The Interplay between Marriage, Ritual, and Art in Mithila

The bond between husband and wife is among the most solemn of human relationships.
Of the prescriptions of ritual, none demand more strict observance than those of
marriage. As the harmony of music brings order to the four seasons, so the interactions
of yin and yang, the male and the female principles, are the origin of all creatures. How
then can one fail to approach matters of marriage with the utmost circumspection?
Sima Qian !"#$%& '.(.).*
!
The designing and worshiping of cosmic diagrams +nown as mandalas during auspicious
ceremonies such as marriage is an ancient ritual of ,ndia that has continued to the present day.
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The kohbar mandalas that are currently painted on the wall and the aripan mandalas that are
drawn on the ground of houses in .ithila at the time of marriage are good e/amples of this age$
old practice.
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.ithila is a region in the state of 'ihar, located in the northeastern part of ,ndia.
,ts inhabitants, +nown as, the Maithils, have until today managed to retain ties with their past
traditions. This connection with the past is attributable to the region1s secluded geographical
location and its political history.
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.ithila en2oyed a long and mostly uninterrupted period of
Hindu rule from the late eleventh to the late si/teenth centuries, (.)., when +ings of the 3arnata
and 'rahmana Oinwar dynasties were in power.
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As members of the Hindu faith, these +ings set
strict rules for the performance of rituals and encouraged their practice by the court and home
dwellers. Some of the rulers, as 3ing Harisimhadeva, were also good art patrons who li+ed to
see symbolic motifs or mandalas drawn as aids to meditation during sacred ceremonies.
Mithila Paintings in the Kohbarghar
The Kohbarghar mandalas of .ithila are uni4ue in ,ndia 5ig. !*. They are painted on
the main wall of the kohbarghar, which is the nuptial chamber in the house of a Maithil bride,
to bless the marriage. 6ainting the main wall of this chamber has been a part of the marriage
ceremony in .ithila for centuries.
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,t is in this room that the bride and groom spend the first
several chaste and chaperoned nights of their marriage.
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Kohbarghar paintings comprise of
mandalas that are surrounded by figural and abstract sub2ects. Some of the sub2ects regularly
represented in these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses and less important nature deities,
e/emplified by the sun and the moon, whose good will is invo+ed to ma+e the marriage
successful. The bride, groom, and their attendants are also portrayed, together with a number of
symbols representing fertility and prosperity such as the lotus, bamboo, parrot, peacoc+, fish,
serpent, elephant, and tortoise. The purpose of the kohbarghar painting is to ensure a healthy
union of the wedding couple through the blessing of offspring. Healthy children are regarded as
the reward of a happy marriage and a 2ustification for the physical union of husband and wife.
Kohbarghar paintings are transitory and mostly anonymous.
9
:hen they fade away, the
walls are white$washed and painted over again to celebrate the ne/t wedding in the family. A
mastery of color, line, and ornamentation is seen in these paintings. The images are painted with
raw, flatly applied hues. ,n some kohbarghar mandalas only two colors are used, such as pin+
and blac+. 'ut generally five to si/ colors are employed, namely, red, blue, yellow, green,
orange, and blac+. ;ed tends to dominate the color scheme since it is regarded as auspicious for
marriage. The bride, in her traditional red wedding sari, is represented in the lower right hand
side of these paintings. The bridegroom is painted beside her, often with a blue comple/ion.
This relates him to the Hindu gods, Shiva and Vishnu, who are generally portrayed with a blue
s+in color to elevate them from the mundane realm. He is the answer to the bride1s prayers for a
good and worthy husband. <i+e red and blue, most of the other bright, contrasting shades are
also not used realistically. They are treated in a decorative and symbolic manner, to add luster
and meaning to the scenes and to highlight the wide$ranging emotions involved in marriage.
Their intense tonality ma+es the images pro2ect boldly from the walls where natural and
supernatural elements coe/ist in an odd but significant union. At first colors made from
vegetable and mineral substances, mi/ed with oil and mil+ or gum, were used.
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They are now
replaced with commercially produced colored powder mi/ed with mil+ or gum. 'rushes made
from rags tied to twigs and a bamboo sliver frayed at the end are still used for filling in colors
and for fine line wor+. 'ut commercially manufactured pens are largely employed today. A bit
of twine and a stic+ are generally used to form a simple compass in order to ma+e circles for the
mandalas.
The Women Artists of Mithila
,t is mainly the women artists of the .ithila towns and villages, such as =arbhanga,
.adhubani, >itwarpur, ;asidpur, and ;anti, who e/ecute the kohbarghar wall paintings.
!&
They
belong to the 3ayastha caste, which is one of the upper castes of the Maithil society.
!!
The
mature artists among them follow old e/tant Sans+rit code$boo+s, li+e the Manusmriti and
Grihyasutra, which describe the procedures for sacred ceremonies such as marriage as well as
the symbols drawn to accompany such occasions.
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The sub2ect matter, composition, and
delineation of each pro2ect is governed by a single woman who is the e/pert in the household.
She is assisted by her relatives who are less e/perienced than her. Sometimes capable women
from neighboring households are also invited to participate in the underta+ing. A group of
appro/imately four or five girls, aged around !- to !8, accompany older women to complete one
wall painting. 'y the time a young girl is ready to marry and leave her parents1 house, these
patterns are imprinted in her mind. ?evertheless, a collection of the best family motifs drawn in
miniature on paper with pen, in+, and watercolor are included in her dowry to serve as memory$
aids. At the house of her husband and his family, the bride learns new motifs and adds to them
from her old stoc+ of family motifs. ,n this way, the tradition of .ithila painting is preserved
and enriched year after year. The general practice, however, is for women to paint from memory
rather than from paper @models.1
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The kohbarghar paintings seen today, conse4uently, follow conventions formulated in
the past. Traditional designs are mastered and handed down from one generation to another.
However, the artists have the freedom to add details to the basic patterns guided by their ability
and fancy. Hence, alongside the old tradition, a new form of art is constantly emerging.
5urthermore, after paper became readily available in .ithila during the late !%7&s, new strides
were ta+en by some of the artists. ,n !%77$78 'ihar was struc+ by famine. As part of the relief
campaign, .ithila artists were supplied sheets of paper and encouraged to paint on them so that
their paintings could be circulated and sold to raise funds for the area.
!"
6ainting on paper
enabled these artists to compose their designs with much greater freedom than was possible
when painting on the wall.
!#
Aifted artists, such as, the late Aanga =evi, Sita =evi, and
.ahasundari =evi, began from the late !%7& onwards to develop distinct styles of their own by
creatively reinterpreting motifs used in the past.
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The symbolic meaning of the kohbarghar wall painting
The wall painting of the kohbarghar is designed to promote fertility and prevent
disease.
!8
,t includes a large central mandala or medallion surrounded by si/ smaller mandalas
of styliBed lotus leaves +nown as purain. As >yotindra >ain points out, the word kohbar
essentially means the lotus plant motif.
!9
A dense growth of styliBed lotus stems, roots, buds,
caly/es, flowers, birds, and a4uatic creatures are depicted in and around these seven mandalas.
They unite to form an elaborate floral mandala or disc portrayed floating on water, which is
indicated by styliBed sna+es, fish, and tortoises. The painting captures the atmosphere of a pond
called kamaldah.
After consulting a purohit or priest, an auspicious day and time are selected to begin
painting the main wall of the kohbarghar. The wall is white$washed and coated with rice$
paste. This converts the wall$surface into consecrated space. A red dot is then painted in the
center of the wall.
!%
This dot serves as the pivot of the composition. Only an ahibati, that is, a
married woman whose husband is living, can perform this ceremony called tip lagavaichi, that
is, applying the red dot on the wall. Csually the head painter carries out this ritual. ,f she is a
widow, the dot is applied by another woman. The lotus pond stems from the central dot and
spreads over the entire wall surface. )mpty space is avoided because it is e4uated with
barrenness.
A vertical stem with a broad base, called muri, is painted cutting across the central
mandala or medallion. At the pinnacle of this stem is often portrayed a female face, indicating
that the lotus plant motif is a personification of the bride or feminine power.
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The Hindu
goddess of good fortune and abundance is +nown as Kamala, @one who dwells in the lotus,1 or
Lakshmi, @one who fertiliBes the soil for agriculture.1
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She is believed to promote health,
offspring, long life, and prosperity. The Hindu bride is believed to be an incarnation of the
goddess Kamala or Lakshmi. Cnderneath the central stem is painted a patia or rectangular mat
with a pattern of s4uares. ,t is on a mat such as this that the bridal couple spends the first four
nights after their wedding. The mat is woven with mothi, a reed that grows profusely in the
.ithila environment. ?e/t to the mat is placed a kalasha or pitcher with holy water,
symboliBing domestic bliss.
A row of parrots is often painted around the rim of the elaborate mandala or lotus pond.
,n addition, a pair of male and female birds, usually parrots, who are regarded as the vahanas or
mounts of Kama, the Hindu god of love and desire, is placed atop the central lotus stem in a bea+
to bea+ union.
--
Sometimes a pair of e/uberant peacoc+s are painted here instead of parrots. At
other times two nonspecific, mythological birds, +nown as bidhbidhata, who are believed to
determine the course of an individual1s life, are placed at the pea+ to shelter the interests of the
newly$weds. Another motif often included around the mandalas is that of two parrots playfully
encircling each other in an amorous manner. They are called latpatia suga and symboliBe
harmonious relations between the bride and groom. These frolic+ing birds are painted near gods
and goddesses and nature deities, ma+ing clear that sensuality and spirituality do not negate one
another in the minds of these artists. Also depicted are pairs of fish and serpents. <i+e the birds,
they represent the strengthening of the feminine and masculine forces of nature. 5ish and
serpents are regarded as sacred motifs and are fre4uency depicted as relief sculptures on temples
all over ,ndia.
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<i+e the lotus plant motif, the bamboo grove motif, called bans, is also regarded as very
important in these wall paintings. The remaining motifs portrayed are considered of secondary
importance and may be included based upon the artist1s discretion. The bamboo grove motif is
painted in the upper right hand side of the wall. ,t represents the groom and is regarded as the
symbolic male counterpart of the female lotus plant motif. Associated with male power and
energy, the bamboo is +nown for its tenacity. <i+e the lotus plant it germinates rapidly,
symboliBing productivity and family life. 'oth these primary motifs are represented as ornate
and deceptively simple mystical diagrams.
,n the lower right hand side of the wall is painted the bride and groom performing Gauri
puja, that is, worship of the Hindu goddess Gauri.
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An ornamented blac+ elephant with a silver
ring, a piece of wood, and an areca nut placed on its head is painted before them. The bride is
portrayed ta+ing red$vermilion powder, called sindur, from a container to sprin+le it over the
installation on the elephant1s head. As she ma+es this offering, she is supported by the
bridegroom who stands behind her. <i+e the bridal couple portrayed in the wall painting, the
newly weds are e/pected to perform this ritual before a small clay elephant in the kohbarghar.
After that the bride puts sindur in the parting of her hair, assisted by her husband, to mar+ their
newly married status.
,n the lower left hand side of the wall is sometimes painted the bride and the groom being
carried in palan4uins. Often the symbolic representations of Shiva and his female counterpart
Parvati, called lingam and yoni, are depicted on this part of the wall. They symboliBe the
opposing yet harmoniBing powers of the se/es.
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A serpent, regarded as the guardian of the
lingam, is painted coiling around it. ,n the upper left hand side of the wall are usually painted
personifications of the sun, moon, and the nine planets. The sun and moon represent the polarity
in an individual, the two genders present in each of us. They are symbols of constant, enduring
love between the husband and wife. The sun is believed to fertiliBe and to impregnate while the
moon is the source of amrit or heavenly nectar. They bless the married couple with a long and
blissful life.
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Also depicted in these paintings are sacred leaves such as bel or creeper, tulsi or
basil, and pan or betel, which are used in the marriage ceremony.
5inally, a goddess with magical powers who protects the couple from the evil eye is
painted on the walls in the four corners of the kohbarghar. She is +nown as nainajogin, which
means @eye$goddess,1 and is portrayed wearing a long s+irt and veil 5ig. -*. The bas+et on her
head contains rice and turmeric roots and is held in place by one of her hands. Her head and the
right part of her face are covered with a veil, while her left eye becomes the focal point of the
e/posed part of her face.
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,mages of the one$eyed nainajogin, gaBing intently at the bridal
couple as though to warn them to act discreetly intensify the mysterious atmosphere of the
kohbarghar where the consummation of marriage ta+es place. (enturies of rituals have shaped
the artistic vocabulary of these unusual wall paintings that represent love and fertility in
marriage. )ven if one is unaware of the symbolism involved, it is still possible to appreciate
these paintings because of their ornate patterns, their glowing colors, and their element of
strangeness.
Interpretation of the Leitmotifs: Lotus and amboo
The )nglishman :illiam A. Archer was the first to discover .ithila paintings in !%0"
while conducting relief operations in the .adhubani area which was struc+ by an earth4ua+e. ,t
was he who made these paintings +nown to the outside world.
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,n his influential article on them,
published in !%"%, he interpreted the two dominant motifs of the kohbarghar wall paintings as
followsD
The most prominent images which loom largest on the walls are the bamboo tree and the
ring of lotuses, the Kamalban or Purain. 'oth of these forms symbolise fertility not only
because of the speed with which they proliferate but also because they are diagrams of
the se/ual organs. The lotus circle is not only a lotus but also the symbol of the bride1s
se/ while the bamboo tree is a bamboo as well as representative of a phallus. This latent
symbolism reaches its height in the many paintings in which the bamboo tree is depicted
not as aloof and apart but as driven through the centre of a clinging circle.
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Archer also referred to the tortoises represented in kohbarghar paintings as erotic symbols.
According to himD
...their strange shape is diagrammatic of the lovers1 union. The head and the tail
emerging from the shell are the e/act counterparts of the bamboo plunging in the
lotuses.
0&
The 5renchman Eves Fe4uaud, a great patron of .ithila paintings, first encountered them
in the early !%8&s at =elhi, the capital city of ,ndia. He was the one to identify the late Aanga
=evi, now ac+nowledged as one of the best talents of .ithila painting. Fe4uaud was very
intrigued by her wor+ and traced her during !%80$8" to her village home at ;asidpur.
0!
,n his
boo+, titled The rt o! Mithila" #eremonial Paintings !rom an ncient Kingdom, he too
interpreted the lotus and bamboo as symbols of the female and male reproductive organsD
The kohbar$s basic design and composition is heavily charged with tantric symbolism,
and in its centre a lingam, the phallus, penetrates the circular beauty of a yoni, the symbol
of the female genitals, often drawn as a fully$opened lotus.
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As with Archer and Fe4uaud, several ,ndian scholars, li+e 6upul >aya+ar and Cpendra Tha+ur,
have misinterpreted the leitmotifs of kohbar paintings as emblems of female and male
se/uality.
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,n her insightful review of The rt o! Mithila by Fe4uaud, (arolyn H. 'rown, who read
this boo+ while she was engaged in anthropological field wor+ among Maithil brahmins,
severely criticiBed Fe4uaud1s Ge/travagant and unsubstantial interpretationsH of the kohbarghar
wall paintings. ,n her wordsD
, write neither as a positivist nor a prude when , 4uestion the erotic symbolism which
Fe4uaud finds everywhere in .ithila art. ,ndeed, something may be in it all. 'ut since
the e/cesses of these interpretations have led to a total misrepresentation of the society
and culture of .ithila, it is imperative to as+ whether there are not some rules of fair play
in the interpretation of other peoples1 symbols?
0"
'rown pointed out that when she 4uestioned the women artists of .ithila about the meaning of
these motifs, they did not offer lingams and yonis as interpretations. :hile living and wor+ing
amongst the Maithil fol+, she realiBed how conservative this society isI a girl is married at an
early age of around fifteen to the young man chosen for her by her father.
0#
'rown concluded
her observation by statingD
, do not deny possible Tantric influence in the art of .ithila, but it is not on the surfaceI
.ithila culture is far more subtle and convoluted than that.
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According to >yotindra >ain, who has underta+en an e/tensive study of these paintings, the lotus
motif pierced by a shaft does not represent Gse/ual union of any +ind.H
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He interprets this motif
in the following wayD
,t primarily represents the lotus plant, with its jarmuri or roots and stem from which
leaves grow in various directions. The floral medallions, that surround the central stem,
li+e a ring, are not lotus flowers but pat or leaves. On account of their floral form, many
scholars have mista+en the lotus leaves for flowers. Similarly, the central vertical stem
cutting across the ring of lotus leaves is not meant to be a bamboo shaft but the @stem and
roots1 of the lotus plant....The entire kohbar motif, with its roots, stem, and proliferating
leaves, is the symbol of the bride or the female but is not, as some scholars have it, her
yoni or se/ual organ.
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<i+ewise, >ain interprets the bamboo grove motifD
As the lotus plant motif represents female fertility, the bamboo grove motif epitomises
the male regenerative energy, though not the male se/ual organ as some writers suggest.
0%
As >ain points out, lotus and bamboo are found in abundance in the environment of the .ithila
regionI because of their proliferating nature, they are used as fertility symbols in the kohbar
ghar wall paintings.
"&
The 5renchman Fe4uaud also erred when he referred to the kohbar motifs drawn on
small sheets of paper as Gmarriage proposals.H According to him, young Maithil women draw
these motifs on paper to present them to young men whom they wish to marry.
"!
(ontradicting
Fe4uaud in this matter as well, 'rown wroteD
:hen , as+ed the women artists about this, they replied they had never heard of such a
thing, and certainly no girl would be braBen enough to draw and send a picture to a boy.
?or would any family accept such a girl for their son.
"-
As >ain mentions, sheets of paper with kohbar motifs drawn on them are used to wrap sindur or
vermillion$red powder for the bride.
"0
This is considered a very significant step in the marriage
process and is called sindurdan. The motifs are drawn by the women artists of the bridegroom1s
family.
:hen , visited the villages of .adhubani, >itwarpur, and ;anti in >une -&&!, , too found
the .ithila society to be conservative. ,t was important to dress soberly and for my sari clad
mother to accompany me when , visited the houses of some of the best +nown Maithil artists,
namely, Aodavari =evi, .ahasundari =evi, and Sita =evi. :hen , discussed the iconography of
the kohbarghar wall paintings with them, they described the motifs as representative of
fecundity. Since it is believed in ,ndia that the universe was created from the lotus, it has come
to be regarded as a symbol of the female reproductive organ. This has led some scholars to read
blatant erotic meaning into the kohbarghar mandalas.
""
'ut, as mentioned at the beginning,
mandalas have accompanied sacred ceremonies in ,ndia since ancient times to channel
meditation. 'esides, the presence of deities and holy ob2ects around the kohbarghar mandalas
indicate that these paintings are meant to help the married couple transcend the physical plane.
.arriage is a vehicle for creating and rearing childrenI se/ual union is a blessing bestowed upon
the newly weds to enable them to do so. Hence, the leitmotifs$lotus and bamboo$are more
appropriately interpreted as symbols of divinity within us.
Aripan Mandalas in the kohbarghar
On the fourth day after the wedding, an aripan mandala +nown as @mohak1 is drawn on
the floor of the kohbarghar while a mantra or prayer is chanted.
"#
,ts purpose is to mitigate
tension between the married couple who may be un+nown to each other since marriages are
usually arranged by family members in the rigid society of .ithila. @Mohak1 aripan consists of
two fully bloomed lotus flowers connected by a stem, symboliBing a 2oining of fates of the bride
and groom who are made to sit before this diagram on a patia or grass mat and perform a number
of intimate rituals such as feeding each other. At this time, relatives sing special songs to tease
and bless the newly weds. Another aripan mandala consisting of fertility symbols, such as, fish
and lotus, is sometimes also drawn on the floor of the kohbarghar 5ig. 0*.
"7
,t reiterates the
value given to fecundity by the Maithil fol+. The face of the goddess Gauri is often drawn in the
central part of this mandala. Gauri is the goddess to whom the bride prays for a virtuous
husband.
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!omposition and Meaning of the Aripan Mandala
An aripan mandala is drawn to provide protection from the malevolent forces of nature.
"9
Purain or lotus is one of its chief emblems. The lotus symboliBes purity of character because its
petals and leaves remain unsoiled despite growing in dirty water.
"%
,ts tender beauty has made it
a symbol of feminine grace and its prolific growth has become synonymous with abundance. An
endless variety of floral$geometric aripan mandalas evolve from the lotus motif. They are drawn
directly with the figure tip using a watery solution of white rice powder, called pindar, or
powdered substances of various colors.
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After marriage, a bride draws an aripan mandala in the courtyard, door$front, and other
parts of the house early in the morning to ensure happiness and good fortune in her family life.
#!

=ecorating the house with ritual floor diagrams every morning becomes a matter of course for
her, li+e +eeping it clean. She then recites prayers, offers flowers, and burns a stic+ of incense on
the aripan mandala, which serves as an altar. Some scholars, such as, >aya+ar and Tha+ur, refer
to this magical diagram as writing rather than as drawing and believe that it possibly had archaic
hieroglyphic origin.
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,n the course of the day, the aripan mandala gets smudged by the
movement of house dwellers carrying out their domestic chores and a fresh one is drawn in its
place the ne/t day. Secular and sacred activities are closely intertwined in .ithila lifestyle. The
same ground that is trodden upon is sanctified when adorned with an aripan mandala, whose
ephemeral nature is part of its charm. This undoing and rema+ing of aripan mandalas symboliBe
the impermanence of life and its re2uvenating 4uality.
The close resemblance between the aripan and kohbar mandalas seems to suggest that
the latter stemmed from the former. As in aripan mandalas, in kohbar mandalas balance and
symmetry are ta+en into consideration while composing designs from natural forms such as
flowers, leaves, birds, and animals. 'oth these art forms adhere to traditional patternsI yet their
creation involves imagination and s+ill. Old motifs are constantly embellished with new and
innovative details. 'ut unli+e aripan mandalas that are drawn in most parts of ,ndia, kohbar
mandalas are peculiar to the region of .ithila.
#0
Wedding "ongs
:hile the wedding rites are performed, jog songs, that is, songs which dispel evil spirits,
are sung to safe guard the future of the bridal couple.
#"
Also sung are songs by Fidyapati
ca.!0#-$!""9 (.).*, the love poet of .ithila.
##
These songs celebrate the legendary romance of
Krishna, the cowherd god a popular incarnation or avatar of Vishnu* and his favorite cowherd
maiden or gopi, %adha. Although well$versed in Sans+rit, Fidyapati composed his songs in
Maithili, the sweet and charming language of the .ithila towns and villages, because he wanted
them to touch the hearts of both the simple and the learned fol+s of this region. Cnli+e his
predecessor >ayadeva of 'engal !-
th
century, (.).* who, in his famous Sans+rit poem called
Gita Govinda or Songs of Krishna, highlighted the role of Krishna as the divine and perfect
lover, Fidyapati made %adha with her changing moods and subtle emotions his true heroine.
The feminine point of view of these love songs ma+e them especially dear to Maithil brides who
learn by heart their favorite songs by Fidyapati. <i+e the love songs of Fidyapati, kohbar and
aripan mandalas emphasiBe the symbol of the female, namely, the lotus, and appeal to people
from all segments of society. ,n a similar spirit, 3. 6ra+ash, an ardent admirer of .ithila
paintings, has aptly described them as G...full of innocence, yet so full of lifeI utterly simple, yet
so full of meaningI astonishingly human, yet so very divine....H
#7
,mages of %adha and Krishna
and episodes from their enchanting love affair are often painted on the entrance wall of the
kohbarghar 5ig. "*.
#8
Mithila Painting and its Artists in Present Times
,n April !%#7, when 6upul >aya+ar sought :illiam Archer1s advice on where to see
.ithila paintings, she received the following reply from himD
,f you are interested in procuring a visual record of them, the best thing to do would be
to go by car from =arbhanga to .adhubani and there en4uire from .aithil 'rahmins and
3ayasths. They would soon direct you to the best houses and villages.
#9
?ot much seems to have changed in the .ithila region since Archer visited it between !%0& and
!%"& because in >une -&&!, when , went to see .ithila paintings, , too was advised by the local
dwellers of =arbhanga to travel by car to .adhubani, ;anti, and >itwarpur. There , was directed
to the houses of the best +nown artists, namely, Aodavari =evi, .ahasundari =evi, and Sita
=evi. The road from =arbhanga to .adhubani and the neighboring villages is in very poor
condition, which ma+es travel by car difficult and uncomfortable. On meeting the .ithila artists,
, was ta+en abac+ to see how self$conscious they were of their talent despite living in such a
secluded and rural environment 5ig. #*. ;egarding the availability of .ithila paintings on
paper, Archer wrote to >aya+arD
:hether you would be able to collect some paintings on paper , am not certain. These
were rather unusual and scarce in my time and , thin+ the usual practice is for ladies of
the house to paint from memory instead of using paper @models1. 'ut there would be no
harm in as+ing and perhaps you would have the good luc+ to hit upon some families who
still preserved paper @models1 and who would part with them to you.
#%
This factor has changed today. ,t is now possible to purchase fairly easily .ithila paintings
rendered on paper. :ell aware of their worth, the well$+nown artists of .ithila charge high
prices for these paintings. One can however come across a range of charming paintings on paper
created by lesser +nown Maithil women that are sold at lower prices 5ig. 7*. The 4uality of
paintings that one encounters in the .ithila region is rarely matched by those sold at )mporiums
in other parts of ,ndia or abroad. Several of .ithila1s native artists have in recent times been
invited by foreign countries to demonstrate and e/hibit their wor+, which can be seen at art
museums in different parts of the world as for e/ample the .ithila .useum at ?iigata in >apan.
7&
=espite the international recognition they are receiving today, .ithila artists lead simple lives in
order to preserve the naive 4uality of their art. 6layful in appearance but universal in
significance, the characteristic motifs of .ithila art appear on many items of ,ndian crafts, such
as te/tiles, 2ewelry, ceramics, boo+ covers, and leather wor+ 5igs. 8, 9*.
7!
The contemporary
studio artists of ,ndia constantly draw inspiration from its vitality and spontaneity of e/pression.
Cnli+e other fol+ arts of ,ndia such as 3alighat painting, whose worth was recogniBed only after
it had ceased to e/ist, .ithila paintings have survived the test of time. They are presently
supported by the ,ndian government and are still flourishing.
7-



!. <iang (ong2ie, ed., The Great Thoughts o! #hina& '&((( )ears o! *isdom that shaped a #ivili+ation
?ew Eor+D >ohn :iley J Sons, ,nc., !%%7*, -&#.
-. >. (. .athur, G=omestic Arts of .ithila,H Marg, -&, ! !%77*, "0$"7D "".
0. The Fedic altar can be regarded as one of the earliest e/amples of the mandala. See Audrun
'uhnemann et al., Mandalas or )antras in the ,indu Tradition <eidenD 'rill, -&&0*, !.
". Cpendra Tha+ur, Madhubani Painting ?ew =elhiD Abhinav 6ublications, !%9!*, !!$!#.
#. The +ingdoms of these Hindu +ings were sub2ect to only partial control from the .uslim Sultanate
of =elhi on a periodical basis. See .athur !%77, "".
7. Tha+ur n.d., 7!.
8. >yotindra >ain, Ganga -evi" Tradition and ./pression in Mithila Painting AhmedabadD .apin
6ublishing 6vt. <td., !%%8*, %, 07, "7$"8I >yotindra >ain, GAanga =eviD Tradition and )/pression in
.ithila .adhubani* 6ainting,H in Perceptions o! South sia$s Visual Past, ed. (atherine '. Asher and
Thomas ;. .etcalf ?ew =elhiD O/ford J ,'H 6ublishing (o. 6vt. <td., !%%"*, !"%$#8D !#-I (arolyn
Henning 'rown, G5ol+ Art and the Art 'oo+sD :ho Spea+s for the Traditional Artists?H in Modern
sian Studies, !7, 0 !%9-*, #!%$--D #-!.
9. 6upul >aya+ar, The .arthen -rum ?ew =elhiD ?ational .useum, !%9&*, %-I Tha+ur n.d., #9$#%.
%. >ain !%%8, #"$##I .ary (. <anius, G.ithila 6ainting,H in Making Things in South sia" The %ole o!
rtist and #ra!tsman, ed. .ichael :. .eister 6hiladelphiaD The Cniversity, =ept. Of South Asia
;egional Studies, !%99*, !0#$"#D !08$09I 6upul >aya+ar, The .arth Mother" Legends& Goddesses& and
%itual rts o! 0ndia ?ew Eor+D Harper J ;ow, !%%&*, !&7$&8I .ildred Archer, 0ndian Popular
Painting in the 0ndia 1!!ice Library <ondonD Her .a2esty1s Stationery Office, !%88*, 98$99.
!&. )ver since .ithila paintings began receiving universal acclaim, men have also started practicing
this art. See <anius !%99, !08, !0%$"&I Tha+ur !%9!, -0, #8I and ;anadhar >ha, G.ithila 6aintingsH in
Lesser Kno2n 3orms o! Per!orming rts in 0ndia, ed. =urgadas .u+hopadhyay ?ew =elhiD Sterling
6ublishers 6vt. <td., !%89*, 09$""D "!. Since the town of .adhubani which means Gforest of honeyH*
has today become an important center of .ithila art, .ithila paintings are also +nown as .adhubani
paintings. See 'arbara ;ossi, 3rom the 1cean o! Painting" 0ndia$s Popular Paintings 4567 to the
Present ?ew Eor+D O/ford Cniversity 6ress, !%%9*, 07I >ain !%%", !#&I Tha+ur n.d., !!.
!!. ,t is the 3ayasths who e/cel at kohbarghar wall paintings that are designed to complement their
elaborate wedding ceremonies. The 'rahmins, who celebrate their marriages simply, used to adorn the
wall in the kohbarghar by ma+ing five impressions of the palm dipped in rice pasteI vermillion was
then applied over the hand prints. <ater they learned the elaborate form of painting kohbars from the
3ayasths. See ;ossi !%%9, 08I >yotindra >ain, GAanga =eviH in 1ther Masters" 3ive #ontemporary
3olk and Tribal rtists o! 0ndia ?ew =elhiD (rafts .useum and The Handicrafts and Handlooms
)/ports (orporation of ,ndia <td., !%%9*, 8!$97D 8!I >ain !%%8, 86& 5(9 >yotindra >ain, GThe 'ridge of
FermillionD ?arrative ;hythm in the =usadh <egends of .ithila,H in 0ndian Painting, ed.
'.?.Aoswami ?ew =elhiD <alit 3ala A+ademi, !%%#*, -&8$&9I >ain !%%", !#!.
!-
. .athur !%77, "".
!0. >ain !%%8, 0-I Tha+ur !%9!, #7$#8, 77I .. Archer !%88, 98, 99, %&I .ildred Archer, G=omestic
Arts of .ithilaD ?otes on 6aintingH in Marg, -&, ! !%77*, "8$#-D "8I :illiam A. Archer, G.aithil
6aintingH in Marg& Maga+ine o! rchitecture : rt, 0, 0 'ombayD .arg 6ublications, !%"%*, -"$00D
-7.
!". 5or more information on the famine relief campaign, see ;ossi !%%9, 08. Also see >ain !%%8, 0!I
>ain !%%", !#-. 6upul >aya+ar, a representative of the All ,ndia Handicrafts 'oard in ?ew =elhi, was
one of the first to get involved in this relief pro2ect. She learned of .ithila paintings from :. A.
ArcherI see .. Archer !%88, 9%. Also see <anius !%99, !07$08.
!#. However, the easy availability of paper has also led some artists to hastily produce for wide
circulation dull and unimaginative paintings. See >ain !%%8, 0-, !0-, n.8.
!7. =evi, which means goddess or the bright and shining one, is appended to the names of several
Maithil women. See >agdish >. (havda, GThe ?arrative 6aintings of ,ndia1s >itwarpuri :omenH in
*oman$s rt ;ournal, !!, ! !%%&*, -7$-9D -8.
!8. The iconography and meaning of the symbols used in the kohbarghar wall paintings have been
discussed by >ain in his boo+, Ganga -evi, !%%8, -8$7".
!9. >ain !%%8, -8$-9, ##. The word kohbar is apparently related to the word gobar, which means cow
dung. See >ain !%%", !#8, n.#.
!%. The dot holds symbolic meanings of health, good luc+, love, fertility, safety in childbirth,
prosperity, and protection from harmful spirits in ,ndia.
-&. >ain !%%", !#!. Also see 'rown !%%7, 80&.
-!. Heinrich Kimmer, Myths and Symbols in 0ndian rt and #ivili+ation, ed. >oseph (ampbell ?ew
Eor+D 6antheon 'oo+s ,nc., !%"7*, %!.
--
. Eves Fe4uaud, The rt o! Mithila" #eremonial Paintings !rom an ncient Kingdom, trans. Aeorge
;obinson <ondonD Thames and Hudson, !%88*, %8I .. Archer !%88, 97I
:. A. Archer !%"%, -%.
-0. >ain !%%8, "8I (. Sivaramamurti, Panorama o! ;ain rt, ?ew =elhiD Times of ,ndia, !%90*, 9"$
9#, pls. !!-$!0I Kimmer !%"7, 8-$8#.
-". >ain !%%8, "#$"7.
-#. Kimmer !%"7, !-7$-8I Fe4uaud !%88, 8".
-7. .onisha 'haradwa2, <eauty Secrets o! 0ndia !rom yurvedic Techni=ues to ./otic dornments
<ondonD Clysses 6ress, -&&&*, !!"$!#I <oretta ;oome, Mehndi" The Timeless rt o! ,enna Painting
?ew Eor+D St. .artin1s Ariffin, !%%9*, --I .. Archer !%88, 97I
:. A. Archer !%"%, -%.
-8. >ain !%%8, 0%I (arolyn 'rown HeinB, G.ithila 6ainting,H in South sian 3olklore" n
.ncyclopedia" !ghanistan& <angladesh& 0ndia& >epal& Pakistan& Sri Lanka, ed. 6eter >. (laus, Sarah
=iamond, and .argaret Ann .ills ?ew Eor+D ;outledge, -&&0*, "&"$&7D "&#.
-9
. 5or more information, see <anius !%99, !0# and .. Archer !%88, 9%.
-%. :. A. Archer !%"%, -9.
0&. ,bid., -%.
0!. >ain !%%8, !7.
0-. Fe4uaud !%88, !8. 5or a discussion on Tantrism, see 'en2amin :al+er, GTantrism,H in Man& Myth
: Magic" The 0llustrated .ncyclopedia o! Mythology& %eligion and the ?nkno2n, ed. ;ichard
(avendish ?ew Eor+D .arshall (avendish (orporation, !%%#*, !9, -###$7!I Andre 6adou/, GHindu
Tantrism,H in The .ncyclopedia o! %eligion, ed. .ircea )liade ?ew Eor+D .acmillan, !%98*, !", -8"$
9&.
00
. See >aya+ar !%9&, !07I Tha+ur !%9!, 8&.
0". 'rown !%9-, #--.
0#. ,bid., #-!.
07. ,bid., #--. Also read her article, titled G(ontested .eaningsD Tantra and the 6oetics of .ithila Art,1
in merican .thnologist, -0, " ?ovember !%%7*, 8!8$08.
08. >ain !%88, ##.
09. ,bid., ##. Also see HeinB -&&0, "&#.
0%. >ain !%88, #8. Also see HeinB -&&0, "&#.
"&. ,bid., "-, "#. Also see 'rown !%%7, 8-8$-% and (arolyn Henning 'rown, GThe :omen 6ainters of
.ithilaH in 3estival o! 0ndia in the ?nited States 4765476@ ?ew Eor+D Harry ?. Abrams, ,nc., !%9#*,
!##$7!D !#7.
"!. Fe4uaud !%88, !8.
"-. 'rown !%9-, #-!.
"0
. 'efore the introduction of thic+, white paper in the !%7&s, a coarse variety of beige ?epali paper,
called basaha, was used to wrap sindur. The kohbar motifs were drawn mainly in red in+ on beige
colored paper. See >ain !%%8, -9$-%, 0!$0-.
"". =avid 5ontana, The Secret Language o! Symbols& Visual Key to Symbols and their
Meanings San 5ranciscoD (hronicle 'oo+s, !%%0*, !9&I Kimmer !%"7, p. %&.
"#. >ain !%%8, "8I >aya+ar !%9&, !0%, !"!.
"7. >aya+ar !%9&, !!, !07.
"8. See 'rown !%9#, !##.
"9. ;oome !%%9, !%$-&I 5ontana !%%0, 7&I Fe4uaud !%88, -9I >aya+ar, !%9&, !0".
"%. ;oome !%%9, -&$-!.
#&
. .athur !%77, "#.
#!. Fe4uaud !%88, -9.
#-. 6upul >aya+ar, G6aintings of ;ural ,ndiaH in The Times o! 0ndia nnual 'ombay, !%8#*, #0$7-D #9I
Tha+ur n.d., 09.
#0. These floor mandala are called aripans only in the state of 'ihar. They are +nown by different
names in other states of ,ndiaI for e/ample, alpana in :est 'engal, osa in Orissa, cho2k in Cttar
6radesh, mehndi mandana in ;a2asthan, sathia in Au2rat, rangoli in .aharashtra, kolam in Tamil ?adu,
and aipana in other parts of northern ,ndia. See >aya+ar !%8#, #9I Tha+ur n.d., 08.
#". >ain !%%8, 0%. Also see :illiam A. Archer, Songs !or the <ride" *edding %ites o! %ural 0ndia, ed.
'arbara Stoler .iller and .ildred Archer ?ew Eor+D (olumbia Cniversity 6ress, !%9#*.
##
. See introduction by :illiam A. Archer in Love Songs by Vidyapati, trans. =eben 'hattacharya, ed. :.
A. Archer <ondonD Aeorge Allen and Cnwin <td., !%70*, !8$09. Also see The Songs o! Vidyapati, ed.
Subhadra >ha 'anarasD .otilal 'anarasidass, !%#"*.
#7. 3. 6ra+ash, Madhubani 'ombayD The =esign 6oint, !%%"*, !&.
#8. >ain !%%8, #".
#9. .. Archer !%88, %&.
#%. ,bid., %&.
7&. >ain !%%8, -&, !-#$0&. .ithila paintings have also been e/hibited at .ontreal, 6aris, Osa+a, ;io
de >aneiro, .unich, 'erlin, SwitBerland, <ondon, and in a number of places in the C.S. such as Austin,
=enver, ?ew Eor+, (hicago, St. <ouis, .adison, and :ashington, =.(. See <anius !%99, !08I 'rown
!%9#, !##I .. Archer !%88, %&.
7!
. 5or a range of decorative motifs derived from .ithila art that have influenced different branches of
,ndian art and craft, see 3. 6ra+ash !%%".
7-
. See >ain !%%8, !#$!7I <anius !%99, !"&I 'etty <a=u+e, GTraditional :omen Artists in 'orneo,
,ndonesia, and ,ndiaH in *oman$s rt ;ournal, -, ! SpringLSummer, !%9!*, !8$-&D !%$-&. , wish to
e/press my gratitude to my parents who +indly accompanied me to the .ithila towns and villages to
help me study these paintings. , also wish to than+ 'indu .adho+, ;aina 5ehl, .ichael =uffy, and
6arul =ave$.u+her2i for reading my manuscript and offering helpful suggestions.