IDEAL OP AMP

An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics:

Infiniteopen-loopgain,A.
Infiniteinputresistance,Ri .
Zerooutputresistance,Ro 0.
V1i1 = 0
vd
V2 i2= 0 V0
. Two important characteristics of the ideal op amp are:
1.Thecurrentsintobothinputterminalsarezero:
This is due to infinite input resistance. An infinite resistance between the input terminals
implies that an open circuit exists there and current cannot enter the op amp.
2.Thevoltageacrosstheinputterminalsisnegligiblysmall; i.e.,
vd = v2 v1 0
Thus, an ideal op amp has zero current into its two input terminals and negligibly small
voltage between the two input terminals.
i1 = 0, i2 = 0
v1 = v2
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
The first of such op amp circuits is the inverting amplifier shown in Fig. In this circuit, the non
inverting input is grounded, viis connected to the inverting input through R1, and the
feedback resistor Rf is connected between the inverting input and output. Our goal is to
obtain the relationship between the input voltage viand the output voltage vo.
if Rf
i1 R1 V1 0A ---
+
Vi V2 +
Vo
_
i1 = if
1
1
=
1

But v1 = v2 = 0 for an ideal op amp, since the noninverting terminal is grounded. Hence,

1
= (

)
Vo =

The voltage gain is Av= Vo/Vi= Rf /R1. The designation of the circuit in Fig as an
inverterarises from the negative sign. Thus,
Thegainisthefeedbackresistancedividedbytheinputresistancewhichmeansthat
thegaindependsonlyontheexternalelementsconnectedtotheopamp.
An equivalent circuit for the inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. below.
The inverting amplifier is used, for example, in a current-to-voltage converter.
+ +
Vi R1 -Rf Vo
R1
- -
An equivalent circuit for the inverter
An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity
of the input signal while amplifying it.
NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER
Another important application of the op amp is the noninverting amplifier shown in
Fig. below.
In this the input voltage viis applied directly at the noninverting input terminal, and
resistor R1 is connected between the ground and the inverting terminal. We are
interested in the output voltage and the voltage gain.
if Rf
R1 i1 V1 _
+
Vi Vo
i1 = if
0 1
1
=
1

But v1 = v2 = vi . Equation becomes

1
=

= (1 +

1
)
The voltage gain is Av= Vo/Vi= 1 + Rf /R1, which does not have a negative sign. Thus, the output has the
same polarity as the input.
Again we notice that the gain depends only on the external resistors.
If feedback resistor Rf = 0 (short circuit) or R1 = (open circuit) or both, the gain becomes 1. Under these
conditions (Rf = 0 and R1 = ), the circuit becomes that shown in Fig. below, which is called a voltage
follower(or unitygainamplifier) because the output follows the input. Thus, for a voltage follower
Vo= Vi
A non inverting amplifier is an op amp circuit designed
to provide a positive voltage gain.
Such a circuit has a very high input impedance and is therefore useful as an
intermediate-stage(orbuffer)amplifierto isolate one circuit from another, as
portrayed in Fig. below. The voltage follower minimizes interaction between the two
stages and eliminates interstage loading.
-
+
Vi Vo-Vi Vi Vo
Fig: voltage follower circuit
First
stage
Second
stage
-
+
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Besides amplification, the op amp can perform addition and subtraction. The addition
is performed by the summing amplifier
A summing amplifier is an op amp circuit that combines several inputs
And produces an output that is the weighted sum of the inputs.
V1 R1 i1 Rf if
V2 R2 i2 I 0A
a -
+ +
V3 R3 i3 0A Vo
-
Fig: Summing amplifier
The summing amplifier, shown in Fig., is a variation of the inverting amplifier. It takes
advantage of the fact that the inverting con- figuration can handle many inputs at the
same time. We keep in mind that the current entering each op amp input is zero.
Applying KCL at node agives
i = i1 + i2 + i3
i1 =
1
1
i2 =
2
2
i3 =
3
3
=

We note that Va = 0
Vo = [(

1
)1 +

2
2 +

3
3]
indicating that the output voltage is a weighted sum of the inputs. For this reason, the
circuit in above Fig. is called a summer.
DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
Difference (or differential) amplifiers are used in various applications where there is
need to amplify the difference between two input signals.
A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two inputs but
rejects any signals common to the two inputs.
R2
V1
v2
R1 v
0
a
-
R3 v
0
b
+
+
+
- +
v
R
o
4
-
Consider the op amp circuit shown in Fig. Keep in mind that zero currents enter the op amp
terminals.
Applying KCL to node a,
1
1
=

2
=
2
1
+1
2
1
1
Applying KCL to node b,
2
3
=
0
4
=
4
(4 +3)
2
But va = vb . Substituting Eq
V =
2
1
+1
4
3 +4
2
2
1
1
Vo =
2(1+
1
2
)
1(1+
3
4
)
2
2
1
1
Since a difference amplifier must reject a signal common to the two inputs, the amplifier must
have the property that vo = 0 when v1 = v2. This property exists when
1
2
=
3
4
Thus, when the op amp circuit is a difference amplifier, Eq. (5.18) be- comes
=
2
1
2 1
If R2=R1 and R3=R4, the difference amplifier becomes subtractor, with the input
= 2 1
CASCADED OP AMP CIRCUITS
Op amp circuits are modules or building blocks for designing complex circuits. Itisoftennecessary
inpracticalapplicationstoconnectopampcircuitsincascade(i.e.,headtotail)toachievealarge
overallgain.
In general, two circuits are cascaded when they are connected in tandem, one behind another in
a single file.
When op amp circuits are cascaded, eachcircuitinthestringiscalledastage; the original input
signal is increased by the gain of the individual stage.
Op amp circuits have the advantage that they can be cascaded without changing their input-
output relationship. This is due to the fact that each (ideal) op amp circuit has infinite input
resistance and zero output resistance.
A cascade connection is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp circuits
such that the output of one is the input of the next.
Figure below displays a block diagram representation of three op amp circuits in cascade. Since
the output of one stage is the input to the next stage, the overall gain of the cascade connection
is the product of the gains of the individual op amp circuits, or
A= A1A2A3
Although the cascade connection does not affect the op amp input-output relationships, care
must be exercised in the design of an actual op amp circuit to ensure that the load due to the
next stage in the cascade does not saturate the op amp.
+
Stage1 + Stage 2 + Stage 3 +
V1 A1 V2=A1V1 A2 V3-A2V2 A3 V4=A3V3
_ _ _ _
-
Fig: A three-stage cascaded connection
2 Instrumentation Amplifiers
One of the most useful and versatile op amp circuits for precision measurement and
process control is the instrumentationamplifier(IA), so called because of its
widespread use in measurement systems. Typical applications of IAs include isolation
amplifiers, thermocouple amplifiers, and data acquisition systems.
The instrumentation amplifier is an extension of the difference amplifier in that it
amplifies the difference between its input signals. An instrumentation amplifier
typically consists of three op amps and seven resistors. For convenience, the amplifier
is shown again in Fig. where the resistors are made equal except for the external gain-
setting resistor RG, connected between the gain set terminals.
vo = Av(v2 v1)
where the voltage gain is Av= 1+
2

Inverted i/p V1 - R R
Gain set +
R Vo output
RG R
Gain set R
Non inverting i/p R
Fig: a) Instrumentation amplifier b) Symbol of instrumentation amplifier
-
+
As shown in Fig, the instrumentation amplifier amplifies small differential signal
voltages superimposed on larger common-mode voltages. Since the common-mode
voltages are equal, they cancel each other.
The IA has three major characteristics:
1. The voltage gain is adjusted by oneexternal resistor RG.
2. The input impedance of both inputs is very high and does not vary as the gain is
adjusted.
3. The output vo depends on the difference between the inputs v1 and v2, not on
the voltage common to them (common-mode voltage).
Op-amp as integrator and differentiator
Figure a: Circuits for setting up operational amplifier as integrator and differentiator respectively.
Operational amplier can be setup as an integrator and differentiator using a capacitor, as shown in fig a
Fig. a: Op-amp as integrator and differentiator respectively
Operational amplifier can be setup as an integrator and differentiator using a
capacitor, as shown in Fig. a.
In the case of an integrator, the output voltage will be
Vout =
1

In the case of a differentiator, the output voltage will be
Vout t =