TAM 224/CEE 210 61

6. Compression and Hardness Tests

6.1. Objective
Instrumented compression tests are performed on
the same materials that were previously tested in
tension. Indentation hardness tests are also conducted
on these materials, using two different standard
methods.
The objective is to learn not only what relations
exist between the important tensile, compressive, and
hardness properties for a given material, but also what
the relative magnitudes of these properties are for
different materials.
6.2. Apparatus
Compression
Instrumented compression tests will be performed
on cylindrical specimens (Fig. 1) using the Instron
testing machines employed previously for the tensile
tests. Transparent shields that surround the specimen
are provided for operator safety. A one-inch
(25.4 mm) gage length extensometer is used to
measure specimen contraction to a maximum strain of
about 15%.
Hardness
Industry-standard Brinell and Rockwell hardness
testing machines are used to determine hardness.
A Brinell hardness test (Fig. 2) requires measuring
the diameter of an indentation made by a 10-mm-dia.
hardened steel ball. A standard load of 3000 kg
f
is
used for testing hard materials. The load may be
reduced to 1500 kg
f
or 500 kg
f
for softer materials.
A Rockwell machine displays a number that is
related to the depth of penetration of an indenter
caused by a known load. For the Rockwell-B hardness
test, for example, the indenter is a 1/16-in.-dia.
hardened steel ball and the major load is 100 kg
f
.
The use of a Vickers microhardness tester may
also be demonstrated. In this method, a very small
load is applied by means of a pyramidal indenter, and
the dimensions of the indentation are then measured
using a microscope that is an integral part of the
hardness tester.
L
d

Fig. 1. Nomenclature for compression specimens.

Fig. 2. Brinell hardness test.
62 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
6.3. Materials
Materials to be tested include construction grades
of steel and aluminum, as well as cast iron and
PMMA. The specimens are solid cylinders, as shown
in Fig. 1. Nominal dimensions of the specimens are
given in the accompanying table:
6.4. Experimental Procedure
Students may be divided into two or more groups
so that compression and hardness testing can be done
simultaneously.
Compression
1. Measure the diameter d of each specimen, taking
the average of three measurements, and begin
filling out Table 1.
2. Set up the testing machine and extensometer
following the general instructions given in Lab 6
The Tension Test.
3. Make sure an appropriate safety shield is in place
around the specimen to protect personnel in the
testing area.
4. Load the specimen until it undergoes noticeable
plastic deformation or plastic buckling, or has
failed, or until the capacity of the machine has
been reached.
5. Observe and document any changes in the shape
and appearance of each specimen as it is being
deformed, as well as at fracture (if any).
Hardness
6. Perform Brinell hardness tests on the aluminum
specimens (and any other materials for which
specimens are available). Begin filling out Table 2.
For testing procedures, see the handout Brinell
Hardness Testing Machine Wilson Model J
available in the laboratory.
7. Perform Rockwell hardness tests on all the metal
specimens. For testing procedures, see the
handout Rockwell Testing on the Wilson Model
523 available in the laboratory.
8. Observe the testing procedure for a Vickers
hardness tester on one or more of the specimens
provided. For testing procedures, see the handout
Leitz Mini-load (Vickers) Hardness Testing
Machine available in the laboratory.
6.5. Analysis of Results
1. Construct an engineering stressstrain curve for
each of the materials tested. Remember to label
the axes as negative.
2. From the stressstrain curve of each material,
compute: (a) the modulus of elasticity E, (b) the
yield strength
y
, and (c) the ultimate strength
u

in compression. Begin filling out Table 3.
3. Construct a true stressstrain diagram for steel on
the same graph for the engineering stressstrain
curve.
4. Complete Table 3. Transfer data also to the appro-
priate table of the Bending and Torsion Tests lab
(Experiment 7 in this lab manual) for future
reference.
5. Convert measured Rockwell hardness numbers to
Brinell hardness numbers, using the conversion
chart on the next page, and compare with
measured Brinell harness numbers for the two
materials tested by both hardness methods.
6. Using the data in Table 3, construct a plot of yield
strength
y
as a function of Brinell hardness HB.
Plot the yield data from both the tensile and
compressive tests.
6.6. Points for Discussion
Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the
following questions are to be addressed in your report.
1. Compare the compressive behaviors (geometry of
deformation, stressstrain curves, fracture modes)
of the materials tested.
2. Compare the strength quantities and Youngs
moduli for the various materials tested in
compression.
3. Compare the ability of all the materials tested to
undergo compressive nonrecoverable (plastic)
deformation. Compare the final deformed shapes
of the tensile and compressive tests. Are there any
general trends?
Material d (mm) L (mm)
Steel 12.7 38.1
Aluminum 12.7 38.1
Cast iron 12.7 38.1
PMMA 19.1 63.5
TAM 224/CEE 210 Compression and Hardness Tests 63
4. Compare the compressive behavior of each
material with its tensile behavior.
a. Do the stressstrain curves differ from the
tension test ones?
b. Are the values of Youngs modulus measured
from tension and compression tests close to
each other?
c. Are the values of yield strength and ultimate
strength measured from tension and compres-
sion tests close to each other? Is the ultimate
strength in compression a well-defined
parameter?
5. Compare the shape of stressstrain curves of
PMMA in tension and compression. Does PMMA
display a major difference in behavior between
tension and compression? Discuss the ability of
PMMA to undergo nonrecoverable deformation in
each test.
6. Compare the true and engineering stressstrain
curves for the steel. Is the absolute value of the
true stress larger or smaller than that of the
engineering stress? Why?
7. Can Rockwell and Brinell tests be used on
PMMA? Why?
8. If a material such as a ceramic displays minimal
inelastic (plastic) deformation in compression,
would you expect the hardness measurement
techniques used in this lab to be useful?
9. Determine if there is a correlation between yield
strength and hardness of the materials tested.
What would be the practical importance of such a
correlation?
10. Determine if there is a correlation between
ultimate tensile strength and hardness of the
materials tested. What would be the practical
importance of such a correlation?
11. Given that the Rockwell-B hardness number of a
material is determined by the relation
HRB = 130 500 ,
where is the depth of penetration (in mm) of the
spherical indenter into the material, determine the
depth of penetration for a structural steel having a
hardness of, say, 90 HRB. What is the largest
Rockwell-B number possible? In principle, can the
Rockwell-B number be negative? Comment on all
answers.
12. Given that the Brinell hardness number of a
material is determined by the relation
Hardness Hardness
HRC HB HRB HB
68 98 228
67 97 222
66 96 216
65 (739) 95 210
64 (722) 94 205
63 (705) 93 200
62 (688) 92 195
61 (670) 91 190
60 (654) 90 185
59 (634) 89 180
58 615 88 176
57 595 87 172
56 577 86 169
55 560 85 165
54 543 84 162
53 525 83 159
52 512 82 156
51 496 81 153
50 481 80 150
49 469 79 147
48 455 78 144
47 443 77 141
46 432 76 139
45 421 75 137
44 409 74 135
43 400 73 132
42 390 72 130
41 381 71 127
40 371 70 125
39 362 69 123
38 353 68 121
37 344 67 119
36 336 66 117
35 327 65 116
34 319 64 114
33 311 63 112
32 301 62 110
31 294 61 108
30 286 60 107
29 279 59 106
28 271 58 104
27 264 57 103
26 258 56 101
25 253 55 100
24 247
23 243
22 237
21 231
64 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210

2 2
2
HB
P
D D D d
=




,
where P is the applied load (in kg
f
), D is the ball
diameter (in mm) and d is the measured indenta-
tion diameter (in mm), show that for small d , the
formula reduces to
HB =
4
2
P
d
,
i.e. the Brinell hardness number is equal to the
load divided by the projected area of contact,
independent of the ball diameter D. On the other
hand, what happens to the Brinell hardness
number when the indenter simply punches
through the material (i.e. d D )? Include
illustrations with your discussion.
13. Given that the Vickers hardness number of a
material is determined by the relation
HV =
172
1
2
. P
d
,
where P is the applied load (in kg
f
) and d
1
is the
diagonal of the square pyramidal indentation (in
mm), comment on the factor 1.72 appearing in the
formula. What would the numerical value of this
factor be if the projected area of contact were used
in the calculation? (The formula that is used is
actually based on the contact surface area formed
by the pyramidal indenter, not the projected area
of the indentation.)
14. Given that the Vickers hardness number of a
material is determined by the relation
HV =
172
1
2
. P
d
,
where P is the applied load (in kg
f
) and d
1
is the
diagonal of the square pyramidal indentation (in
mm), calculate what the value of d
1
must have
been if a Vickers number of 400 was determined
for a medium-strength steel with an indenter mass
of 500 g (i.e. P = 0.5 kg
f
). (See Fig. 4, which
illustrates the indent as it appears under the
microscope.) How does the size of this indent
compare with that of Brinell indentations in this
laboratory?
15. Compare the relative merits and drawbacks of
compression testing and hardness testing, by
constructing a table like the following:
Under nature mention whether the method is
destructive or nondestructive; under ease of use
mention whether the method is quick and easy or
involved and time-consuming; under informa-
tion provided mention whether the method pro-
vides detailed, abundant information or limited
information useful only for comparison. Com-
ment briefly on all entries you place in the table.
16. Are the Rockwell-B and Brinell hardness values
you obtained for various materials consistent with
each other? Use the hardness conversion chart to
make direct comparisons, or refer to similar charts
in other sources (for example, Fig. 6.13 of Callister
1985, or Fig. 2.22 of Flinn and Trojan 1990, or
Fig. 5.1.22 of Marks' Handbook 1987.)
17. In their textbook, Ashby and Jones (1980) use the
slipline theory of classical plasticity to derive an
approximate formula for the hardness number of
a material, based the materials yield strength.
Considering a hardness test of the Brinell or
Vickers type, they calculate that the average
pressure p under the indenter should be
approximately
p
y
3 ,
0
25
50
75
100
0 5 10 15
x
Indent
Fine scale
Coarse scale
Microscope
view
d
1

Fig. 4. Vickers microhardness indentation.

Method

Nature

Ease of use
Information
provided
Compres-
sion tests

Hardness
tests

TAM 224/CEE 210 Compression and Hardness Tests 65
where
y
is the uniaxial yield strength of the
material. Does it seem reasonable that a relation
should exist between hardness (as measured by
p) and the yield strength of the material? If there
is a relation like this, why is it not simply
p
y
= ? Do your experimental results bear out
Ashby and Joness prediction?
18. Explain how and why the gravitational constant g
appears in the calculation of the pressure p
exerted by the indenter on the material in the
Brinell (and the Vickers) hardness tests, when this
pressure is to be expressed in SI units (Table 2).
Be careful to describe the manner in which the
load is actually applied.
19. Explain why the Brinell hardness-testing method
is commonly preferred in foundries that produce
castings, whereas the Rockwell hardness-testing
method is commonly preferred in heat-treating
laboratories.
6.7. References
Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones. 1980. Engineering
MaterialsAn Introduction to Their Properties and
Applications. Oxford: Pergamon, 81, 105-106.
Avallone, E. A., and T. Baumeister III, eds. 1987.
Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Section 5.1.
Callister Jr., W. D. 2000. Materials Science and Engineer-
ingAn Introduction, 5th ed. New York: Wiley,
Sections 6.16.12.
Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering
Materials and Their Applications. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 113-116
Printed 7/9/03
66 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 1Compression and hardness data
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units ____ Steel PMMA _____ Al Cast iron
Initial data
Diameter
d
0

mm
Cross-sectional area
A
0

mm
2

Gage length
l
0

mm
Strength data
Approximate yield load*
P
y

kN
Approximate max. load*
P
max

kN

Reason for stopping test







Detail of fracture
surface or final shape
(sketch)





HardnessRockwell B (1/16 ball, 100 kg
f
)
Observed hard- 1st HRB
ness readings 2nd HRB
(uncorrected for 3rd HRB
curvature) Avg HRB
Correction for curvature* HRB
Rockwell hardness HRB
Brinell hardness
(converted)
HB
kg
f
/
mm
2


*For the Rockwell B scale, if the specimen diameter is 0.5 in. (13 mm), the correction (which is to be added to the
observed Rockwell B reading) is given by the linear relationship (adapted from Wilson conversion chart):
Correction HRB
uncorrected
= 6 5 0 05 . . .
For example, if the observed Rockwell B hardness reading is 80 HRB on the cylindrical surface of a 0.5-in.-dia.
specimen, the curvature correction is equal to +2.5 HRB, and thus the corrected Rockwell B number is 82.5 HRB.
The value of the curvature correction is rounded to the nearest multiple of 0.5.
TAM 224/CE 210 Compression and Hardness Tests 67
Table 2aHardness data (individual student)
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units ____ Steel _____ Al
HardnessBrinell (ball diameter D = 10 mm; indenter load = 3000 kg)
Diameter of indent d mm
Brinell hardness number HB
kg
f
/
mm
2


HardnessRockwell B and C
Rockwell B hardness
number
HRB

Rockwell C hardness
number
HRC

Table 2bComparative hardness data (lab section average)
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units ____ Steel _____ Al
HardnessBrinell (ball diameter D = 10 mm; indenter load = 3000 kg)
Brinell hardness number HB
kg
f
/
mm
2


HardnessRockwell B and C
Rockwell B hardness
number
HRB

Rockwell C hardness
number
HRC

Brinell hardness (converted from Rockwell B or C hardness)
Converted Brinell
hardness number
HB
kg
f
/
mm
2



68 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 3Summary of results
Mechanical property Material
Quantity Symbol Units ____ Steel PMMA _____ Al Cast iron
Tensile properties (from Tensile Test Lab)
Youngs modulus E GPa
Yield strength

y

MPa
Ultimate strength

u

MPa
Percent elongation %EL
Shape changes during
deformation

Nature of fracture
surface

Compression properties
Youngs modulus E GPa
Yield strength

y

MPa
Ultimate strength

u

MPa
Shape changes during
deformation

Nature of fracture
surface

Hardness
Rockwell (corrected for
curvature)
HRB

Brinell (converted) HB
kg
f
/
mm
2


BrinellSI force units*
p g = HB
MPa
Slipline theory
p
y
3
MPa
Test date(s): Students name(s):
*Use g = 9.81 m/s
2
.
Printed 7/9/03