
mass of the solid, airtight barrier between the spaces, not by the surface
treatment.
The amount of sound that is reflected off the surfaces back into the room is
greatly decreased by absorptive materials.
Adding absorptive materials to a room changes the rooms reverberation
characteristics. This is helpful in spaces with distributed noise sources, like
offices, schools, and restaurants. The acoustics of a space with hard surfaces can
be improved by adding absorptive materials.
In spaces with concentrated noise sources, the noisy equipment should be
enclosed, rather than trying to treat the entire space.
SOUND ABSORPTION
is defined, as the incident sound that strikes a material which is not reflected
back. An open window is an excellent absorber since the sounds passing through
the open window are not reflected back but makes a poor sound barrier. Painted
concrete block is a good sound barrier but will reflect about 97% if the incident
sound striking it.
Acoustic absorption is that property of any material that changes the acoustic
energy of sound waves into another form, often heat, which it to some extent
retains, as opposed to that sound energy that material reflects or conducts.
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS
Materials are neither perfect reflectors nor absorbers of sound. The efficiency of
the sound absorption of material is rated by the sound absorption
coefficient(SAC).
Absorption Co-efficient:It is that portion of incident sound that the receiving
surface hasnt reflected. It depends on sound frequencies, type of materials
receiving sound and their construction.
Sound absorption is different from sound Isolation, many sound absorbing
surfaces have poor sound isolation properties.Sound absorbing materials can
reduce noise levels by 10 db. (they are relatively expensive).

SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS
All materials have some sound absorbing properties. Incident sound energy which
is not absorbed must be reflected, transmitted or dissipated.
A material's sound absorbing properties can be described as a sound absorption
coefficient in a particular frequency range. The coefficient can be viewed as a
percentage of sound being absorbed, where 1.00 is complete absorption (100%)
and 0.01 is minimal (1%).
Incident sound striking a room surface yields sound energy comprising reflected
sound, absorbed sound and transmitted sound.
Most good sound reflectors prevent sound transmission by forming a solid,
impervious barrier. Sound reflectors tend to be impervious and massive.
Most good sound absorbers readily transmit sound. Sound absorbers are
generally porous, lightweight material.
It is for this reason that sound transmitted between rooms is little affected by
adding sound absorption to the wall surface.
There are three basic categories of sound absorbers:
POROUS MATERIALS commonly formed of matted or spun fibers;
PANEL (MEMBRANE) ABSORBERS having an impervious surface mounted over an
airspace; and
RESONATORS created by holes or slots connected to an enclosed volume of
trapped air.
The absorptivity of each type of sound absorber is dramatically (in some cases)
influenced by the mounting method employed.
POROUS ABSORBERS:
Common porous absorbers include carpet, draperies, spray-applied cellulose,
aerated plaster, fibrous mineral wool and glass fiber, open-cell foam, and felted
or cast porous ceiling tile.
Generally, all of these materials allow air to flow into a cellular structure where
sound energy is converted to heat. Porous absorbers are the most commonly used
sound absorbing materials.
Porous/Fibrous materials are good for general sound absorption, they can be
made from metallic fibres and tissues.Their ability for absorption depends on
material thickness and sound frequency.
With more thickness there would be more absorption especially in low
frequencies.Thickness can be increased by increasing the gap between absorbing
surface and the fixing Wall/ceiling.
PANEL ABSORBERS:
Panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous materials which are placed over an
airspace that vibrates in a flexural mode in response to sound pressure exerted by
adjacent air molecules.
Common panel (membrane) absorbers include thin wood paneling over framing,
lightweight impervious ceilings and floors, glazing and other large surfaces
capable of resonating in response to sound.
Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing low frequencies. This fact
has been learned repeatedly on orchestra platforms where thin wood paneling
traps most of the bass sound, robbing the room of "warmth."
RESONATORS
Absorb sound in a narrow frequency range. Perforated materials and materials
that have openings (holes and slots). The classic example of a resonator is the
Helmholtz resonator, which has the shape of a bottle.
The resonant frequency is governed by the size of the opening, the length of the
neck and the volume of air trapped in the chamber. Long narrow slots can be used
to absorb low frequencies.
SPACE ABSORBERS:
When the regular boundary enclosures of an auditorium do not provide suitable or
adequate area for conventional acoustical treatment, sound absorbing objects,
called space absorbers, can be suspended as individual units from the ceiling.
These are made of perforated sheets in the shape of panel, prisms, cubes,
spheres, etc., are generally filled or lined with sound absorbing materials such as
rock wool, glass wool, etc. their acoustical efficiency depends on their spacing.
In order to achieve a reasonable amount of room absorption, it is essential that a
large number of space absorbers be used within a space.
VARIABLE ABSORBERS:
For change in RT, various sliding, hinged, movable, and rotator panels have been
constructed that can expose their absorptive or reflective surfaces.
Draperies have been installed that can be spread out on walls or be pulled off into
suitable pockets, thus arbitrarily increasing or reducing the effective absorptive
treatment in the room.
INSTALLATION OF ABSORPTIVE MATERIALS
The way materials are installed affects their ability to absorb sound. The
absorption co-efficient varies widely with frequency for different mountings.
Materials absorb high frequencies better than lower frequencies. The amount of
absorption is not always proportional to the thickness of the material, but
depends on the material and its method of installation.
Sound absorbing materials should preferably be hung away from the wall ,not
touching the wall ,if it is desired to increase the low frequency absorption.
The best way to install acoustically absorbent material is to hang cubes or
tetrahedrons from the ceiling.
In general a space of 25mm to 100mm behind a material with a 15 to 50mm
thickness is an effective way to improve the low frequency performance of an
absorbing material.
A layer of air between the absorptive material and a rigid surface works well in
midrange frequencies. To get the best low-frequency absorption, a deep air space
on the ceiling can be provided .
For best results, treat the ceiling, floor, and wall opposite the sound source
approximately equally.
Beyond a certain point, added thickness does little to increase absorption, except
at very low frequencies. The lowest musical frequencies cant be absorbed
efficiently by ordinary thicknesses of porous material.

ACOUSTICAL CHECKLIST BY PROJECT TYPE
BALLROOMS
Goal: To provide a multi-purpose space that can successfully control noise
appropriate for meetings and receptions, both large and small. Recommended
Reverberation Time: 1 - 1.2 seconds
- Absorptive materials are needed to reduce the reverberation time, and are most
appropriate when applied to the ceiling.
- Be cautious when designing ceiling intricacies as they may cause unwanted
reflections.
- Movable partition walls covered with fabric alone do not guarantee absorption.
- Once divided by movable partitions, the acoustics in the new space can change.
- Control exterior and background noise levels from HVAC.
- Maintain an elegant appearance by addressing acoustical issues during the
design phase.

CINEMAS
Goal: To properly use absorption, working with the sound system, to provide the
best acoustical environment for every moviegoer.Recommended Reverberation
Time: 0.8 - 1.2 seconds
- Background noise levels should be kept to a minimum. Two primary potential
noise sources are mechanical equipment (HVAC) and outdoor noise.
- Excessive room length should be avoided.
- Walls, except those close to the screen, should be absorptive.

CONFERENCE/BOARD ROOMS
Goal: To provide a space where a variety of communications styles can be
effectively used.Recommended Reverberation Time: 1 second
- Limit the amount of reflections to keep speech intelligibility at a maximum.
- Absorptive materials are needed to reduce the reverberation time.
- Avoid reflective parallel surfaces.
- Control exterior and background noise level.
- Ensure flexibility for future multi-media advancements.
- A sound system may be necessary.


CORRIDORS
Goal: To eliminate excessive traveling of noise which is common in hallways,
particularly in sensitive or confidential offices such as attorneys, psychiatrists, and
personnel managers.Recommended Reverberation Time: 0.8 - 1.2 seconds.
- Be cautious with curved surfaces as they lead to the undesirable acoustical
condition known as creep.
- If surfaces are left untreated, a corridor can act as a megaphone, transmitting
conversations into nearby offices.
- Surfaces should be absorptive to maintain a low reverberation time. Horizontal
FABRI TRAK panels are an excellent solution for this application.

HOME THEATERS
Goal: To adapt an existing space in a typical home, to provide the best acoustical
environment possible for speech and music.Recommended Reverberation Time:
0.8 - 1.2 seconds
- Verify that ratio of room dimensions will not cause unwanted reflections.
- Surfaces should be absorptive to maintain a low reverberation time.

LECTURE HALLS
Goal: To allow all audience members to easily hear and understand the
presenter.Recommended Reverberation Time: 1 Second
- The front wall and ceilings can be reflective aiding sound in reaching everyone.
- Absorptive material on the back and side walls will help reduce the reverberation
time and unwanted reflections.
- Excessive background noise levels caused by HVAC systems can greatly degrade
speech intelligibility.
- Splay the side walls to eliminate flutter echoes.

LIBRARIES & MUSEUMS
Goal: To limit noise levels, allowing users to read and contemplate without
disturbances.Recommended Reverberation Time: 0.8 - 1 second

- If domes or other concave surfaces are desired, they must be treated with
absorptive material to reduce unwanted reflections.
- Absorptive materials are needed to reduce the reverberation time.
- Books are not very absorptive.
- If possible, place noisy equipment and activities in remote areas.

OPEN OFFICE PLANS
Goal: To Provide an environment free from distractions, by reducing noise levels
and the understanding of overheard, nearby conversations.Recommended
Reverberation Time: 0.75 seconds

- Avoid direct sound pathways between cubicles, by proper placement of wall
partitions.
- Without controlling reflections off the ceiling and perimeter walls, partitions can
be ineffective.
- Absorptive partitions, ceiling tile, and wall treatments will be necessary to
control the reverberation time.
- Reasonable precautions should be taken to insulate against noise from adjacent
rooms, machinery, ducts, and the outside.

RECORDING STUDIOS
Goal: To have complete control over all acoustical aspects of a given
space.Recommended Reverberation Time: 0.5 second
- Absorptive materials must be used to control the reverberation time over a wide
range of frequencies.
- Sound must be both absorbed and diffused.
- HVAC noise must be reduced to an absolute minimum.
- An unusually high degree of isolation from extraneous noise vibrations is need.

THEATERS
Goal: To properly balance absorption and reflection to provide a favorable
acoustical environment, similar to worship centers. One must address both the
need to hear and understand speech, and the desire to have a pleasant space for
music.Recommended Reverberation Time: 1.0 - 1.3 seconds
- Control the reverberation time in the room by adding absorptive material.
- Control the reverberation time on the stage.
- Splay or use irregular surfaces on the side walls to avoid flutter echoes.
- Don't forget the ceiling. It should be faceted for better dispersion of sound.
- Remember the space will be less absorptive when only half full, since the
audience itself is absorptive. By using absorptive seating areas, the reverberation
time will remain consistent regardless of the audience size.
- Be sure openings, such as doorways, are properly sealed.
- The balcony should be no deeper than twice its height.

WORSHIP CENTERS
Goal: Consider and address both the need to hear and understand speech and the
desire to have a pleasant space for music.Recommended Reverberation Time: 1.2
- 3.5 seconds
- Address lower frequency or bass sound.
- Background noise levels should be kept to a minimum. Two primary potential
noise sources are mechanical equipment (HVAC) and outdoor noise.
- Reflections should be carefully monitored, especially if domes or concave
surfaces are incorporated in the design.
- The seating area should be absorptive. This allows the acoustical environment
to remain constant regardless of the number of attendees.
- A sound-amplification system may be necessary.
Ranges dramatically for different worship center projects. The recommendation
will be influenced by the musical program type and if congregational singing is
desired. Highly reverberant spaces are desirable for some type of musical
programs. However, reverberation time of 1.2 - 1.5 seconds is appropriate for a
number of worship centers. This allows an adequate enhancement of the music
program, and can allow adequate understanding of speech with an appropriate
sound system.

SOURCES OF NOISE:
Sources of noise can be classified as those originating outside and those
originating inside a building.
OUTSIDE NOISE:
Motor traffic and airplanes are major sources of noise. The exhaust of big jet can
develop 120db or more. Other sources are power lawnmowers, children playing,
etc. Even the weather- the whistle of the wind and rain- can be the source of
noise.
INSIDE NOISE:
Motor driven appliances are the principle source. These are dishwashers,
refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, exhaust, Ac, radios, TV's, etc.
The major sources of environmental noise are road, rail and air traffic, industries ,
construction and public works, in residential neighborhoods
Noise is generally defined as unwanted sound .The effects of noise are seldom
catastrophic (extremely harmful), and are often only transitory, but adverse effects
can be cumulative with prolonged or repeated exposure.
Sleep disruption, the masking of speech and television, and the inability to enjoy
one's property or leisure time impair the quality of life.
In addition, noise can interfere with the teaching and learning process, disrupt the
performance of certain tasks, and increase the incidence of antisocial behavior.
noise can adversely affect general health and wellbeing in the same manner as
chronic stress.
annoyance is among the most immediate and obvious effects of noise exposure
on people.
ANNOYANCE is defined as an unpleasant mental state that is characterized by
irritation and distraction from one's conscious thinking .It can lead to emotions
such as frustration and anger.
The property of being easily annoyed is called petulance, and something which
annoys is called a nuisance.
BACKGROUND NOISE or ambient noise is any sound other than the sound being
monitored.
Background noise is a form of noise pollution or interference . It is any sound
element that tends to distract or in some manner interfere with the ability of the
individual to hear or be heard.
Examples of background noises are environmental noises such as waves, traffic
noise, alarms, people talking, bio acoustic noise from animals or birds and
mechanical noise from devices such as refrigerators or air conditioning, power
supplies or motors.
The prevention or reduction of background noise is important in the field of active
noise control. Background noise is an important concept in setting noise
regulations.
There are many different types of background noises, ranging from those that are
almost undetectable to others that are extremely irritating .
In some cases, background noise is not considered unpleasant at all. For example,
many restaurants utilize music playing softly in the background as a way to create
a more inviting ambiance for diners. The idea is to set the volume of the music so
that conversing in normal tones is possible, as the music helps to relax customers
and enjoy the meal.
The use of background music is sometimes complicated with the use of
televisions placed around the dining area. When the volume on the sets is turned
up, conversation becomes more difficult and may prove annoying to some
patrons. The result is a loss of repeat business, since diners who do not enjoy
themselves are less likely to return.
Background noise also occurs when using various types of telephone devices. For
example, a conference call involving two or more locations using a speakerphone
may encounter background noise that is created from air vents blowing on the
speakers, or several people tapping pencils on the conference room table.
Noise is classified as:
1) AIR BORN and 2) STRUCTURE BORN OR IMPACT SOUND
AIR BORN NOISE:
These are the noises which are generated in air & which is transmitted in air
directly to ear.
Such a sound travels from one part of the building to the other, or from outside of
the building to inside by
1) openings like doors, windows, ventilators, key holes, etc.
2) forced vibrations set up in walls, ceilings, etc.
Air born noises processes power, continues for long duration, and is confined to
places near its origin.
Airborne sound originates in a space with any sound producing source, and
changes to structure-borne sound when the sound waves strike the room
boundaries. The noise is still considered airborne,because it is originated in the
air.
STRUCTURE BORN / IMPACT NOISES:
Structure-borne sound is energy delivered by a source that directly vibrates or
hits the structure.
These are the sound, which originate and progress on the building structure.
These are caused by structural vibrations originated due to impact.
The common sources of this sound are: footsteps, movement of furniture,
dropping of utensils, hammering, drilling, operation of machinery, etc.
These are more powerful, propagate over long distances and persists for a very
short duration.
The difference between the air born and structure born noise is related to the
origin of noise in relation to the receiver room only. In a three story building,
washing of cloths on the middle floor will be heard as impact noise for the room
below and air born for the above floor.
SOUND TRANSMISSION BETWEEN SPACES
Sound travels through other materials as well as air. It can be transmitted through
steel, wood, concrete, masonry, or other rigid construction materials.In order to
deal with sound control one should understand how sound travels.
There are three paths by which sound travels:
a direct path which is the straight line between the source and receiver; a reflected
path which occurs as sound bounces off various surfaces; and a diffracted
path which involves sound bending over the top and around the sides of
partitions.
The control of sound in a building requires consideration of all three paths.
In buildings sound transmitted will either be air borne or structure borne. All
sound transmission involves both airborne and structure-borne sound.A
combination of air borne and structure borne approaches need to be considered
for SOUND ISOLATION.
what do we do if we want to isolate sound?
Only two things stop sound MASS AND SPACE.
You need mass to contain the airborne sound, you need space (an air gap or
similar unobstructed area) so that the structure borne sound can not be
transmitted.
Two aspects need to be considered for sound isolation: Keeping sound out of the
listening environment, and retaining sound within the listening environment.
Sound insulation is the prevention of transmission of sound or alternatively, a
reduction of sound energy transmitted into an adjoining air space.
Two types of sound insulation are to be dealt with in building construction.
(a)Airborne Sound Insulation : the insulation against noise originating in air, e.g.
voices, music, motor traffic, wind.
(b) Impact Sound Insulation : the insulation against noise originating directly on a
structure by blows or vibration e.g. footsteps above, furniture being moved,
drilling and hammering the structure.
TRANSMITTION LOSS
When sound is transmitted from the source or the origin to the adjoining
room/area, reduction in sound intensity takes place, this is known as transmission
loss (TL) . It is numerically equal to the loss in the intensity of sound expressed in
decibels.
For ex. If 60dB and 40 dB are the sound levels measured on either side of a wall,
the transmission loss = 60-40=20 dB
1.Transmission loss is expressed in terms of loss of sound intensity (expressed in
decibles)
2.The efficiency of sound insulation of barrier(such as wall
,partition,door,floor,etc.)is expressed in terms of transmission loss of air-borne
sound passing through the barrier.
3.The transmission loss (or sound insulation) offered by a structure depends upon
the materials used and method of construction.
4.Transmission loss depends upon the frequency of sound . Hence transmission
loss of a structure should be studied over a wide range of sound frequencies
ACCEPTABLE INDOOR NOISE LEVEL
Acceptable noise levels are those which will neither cause uncomfortable
conditions nor damage the acoustics of the building .Acceptable noise levels
depend upon
(a) nature and type of noise .(b) time of fluctuations of noise.(c) background
noise.(d) type and use of building
Air-borne noise can be stopped in the following ways:
ADDING MASS BETWEEN SPACES a 12" concrete floor absorbs more sound energy
than a 4" concrete floor. Extra layers of drywall reduce transmitted noise through
both walls and ceilings.
PUTTING GAPS IN THE STRUCTURE a typical sound insulating wall between units
may be composed of two sets of studs, one set for each unit. This eliminates
structure-born noise transmission between the units. A flexible support system
(sound isolating channels) can cut down on structure-born noise passing from a
structural beam to a drywall ceiling.
CLOSING AIR-HOLES BETWEEN SPACES sound waves carry through key-holes,
around pipes, between a wood floor and a brick wall, through outlets placed back
to back, and over-and-under walls which are not thoroughly caulked at the top
and bottom.
PUTTING DAMPENING ELEMENTS IN THE VOIDS BETWEEN SPACES fiberglass or
cellulose insulation absorbs air-borne noise and also dampens vibrations in the
wall surface, much as stuffing a sock in a guitar would make it quieter. The air
between two sheets of drywall cant transmit noise efficiently if it is filled with
fluff.

CALMING AIR-BORN NOISE BEFORE IT ENTERS THE STRUCTURE a radio playing in
an empty apartment will transmit a lot more noise than one playing at the same
volume in a unit filled with furniture, window coverings, paintings, clothing and
other possessions. Hotel rooms are not crammed with upholstery, drapes and
thick carpets just for looks all that "stuff" keeps noise from building up and
simplifies the sound-deadening task of walls and floors. New buildings are
"noisier" than long-occupied buildings for the same reason (although that is hard
to tell a new occupant). Carpets do more than just reduce impact noise they also
absorb sound within the space. Music rehearsal spaces make use of many sound
deadening technologies, including various foam products.
Sound/noise can be controlled in three ways:
1.Eliminate the source 2.Isolate the source -provide a barrier between the user
and the source 3.Mask the offending sound if not possible to isolate the sound,
minimize its impact on the user
SOUND PROOFING/BLOCKING
Sound Blocking is commonly called sound proofing and is used to block sound
from transmitting into adjacent areas or workstations.
In general, if the source of unwanted sound is generated in another room, space,
or from the outside and is transferring through a wall, ceiling, or floor into your
space, then the sound has to be blocked by using sound blocking products.
To stop the direct path of sound, we erect barriers (system wall panels) which stop
sound from passing through.
the sound blocking materials are dense and heavy. With no air spaces for sound
waves to slip into and through, these products essentially cut off the direct path
into adjacent areas.

WALL INSULATION: VERTICAL BARRIERS
Wall construction used for sound insulation can be of three types:
1) Rigid and massive homogeneous walls: this consists of stone, brick or concrete
masonry, well plastered on one or both sides. Their sound insulation depends on
their weight per unit area.
2) Partition wall of porous material: these can be of rigid or non-rigid type. In the
rigid partitions, insulation is 10% more.
3) Double wall partition: this consists of plasterboards or fiberboards or plaster on
laths on both the faces, with sound absorbing blankets in between.
4) Cavity wall construction: this is an ideal construction from the point of view of
sound insulation. The gap between two walls can be filled by air or some resilient
material.
FLOORS AND CEILING INSULATION: HORIZONTAL BARRIERS
These act as horizontal barriers to both air-borne and impact noises. Main
emphasis is given to the insulation against the impact noises. This may be done
by:
1) Use of resilient material on the floor surfaces: this consists of providing thin
concrete slab as the RCC floor slab, and then providing a soft floor finish material
such as linoleum, cork, asphalt mastic, carpet, etc.
2) Concrete floor floating construction: in this an additional floor is constructed
and isolated from the existing concrete floor.
3) Timber floor floating construction: this is done by employing mineral or glass
wool quilt for isolation purposes. A further improvement in the insulation of such
floors is achieved by employing a plugging or deadening material in the air gap
between the wooden joists.
4)Timber floor with suspended ceiling and air space: the highest insulation can be
achieved by using a very heavy ceiling, which are arranged to be independent of
the floor by supporting it on resilient mountings.
5) Skirting: the larger the contact area a skirting provides between the floors and
the walls, the lower would be insulation. For this the lower edge of the skirting is
chamfered thus reducing the area of contact.

SOUND MASKING is a method of introducing an electronically produced sound,
evenly distributed throughout a space, in an effort to overwhelm sound which
cannot be blocked or absorbed by any other means. It is a soft ambient sound
introduced into a room, that sounds like air-conditioning. The end result is a soft
sound that masks human speech, and other related offices noises.
Typical office noise ranges from human speech and conversations, to phones
ringing, keyboards clicking, fax machines, filing cabinets doors slamming, people
walking, computer sounds, car/truck traffic outside the window, elevators
dinging, and many more.
These noises cause distractions that lower employee productivity, raise data entry
errors, increase employee stress, mental fatigue, and sometime lead to turn over,
especially in call centers.
BENEFITS FOR SOUND MASKING
Sound masking offers confidentially and speech privacy. Anywhere people need
privacy, or to protect their conversations from being overheard by others.
sound masking can raise productivy of employees in offices by 1535%.
sound masking can reduce employee stress, mental fatigue, burn-out, and
potentially lower turnover.
INSTALLATION OF SOUND MASKING SYSTEM
Speakers are mounted above the ceiling tile where you can't see them and pointed
upward. Audio equalizers are used to tune the sound to the specific acoustic
characteristics of the office.
The background sound can adjust automatically throughout the day. The level of
sound is lower during non-peak hours than during periods of greater activity. Our
sound masking is used in cubicle areas, exam rooms, private offices, as well as
reception areas, and public spaces.
Effective sound masking has the following characteristics:
It isn't noticed when it's on, but is missed if turned off.
It has the correct tonal qualities. A "humm" not a "hiss."
It is never obtrusive - it disappears and may be thought to be the normal
background sound of a well designed HVAC system.
It is the correct volume - louder than what you don't want to hear but, not so loud
as to interfere with the conversations you want to have. One should never feel
compelled to speak over it or strain to listen.
It is uniform throughout the space - no "hot spots" or "dead spots."

ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE CONTROL
The objective of environmental noise control is to improve the acoustic
environment in a community by reducing noise levels.
Noise from industrial operations can affect neighboring residential areas, ranging
from intolerable noise levels to structural vibrations.
Well-planned noise control can eliminate a major component of an industrial
sites impact on its surrounding environment.
Two types of noise exist: steady noise and non-steady noise.
Steady noise with audible discrete tones is called discrete frequency noise and is
the most common noise found in industry. Discrete frequency noise is caused by
rotating parts of machines such as fans, internal combustion engines,
transformers and pumps.

Non-steady noise consist of fluctuating noise (noise that doesnt remain at any
constant level over a given period of time), intermittent noise (noise that returns
to the ambient or background level), and, more commonly, impulsive noise
(sounds of short duration with high peak pressures). Peak pressures rise at least
40 dB in 0.5 seconds.
In industry, the most common noise sources are described as a point source, like
a gas turbine, or a line source, like a pipeline.
In the free field, sound propagates outward from point sources in uniform,
concentric circles and from line sources as a cylindrical wave, much like a weather
front.
Free field conditions exist when no obstacles block the sound path
Once the noise sources are identified and assured, the next step is to attenuate
the noise.
The aim of attenuation is to reduce or divert the amount of sound energy reaching
the receiver. The key to attenuation is to apply noise control materials and
measures that are both effective and economical.
BUFFERS
One of the simplest attenuation methods is to place enough distance between the
noise source and the noise receiver so that noise is not a concern. Establishing a
buffer zone is possible when land is readily available.
NATURAL BARRIERS
Shrubs, trees and berms are often used as natural noise blockers. For trees to be
effective barriers, they must be in a continuous stand, 50 feet tall, 100 feet deep,
have dense foliage down to the ground, and be evergreen.
When only a line of deciduous trees is planted, noise easily travels through the
stand, particularly during the winter when trees lose their foliage.
Berms are more effective in stopping high frequency noise. Low frequency noise,
with its long wavelength, can easily slip over berms.
BARRIERS
Barriers are free-standing walls or structures intended to block source noise. The
barrier functions by absorbing a large amount of the sound energy and/or
deflecting it away from the source.
Barriers reduce sound levels, but work best at reducing high frequency noise.
Barriers are most effective when they are at least three times larger than the
wavelength of the major noise contributor.
For best results, barriers should have a high transmission loss and be highly
absorptive. Barriers made from a combination of sound-absorbing and
transmission loss materials give highest acoustic performance.
Concrete walls are often used as barriers. As a dense material, concrete is a better
sound insulator than sound absorber, so barriers made from concrete reflect
sound rather than absorb it.
When a barrier is wrapped around a noise source, it acts as a partial enclosure.
Partial enclosures come in a variety of configurations: two-sided, three-sided with
a roof, four-sided without a roof, and so on. Barriers and partial enclosures can
be effective and economical noise reducers, lowering noise levels by up to 12 or
15 dB.

MUFFLERS/SILENCERS
Mufflers are devices that are inserted in the path of ductwork or piping with the
specific intention of reducing sound traveling through that conduit. They are often
effective for controlling noise from stacks on rooftop ventilation equipment.
VIBRATION ISOLATION
Mechanical equipment can generate vibrations that can travel through a buildings
structural members to affect remote locations within a building.
It is therefore prudent to isolate any heavy equipment from any structural
members of buildings. This can be accomplished by mounting the equipment on
springs, pads, or inertia blocks.
MASKING
Masking systems are composed of natural or electronic components that add
sound to an environment to cover or mask objectionable sounds.
They work best when they blend with the environment to the point at which they
go unnoticed.
Acceptable sounds outdoors include more natural sounds, such as running water
or rustling leaves. Outdoor fountains are not only effective in masking sound, but
they can also add aesthetically to an area.
Any other natural masking sounds would have to be added electronically using
weather-proofed loudspeakers.
A number of cases exist where sound masking has been successfully installed for
exterior applications, the most common target of concern being roadway noise. In
one example application, a large artificial waterfall was constructed as part of the
garden exterior of an urban hotel in Santa Rosa, California. The waterfall cascades
down an extensive wall approximately four meters in height and functions both
for sound masking and as a physical barrier to road noise.

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