1

Title:
Using a Pragmatic Sociological Model for Cultural Policy Analysis
Author:
Galle Lemasson
Institutional Affiliation:
Centre for Cultural Policy Studies, University of Warwic
Abstract:
!etween t"e 1#$%s&#%s, 'renc" sociologist Luc !oltansi and economist Laurent (")venot "ave
develo*ed a t"eoretical model called t"e +conomies of Wort" t"at ena,les t"e categorisation of
-ustifications *eo*le *ut forward in a wide range of situations to assert t"eir stance. According to
!oltansi and (")venot, arguments commonly de*loyed in today/s societies refer to a limited
num,er of *rinci*les of -ustice, w"ic" t"eir model frames and e0*lains. ("is *a*er discusses t"e
model ,y giving *articular attention to !oltansi and (")venot/s notion of 1com*romise/ w"ic"
consists of trying to mae different *rinci*les of -ustice coe0ist. ("is conce*t is t"en used to analyse
*olicy statements2and more *articularly cultural *olicy statements2t"at can ,e viewed as forms of
com*romises. ("e various *rinci*les of -ustice to w"ic" some statements refer will ,e identified, and
t"is will s"ed lig"t on t"e c"allenge t"at t"eir coe0istence *oses. Alt"oug" t"e model arouses more
and more interest, it "as not yet ,een a**lied to cultural *olicy analysis, and t"is *a*er sees to
demonstrate its relevance in t"e field of cultural *olicy researc".
Keywords:
*ragmatic sociology, +conomies of Wort", official *olicy r"etoric, cultural *olicy rationales, *olicy as
com*romise
Word Count:
$ 113 words

3
Introduction
4ationales for state intervention in cultural matters are c"aracterised ,y im*ermanency5 since t"e
a**earance in t"e Western world of w"at researc"ers designate as t"e first e0*licit cultural *olicies,
-ustification for state su**ort in t"e cultural s*"ere "as continuously evolved, a**ealing to notions
suc" as t"e 1democratisation of culture/, 1cultural democracy/, 1cultural develo*ment/, 1cultural
diversity/, and so fort". ("e inconsistencies t"at c"aracterise t"e state/s rationales in t"is domain
nota,ly reflect a continuous 6uest for legitimacy t"at is wort" analysing.
'renc" sociologist Luc !oltansi and economist Laurent (")venot "ave develo*ed a model t"at can
,e used to s"ed new lig"t on t"e nature of arguments dis*layed in *olicy statements to -ustify state
intervention in cultural matters. Alt"oug" t"e model was designed to analyse criti6ue itself, it
e0tends its sco*e to t"e various forms of agreement, of w"ic" *olicy statements can ,e *art.
!asically t"e model named Economies of Worth 7+W8 aims at understanding "ow *eo*le e0*ress
t"eir disagreement in conflicting situations wit"out using force and "ow t"ey reac" and maintain a
more or less sta,le and lasting agreement 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 3;8. More *recisely, t"e
model is a means to analyse t"e nature of arguments to w"ic" *eo*le refer to w"en asserting t"eir
rig"ts 7rig"ts t"at, ,esides, mig"t follow im*licit rules suc" as social eti6uette8 and to e0*lain w"y
some arguments are more convincing t"an ot"ers. ("us, according to t"e model, valid arguments
*ossess a certain universality and refer to forms of generality, to 1*rinci*les of e6uivalence/, t"at
allow t"e *roduction and t"e distri,ution of wort"2or, in ot"er words, t"at ena,les *rocesses of
evaluation. <n effect, in order to mae sense of t"e social world, we are ,roug"t in everyday life to
-udge *eo*le and t"ings t"at are involved in various situations, and w"en an event does not unfold
1rig"tly/, w"en we *erceive an in-ustice, we call into 6uestion t"e legitimacy of t"e situation,
*rovoing t"us a conflict. !ecause 1crisis situations/ cause *eo*le to de*loy arguments so as to
denounce or -ustify certain ,e"aviours and decisions, t"e aut"ors "ave ,een *articularly attentive to
t"em. <n t"e +W model, t"e aut"ors "ave identified si0 1cities/ t"at "inges on various *rinci*les of
e6uivalence5 t"e city of 1fame/
1
, t"e 1civic/, t"e 1ins*ired/, t"e 1maret/, t"e 1industrial/, and t"e
1domestic/ cities. As mentioned, t"e model e0tends its sco*e to t"e *ossi,le e0its from a conflict,
71tests/, 1com*romise/8 ,ut also identifies t"e various ways to 1avoid/ conflict wit"out "aving to use
legitimate forms of -ustification. Alt"oug" we will *resent and discuss t"e w"ole model, we will
mostly centre our analysis on t"e idea of 1com*romise/ t"at is of *articular interest to us since we
will inter*ret *u,lic *olicies *recisely 6ua 1com*romises/.
!efore looing at t"is s*ecific form of agreement, we will *resent t"e model and do an overview of
its main conce*ts. We will t"en analyse in detail t"e conce*t of 1com*romise/ as develo*ed in t"e +W
and a**ly it to *olicy statements. More s*ecifically, we will e0amine e0cer*ts taen from *olicies of
=u),ec2a Canadian *rovince t"at s"elters a distinct 7,ut not sovereign8 nation, t"e 'ranco*"one
one.

1
("e *rinci*le of fame "as also ,een translated as *rinci*le of 1renown/ 7o*inion8. <f we agree wit" t"e ("e >0ford Pocet
?ictionary of Current +nglis"/s definition of t"e word 1fame/, w"ic" is 1t"e condition of ,eing nown or taled a,out ,y
many *eo*le, esp. on account of notable achievements/ 7em*"asis added8 or wit" t"e Cam,ridge ?ictionnary/s definition,
w"ic" is @w"en you are nown or recogniAed ,y many *eo*le because of your achievements, skills, etcB 7em*"asis added8,
t"en t"e idea of 1fame/ would ,e more co"erent wit" t"e model. +ffectively t"e word 1fame/ is associated wit" t"e idea of
1ac"ievement/, and in t"e +W, status of 1wort"ies/ are granted conditional on a sacrifice 71form of investments/8, or in ot"er
words, some ind of endeavour ,eneficial to t"emselves ,ut also to ot"ers.

C
1- The Model
'renc" sociologist Luc !oltansi and economist Laurent (")venot "ave develo*ed t"e t"eoretical
model +conomies of Wort" 7+W8 over a long *eriod of time5 t"e *reliminary version of t"e +W too
t"ree years to tae s"a*e and was *u,lis"ed in t"e Cahiers of t"e Centre d/+tudes de l/+m*loi in
1#$D.
3
'ollowing t"is e0*loratory *u,lication, t"e researc"ers "ave *olis"ed t"eir model, re&wored
some conce*ts and *u,lis"ed De la justification : Les conomies de la grandeur in 1##1 7t"e +nglis"
translation On Justification was *u,lis"ed in 3%%:8.
C
'ollowing t"e 1##1 *u,lication, t"e aut"ors "ave
res*ectively and inde*endently continued to develo* t"e model ,y adding new cities to t"e si0
e0isting ones, ,ut we will not integrate t"em in t"e *resent analysis.
E

Epistemological questions
'or reason of s*ace, we cannot e0*lore in detail t"e e*istemological 6uestions t"at "ave conducted
to t"e ela,oration of t"e model. Fowever, it is im*ortant to stress t"at !oltansi and (")venot "ave
designed t"is model in reaction to t"e 1critical sociology/ 7and des*ite t"e fact t"at ,ot" of t"em "ave
,een trained ,y Pierre !ourdieu8. Gery ,riefly, according to t"e aut"ors, critical sociology "olds an
un,eara,le *osition ,y trying to analyse t"e social world wit" a *ositivist and descri*tive a**roac"
w"ile seeing to develo* a critical and normative *ers*ective at t"e same time 7!oltansi 3%%#, *.
1C8. <n effect, to ,e a,le to denounce in-ustices, sociologists "ave to lean on some moral values2or
as !oltansi says 1t"e critical im*ulse *resu**oses reference to ideals wit" w"ic" t"e reality to ,e
criticiAed can ,e com*ared/ 7Ibid, *. 082, ,ut t"e *ositivist stance *revents t"em from referring to
any moral *rinci*les. <n ot"er words, according to t"e aut"ors, t"e critical a**roac" sees to
reconcile two antinomic stances2scientific o,-ectivity versus denunciation of in-ustice2,ut reac"es
an im*asse. <n fact, in t"eir view, social scientists "ave to acnowledge t"e *rinci*les of -ustice to
w"ic" t"ey refer w"en t"ey criticise t"e world as it is 7!oltansi 1##%,, *. 1C%8. Moreover, !oltansi
and (")venot de*lore t"at, in t"e classical sociological studies, insufficient attention is given to
ordinary *eo*le/s demands for fairness. According to t"em, 1t"e main *ro,lem of critical sociology it
its ina,ility to understand t"e critical o*erations undertaen ,y t"e actors/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot
1###, *. C:E8. ("ey also argue t"at t"e critical sociology creates e0aggerated 1asymmetries/ ,etween
t"e critical and refle0ive ca*acities of scientists and t"at of ordinary *eo*le 7!oltansi 3%%%8. As
!oltansi *uts it5
my reproach towards critical sociology, as deeloped in the !"s and #"s $%&, was that it granted
the sociologists too much of an uneiling power and, by the same to'en, it oershadowed the
critical capacities of people themseles(
)

7!oltansi interviewed ,y !ourmeau 3%%#8

3
!oltansi L, (")venot L. 1#$D. Les conomies de la grandeur. Paris5 Presses universitaires de 'rance
C
'or e0am*le, t"e conce*t of common world "as re*laced t"e one of nature, t"e conce*t of dispute "as ,een develo*ed
and clarified, etc.
E
!oltansi L, C"ia*ello +. 3%%D. *he +ew ,pirit of Capitalism. Hew Ior5 GersoJ Lafaye C, (")venot L. 1##C. Une -ustification
)cologi6ueK 5 Conflits dans lLam)nagement de la nature. -eue fran.aise de sociologie CE
;
1/on reproche 0 l1gard de la sociologie criti2ue, telle 2u1elle s1tait deloppe dans les annes !"3#" 4pas seulement en
5rance6, tait donc 2u1elle accordait un trop grand pouoir de doilement au sociologi2ue et 2u1elle occultait du m7me
coup les capacits criti2ues 2ui taient celles des personnes elles3m7mes(/

E
So !oltansi and (")venot "ave re"a,ilitated t"e actor/s -udgmental ca*acities and "ave develo*ed a
t"eoretical tool t"at identifies t"e common *rinci*les of -ustice to w"ic" *eo*le im*licitly refer in
t"eir daily lives, usually in situations of dis*ute2i.e. in situations in w"ic" t"ey "ave to develo* an
acce*ta,le argumentation to defend t"eir *osition. ("e model e0cludes situations w"ere force or
violence "as ,een used. Aware t"at t"eir model could e0*lain certain ty*es of social actions only,
!oltansi "as e0*lored, in su,se6uent studies, ot"er 1regimes of action/, w"ic" nota,ly include
situations in w"ic" *eo*le resort to violence or love to ,ring dis*utes to an end.
:
("e +W model,
"owever, only concerns situations in w"ic" individuals resort to *rocesses of argumentation to
retrieve *eace and order. !oltansi calls t"is regime of action a 1regime of dis*ute in -ustice/.
How, ,ecause t"e +W model is a 1frame of analysis t"at gives an account of t"e form t"at
-ustifications can and must "ave to ,e acce*ta,le/
D
to ot"ers 7!oltansi cited in !londeau 9 Sevin
3%%E, *. 3, our translation8, it can ,e used to analyse all sorts of statements 7C"ia*ello 1##$J ?aigle 9
4ouleau 3%%#J ?odier 3%%;J Feinic" 1##:J (")venot 3%%%8, including *olicy statements 7CMt) 9
Simard 3%%$8 t"at need to de*loy various arguments to win t"e ad"erence of a ma-ority in a given
*o*ulation. Iet cultural *olicies are regularly called into 6uestion 7?u,ois 3%%18 and t"e model can
"el* us ,etter understand w"y t"eir legitimacy, after more t"an "alf a century, is still undermined.
Fence, t"e model will ena,le us to develo* a new *ers*ective on t"e State/s cultural *olicies ,y
giving us t"e means to identify t"e *rinci*les of -ustice on w"ic" t"ese *olicies are ,ased. !esides, in
s*ite of seeing t"em as an e0*ression of *ower e0erted on t"e mem,ers of t"e civil society or as
discourses "iding some ot"er interests, we will analyse t"em as an effort to articulate ideals. ("e aim
of t"is e0ercise is not, "owever, to deny t"e e0istence of relations of *ower or force in t"e *olitical
arena, ,ut to acnowledge t"e *ossi,ility t"at cultural *olicies also see to defend some common
goods. (o introduce t"e model, we will now *resent t"e conce*ts t"at, in our view, are crucial for its
understanding.
The Economies of Worth and the six principles of equivalence
(o ,e a,le to develo* t"is t"eoretical model, numerous em*irical studies "ave "ad to ,e conducted
and multi*le t"eories "ave fed into t"e intellectual *rocess t"at lead to t"e formation of t"e +W.
4econstructing t"e entire *rocess would go ,eyond t"e sco*e of t"is study. Suffice it to say t"at
t"ese ground studies "ave ena,led !oltansi and (")venot to o,serve t"at t"e *rocess of
-ustification is ,ased on t"e *eo*le/s ca*acity to refer to some s"ared conventions to give t"eir claim
more weig"t 7!lic 3%%%8. <n effect, !oltansi and (")venot "ave o,served t"at arguments "ave to ,e
,ased on some s"ared conventions to ,e acce*ta,le for ot"ersJ t"ey "ave to *ossess a certain
1degree of generality/5
$w&hen one is attentie to the unfolding of disputes, one sees that they are limited neither to a
direct e8pression of interests nor to an anarchic and endless confrontation between
heterogeneous worldiews clashing in a dialogue of the deaf(
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1C8

:
See !oltansi L. 1##%a. L1amour et la justice comme comptence : trois essais de sociologie de l1action. Paris5 A. M.
M)taili).
D
1+ous aons cherch 0 construire un cadre d9analyse permettant de rendre compte de la forme 2ue peuent prendre, 2ue
doient prendre les justifications pour 7tre receables(9

;
A valid 1*u,lic -ustification/ is t"us rat"er directed towards a common reference, a 1*rinci*le of
e6uivalence/ 7(")venot 3%%1, *. 1#8, suc" as e6uality ,etween citiAens. <ndeed, a *rinci*le of
e6uivalence somew"at resem,les t"e idea of cultural value, ,ut unlie t"is latter notion, it is neit"er
universal 7a single reference on w"ic" we would all ,ase our -udgment in all times8 nor relativist 7an
infinity of *rinci*les t"at vary according to eras, *laces and cultures8. According to !oltansi and
(")venot, t"ere e0ists a *lurality, ,ut not an infinity, of *rinci*les of e6uivalence t"at can ,e invoed
to -ustify t"e assessment of someone else/s status 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 1###, *. C:;8. And it is after
muc" to&ing and fro&ing ,etween ground in6uiries and t"e reading of several Western *olitical
*"iloso*"ies, t"at t"ey "ave identified t"e si0 *rinci*les to w"ic" *eo*le most often resort w"en
t"ey engage in a 6uarrel 7!londeau 9 Sevin 3%%E, *. ;8. <ndeed, t"ey "ave remared t"at some
*olitical *"iloso*"ies 1offer systematic e0*ression of t"e forms of t"e common good t"at are
commonly invoed in today/s society/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. ::8.
$
("ey "ave t"us ,roug"t to
lig"t t"e si0 "ig"er *rinci*les on w"ic" agreements are generally ,ased and "ave modelled t"em in
t"e form 1cities/ 7or *olities85
#

the ins*ired city where people9s worth is defined through the attainment of a state of grace, the
domestic city where worth depends on a hierarchy of trust based on a chain of personal
dependencies, a city of renown where worth is the result of other people9s opinion, the civic city
where worth is based on the renunciation to particular interests, a maret city based on
distribution of goods, in accordance with the mar'et law, t"e industrial city where worth is based
on efficiency(
1%

7!oltansi cited in !londeau 9 Sevin 3%%E, *. ;, our translation8
("ey "ave also used t"ese *olitical *"iloso*"ies as 1grammars/ *rescri,ing t"e rules and norms for
founding a 1"armonious *olity/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. ::8. Alt"oug" eac" *olity "inges on a
different *rinci*le, t"ey all res*ect si0 1a0ioms/2or constraints2maing t"em legitimate orders as
o**osed to eugenic orders, for e0am*le, or caste systems. 'renc" *olitical scientist P"ili**e Nu"em
summarises t"ese as follows5
*he first a8iom, designated as the :principle of common humanity; of the members of the <city<,
re2uires that eery human being be included in the political order( $%& *he second and fourth
a8ioms stipulate that the members of the city can hae at least two different states and that
these states be ordered following a growing leel of happiness( $%& *he third a8iom specifies that
all members of the city hae :identical power to all the states;( $%& *wo other a8ioms are added,
the first, lin'ing access to higher states to an inestment formula, i(e( a cost or a sacrifice, e8plains
why all members of the city do not stand at the top of the hierarchy= the second specifies that

$
("ey are5 Augustine/s City of >odJ !ossuet/s ?oliticsJ Fo,,es/s LeiathanJ 4ousseau/s ,ocial ContractJ Adam smit"/s @ealth
of +ationsJ Saint&Simon/s Du systAme industriel. ("e aut"ors e0*lain "ow and w"y t"ey "ave c"osen s*ecific *olitical
*"iloso*"ies in *ages :: to DE of !oltansi L, (")venot L. 3%%:. On Justification: Bconomies of @orth. Princeton5 Princeton
University Press. C$# **.
#
!esides, t"e conce*t of cities "as also ,een translated as 1*olity model/ w"ic" may,e ,etter illustrates t"e idea of
organised and regulated world.
1%
1+ous aons donc une cit inspire oC la grandeur des personnes est dfinie par l9accAs 0 un tat de grDce, une cit
domesti2ue oC la grandeur tient 0 une position dans une chaEne hirarchi2ue de dpendances personnelles, une cit de
l9opinion oC la grandeur dpend de l9estime des autres, une cit cii2ue oC la grandeur tient au renoncement 0 l9tat
particulier, une cit marchande fonde sur une rpartition des biens selon le principe du march, une cit industrielle, oC la
grandeur est mesure par l9efficacit./

:
happiness of the greats, attached to superior states, is a common good, meaning that it is
beneficial to the whole city(
11

7Nu"em 1##E, **. C&E, em*"asis in t"e original, our translation8
So one of t"e fundamental dimensions of t"is model is t"e acce*tance of "ierarc"ies founded on a
notion of common good, w"ere some mem,ers can access "ig"er states not ,y using force or
violence ,ut ,y maing a sacrifice. ("at said, t"e mem,ers/ state of wort"iness is always lia,le to
assessment and can never ,e *ermanent. 7Idem8.
13

Common worlds
("eir *reliminary studies "ave also ena,led !oltansi and (")venot to o,serve t"at t"e *rocess of
-ustification also involved an a,ility to use various 1*roofs/ or 1indices/ to reinforce one/s *osition.
+ffectively, 1in order to co*e wit" uncertainty, O*eo*leP rely on t"ings, o,-ects, devices w"ic" are
used as sta,le referents, on w"ic" reality tests or trial can ,e ,ased/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 1###, *.
C:D8. ("ese can tae t"e form of titles, di*lomas, signs of wealt" 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 1#$C, *.
::%8. <ndeed, according to t"e aut"ors, *eo*le/s value or wort" 7leur grandeur8 does not de*end on
some inaliena,le and *ermanent 6ualities 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1C%8. >n t"e contrary,
*eo*le must constantly ,e re&assessed ,y means of various instrumental met"ods, t"emselves
com*osed of various o,-ects 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1C%8. >,-ects are t"us used to 1sta,iliAe/
t"eir 1assessment/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. :8.
<n addition, !oltansi and (")venot "ave o,served t"at o,-ects t"at are used to evaluate someone/s
wort" are designed to answer s*ecific needs and are useful in certain situations only. ("erefore, t"ey
cannot serve as legitimate *roof in all circumstances 7(")venot 3%%3, *. #8 or, in ot"er words, t"ey
can only ,e inserted in s*ecific arrangements. 'or e0am*le, t"e fact t"at someone *ossesses a
*ostgraduate di*loma will "ave, in *rinci*le, no im*act on t"e fact t"at "e or s"e is invited to a
wedding. ("e *erson/s wort" will ,e assessed in function of t"e *ro0imity, t"e indreds"i* wit" t"e
marrieds and t"eir families 7w"ic" is nota,ly visi,le in t"e dis*osition of t"e guests at t"e ta,les8.
Accordingly, t"e aut"ors "ave soug"t to understand "ow, concretely, ,eings are evaluated and
6ualified in various situations or, in ot"er words, "ow 1tests of wort"/ are conducted in everyday
situations. <n order to do so, t"ey "ave designed t"e 1common worlds/ w"ic" are t"e concrete
e0*ression, t"e em,odiment of t"e 1*olities/. <n effect, if t"e *rinci*les on w"ic" cities can ,e erected
are a,stract and inaltera,le, t"e 1common worlds/ are made of re*ertoires of o,-ects t"at can ,e
modified or ada*ted. (o create t"em, t"ey "ave drawn t"eir ins*iration from 1"ow&to guides to
correct ,e"aviour/ t"at could ,e 1matc"ed/ to t"e *olitical *"iloso*"ies 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 1###,

11
1Le premier a8iome, appel :principe de commune humanit; des membres de la :cit;, e8ige 2ue l1ensemble des 7tres
humains soit concern par l1ordre politi2ue( $%& Les a8iomes deu8 et 2uatre stipulent 2u1il e8iste au moins deu8 tats pour les
membres de la cit et 2ue ces tats peuent 7tres classs par ordre de bonheur croissant( $%& L1a8iome trois prcise 2ue tous
les membres de la cit ont :une puissance identi2ue d1accAs 0 tous les tats;( $%& ,1ajoutent deu8 autres a8iomes, le premier,
liant l1accAs au8 tats suprieurs 0 une formule d1inestissement, c1est303dire 0 un coFt ou un sacrifice, e8pli2ue pour2uoi
tous les membres de la cit ne se trouent pas au sommet de la hirarchie = le second prcise 2ue le bonheur des grands, li
au8 tats suprieurs est un bien commun, c1est303dire 2u1il profite 0 l1ensemble de la cit(/
13
!esides, t"is t"eorisation of regimes of -ustice must not ,e understood as a t"eory e0*laining or legitimating 1fair
ine6ualities/. <ndeed, !oltansi re*udiates suc" an inter*retation of t"e model and it "as motivated t"e writing of Le +ouel
esprit du capitalisme 71###8 and De la criti2ue( ?rcis de sociologie de l9mancipation 73%%#8, ,oos in w"ic" Luc !oltansi
re*ositions "is wor.

D
*. C:#8. ("ese common worlds are t"us closely tied to 1*olities/ and, accordingly, t"ey "ave ,een
designated as t"e ins*ired, t"e domestic, t"e civic, t"e maret, t"e industrial worlds and t"e world of
fame.
How, if common worlds are nota,ly made of o,-ects, ot"er ,eings also in"a,it t"em. !oltansi and
(")venot "ave included t"ese ,eings in a list of 1su,-ects/ t"at can ,e "uman or not. <n fact, *eo*le
are not treated in t"e +W model as individuals5 su,-ects are defined t"roug" t"e role t"ey *lay.
1C
<n
effect, according to !oltansi, if a s*irit "as an influence on t"e way *eo*le ,e"ave or evaluate
ot"ers, it will ,e included in t"e list of su,-ects. And, similarly, if an association or a grou* of *eo*le
"as t"e *ower to influence t"e coordination of ot"er "uman ,eings, it is also considered as a su,-ect.
("e +W model also ,rings to lig"t t"e fact t"at *eo*le ,ear multi*le roles in day&to&day lives, ,eing
sometimes *arents, c"ildren, worers, citiAens, consumers, dreamers, etc. ("is also e0*lains t"at
t"ere e0ists various ways to assess someone/s wort". So, for instance, a man could ,e unem*loyed,
"aving t"us a low status in t"e industrial world, ,ut nonet"eless ,e a 1wort"y/ in anot"er world ,y
,eing an e0em*lary fat"er 7domestic world8 or for "aving foug"t to im*rove t"e conditions of all
unem*loyed *eo*le 7civic world8. Fowever, t"e man could always ,e "ired ,y a *rivate com*any and
reac" a "ig"er *ositions in t"e ,usiness over t"e years, ,ut neglect "is *arental res*onsi,ilitiesJ "is
status of wort"y ,eing would t"an s"ift in a different world. Fence, ,y using t"is system, !oltansi
and (")venot not only distinguis" *eo*le from t"eir role 7!oltansi et al 1#$E, *. :8, ,ut t"ey
renounce defining *eo*le ,y using conce*ts suc" as social status, class, norms or culture, and
em*"asise t"e *erformative2and tem*orary2dimension of t"e su,-ect/s identity 7Idem8. Also ,y
using t"e conce*t of 1su,-ect/, !oltansi and (")venot ,lur t"e ,oundaries ,etween t"e collective
and t"e individual, an antinomy t"at would limit our understanding of t"e social world 7!oltansi
3%%3, **. 3D;&3$1J !oltansi et al 1#$E, *. EJ !oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, **. 3;&C38.
(o illustrate more clearly ,ot" conce*ts of su,-ects and o,-ects, we can mention, as an e0am*le, t"e
following situation5 a *roducer is *re*aring a new movie and "e is interested in offering a contract to
an actor "e "as seen in a great num,er of ,loc,uster films, and w"o "e also nows ,ecause of t"e
numerous interviews "e "as given, t"e many articles t"at *raised "im, and ,ecause "e "as won an
>scar *riAe t"e year ,efore. According to t"e *roducer, t"is actor is a great star and, for t"at reason,
"e will offer "im t"e role. ("us, t"e 1su,-ects/, "ere, are t"e *roducer and t"e actor 7t"e star8J t"e
su,-ect/s 1wort"/ 7t"e actor8 is evaluated according to "is more or less im*ortant cele,rity, and t"e
*roofs of success wit" *u,lic o*inion constitute t"e 1o,-ects/ on w"ic" t"e -udgment is ,ased. ("e
1*rinci*le of e6uivalence/ tacitly invoed "ere is t"en t"at of 1fame/.
'inally, common worlds are also com*osed of ot"er categories 7relation of worth, natural relations
among beings, harmonious figures of the natural order, model tests, etc.8. ("ese categories are
im*ortant for us as t"ey will "el* us identify t"e worlds invoed in various te0ts or s*eec"es, along

1C
<n fact, t"e idea of 1su,-ects/ derives from t"e conce*t of 1actant/ 7also translated as 1,eings/8 t"at was originally
conceived ,y Lit"uanian linguist Algirdas Nulien Greimas Hac"i M. 3%%:. Introduction 0 la sociologie pragmati2ue : ers un
noueau <style< sociologi2ue. Paris5 Armand Colin. ("is term "as ,ecome commonly used and is defined in t"e >0ford
?ictionary of +nglis" as5 1a *erson, creature, or o,-ect *laying any of a set of active roles in a narrative/. !oltansi
t"oroug"ly wored wit" t"is conce*t in La dnonciation 71#$E8 ,y ela,orating a system 71systAme actanciel98. <n t"is study,
!oltansi s"owed t"at, in all inds of denunciations, t"ere are four actants5 t"e 1denouncer/, t"e 1victim/, t"e 1*ersecutor/,
and t"e 1-udge/, ,ut "e also demonstrated t"at an individual can ,ear more t"an one role, ,eing for e0am*le ,ot" t"e
denouncer and t"e victim. Moreover, if an 1actant/ can ,e an individual it can ,e a collective grou*ing as well5 t"e
denouncer can effectively ,e em,odied ,y an association, suc" as a grou* against racism.

$
wit" a list of su,-ects and o,-ects. 'or instance, t"e 1natural relations among ,eings/ are e0*ressed
wit" ver,s. ("e ver, 1function/ lins su,-ects and o,-ects of t"e industrial worldJ t"e word 1invite/ is a
ind of action *eculiar to t"e domestic oneJ t"e ver, 1dream/ is, for its *art, ty*ical of t"e ins*ired
worldJ and 1mo,ilise/ 6ualify a ty*e of relations *resent in t"e civic one.
Exits from disputes
'or !oltansi and (")venot, dis*utes are unavoida,le in 1regimes of dis*ute in -ustice/. <n fact,
alt"oug" eac" *olity model "inges on a 1single *rinci*le of -ustification/, eac" of t"em must also
conform to several constraints 7a,ove&mentioned a0ioms8. And t"e two main ones are5 1718 Ot"eP
re6uirement of common "umanity t"at *resu**oses a form of identity s"ared ,y all *ersons and 738
Ot"eP re6uirement of order governing t"is "umanity/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. DD8. Put toget"er
t"ese a0ioms 1yield a tension, since *ersons are e6ual wit" regard to t"eir ,elonging to "umanity
w"ile ,eing *laced wit"in a "ierarc"y according to a s*ecific *rinci*le of order/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot
1###, *. C:D8. ("us,
the basic property of the polity model, which is to ensure that all members of the polity hae an
e2ual capacity to accede to all states, introduces an uncertainty that weighs upon the assessment
of worths, thus ma'ing this assessment the point of contestation wheneer a dispute occurs
within a polity(
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1C%8
<n fact, t"e *olity model 1is a res*onse to t"e multi*licity of *rinci*les wit"out w"ic" t"e world would
,e an Bden/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. D$8. +ffectively, as not"ing could differentiate its
mem,ers t"ere would ,e no reason to disagree and "armony would last forever 7Ibid, *. DE8.
Conversely, dis*utes do occur ,ecause multi*le *rinci*les of e6uivalence can ,e invoed to assess
someone/s wort" 7Ibid, *. D$8.
How, w"en dis*utes do occur, it may lead to two forms of criti6ues5 in t"e first scenario, t"e wort" of
a su,-ect is contested ,ut t"e *rinci*le of e6uivalence on w"ic" t"e evaluation is ,ased is not
6uestioned. More *recisely, a 1contention/ 7un litige8 is 1a disagreement over t"e wort"s of t"e
*ersons, and t"us over t"e e6uita,ility of t"e way wort"s "ave ,een distri,uted in t"e situation at
"and/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1CC8. <n t"ese situations, ,eings are *erceived as not ,eing
1well ordered/ and t"is leads to reassessing t"eir 1wort"/ 7Idem8. ("ose conflicts nota,ly arise from
t"e fact t"at traces of some ot"er world disru*t t"e "armony of a situation in w"ic" 1,eings from t"e
same world/ s"ould ,e 1arrayed in natural relations com*ati,le wit" t"eir states of wort"/ 7Idem8.
More *recisely, t"e -udgment is altered due to some 1trans*ort of wort"s/ or 1trans*ort of deficiency/
t"at translates in overestimating or underestimating someone/s wort" ,ecause t"e *erson/s
wort"iness 7taille8 in anot"er world influences t"e outcome in a given situation. <t is t"e case w"en,
for e0am*le, em*loyees argue t"at one of t"eir colleague "as ,een *romoted 1-ust ,ecause s"e is t"e
,oss/s niece/ and des*ite of "er true com*etence. <ndeed, t"e woman/s wort" may "ave reac"ed a
"ig"er ran due to "er *osition in anot"er world 7trans*ort of wort"8. ("us, "er indred relation wit"
t"e ?irector 7domestic world8 may "ave contri,uted to "er *romotion in t"e cor*oration 7industrial
world8. ("e woman is t"en accused of "aving ,een granted a "ig"er ran ,y reason of *rivilege
instead of satisfying t"e conditions re6uired to ,eing *romoted in t"is cor*oration. Also, in
contentions, 1reference to ot"er worlds seeks not to challenge t"e test/s relevance or the principle

#
on which the test is based ,ut, on t"e contrary, to reinforce its validity ,y *urifying t"e conditions of
its realiAation/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 31$, em*"asis added8. Moreover, 1*urification re6uires
t"e involvement of ,eings ,etter identified in t"e world from w"ic" t"e test stems, ,eings t"at are
conse6uently more wort"y/ 7Ibid, *. 31#8. ("erefore, to return to our e0am*le, in order to maintain
"er *osition, t"e *romoted em*loyee mig"t ,e urged ,y t"e Fuman resources ?irector 7t"e wort"y8
to do several tests. ("e e0amination will serve to measure "er nowledge 7*urified test8 so as to
confirm w"et"er s"e *ossesses or not t"e com*etence necessary to t"e good functioning of t"e
enter*rise 7re&evaluation of "er wort"iness8. <n sum, 1contingent circumstances/ may affect t"e way
wort" is distri,uted and 1in order to settle t"e controversy, t"e *arties involved/ will re&evaluate t"e
*erson/s wort" under 1valid conditions/ ,y conducting a test t"at 1drawOsP e0clusively u*on resources
of a single world/ 7Ibid, **. 1C;&1CD8.
Conversely, *eo*le can disagree over t"e very *rinci*le of e6uivalence on w"ic" t"e evaluation is
,ased5 t"e 1clash/ 7le diffrend8 is indeed 1a more fundamental disagreement over t"e nature of t"e
beings that matter/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1CE, em*"asis added8. <n fact, it is 1t"e very
*rinci*le of t"e test/ t"at is 6uestioned w"ic" mig"t lead 1to overturn t"e situation ,y replacing the
test t"at is under way by a test relevant in a different world 7Ibid, *. 31$, em*"asis added8J
In clashes, the discord thus has to do $%& with the true nature of the situation, with reality and the
common good to which reference may be made to reach agreement( *he goal is no longer to
repeat the test in a purer and more e2uitable fashion by eliminating priileges and neutraliGing
handicaps, but to demystify the test as such, in order to place things on their true ground(
7Ibid, *. 33E, em*"asis in t"e original8
'or e0am*le, an actor 7actor Q8 could ,e less successful t"an anot"er one 7actor I8 ,ut nonet"eless
demand t"at t"eir remuneration ,e revised ,ecause "e 7Q8 "as to *lay more scenes, and wor twice
more t"an I. Alt"oug" actor Q/s wages de*end on "is *o*ularity, "e refers to anot"er *rinci*le of
e6uivalence 7t"e industrial one8 maing t"e *ro,lem more difficult to solve. <n effect, Q contests t"e
very *rinci*le on w"ic" t"e test is actually ,ased and denounces t"e fact t"at anot"er 1general
*rinci*le/ 7"is *roductivity8 "as ,een ignored and t"at it s"ould, in fact, *revail. ("us, 1t"e *arties
involved disagree a,out t"e world in w"ic" t"e test must ,e carried out if it is to ,e legitimate/
7Idem85 i.e. t"e industrial world versus world of fame.
<n sum, 1criti6ues/ t"at consist in unveiling some in-ustice, dece*tion or im*osture can lead to 1setting
aside t"e items on w"ic" t"e unveiling de*ended in order to set t"e test once again it its world of
origin/ or 1to go ,ac to a single test ORP ,y reversing a situation to mae it s"ift into anot"er nature/
7Idem8.
1E

2- The Compromise
("e 1com*romise/ is anot"er way to e0it from conflict. As we "ave seen, conflicts arise w"en
incom*ati,le elements disru*t t"e "armony of a given worldJ t"ey can ,e settled 1t"roug" recourse
to a test in -ust one world/ 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 3DD8, ,ut can also ,e sim*ly 1sus*ended/

1E
!oltansi and (")venot "ave also t"eorised ot"er forms of agreement t"at do not "inge on a *rinci*le of -ustice 7t"e
1private arrangement/, 1relativization/ and 1relativism/8. ("ey are e0*lained in C"a*ter +leven of !oltansi L, (")venot L.
3%%:. On Justification: Bconomies of @orth. Princeton5 Princeton University Press. C$# **.

1%
,y maintaining a 1com*osite/ situation. <n effect, in a situation of com*romise 1O,Peings t"at matter in
different worlds are maintained in *resence, ,ut t"eir identification does not *rovoe a dis*ute/
7Idem8. 'or e0am*le, a star singer could decide to ,e accom*anied ,y "er mot"er2a 1com*lete
unnown/2in a gala wit"out t"is causing a scandal. Alt"oug" t"e gala is reserved for cele,rities,
*eo*le could acnowledge t"e wort"iness of t"e mot"er and acce*t "er *resence 7com*romise
,etween t"e domestic world and t"e one of fame8. ("us, in t"e compromise, t"e ,eings involved are
aware and acnowledge t"e e0istence and t"e wort" of ,eings from anot"er world and t"ey 1do not
attem*t to clarify t"e *rinci*le of t"eir agreement/ 7Idem8.
<n a com*romise, t"e ,eings are also 1favoura,ly dis*osed toward t"e notion of a common good/5
t"ey see to satisfy t"eir own interests 71interests of t"e *arties/8 ,ut also t"at of ,eings not
immediately involved in t"e com*romise as suc" 7Ibid, *. 3D$8. <t is t"e case w"en a ,usiness
community acce*ts t"at t"e State regulates to some e0tent t"e maret so as to strengt"en t"e
*osition of smaller ,usinesses t"at, ot"erwise, would not ,e a,le to face international com*etition.
("e com*romise not only serves to *rotect smaller ,usinesses ,ut it *reserves local economies for
t"e well&,eing of all. <t is in t"is sense t"at t"e com*romise 1aims at a common good t"at transcends
t"e two different forms of wort" in *resence ,y including ,ot" of t"em/ 7Idem8. Fowever, alt"oug"
t"e com*romise sees a form of common good, t"e *rinci*le on w"ic" it rests is not a 1common good
constitutive of a polity/ 7Idem, em*"asis added8. <n effect, t"e *rinci*le of e6uivalence on w"ic"
"inges t"e com*romise "as not ,een t"e su,-ect of a universalisationJ it "as not ,een 1formalised/ in
any *olitical *"iloso*"ies and no "ig"er common *rinci*le necessary to coordinate "uman relations
"as ,een clearly identified. Iet in t"e a,sence of suc" *rinci*le of e6uivalence, no order of wort" can
,e esta,lis"ed w"ic" maes t"is form of agreement more easily dismounta,le.
So t"e com*romise is a com*osite form of agreement t"at "olds toget"er *rinci*les ,elonging to
different worlds, and ,ecause t"e com*romise does not allow reference to a single *rinci*le2to a
"ig"er common *rinci*le2on w"ic" all *arties can agree, it is *articularly susce*ti,le to criti6ues
and remains a fragile form of agreement.
Policy statement: a form of compromise
A *olicy can also ,e la,elled as a com*romise5 according to t"e +W model, a *olicy is an o,-ect
t"at2unsur*risingly2,elongs to t"e civic world ,ut as *olicies see endorsement of a ma-ority, t"ey
are also modulated in function of t"e diverse logics t"at com*ose com*le0 societies so as to "ave t"e
most im*act. 'or instance, international *olicies are *articularly *ermeated wit" elements coming
from t"e 1world of fame/. =u),ec/s <nternational *olicy 7=u),ec 3%%:8, w"ic" aim 1is to strengt"en
=u),ec/s international influence/ 7*. G<<<8 illustrates t"is well. Amongst its *riorities, we find t"ese
four o,-ectives5 18 1Attracting foreign direct investment/J 38 1Positioning Montr)al as one of t"e
ma-or cities of t"e world/J C8 1Promoting tourism/J E8 1Maing =u),ec/s education o**ortunities
better known/. (o e0*ress t"ese o,-ectives, ver,s t"at corres*ond to t"e nature of t"e relations"i*s
*eculiar to t"e world of fame "ave ,een used. As !oltansi and (")venot e0*lain,
$t&he relation of inclusion among the worthy through their fame and their audience is e8pressed in
terms of influence( *o establish a relation of influence, one has to "oo, attract, alert, gain a
following 4fans6 or a re*utation, *ersuade, reac" sensitiAe, mo,iliAe, interest, inform, seduce. $%&
In this world in which anything that has alue is immediately nown and visi,le, persons are
constantly ma'ing com*arisons( $%&

11
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1$3, em*"asis in t"e original8
("us, as we see, eac" of t"e four *riorities contains a word t"at is relevant in t"e world of fame, ,ut
t"e w"ole *olicy document is in fact filled wit" words t"at ,elong to t"is world. Similarly, a *olicy
t"at targets t"e agricultural sector will integrate com*onents of t"e industrial world ,y im*lementing
measures t"at will foster t"e efficiency and t"e *roductivity of t"is sectorJ and an economic
develo*ment *olicy will integrate elements stemming from t"e maret world ,y encouraging
com*etition and ,y valuing its uni6ue wealt".
So, t"e state "as to tae into account elements stemming from t"e worlds targeted ,y t"e
com*romise wit"out "owever loosing sig"t of its fundamental raison d97tre5 t"e well&,eing of t"e
collective. ("e state must effectively2and inevita,ly2em*"asise t"e collective value underlying t"e
*olicy, and reassert t"e necessity to treat all t"e citiAens e6ually and undifferentiatedly. ("erefore a
*olicy s"ould, in *rinci*le, *ut its collectivist *reoccu*ations forward. =u),ec/s <nternational Policy is
fait"ful to t"at ruleJ and in t"e following e0cer*t t"e inclusive values of t"e civic world2w"ic"
welcomes everyone regardless of t"eir nationality, age, se0, or t"eir *olitical and religious views
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, **. 1$;&1$:82are clearly e0*ressed5
$t&he values behind the Hubec goernment9s international initiaties are those of a democratic
society respectful of human rights( Hubec has been enriched by the diverse origins of its
population and cherishes the principles embodied in the Hubec Charter of Iuman -ights and
5reedoms, such as democracy, equal rights for women, rejection of violence, secularization of
institutions, and pluralism(
7=u),ec 3%%:, *. 3%, em*"asis added8
Cultural policy statements: compromises built on antinomic principles
How, if t"e com*romise t"at t"ese *olicies ,uild ,etween t"e different worlds a**ears as o,vious,
t"e same does not "old for cultural *olicies. <n fact, more t"an any ot"er *olicies, cultural *olicies are
regularly 6uestionedJ it is t"e relevance of t"eir very e0istence t"at is *rone to de,ate 7("eodor W.
Adorno, Hol Carroll, >livier ?onnat, Gincent ?u,ois, Claude Patriat, P"ili**e (eillet, P"illi*e
Urfalino, Nean&Claude Wallac"8. As 'renc" Professor of Political Science Gincent ?u,ois writes 1OfProm
media intellectual controversies to ,udgetary ar,itrations, many are t"e occasions t"at force to re&
asserting t"e soundness of *u,lic cultural intervention and to re&mo,ilising its defenders./
1;
7?u,ois
3%%1, *. C:D, our translation8. Amongst t"e criti6ues to t"e legitimacy of cultural *olicy often "eard,
t"e idea t"at t"e state logic is o**osed to t"at of culture5
$t&he recognition of the public interention9s appropriateness in the cultural domain does not go
without saying( @ithin the field of art, this interention has, for a long time, been iewed as a
contradictory ,tate interference to the creators9 essential freedom( $%& the legitimacy of public
action in this domain is far from being considered, eerywhere and in all times, as self3eident(
1:


1;
1Des polmi2ues mdiatico3intellectuelles au8 arbitrages budgtaires, nombreuses sont les occasions 2ui obligent 0
raffirmer le bien3fond de l9interention culturelle publi2ue et 0 remobiliser ses dfenseurs(/
1:
1La reconnaissance de l9opportunit d9une interention publi2ue dans le domaine culturel ne a pas de soi( Ju sein du
champ artisti2ue, cette interention n9a longtemps t enisage 2ue comme une ingrence tati2ue contradictoire aec la

13
7?u,ois 3%%1, *. C:D, our translation8
("is *assage is interesting as it mentions t"e idea of 1t"e creators/ essential freedom/ w"ic" is far
from ,eing insignificant. <ndeed, t"e idea of freedom is at t"e very core of !oltansi and (")venot/s
ins*ired world5
$t&hey $the worthy persons in the inspired world& hae the duty of sha'ing off the yo'e, of
separating themseles from the herd, of see'ing individual li,eration, not in order to pursue a
selfish goal but in order to achiee human dignity while re3establishing authentic relations among
human beings(
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1:3, em*"asis in t"e original8
Moreover, ?u,ois suggests t"at cultural *olicies are aimed at t"e 1creators/ or, at least, t"at t"ey
need to acnowledge t"eir e0istence. <t is t"e case of =u),ec/s cultural *olicy t"at also recognises
t"eir contri,ution to t"e w"ole society5
*he whole professional artistic milieu plays a fundamental role in the cultural e8pression of the
society( In its cultural policy, the goernment grants a predominant place to creators, artists,
artistic organisations and cultural industries(
K#

7=u),ec 1##3, *. 1$, our translation8
("us, t"e figure of t"e creator, or of t"e artist, is generally central in cultural *olicy and it is wort"
e0*loring it furt"er wit" !oltansi and (")venot/s model. ("e ,eings evoed in t"e ins*ired world are
visionaries5 t"e s*irits, t"e monsters, devotees, "ermits, women, madmen, etc. ,ut, as t"e aut"ors
say, artists 1often em,ody ins*ired wort" today/ 7Ibid, *. 1:%8. ("e wort"y ,eings in t"e ins*ired
world are also c"aracterised ,y t"eir 1uni6ueness/, t"eir 1originality/ and t"eir 1universality/ 7Idem8.
Iet it is t"roug" a *ersonal and original a**roac" t"at artists gras* t"e "umanity of 1men/ in all its
"ues and com*le0ity. <n effect, all artists *ossess a uni6ue talent t"at maes t"em recognisa,le
amongst all, ,ut t"eir own single voice is also t"e e0*ression of all 1men/, and as suc" eac" artist is an
arc"ety*e and a sym,ol of "umanind. ("us, lie t"e ot"er wort"y ,eings of t"e ins*ired world,
artists are 1at once uni6ue and universal/ 7Idem8. 'urt"ermore, lie t"e ot"er wort"ies of t"is world,
artists are mared out ,y an e0traordinary ca*acity to sur*ass t"emselves, even to t"e ris of loosing
everyt"ing t"ey *ossess and love and even of loosing t"emselves, t"eir mind. <ndeed, t"eir integrity
and t"eir devotion to t"eir art endow t"em wit" immortality.
>f course, every creators do not corres*ond to t"is descri*tion, ,ut it would ,e difficult not to
acnowledge t"at t"ose w"o are generally considered to ,e 1true artists/ corres*ond to !oltansi and
(")venot/s descri*tion of t"e ins*ired wort"y ,eings. Suffice it to t"in of !audelaire, !eet"oven,
?ostoyevsy, GaudS, Polloc, Gan Gog", Wilde, all artists of different eras and countries w"o s"ared
w"at we call a tragic destiny. ("e fact t"at many great artists "ave e0*erienced loss and decline
w"ile at t"e same time ,ecoming more ins*ired and e0alted is *ro,a,ly not -ust *ure coincidence or

ncessaire libert des crateurs( $%& la lgitimit de l9action publi2ue dans ce domaine est bien loin de s9imposer partout et
toujours comme une idence(/
1D
1L9ensemble du milieu artisti2ue professionnel joue un rLle fondamental dans l9e8pression culturelle de la socit( Dans sa
politi2ue culturelle, le gouernement accorde donc une place prpondrante au8 crateurs, au8 artistes, au8 organismes
artisti2ues et au8 industries de la culture(/

1C
merely t"e result of e0ternal circumstances.
1$
(o *us" t"is idea furt"er, it is interesting to add t"at in
t"e +W model5
*he worthiest persons in terms of inspiration are often despised by the world at large= they may
be poor, dependent and useless( Mut their deficient state actually enhances their access to
'nowledge of the world9s truly harmonious figures 4"eaven, t"e imaginary, t"e unconscious and
so on6(
7Idem, em*"asis in t"e original8
So ?u,ois *oints out t"e fact t"at, to some, t"e state intervention is "ardly com*ati,le wit" t"e
activity of t"e creators w"o s"ould *reserve com*lete freedom 7and t"us remain aut"entic5 for w"y
would t"e state interference ,e *ro,lematic if it was not seen as a t"reat to artistic integrity8. ("e
com*romise uniting t"e civic world, w"ere t"e State re*resents t"e collectivity, and t"e ins*ired
world, animated ,y creators, certainly *roduces a tension.
Similarly, German t"iner ("eodor W. Adorno tals a,out a 1feeling of irreconcila,ility in t"e relation
of culture and administration/. <n effect, in "is te0t Culture and Jdministration, Adorno e0*resses
*articularly well, and wit" muc" insig"t, t"e o**osite logics of t"e *u,lic administration w"ic"
nota,ly 1re*resents t"e general against t"e *articular/ and t"at of culture w"ic" constitutes, on t"e
contrary, 1t"e *erennial claim of t"e *articular over t"e general/ 7Adorno 3%%;, *. 11C8. Again, t"e
+W model mig"t "el* us ,etter understand Adorno/s assertion. As we "ave said, t"e civic world is
c"aracterised ,y t"e fact t"at 1OtP"e ones w"o accede to "ig"er states of wort" are not "uman
*ersons ,ut rat"er t"e collective *ersons t"at t"ey constitute ,y meeting toget"er/ 7!oltansi 9
(")venot 3%%:, *. 1$;8. As !oltansi and (")venot e0*lain furt"er,
N$t&he common aspiration to unity defines the dignity of persons $%& as particular persons, they
are unworthy because they are reduced to being merely t"emselves, :isolated individuals;, slaes
of their own particular interests and condemned to powerlessness9(
7Ibid, *. 1$D8
As we can see, t"e state of wort"iness in t"e civic world is radically o**osed to t"at of t"e ins*ired
world5 t"e civic world values ,eings t"at 1mae t"emselves t"e e0*ression of t"e general will9 7Ibid, *.
1$D, em*"asis in t"e original8 w"ile 1wort"y *ersons in t"e ins*ired world understand ot"er ,eings,
encom*ass t"em and ,ring t"em fulfillment, ORP ,y asserting t"eir own uni6ueness 7Ibid, *. 1:18.
("us, t"e very intention and motivation of ,eings from t"e ins*ired world are fundamentally
different to t"ose of t"e civic one5 t"e ,eings of t"e civic world dissolve into t"e 1collective/,
1surmount t"e singularities t"at divide t"em in order to ,ring a,out t"e union of all/ 7Ibid, *. 1$;8,
w"ile t"e ,eings of t"e ins*ired world em,ar on an 1inner adventure/, a solitary 16uest/ so as to
welcome 1illumination/, 1ins*iration/ and 1accede to *erfection and "a**iness/. ("us t"e +W model
can "el* illuminating t"e o**osition2general versus *articular2identified ,y Adorno. Moreover, we
understand t"at ,y encouraging t"e uni6ue talent of creators, t"e state denies t"e ,asic *remises of
e6uality ,etween all citiAens. And indeed, American *"iloso*"er Hol Carroll "as not ,een ,lind to

1$
("e un*recedented rise of t"e star system is certainly c"anging t"e order of t"ings 7alt"oug", to some e0tent, it "as also
,een ,uilt on artistic icons w"o "ave suffered decline, suc" as Marilyn Monroe, +lvis Presley, Nim Morrison, 4omy
Sc"neider, Serge Gains,ourg, to name ,ut a few8.

1E
t"is fundamental issue, w"ic" concerns t"e limits of t"e state/s res*onsi,ilities5 1OwPelfare is a
legitimate arena of state activity ,ut,/ "e argues, 1it is not clear t"at all *ros*ective arts funding is/
7Carroll 1#$D, *. 3C8. <ndeed, furt"er in a te0t in w"ic" "e systematically deconstructs t"e arguments
generally de*loyed to -ustify governmental intervention in cultural matters, "e develo*s "is t"oug"t
on t"e 6uestion of su**orting t"e career of artists, somet"ing t"at, according to "im, would go in
o**osition to t"e *rinci*le of e6uality ,etween citiAens5
Huestions of justice and e2ual opportunity do not seem to bear on the issue of artistic
unemployment( $%& It does not seem to me that the state9s responsibility in regard to the
unemployed e8tend to guaranteeing that eeryone has the job he or she most desires( $%& If
artists are unemployed, the state will hae certain duties to them, though it is not clear that those
duties include finding them employment as artists(
7Ibid, *. C%8
Fe also dou,ts t"at t"e financing of artistic *ro-ects, w"ic" aim would ,e to entertain t"e citiAens, ,e
more legitimate5
It may be suggested that a certain conception of fairness can be used to ground goernment art
support( $%& *he deeper 2uestion, howeer, is whether any leisure actiity should be supported(
5or if any is supported, then all should be in proportion to the allegiance to that leisure actiity in
the society(
7Ibid, *. C1, em*"asis added8
<ndeed, Carroll/s rationales are fait"ful to t"e democratic ideals w"ere all citiAens are e6ual and
w"ere t"e distri,ution of wealt" and goods s"ould ,e e6uita,le and fair. <n reality, in t"is *a*er,
Carroll is re-ecting t"e com*romise and is undertaing t"e *urification of t"e situation ,y strongly
reasserting t"e validity of a single *rinci*le5 t"e *re&eminence of t"e collective.
Reinforcing the compromise
Fence, we see t"at t"e +W model ena,les us to confirm t"e e0istence in cultural *olicy of some
a*oria ,ut also ,etter understand w"y t"ose o**osite *rinci*les are difficult to mae coe0ist.
Fowever, t"e model also teac"es us a,out t"e way com*romises can ,e reinforced. <ndeed,
!oltansi and (")venot "ave also o,served t"at one way to solidify a com*romise is to
place objects composed of elements stemming from different worlds at the serice of the
common good and endow them with their own identity in such a way that their form will no
longer be recogniGable if one of the disparate elements of which they are formed is remoed(
*ransformed in this way, the compromise is more resistant to criti2ues, because it now relies on
indiisible objects(
7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 3D$8
More concretely, t"ese 1com*osite o,-ects/ can ,e identified t"roug" 1formulations and designations
t"at esta,lis" references to t"e worlds of origin in a single utterance/ 7Ibid, *. 3$18. ("e notion of
democratisation of culture constitute an e0am*le of w"at a com*osite o,-ect is. <t is indeed a
formulation t"at sees to seal t"e alliance ,etween t"e civic and t"e ins*ired worlds. Considered to

1;
,e a distinctive feature of 'renc" governmental intervention in cultural matters it "as s*read in many
Western societies and amongst t"em t"e =u),)cois one. ?es*ite t"e fact t"at t"is notion dates ,ac
to t"e end of t"e 1#
t"
century 7SaeA 3%%1, *. 3%18, it is usually attri,uted to t"e cultural *olicies of t"e
1#:%s, and more *articularly to t"e *olitical intervention of t"e well&nown 'renc" minister Andr)
Malrau0. Also, alt"oug" no consensus e0ists over its definition 7?onnat 3%%%, *. CCJ 'leury 3%%$, **.
$1&$38, it is usually defined as a 1to*&down/ State intervention t"at consists in maing t"e great wors
of art and t"oug"t availa,le to t"e most 7Mulca"y 3%%:, **. C3C&C3E8. How, as we now, t"e *ro-ect
of democratisation of culture "as ,een criticised for not ,eing a,le to ac"ieve e6uita,le
redistri,ution in cultural matters 7criti6ue emerging from t"e civic world82nota,ly ,y Pierre
!ourdieu 7(eillet 3%%#, *. E18, ,ut t"e com*romise "as also ,een severely criticised for ,eing too
1aut"oritarian/ or *aternalistic 7domestic world8 7Idem8. <n effect, t"e 'renc" ministry/s com*romise
not only involved t"e civic and t"e ins*ired worlds, ,ut it included elements from t"e domestic one
as well. <ndeed, 1t"e familial analogy/ can ,e e0*anded to t"e idea of living wit"in a territory and
s"aring traditions 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, **. #%&#$8 and t"is e0*lains t"at we find elements of
t"e domestic world in *olicy statements since t"ey are also designed to *rotect t"e interests of a
*o*ulation living wit"in certain ,orders and to *reserve t"e common references t"at lin *eo*le
toget"er 7"istory, traditions, language, ancestorsR8. Moreover, t"e ?e Gaulle government 7and
Malrau0/s ministry8 soug"t to *reserve t"e 'renc" tradition and to reinforce a sense of fraternity ,y
*utting em*"asis on t"e 'renc" "eritage and ,y s*ecifically directing t"ose efforts towards t"e
1'renc"/.
1#
!ut ,y identifying and selecting t"e 1ma-or wors/ to ,e 1offered/ to all, t"e government
also soug"t to educate *eo*le and *re*are t"em to 1*u,lic life/, to 1civism/ 7SaeA 3%%1, *. 3%18.
!esides, t"is *osition of su,ordination towards t"e elite in w"ic" ordinary *eo*le were t"en *ut is
very similar to t"at of t"e less wort"y ,eings of t"e +W/s domestic world5 in an analogous manner,
t"e 1inferior/ ,eings in t"e +W are raised u*, taug"t 1good manners/ and 1*oise/ ,y some
aut"oritarian figures w"o are res*onsi,le for t"em 7!oltansi 9 (")venot 3%%:, *. 1:D8.
!eing largely re-ected t"e e0isting com*romise was gradually dismantled and reformulated. Hew
com*osite o,-ects were develo*ed suc" as t"at of cultural deelopment, a conce*t develo*ed ,y
'renc" intellectual Noffre ?umaAedier 7Poirrier 3%%%8 t"at was also ado*ted ,y =u),ec/s
government. <n reality, it is at t"e core of t"e 1#D$ w"ite *a*er entitled La politi2ue 2ubcoise du
deloppement culturel w"ic" includes a 6uote ,y Unesco/s +0ecutive ?irector5
*he notion of cultural deelopment became progressiely $%& broader, more diersified and
detailed so as to include, beyond the purely economic aspects of the human condition9s
improvement, the social aspects( Jnd this is due to the fact that we hae not only discoered that
certain social variables, such as health, education, employment, determined in fact economic
growth, but also that it was on that level that behaiours and moties commanding $%& the basic
options of a global development planning were to be found(
3%


1#
<n effect, t"e 'renc" Minister for Cultural Affairs aimed at5 1ma'ing the major wor's of humanity, and first and foremost
from 5rance, accessible to as many 5rench people as possible= ensuring that our heritage has a ast an audience as possible=
$and& encouraging the creation of wor's of art and the mind that enrich it/. See A"earne N. 3%%3. 5rench Cultural ?olicy
Debates: J -eader. London, Hew Ior5 4outledge, *. $.
3%
1La notion de deloppement s9est, en effet, progressiement largie, diersifie, approfondie, de maniAre 0 englober, au3
del0 des aspects purement conomi2ues de la condition humaine, les aspects dits sociau8( Bt cela parce 2u9on a dcouert
non seulement 2ue certaines donnes sociales, comme la sant, l9ducation, l9emploi conditionnaient en fait la croissance
conomi2ue, mais encore 2ue c9tait sur ce plan 2ue se situaient les comportements et les raisons 2ui commandent ou
deraient commander les options de base d9une planification globale du deloppement9.

1:
74en) Ma"eu cited in =u),ec 1#D$, **. C$&C#, our translation, em*"asis added8
So t"e emergence of t"is new am,iguous com*osite o,-ects ,ore witness of t"e new *olitical
orientations of t"e D%s5 t"e industrial *rinci*le was *enetrating t"e cultural *olicy discourses, and
o,-ectives of develo*ment, growt", *rogress, return on investment were ,eing esta,lis"ed so as to
re*lace t"e ones t"at nota,ly consist in valuing t"e contri,ution of ins*ired ,eings to "umanity or
t"ose of civilising t"e woring classes. !ut, lie t"e former, t"is com*romise "as also ,een criticised
and gradually dismantled. 'or reason of s*ace we cannot e0*lore furt"er t"e constitution of new
com*romises. Suffice it to say t"at cultural *olicy maing is made of a series of com*romises t"at
"ave ,een regularly 6uestioned and dismantled in favour of com*romises involving elements
stemming from different worlds. ("ese com*romise systematically offer new 1layouts/. !esides, t"e
fragility of t"e com*romises made on t"e ,asis of t"e civic and t"e ins*ired worlds indicates t"at t"e
tension ,etween t"ose two worlds is "ardly su**ressi,le ,ut also t"at t"e common good t"ese
com*romise intend to defend are not recognised and certainly not unanimously a**roved.
!efore concluding, a last word on t"e c"aracteristics of com*romises5 in t"e +W model it is s*ecified
t"at 1OaP com*romise can ,e wored out more easily w"en it can ,e made to accommodate ,eings or
6ualities t"at are ambiguous in t"e sense t"at t"ey may derive, de*ending on t"e way t"ey are
understood, from more t"an one world/ 7<,id, *. 3$1, em*"asis in t"e original8. Iet, we now t"at t"e
signification of t"e world 1culture/ is am,iguous and *olysemous. As 'renc" Augustin Girard write,
It is difficult to tal' about cultural public policies without trying to situate them in the ast
unierse of all possible acceptations of the notion of culture( Jmerican anthropologist Oluc'holm
has counted P"" definitions of the word culture, and there is no month, each year, where a
philosopher or an historian does not pen a new, rich and fecund definition of culture but alasQ not
pertinent to deciding on the distribution of the cultural policy9s funds(
31

7Girard 3%%1, *. ;%#, our translation8
So, according to !oltansi and (")venot, t"e am,iguity of t"e notion of culture would facilitate t"e
com*romise. !ecause t"e world culture "as evolved going from 1t"e more restricted and traditional
meaning, w"ic" designates t"e system of wors of civiliAation s*ecific to a *articular society/ to 1t"e
meaning attri,uted to it ,y et"nologists2t"at is to say t"e set of models governing t"e ,e"aviour
and t"oug"t of t"e mem,ers of a society/ 7!ourdieu cited in A"earne 3%%3, *. :38 it can ,e
associated to worlds ot"er t"an t"e ins*ired one. We could t"us *resume t"at cultural *olicy
statements see to *reserve t"at am,iguity and "ence render t"e com*romise more easily
acce*ta,le. !esides, an analysis of several cultural organisations/ strategic *lans made wit" t"e +W
model reveals t"at 1t"e use of vague and am,iguous terms ORP seems to ,e a**ealing ,ecause t"e
*lan is more liely to ,e attractive to t"e greatest num,er of stae"olders/ 7?aigle 9 4ouleau 3%%#,
*. CE8. As ?aigle and 4ouleau e0*lain 1O,Py *romoting em*at"y towards diverse worldviews and
logics, strategic am,iguity fosters commitment and consensus/ 7Idem8. Alt"oug" t"is "y*ot"esis

31
1Il est difficile de parler des politi2ues publi2ues de la culture sans essayer de les situer dans l9uniers trAs aste des
acceptions dierses de la notion de R culture S( Oluc'holm, anthropologue amricain, a dnombr P"" dfinitions du mot
culture, et il n9est guAre de mois, cha2ue anne, oC n9apparaisse sous la plume de philosophes ou d9historiens 2uel2ue
nouelle dfinition de la culture, indite, riche, fconde mais non pertinente hlasQ pour dcider des affectations de crdits
pour une politi2ue culturelle(/


1D
remains to ,e verified in t"e case of cultural *olicies, we can reasona,ly advance t"at t"e use of suc"
strategy in *olitical documents is more t"an e0*ected.
Conclusion
("e +W model constitutes an analysis tool t"at ena,les us to develo* a new *ers*ective on t"e
State/s cultural *olicies5 in effect, in s*ite of seeing t"em as an e0*ression of *ower e0erted on t"e
mem,ers of t"e civil society, it ena,les us to treat t"em as an effort to find a com*romise ,etween
different *rinci*les of -ustice. ("e model gives us t"e means to identify t"ose *rinci*les t"roug" a
te0t analysis and identify elements stemming from t"e worlds !oltansi and (")venot "ave
identified, i.e. t"e ins*ired, t"e civic, t"e industrial, t"e maret, t"e domestic, and t"e world of fame.
("roug" t"e identification of elements stemming from t"ose worlds we are a,le to go ,ac to t"e
*rinci*les of -ustice 7or *rinci*les of e6uivalence8 on w"ic" t"ose *olicies rests. We "ave t"us
o,served t"at cultural *olicies "inge on two fundamental and antinomic *rinci*les2res*ectively
,elonging to t"e civic and t"e ins*ired worlds2t"at are difficult to mae coe0ist. We "ave also seen
t"at t"e model ena,les us to ,etter e0*lain t"e constant attacs to cultural *olicies, ,ut it "as also
*roven useful in understanding "ow a com*romise can ,e reinforced.
("e aim of t"is *a*er was to demonstrate t"at t"e +W model constitute an interesting "euristic
met"od for cultural *olicy analysis t"at "el*s us understand w"y cultural *olicies do not seem to
*ossess a strong legitimacy. <n our furt"er researc", we will analyse in detail several =u),)cois *olicy
statements t"at mar ey moments in t"e construction of =u),ec/s cultural *olicy and we will try to
,etter understand w"at were t"e *rinci*les underlying eac" statements. We will also identify t"e
*rinci*les t"at arose and t"e ones t"at faded out t"roug" time so as to ,etter understand a *rocess
t"at led to t"e formation of increasingly com*le0 com*romises.

1$
Bibliography
Adorno (W. 3%%;. Culture and Administration. <n *he Culture Industry: ,elected Bssays on /ass
Culture, ed. NM !ernstein. LondonJ Hew Ior5 4outledge
A"earne N. 3%%3. 5rench Cultural ?olicy Debates: J -eader. London, Hew Ior5 4outledge
!lic ?d. 3%%%. La sociologie *oliti6ue et morale de Luc !oltansi. -aisons politi2ues C
!londeau C, Sevin N&C. 3%%E. +ntretien avec Luc !oltani, une sociologie tou-ours mise T lL)*reuve. <n
-eue ethnographi2ues(org
!oltansi L. 1##%a. L1amour et la justice comme comptence : trois essais de sociologie de l1action.
Paris5 A. M. M)taili)
!oltansi L. 1##%,. Sociologie criti6ue et sociologie de la criti6ue. ?oliti8 C513E&CE
!oltansi l. 3%%%. La cause de la criti6ue 7<8. -aisons politi2ues C
!oltansi L. 3%%3. H)cessit) et -ustification. -eue conomi2ue ;C
!oltansi L. 3%%#. De la criti2ue : prcis de sociologie de l1mancipation. Paris5 Gallimard. 3#E **.
!oltansi L, C"ia*ello +. 3%%D. *he +ew ,pirit of Capitalism. Hew Ior5 Gerso
!oltansi L, ?arr) I, Sc"iltA M&A. 1#$E. La d)nonciation. Jctes de la recherche en sciences sociales ;1
!oltansi L, (")venot L. 1#$C. 'inding oneLs way in social s*ace5 a study ,ased on games. ,ocial
,cience Information 33
!oltansi L, (")venot L. 1#$D. Les conomies de la grandeur. Paris5 Presses universitaires de 'rance
!oltansi L, (")venot L. 1###. ("e Sociology of Critical Ca*acity. Buropean Journal of ,ocial *heory 3
!oltansi L, (")venot L. 3%%:. On Justification: Bconomies of @orth. Princeton5 Princeton University
Press. C$# **.
!ourmeau S. 3%%#. Luc Moltans'i, retour criti2ue. "tt*5UUwww.media*art.frU
Carroll H. 1#$D. Can Government 'unding of t"e Arts !e Nustified ("eoreticallyK Journal of Jesthetic
Bducation 31
C"ia*ello +. 1##$. Jrtistes ersus managers. Paris5 Vditions M)taili). 3;$ **.
CMt) F, Simard ?. 3%%$. W"at is t"e Meaning of t"e <ntegration of t"e Cultural dimension into
Sc"ools, According to t"e >fficial ?iscourse of t"e Province of =ue,ecK /c>ill Journal of
Bducation EC
?aigle P, 4ouleau L. 3%%#. Maing com*romises ,etween artistic and managerial values in strategic
*lans5 A diate0tual analysis. Journal of /anagement ,tudies
?odier H. 3%%;. LLes*ace et le mouvement du sens criti6ue. Jnnales( Iistoire, ,ciences ,ociales 1

1#
?onnat >. 3%%%. La d)mocratisation T lL"eure des ,ilans 5 le cas de la 'rance. <n Dmocratisation de la
culture ou dmocratie culturelle T Deu8 logi2ues d1action publi2ue, ed. G !ellavance, L
Santerre, M !oivin, **. 3D&EC. Sainte&'oy5 Les Vditions de lL<=4C
?u,ois G. 3%%1. L)gitimation. <n Dictionnaire des politi2ues culturelles de la 5rance depuis KU)U, ed.
+d Wares6uiel, *. :;D. Paris5 Larousse5 CH4S Vditions
'leury L. 3%%$. ,ociologie de la culture et des prati2ues culturelles. Paris5 Armand Colin. 13$ **.
Girard A. 3%%1. Politi6ue *u,li6ue de la culture. <n Dictionnaire des politi2ues culturelles de la 5rance
depuis KU)U, ed. +d Wares6uiel, *. :;D. Paris5 Larousse5 CH4S Vditions
Feinic" H. 1##:. LLart contem*orain e0*os) au0 re-ets 5 contri,ution T une sociologie des valeurs.
IermAs 3%
Nu"em P. 1##E. Un nouveau *aradigme sociologi6ue K W *ro*os du modXle des Vconomies de la
grandeur de Luc !oltansi et Laurent (")venot. ,calpel 1
Lafaye C, (")venot L. 1##C. Une -ustification )cologi6ueK 5 Conflits dans lLam)nagement de la nature.
-eue fran.aise de sociologie CE
Mulca"y YG. 3%%:. Cultural Policy5 ?efinitions and ("eoretical A**roac"es. *he Journal of Jrts
/anagement, Law, and ,ociety C;
Hac"i M. 3%%:. Introduction 0 la sociologie pragmati2ue : ers un noueau <style< sociologi2ue. Paris5
Armand Colin
Poirrier P. 3%%%. L1Btat et la culture en 5rance au VVe siAcle. Paris5 Li,rairie g)n)rale franZaise. 3;%
**.
=u),ec. 1#D$. La *oliti6ue 6u),)coise du d)velo**ement culturel. ed. Cm*dd culturel, *. ED3
=u),ec. 1##3. La *oliti6ue culturelle du =u),ec 5 notre culture, notre avenir. ed. Mda culturelles, *.
1;%
=u),ec. 3%%:. =u),ecLs <nternational Policy5 Woring in Concert. ed. Md4 internationales, *. 11C5
MinistXre des 4elations internationales
SaeA G. 3%%1. ?emocratisation. <n Dictionnaire des politi2ues culturelles de la 5rance depuis KU)U, ed.
+d Wares6uiel, *. :;D. Paris5 Larousse5 CH4S Vditions
(eillet P. 3%%#. Les *oliti6ues *u,li6ues de la culture face au0 en-eu0 culturels contem*orains 5 la fin
du *rimat artisti6ueK <n *endances et dfis des politi2ues culturelles : analyses et
tmoignages, ed. C Audet, ? Saint&Pierre, *. 3;;. =u),ec5 Presses de lLUniversit) Laval
(")venot L. 3%%%. 'orms of valuing nature5 arguments and modes of -ustification in 'renc" and
American environmental dis*utes. <n -ethin'ing Comparatie cultural ,ociology: -epertoire
of Baluation in 5rance and the Wnited ,tates, ed. CU Press, **. 33#&D3. Cam,ridge
(")venot L. 3%%1. Pragmatic regimes governing t"e engagement wit" t"e world. <n *he ?ractice *urn
in Contemporary *heory, ed. Y Ynorr Cetina, (4 Sc"atAi, +v Savigny, **. ;:&DC. London5
4outledge
(")venot L. 3%%3. Conventions of co&ordination and t"e framing of uncertainty. <n Intersubjectiity in
Bconomics: Jgents and ,tructures, ed. + 'ull,roo, **. 1$1&#D. London5 4outledge

3%