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Essays and Descriptive Questions - English. 4 1. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE TWENTY-FIRST 4 2. EVILS OF TERRORISM. 3. NATIONAL TE IO. 6 4. DOWRY AND DE-. 7 5. GOVERNMENT AND ACY. 8 6. CRIME AND VIOLENCE IN INDIAN SOCIETY 9 7. COMMUNAL HARMONY, TOLERANCE AND SURVIVAL
Essays and Descriptive Questions - English. 4 1. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE TWENTY-FIRST 4 2. EVILS OF TERRORISM. 3. NATIONAL TE IO. 6 4. DOWRY AND DE-. 7 5. GOVERNMENT AND ACY. 8 6. CRIME AND VIOLENCE IN INDIAN SOCIETY 9 7. COMMUNAL HARMONY, TOLERANCE AND SURVIVAL
Essays and Descriptive Questions - English. 4 1. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE TWENTY-FIRST 4 2. EVILS OF TERRORISM. 3. NATIONAL TE IO. 6 4. DOWRY AND DE-. 7 5. GOVERNMENT AND ACY. 8 6. CRIME AND VIOLENCE IN INDIAN SOCIETY 9 7. COMMUNAL HARMONY, TOLERANCE AND SURVIVAL
Selected Essays - English .................................................................................................................................... 4
1. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE TWENTY-FIRST 4 2. EVILS OF TERRORISM ..............................................................................................................................5 3. NATIONAL TE IO ........................................................................................................................ 6 4. DOWRY AND DE- ................................................................................................................ 7 5. GOVERNMENT AND ACY ....................................................................................................... 8 6. CRIME AND VIOLENCE IN INDIAN SOCIETY............................................................................................. 9 7. COMMUNAL HARMONY ....................................................................................................................... 11 8. COMMUNAL HARMONY, TOLERANCE AND SURVIVAL OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY ................................12 9. LINGUISTIC ICISM ....................................................................................................................... 13 10. DEMOCRACY AND PUBLIC OPINION ................................................................................................. 14
11. DEMOCRACY AND ILLITERACY CANNOT CO-EXIST ............................................................................ 16
12. ARE WE SECULAR?............................................................................................................................. 17
13. PORTRAIT OF THE INDIAN POLITICIAN..............................................................................................19 14. VIOLENCE AND POLITICS IN INDIA .................................................................................................... 20
15. PEOPLE THE ONLY CENSORS OF 22 16. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA 23 17. VERTISING..................................................................................................................................... 24
18. WE TALK MORE, WORK LESS ............................................................................................................. 25 19. LIBERTY WITHOUT DISCIPLINE .......................................................................................................... 27 20. OUR STRUGGLE FOR ...............................................................................................28 21. THE NEED FOR 31 22. PROHIBITION ITS IMPACT ON OUR SOCIETY ..................................................................................... 33
23. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................... 35 24. OUR STRENGTH OUTSIDE DEPENDS ON OUR STRENGTH WITHIN ................................................... 36
25. INDIA AND THE CONCEPT OF 37 26. POVERTY IN PLENTY .......................................................................................................................... 40 27. FUTURE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA ....................................................................................... 41 28. SHOULD ENGLISH QUIT? ................................................................................................................... 43 29. LANGUAGE AS UNITING AND DIVISIVE FORCE.................................................................................. 44 30. THE INDIAN WOMAN TOD ............................................................................................................ 45 31. SPACE AND D ....................................................................................................................... 47 32. VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS .......................................................................................................... 48 33. EXPERIENCE OF A JOINT FAMILY ....................................................................................................... 50 34. INDIAN CINEMA: GOOD VS BAD ....................................................................................................... 51 35. INFLUENCE OF FILMS ON YOUNG EOPLE ........................................................................................ 53
36. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF 54 37. FILMS AND INDIAN 55 38. JUDGE A MAN BY THE WAY HE SPENDS LEISURE.............................................................................. 57 39. CIVILISATION AND C E.................................................................................................................. 58 40. CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN TS ........................................................................... 59 41. EVILS OF 61 42. RELATIONS BETWEEN ART AND LIFE................................................................................................. 64 Descriptive Questions - English........................................................................................................................ 66
1. What effective/pragmatic steps would you suggest to protect wildlife under threat in India? ........ 66 2. Suggest some suitable steps to make urban life in India safe and free from the menace of crime and
3. In the opinion of legal luminaries, victims of crime must get justice. Com ................................. 67
4. Discuss the gender inequality in our country and its impact on our socioeconomic 67 5. Suggest three effective measures to deal with the problem of stress among students ..................... 68 6. ndia badly needs to hasten its justice delivery. Comment ..............................................................69 7. fter hanging fire for the last twelve years, the introduction of the Women Reservation Bill in the Rajya Sabha recently would go a long way in ensuring better status for women in the Society. Give arguments For and Against this 69 8. dian youth is required to be channelized properly as per their aptitudes to get their best, if Indians are to do well in the modern-day globalizing world arguments for and against this view............... 70 Descriptive Questions - E onomics.................................................................................................................. 72 1. Should the policy of giving freebies and subsidies be allowed to continue or done away ith? ........ 72
2. What is micro-financing and how is it progressing in our country? Discuss ........................................ 72 3. th the ongoing food grain scarcities in the world, the policy being followed by most of the surplus countries may run contrary to the requirements of the World Trade Organisation Give arguments For and Against this view ................................................................................................................................... 73 4. The best way to control the current price rise is to introduce government regulated controls and checks. Give arguments For and Against this view .................................................................................... 74 5. The recent budget announcement about waiving of agricultural loans would help the farming community in the country and would also assist in checking the tendency of suicide among the farmers. Give arguments For and Against this view .................................................................................................. 75 6. National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), now extended to all the districts of the country, is going to be the panacea for the problem of rural unemployment arguments For and Against this view .......................................................................................................................................... 76 Selected Essays - English
1. LOOKING AHEAD TO THE CENTURY Standing on the threshold of the twenty-first century we can write Jane Austen novels any more. It is because the world intrudes. The T.V. is in the corner. The crowd is on the street. Politicians are making decisions every day that affect the daily lives (Salman Rushdie). It is in this mixed milieu of aspirations and apprehensions, both natural and man-made, that we look ahead (think about what is going to happen in the future) to the twenty-first-century. Like the legendary Pandor Box, the onset of the third millennium, may unfold a host of shocks and surprises, angst and alienation, on the one hand, and stupendous successes and monumental marvels on the other. Since the shape of things to come is shrouded in mystery, it is always prudent to make surmises, but no prophesy or prediction with certainty or finality. While looking ahead to the new century, the question that should disturb each one is: Are we entering the third millennium with a guilty conscience or a clear conscience or with no conscience at all? In the closing years of the twentieth century, when we look back, we find the outgoing century was both volatile and vigorous. It witnessed momentous events like the rise and fall of Marxism, two World Wars, complete collapse of colonialism, formation of UN, the ferocious face of narco-terrorism, deadly AIDS; all these and other developments both constructive and contentious, symbolising hopes and fears of mankind in the past and their lingering shadows marching into the future. If the saying don t count your chickens before they are hatched is relevant, so is the maxim oming events cast their shadows befo Though the future is always uncertain, there are always enough indications present from which we can draw broad outlines of the international, economic and cultural, scenarios taking place in the twenty-first century. The United Nations is likely to become more democratic in functioning and the Security Council more representative in composition. For many years to come the world will have to bear with the whims of the only Super Power, before it is challenged by Russia-China together, and possibly by India too. The chances of total disarmament and complete destruction of nuclear weapons would remain a dream unlikely to be realised in the initial stages of the next century. Poverty, hunger, disease, malnutrition and many other socio-economic afflictions would continue to haunt major parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America. With consumerist culture ruling the roost, all other concerns, it is feared, will have to take a back seat in the coming century. Our passions and pursuits, madly moving in the direction to `get rich quick and kick every one else into the ditch may make us prisoners of our making. Great causes that have shaped the destiny of mankind since time immemorial may find very little space in the cold calculations of people and nations alike. The greatest challenge would be posed by globalisation which would undermine the social and moral values of Afro-Asian societies and bombard them with alternative Western values through the sweeping reach of Western media and entertainment. In this fast changing and highly challenging scenario, we have to make concerted efforts to find out new synergies of institutional cooperation and technology upgradation and follow a highly professional approach so as to face the onslaught of global competitiveness in an effective manner.
We can look ahead to the twenty first century with excitement because the frontiers of Information Technology would expand in all directions with ramifications in areas like communications, entertainment, 4 education, commerce and industry. Cloning species would help to cure many a human genetic distortion or informity. Science and technology would cross new frontiers by acquiring a more humane face. Despite the fact that tod trends in the social domain are dominated by the imperialism of pop music, nude models and lethal drugs, the onset of the new century may relegate them to a state of non-entity. Pop on the top, theatre taking a back seat, electronic media scaling new heights and making inroads in the traditional strongholds of folk lore and filial bonds, may not hold much water when we make a tryst with a twenty-first century. The disturbing realities of today, where you can bust your brains before you find a book, may not last long. Since the World survives on hope, it is everybod wish that the twenty-first century opens new horizons of care, concern and courtesy for environment and an equally strong awareness that `turning a new leaf in on life is like half the battle won against all odds. 2. EVILS OF TERRORISM The menace of terrorism has been increasing over the years, though there are spells of intense, widespread activity, followed by periods of relative calm as if to give respite to the innocent millions and the governments concerned. The evils of terrorism are so obvious and the world has become so familiar with them that it is perhaps unnecessary to describe them in detail. Even so, the multi-faceted, pernicious consequences of this challenge to mankind need to be fully known to all to facilitate the formulation of effective anti-terrorist plans. Notable among these are a soul-killing sense of insecurity and instability, the heavy loss of life and the erosion of confidence in the administration pacity to ensure safety.
Several countries, including the world mightiest Power, are affected by the scourge of terrorism which has taken many forms bomb explosions, assassinations of selected people and sometimes indiscriminate killings, blackmail, threats of murder if the demanded ransom is not paid and hijacking. While stray shootings and explosions are a feature of terrorist activity within countries where there is seething discontent among a section of the people, air transport is a favourite target for international terrorism. American experts have defined terrorism as the use of international violence by individuals or groups to achieve political It is, in effect, a type of war, though it is not openly fought. This definition applies to lawless acts in the international arena; in the national sphere terrorism implies acts of violence indulged in by politically motivated people who have some real or imaginary grievances which have remained un- redressed for some reason.
Both national and international terrorists believe in the cult of the gun and the bomb. The funds which feed the terrorists come from various sources; foreign supporters and collaborators, drug money, the yields of bank robberies and stray looting of persons carrying bags containing cash, etc. The usual aim of terrorists is to wreak vengeance against those whom they regard as their enemies, oppressors and usurpers or otherwise acting as obstacles in the achievement of their goals. It matters little to these elements that their aims are unethical, illegal and disruptionist. Some of them aim at bringing about a social revolution and causing political upheaval. The terrorists are in a minority, but they manage to terrorise large majorities and defy the police month after month.
Terrorists recruit young people in their ranks. Idealistic fervour, apparently, inspires them to join the ranks.
In recent years many steps have been taken to fight terrorism. Sponsors of resolutions in the U.N. against hijacking, terrorism and hostage-taking have been trying to find ways to strengthen the machinery to counter 5 the evil. Crackdowns on the centres of terrorist activity, tighter security at the airports, railway stations and Government offices have been ordered.
Social analysts rightly assert that the ultimate battle against terrorism will have to be fought by the people. Since there is widespread revulsion against the ruthless acts of terrorists, the peop cooperation is vital. But public enthusiasm to fight the evil must not be allowed to fade away for lack of effective assistance by all sections of society and all wings of the administration.
3. NATIONAL INTEGRATION India is a huge country of myriad languages, a veritable babel of tongues, with several faiths and religions; in fact, the diversities are generally more in evidence than the forces of unity and harmony. But there are certain common links and uniting bonds that some people seek to develop so as to achieve the eminently desirable goal of national integration. There has been much talk of national integration, especially since Independence. The highly commendable concept postulates communal unity, harmony and concord. It also implies sinking of differences in order to ensure the emergence of one nation with a common approach to national problems and widely shared goals, despite the communal, linguistic and other differences, and the divergent political viewpoints. But genuine integration has proved elusive because of the intense social and economic differences which selfish people seek to exploit to serve their own selfish ends.
Among the issues thus exploited are those of culture, language, real and imaginary social injustices, the atrocities committed in the name of caste, sect and community. Linguistic fanaticism and chauvinism raise their ugly heads every now and then. To these familiar factors has been added, quite recently, another the activities of extremists and terrorists who seek to create fear as well as a sense of uncertainty all round. Some years ago the Central Government established the National Integration Council and also a Council for Emotional Integration. The former body, comprising mostly of retired veterans, Ministers and officials, occasionally holds meetings at different places and passes high-sounding resolutions emphasising the need for promoting national integration in as many ways as possible. But all such resolutions remain unimplemented. In fact, amidst the conflicts on various platforms and the re-emerging fissiparous tendencies which seek to perpetuate discord, these pious expressions are soon forgotten; they merely swell the official records in musty secretariat corridors. The problem of caste, a relic of social strata in ancient Hindu society, is acting as a disruptive force in the countryside today. The question of boundaries and distribution of river waters also continue to occupy a notable place in Indian politics. Then, there are the problems of integration of tribes with the national mainstream. Though they should participate in the process of economic development, their distinct culture should be maintained at the same time. The present state of economic backwardness provides fertile soil for imperialists to hatch their plans for secessionist agitations. The internal and the foreign reactionary forces have been using the toiling masses and the demoralised, frustrated, angry, unemployed youth as their tools to serve their narrow class interest. National integration can be promoted only to the extent to which all round national economic development is assured. In this connection, the historic accords, hike reached on the baffling issues of Punjab and Assam, which had been major causes of disharmony in our body politic could pave the way for greater integration. 6 Recent experience teaches us that all disruptive forces need to be attacked collectively and jointly, with full cooperation of non-official organisations, to achieve national integration. Piecemeal reforms do not go a long way as each major problem is not only deep-rooted but also intrinsically connected with many others. The administrative machinery should not only keep a watch over forces of discord and suppress them with dedication; it should also work towards creating a new social order that may give a sense of protection and dignity to all ethnic groups, especially the minorities. It is essential that the minorities should feel safe and secure, and also as proud of India as the majority. Mahatma Gandhi gave his life for communal unity. Though there are Punjabis, Kashmiris, Biharis, Rajasthanis, Bengalis, Maharashtrians, Dravidians and several other groups in our country, the fact remains that, despite the divisions and distinctions, we have had a long common history and have lived together for thousands of years. Those who regard the unity of India as a myth and a dream are sadly mistaken. Of course, there cannot be uniformity of outlook, habits and dress in this huge country, but there is a basic link. Ours has been the homeland of many religions. India may be described as histor function station but some people forget this. 4. DOWRY AND BRIDE-BURNING The evil of dowry, with the ever-growing demands by greedy parents of well-placed youth from the guardians of the bride, has assumed menacing proportions. Human greed knows no bounds. It is amazing that even well-educated parents of young men do not hesitate to resort to downright extortion, the victims of such avarice being helpless parents of newly married girls who are pestered, by their mothers-in-law in particular, to bring more money and sophisticated consumer goods of various kinds. Brides are burnt alive by mothers-in-law acting in complicity with other members of the family of in-laws sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law and others. Nearly 900 cases of young wives being burnt to death are reported in the country every year! These include the suicides. Brides are of course not for burning, whether h ey bring adequate dowry or not. Those who compel them to bring more and yet more dowry, as if the hapless, badly cornered parental homes are veritable mints or gold-mines, are human sharks who must be adequately punished.
Those who defend the practice of giving adequate dowry to daughters point to the fact that girls must have a share in their parent property; that they must be fully equipped to set up a home when they start a new life; that society would make derisive comments on the parent serly habits if their daughter is not given various gifts, clothes, jewellery, TV, furniture, a refrigerator, a scooter (or car) depending upon the social and economic status of the parents. It is also contended that dowry giving is an ancient practice for which there is indeed a case. Such people do, however, deplore the increasing greed of the bride-groom and his parents, when they themselves become victims.
The dowry evil and bride-burning have brought much disgrace to this country; foreigners ridicule us and wonder how, along with the all-round economic and political progress of this country, such callousness as the burning of women for their inability to yield to extortionist demands for dowry, is increasing. How can our people claim that India is among the leading democracies of the world? We preach sermons on how others should behave while at home we indulge in practices that are disgraceful and unpardonable. 7 Hindu society suffers from several evils, and dowry is among the major ones. What sort of a country is this where there are at fixed for getting well-established bridegrooms like I.A.S. and P.C.S. officers, doctors and engineers settled within the country or abroad, the p of bridegrooms is increasing, just as the prices of everything else sold in the market are going up, thanks to the inflation. What goes up in this sphere seldom comes down. Of course, there are specific laws against dowry and heavy punishment is prescribed for those who demand or give dowry. But such laws are among the laws that are easily and flagrantly flouted. Thousands of cases of dowry extortion are reported every year, but very few people are punished. For lack of evidence most of the guilty people escape scot-free. Most stringent laws are planned, but laws on the statute-book any number of them will not have a deterrent effect on the greedy people. Unfortunately, public opinion on this score has yet to become effective. Public opinion and social boycott of the offenders can go a long way in checking the menace of dowry. 5. GOVERNMENT AND BUREAUCRACY Bureaucracy means the rule of the bureau, meaning a table covered by burel The term connotes civil servants, whose number and overall strength have been growing in every country. The term also refers to the methods of work, the policies and attitudes of the vast body of State employees entrusted with the task of running the administration. Initially, the bureaucracy was utilised by Ind foreign rulers, especially the British, to govern the country. But the bureaucracy grows under both capitalism and socialism. Jawaharlal Nehru correctly described the role of the bureaucracy when he said: The more socialist we get in this country, the more will bureaucracy grow. In the complicated modern State, whether it is India or America, bureaucracy is unavoidab Government and bureaucracy have almost become synonyms; the common man comes into contact with officials, high and low, not with the top-level policy makers, and he naturally regards the bureaucracy as the Government. Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, are supposed to constitute the principal executive. They take decisions at the ministerial level, but it is seldom that Ministers frame policies without the advice and suggestions from the bureaucrats with whom real power rests. More often than not, the bureaucrats, especially the senior ones heading various departments, operating behind the scenes, are the wielders of authority and the policy framers as well. For one thing, Ministers keep on changing, sometimes like the weather; it is the bureaucrats who provide the permanent machinery for carrying on the government from day to day.
In fact, the sword of bureaucracy is power; this power is so effective that it even overshadows the goals, idealism and political fervour of Ministers. Very often, idealism gets soaked in the bureaucracy. Even where bureaucracy is not power itself, it is the institutionalisation of power. Power flourishes behind the curtain and bureaucracy seldom functions openly. The secrecy that characterises the actions of the bureaucracy often proves galling to the common man who has perforce to accept what the power-obsessed officials dictate. It is a moot point whether Ministers should, in practice, have the upper hand or whether the bureaucracy should continue to administer the country without let or hindrance. Bureaucracy anywhere is hardly known for efficiency; it is so firmly bound by the rules and established practices that it is often very difficult to make 8 the machine move. The former Prime Minister, Mrs Indira Gandhi, often criticised the machinery of public administration for acting as a stumbling block in the way of the count social and economic progress. She preferred a civil service consisting of persons who would think and see that certain things which are necessary for progress are implemented properly.
As for the lethargy and inefficiency of the administration we have the interesting and tell-tale observation of Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India (1899-1905), who said the Government is like an elephant very stately, very dignified but very slow in its movement. am prodding the animal , he added, with most vigorous and unexpected digs and it gambols plaintively under the novel spu Political observers have rightly said that the democratic process is the best protection against the bureaucratic dis in the art and practice of government; the right to question and to criticise is, therefore, regarded as the most potent anti-bureaucratic hygiene. Bureaucrats, of course, dislike those who question their authority or cast aspersions on their methods and decisions. It is the self-righteous posture that brings discredit to many bureaucrats. Officials, understandably, prefer and help pliant Ministers; they make things hot for those Ministers who overrule them and issue orders contrary to what the bureaucrats regard as the correct line of action, that is, the line that tradition, red tape and the rule book dictates. The rigidity that is associated with an unsympathetic government is in reality imparted by bureaucrats who are well-entrenched in their posts and who do not think very highly of Ministers and politicians. But, does democracy mean that the people should merely vote a party into power (to form the government) every five years or so, but have no access to, or check over it, except through Parliament? This should not be so, but it is precisely the experience of most people when they deal with the district administration. At that level their access to the government functionaries, that is, the bureaucrats, is barred. The entire system of bureaucracy at the district or tehsil headquarters has all along been such that the ordinary people are overawed by the complex, elaborate and labyrinthine procedures, applications in triplicate, long delays and heart-breaking apathy of the petty bureaucrats. The Government of a country is what the bureaucracy makes of it. If the instruments through which the party in power seeks to function are blunted, it cannot ensure good government. Only a sharp, smooth and stainless bureaucracy can provide good administration. The link between the two is clear. 6. CRIME AND VIOLENCE IN INDIAN SOCIETY There are differences in the way violence is discussed. In the West, it is seen to threaten the smooth conduct of a civil society, where race, drugs and crime are the main problems. In India, media glorification of violence is seen to endanger not only a patriarchal system but also an authoritarian State a State which tries to impose order on a society caught between the allure of modernism and the tentacles of old traditions.
You can slam one manhole cover shut, but the force of the sewage will push up somewhere el and Bernard Inghams. If in the good old past, violence and crime were treated with contempt, they have become a way of life with some individuals, groups and gangs. Ironically enough, one feels helpless when people who take to crime as their natural pursuit are respected a lot and the locals of all hues give them all the help they need. These are the times when the criminals have begun to think they will not get caught. If caught, they 9 will not be convicted. If convicted, it will only be a light sentence. Looking back we can see that is, in fact, the common man who has played a big role in allowing the criminals to take charge of his surroundings. If insurgency, secessionism and militancy have spread their wings far and wide and posed a serious threat to the polity. The perpetrators of such violence, crime and mass killings, were able to find safe haven among the local people. In a way, both violence and crime receive the much despised and publicised sustenance from those who either prefer to remain indifferent or from those who aid and abet them in their nefarious designs and dubious deeds. The dons of the under-world attribute much of their sway and success to institutionalised corruption and criminalised politics. If violence in the name of caste, community and ethnicity has gained ground and private armies have flourished and flouted all rules of the law book, the fault lies with the political patronage that criminals and other of their ilk have come to enjoy in the land of Buddha, Nanak and Gandhi. A report of the CBI that the incidence of total cognisable cases in India during 1995 has crossed the mark of five million, or so, proves beyond doubt that both violence and crime, including economic crimes, have registered a steady increase in our rural as well as urban areas.
Pelf, power and prestige, no matter what means are adopted and how many emotions are crushed, have become the obsessive motives of those who can manipulate the levers and reach the top. In some cases, even the use of bullet, where ballot is the valid way to wrest power, is openly propagated and practised. Organised violence and pre-planned crime on a big scale had been the bane of many a carnage. How many culprits, criminals, rioters and the like have been punished is still a matter under investigation and litigation. In the absence of quick trial and adequate punishment to the actual perpetrators of these perversions and their masters behind the curtain, the chain or the vicious cycle of crime and violence, whether individual or collective, cannot be controlled, much less erased from the Indian State. Erosion of time-tested values like care, concern and compassion for others and an abominable absence of moral and ethical teachings and ideals among our career conscious youth, are some of the major factors that have brought us to the present painful pass. Brides being burnt or tortured for dowry, female child killed before or after birth (infanticide), harassment of women at home and at their work-place, employment of children in hazardous industries violation of human rights, use of third degree methods by police, long detention of under trials and such other aberrations are both symptoms and symbols of violence and crime that have afflicted the Indian psyche with all their virulence and venom. The `great cau have gone out of our lives and in their place only cold calculations and career-chasing have become our possessive passions and pursuits. There is an abhorrent absence of such ideals as can inspire us to see beyond our nose so that we may feel motivated to create such social climate as is conducive, constructive and creative for a more humane social order. Still all is not lost. In order to rejuvenate the Indian minds and stir their sullen soul, the message of Tagore ks raise dust, not crop has to be instilled and injected into their psyche. The place of uses in the national goals and targets has to be recognised and a relentless crusade against dehumanisation of perceptions and proclivities has to be waged before the rising deluge of violence, vulgarity and crime overtakes and finally overwhelms us all. 10 7. HARMONY Thousands of communal riots have taken place in the country since the attainment of Independence in 1947. The earlier suspicion that communal discord was caused by the British rulers in pursuance of their policy of divide and ru has proved partially obsolete. It is true, however, that the seeds of disharmony among the various communities were sown by the British Government. Factional demands were encouraged and all efforts to bring the Hindus and Muslims together were purposely thwarted to consolidate foreign control. Communalists of various shades and categories have consistently harped on the differences and encouraged divisive trends. This has been especially noticeable in the highly sensitive and vulnerable regions where the timber had only to be ignited by a match-stick; the embers remain hot. Even a minor and an apparently innocuous incident has sufficed to arouse communal passions and provoke rioting.
The habitual offenders, the anti-social elements who thrive on disorder, the selfish politicians and others of their ilk are, however, incorrigible. They revert to disruptionist tactics whenever there is an opportunity. The call of religion in danger often proves irresistible to the illiterate masses. Such tactics of mischievous exploitation queer the pitch for those who draw up high-sounding programmes for promoting communal harmony in the country. Article 51-A, which lays down the fundamental duties of the citizens of India, inter alia, stresses the importance of amity. According to clause (e) of the Article, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India, transcending religious, linguistic and regional, or sectional diversities... Further, clause (i) enjoins upon all citizens to safeguard public property and to abjure violence . And yet these duties are blatantly ignored and recklessly flouted by people in India. The count national traditions and the dictates of real Indian culture, all point to the importance of maintaining communal harmony. In fact, the basis of Indian culture is peace, brotherhood and amity. Culture is the result of centuries of evolution and of the growth of ideals and disciplines. In fact, disharmony in any sphere of life is the very antithesis of true Indian culture. Certain pre-requisites are generally mentioned for Ind distinctive culture a common approach to most of the basic problems, a broad vision (as against sectarian viewpoints), similarity of conduct, behaviour and attitudes and sharing of ideas, ideals and traditions. But far more important is an essential unity of outlook despite the numerous diversities of language and dialect and the tradition of tolerance. While the basis of all culture, as T.S. Eliot suggested, is religion, a true concept of it never seeks to create disharmony.
The distinctive mark of Indian culture, which is based on Hindu philosophy, is tolerance. Religion must not be a matter of exclusive dogma but should be characterised by a wide tolerance respect for the faith and beliefs of others and a generous attitude of understanding the approach of other people to the challenges of life. It is this sense of tolerance, charity and broadmindedness that imparts harmony to the inner life of cultured people in India. Mahatma Gandh concept of tolerance was indeed comprehensive. After long study and experience, he wrote, have come to the conclusion that all religions are true, all religions have some errors in them; and all religions are almost as dear to me as Hinduis His own veneration for other faiths was the same as that for his own faith. 11 Indian culture has encouraged a continuous synthesis even when it was confronted with contrary philosophies. The desire to absorb and assimilate has persisted and it accounts for its survival over the centuries. The pity is that Indians, by and large, have forgotten the teachings and precepts of our saints and sages. Promotion of harmony is the most important duty of each true citizen. The count salvation depends upon it. Harmony is creative, disharmony is essentially destructive. If the nation wishes to make sound progress and consolidate its gains in the social, economic, political and scientific spheres, harmony has to be ensured all round, not only as a transitory phase but as a permanent feature of life.
8. COMMUNAL HARMONY, TOLERANCE AND SURVIVAL OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY India, as we all know, is a mosaic in which different pieces retain their identity while contributing to a colourful collage. Our tradition teaches tolerance, our philosophy preaches tolerance, and our Constitution practises tolerance. Unity in diversity is our heritage and respect for all faiths and religions has been our innate strength and a source of survival against all odds and obduracies. When so much positive and potential exists in our civilisation, as also in our psyche, why do some of the conscience keepers of the polity remind us so often that without communal harmony and a general atmosphere of tolerance, democracy cannot survive for long in India? The fears of some who feel and think for India, are not fake but factual and are based on the happenings nay tragic traumas that have resulted from communal conflicts and an intolerant atmosphere of hostility and hatred created by the enemies, both within and outside the country. The concern that Indian democracy may falter and succumb before the evil designs of caste and communal politics, demands that introspection and corrective action at different levels are the crying need of the hour. There is no denying the fact that democracy in a country like India, should aim to accommodate reasonable mores and modes of living of all communities, ethnic, religious and cultural groups so that no one feels ignored or pushed out of the mainstream. Democracy and division of power from top to bottom are like twins that survive in an atmosphere of debate and discussion. If in a fit of euphoria or inflated egos (personalised politics), the ruling elite tries to inflict discretion in place of deliberations, confrontation instead of the citadel of is likely to tumble down. Under no circumstances, the rulers and the ruled in India can afford to fan the fires of communal distrust and intolerance towards any group or community. The philosophy of `political untouchabilit is as devious and dangerous as the cult of communal violence and virulence. The policy of `ostracization or political isolation of any group or party is fraught with deadly dimensions.
Difference of opinion and diversity in view-points on socio-economic-cum political issues are a natural nuance of democracy. Unless political parties put across their views vociferously, democracy cannot hope to become vibrant and viable. So long political parties remain committed to the rule of law and refrain from fuelling flames of communal frenzy for electoral gains, the future of democracy in India is squarely safe and secure. Even in the face of grave provocation, if political parties and their rank and file adhere to the path of tolerance, democracy would not suffer any subversion or sabotage. It is only when people begin to settle scores in the streets and communal passions have a better of peop patience and tolerance, democracy feels the pangs of mindless onslaughts on its fragile personality. After every communal or casteist clash, the clock of peace and progress moves in the direction. In fact, it is not only but also economic 12 progress and social stability that are entirely dependent on the maintenance of communal harmony and practice of tolerance by one and all. Democracy is neither a game of only numbers nor is it a trade of tricks. In the context of Indian situation, democracy is the only form of government that suits the tone and temper of its people. The policy of `give and tak can work wonders in this context provided both the intent and intentions of the conflicting parties or groups are clear and candid. There is no place for fanatics and die-hards in our multi-racial and multi- religious milieu. Only those who are mentally, emotionally and politically convinced of the relevance and resilience of democracy to Indian problems and prospects, can ensure the survival of democracy in India. Prejudices and puerile perceptions have no place in our democracy. The temptation to communalise politics or to garner votes in the name of cast or community, is the negation of principled politics. The earlier we cleanse the Augean stables of communal politics, the better for the health of Indian democracy.
Democracy, like a delicate plant, fails to strike deep roots in the heart and minds of people if an atmosphere of distrust and intolerance makes inroads in the day-today relations between communities. Digging out the past distortions, real or imaginary, can play havoc with the sensitivities and sensibilities of people sharing the same heritage and history. Unlike the West, where democracy faces no such problems of communal tensions and intolerant public perceptions, in India we have to live with these dilemmas all the time. In short, if democracy is to survive in India, we as Indians, will have to get over our phobias and prejudices against each other. Irrespective of our religion or ethnic affiliation, we must learn to live, think and behave as members of a joint family called Indian. 9. FANATICISM Emerson wrote decades ago that language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone. But language is much more than a city or a nation; it is a link that forges unity even across the seas. English is used by nearly one-fifth of humanity. Language implies a manner of expression, a medium of conveying ideas, thoughts and concepts from one person to another or to a large section of society. Language is, thus, the dress of thought. The great author Webster was, however, on a weak wicket when he said that language, as well as the faculty of speech, was the immediate gift of God. The very fact that there are people who do not know any language because they were not exposed to human sounds shows that language is very much an ability inculcated and developed by human beings to serve as a means of purposeful communication. A living language, to quote Nehru, is a throbbing, vital thing, ever-changing, ever-growing and mirroring the people who speak and write it. A language is infinitely greater than grammar and philology. It is the poetic testament of the genius of a race and culture, and the living embodiment of the thoughts and fancies that have moulded them. The best way to encourage the growth of a people is through the language they speak, and a language ultimately grows from the people; it can hardly be imposed by any external agency.
Unfortunately, language, which is supposed to promote unity and cohesion, has often become a highly controversial issue. Many people, working under a wrong concept or impelled by exaggerated notions, have become linguistic fanatics. They have fought bitter battles in the name of language; they have killed people in linguistic riots; and they have made many sacrifices in the name of their languages as if it were a god or goddess who would be appeased by bloodshed and destruction of private and public property. The principle 13 of linguism has been exalted to high dogma, which has been the bane of Indian life in first 50 years of independence.. Linguistic chauvinism seems to be the governing factor.
Thus, language, which was evolved to serve a vital need and provide a vital link between man and man, has often brought about destruction and wrought havoc. In Andhra Pradesh a noble man starved himself to death for the cause of a linguistic State. Similarly, in Punjab an earnest, well-intentioned person, fasted unto death for the sake of Punjabi Suba. The Government of India was virtually compelled to appoint a States Reorganisation Commission to suggest demarcation of boundaries of States and to make proposals for creation of new entities, if necessary, on the basis of language.
In several regions language has created discord and divisive trends instead of serving as an eminently useful link to establish links and promote harmony. Language, and sometimes the script issue, thus feeds fissiparous tendencies, even threatening to disrupt society and the State. Exponents of a particular language, apparently, develop an obsession, which indicates bias and prejudice. In many parts of India, and also in some foreign countries, sustained campaigns have been conducted for official recognition of a particular language as the State language. Linguistic controversies, for instance, raged for quite some time in Bangladesh for priority status to Urdu as against Bengali, and in Pakistan for Urdu as against Punjabi. In India language controversies were carried on for years in U.P., West Bengal, Punjab and other areas. Before partition the Congress itself advocated the formation of linguistic States. The J.V.P. Report may be said to have started the process, which turned out to be vicious at certain places. Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India lays down that Hindi in Devanagari script shall be the official language of the Union. But there is a provision that English shall continue to be used during the transitional stage. Because of the strong opposition of the Southern States to Hindi, the use of English is continuing and is likely to continue for many years. There are Hindi-speaking regions in the North (U.P, M.P., Haryana and Himachal Pradesh) which, backed by the Centre, want the cause of Hindi to be propagated and this language made the national language without further delay. But the Central Government has assured the people that there will be no imposition of a particular language and no switch-over without the consent of the Southern States. Interestingly, English-medium schools are still popular in the country, and students seeking bright careers opt for English as the medium of instruction for the post-graduate courses. Consequently, the political lead initial fervour for switching over to Hindi has cooled off, for the present. Other controversies and developments have engaged the prior attention of the politicians and political parties. Thus, there is less of linguistic fanaticism in the country now than a decade or so ago. This is all to the good. After all, language should be used for every-day communication, official work and literary pursuits, and it must not be exploited for ulterior or extraneous ends. 10. AND PUBLIC OPINION Democracy, commonly interpreted to mean the rule of the people by the people, is in effect an institutional arrangement which ensures free participation of the people in the process of controlling ultimate political power. But rule by all the people is a political myth; nor can we discover the essence of democracy by merely counting heads. Political parties, an extra-constitutional growth in almost all democracies, are the vehicles of ideas, and plurality of ideas involves multiple parties. In fact, parties act as the bridge between social thoughts and political decisions in a democracy. But there are certain vital conditions on which democracy 14 and the democratic method of government depend. These are: co-existence of ideas and also of political parties; universal adult suffrage (a limited or selective electorate inhibits a democratic order and hence must not be allowed; and, what is equally important, the right to free discussion and periodic elections without which the people cannot indicate their political opinions and preferences). Public opinion, therefore, is vital to every democracy. MacIver, the famous political scientist, said the ncessant activity of popular opinion is the dynamics of democracy Governmental decisions in a democracy are the function and outcome of public opinion rather than of force; and just as the means for the expression of opinion, like constitutionally guaranteed liberties, elections, political parties, etc., are available, the role of public opinion in government comes to be recognised. But what is public opinion? What concrete form does it take as a determinant of Government policy? And how is it formed, articulated and effectively expressed? Most definitions of public opinions imply a record of facts, a belief and a will; opinion postulates valuation; it also asserts a course of action. In the field of politics, public opinion is intended to produce a concrete governmental policy. In short, public opinion is the opinion of the community and of the people. The views of a section of society in a democratic set-up cannot be described as public opinion that is the view only of a minority. The theory of public opinion, derived from democracy as a form of government, and the broad assumptions of this theory, are that the public is interested in government (the interest increases and takes adequate shape with the spread of education and enlightenment), that the public knows what it wants, that it has the ability to express its wishes (this, again, is ensured by education) and, lastly, that the public will would be enacted into law. There are obstacles in the implementation of these processes, and what is more, conditions differ from region to region. But, broadly, these principles are applicable to all democratic societies, irrespective of size, quality or standard of living. It has also to be noted that democracy in most cases is government by the majority, and, therefore, it can be said that public opinion is the opinion of the majority in such a set-up. Bryce, the famous author of works on democracy, said: The term public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregates of the views men (and women) hold regarding matters that affect or interest the community. Rarely is there unanimity on every issue, or even on most issues, in a democracy, whether direct or indirect; hence it is correct to say that public opinion is seldom unanimous; actually, democracy implies dissent which, in turn, means that opinions will continue to differ. But there must be tolerance of dissent and all differences of opinion, otherwise democracy becomes meaningless. So we can say that opinion can be described as public when it is accepted by a majority, if not by most of the citizens. Then the majority view must be accepted by everyone; this makes democracy practicable.
In the modern world, however, certain changes have been noticed in the concepts of majority opinion and public opinion. Since in most cases it is indirect democracy that prevails, and since the people elect their to act and frame laws on their behalf, to all intents and purposes the final decisions are taken not by the people or the public as a whole, not even by the duly elected representatives of the people in a legislature, however large, but by the Ministry, a small team led by the Prime Minister, the Among Equ In fact, on many occasions it is the Prime Minister who acts according to his/her own judgement without consulting the legislature, or even all his or her Ministers. Thus, modern democracy has come to mean government by a small number of persons, the Ministers or the Cabinet. Of course, the leaders who 15 take the final decisions in a democracy must continue to command the confidence of the majority; otherwise they would be thrown out, or rather voted out of power, because the use of force for a switchover of the rulers from one to another is ruled out in a democratic order. So the position can be summed up thus: Democracy is based on public opinion; an enlightened, educated electorate is necessary for proper and faithful implementation of public opinion, and that it is, in effect, the opinion of the majority commanding the confidence of the community. 11. AND CANNOT CO-EXIST Democracy, which postulates enlightenment, is, by and large, a blessing, and illiteracy, which implies ignorance, is a menace. How can the two co-exist? Democracy assumes that there is a high degree of political consciousness, a fair degree of education and intelligence, a continuous interest in public affairs and a full, abiding realisation of the duties and responsibilities of true citizenship. No less important, there is tolerance of dissent and a willingness to accept the verdict of the majority. For all these qualities literacy is indispensable; where there is illiteracy the basic conditions for the success of a democratic set-up do not exist.
Again, democracy is government by discussion, response and consent. Where there is no discussion, no free exchange of views and no freedom of expression which enables uninhibited exchange of views, there cannot be real democracy. These factors also presume the existence of literacy; how can there be discussion, debate and a free exchange of views on public affairs when the people are not literate and do not possess the basic qualifications, as well as a fair standard of intelligence which come with literacy and education? There cannot be any democracy where there is no education, though there can be education even a high degree of it even where there is no democracy, as in countries where there is dictatorship, arbitrary and authoritarian rule under which there is blatant denial of the people ndamental rights. Dissent there always will be, wherever there is a sizable society comprising people of different shades of opinion, having different approaches to life and sharp inequalities social, economic or political. Democracy assumes that the people are fully aware of the value of dissent and differences of opinion, and they also know that all forms of non-violent dissent should be tolerated in a democratic order. If I claim the right to hold and express any opinion, I must in all fairness recognise and respect the corresponding right of others to hold any views they prefer. Such tolerance of pinions is essential in a democracy, while dogmatism, suppression of dissent and intolerance cannot be allowed in a democracy. If these are allowed, then democracy comes to an end and arbitrary rule (the very antithesis of democracy) replaces it, even when outward forms and pretences are kept up. Voltaire, in his famous letter to Rousseau, is reported to have said: do not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it That is the true democratic spirit.
Of course, there are inequalities of all sorts in every country. Whichever country, socialist or capitalist, claims that everyone there is equal physically, economically, socially and politically is merely putting forth a false and totally untenable claim. The lack of education, that is, illiteracy, creates more inequalities than any other factor. In this sense also, lack of education and democracy cannot go together. Either the people must become literate and knowledgeable, and possess a sense of discrimination between right and wrong and the fake and the genuine, or they will stand to lose every pretension to democracy. 16 Democracy can flourish only in a society where there is equality in law and where discriminations on various grounds such as sex, religion, caste and economic status are illegal. Fundamental rights are where there is a full sense of responsibility, because absolute freedom of action or expression is absolute nonsense. So there must be reciprocity, for which also there should be an educational background, that is, a fairly high standard of literacy. The Indian masses, it may well be argued, are, by and large, illiterate, the percentage of literacy being only 36 per cent. Thus, the vast majority of the people in India are not illiterate, and even out of those who are somewhat literate the standard of intelligence and of the awareness of what democracy is, and what it stands for, is very limited. And yet, India is the world largest democracy and a fairly successful one too, as has been shown by the series of general elections held in the country since the attainment of Independence. How do we reconcile these apparently contradictory phenomena democracy and mass illiteracy if we assert that they cannot co-exist? The explanation lies in the fact that democracy itself is education; the process is a teacher and an instructor in the art and responsibilities of citizenship. The masses of India have by now acquired experience of the democratic system, especially of elections during which they exercise their right of vote. They cannot be described as politically immature; they have given ample proof of their sense of discrimination by voting wisely, by rejecting falsehood and inefficiency and also by punishing through a rebuff at the hustings of those who are known to be corrupt.
In 1977 the Indian masses, notably those in the North who had suffered heavily in various ways through arbitrary rule and gross misuse of power (in the family planning excesses, for instance) by Mrs Gandhi s henchmen, rejected her and her party and gave a chance to the Janata alliance, for a change. But when the Janata leaders proved to be inefficient and incapable of working together for the nation welfare, the same illiterate voters rejected them, bringing Mrs Gandhi back on the scene and entrusting her with even greater power and responsibility. The conduct of the Indian electorate won the admiration of all democratic and other people in the world.
So we can say that even if 100 per cent literacy is not ensured, democracy can function. It is true, however, that in such cases democracy suffers from several deficiencies and faults, as in India. In the U.S.A., Britain, Germany and Japan, where literacy is almost universal, democracy is more successful; about this there cannot be any doubt. 12. ARE WE SECULAR? India is a Socialist, Secular Democratic Republic pledged to secure to all its citizens justice, liberty and equality, and to promote among them all fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation. This is stated in the Preamble of the Constitution itself. Actually, while the word ul is rather vague, and was introduced by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, Articles 25 to 30 of the Constitution relating to the freedom of religion and freedom to manage religious affairs are more specific. They contain the clear directive that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State fund
There is also the further provision in Article 28(3) that no person attending any educational institution recognised by the State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious 17 instruction that may be imparted in such institution, or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto, unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian, has given his consent thereto.
Thus, complete religious freedom, with the absence of any compulsion whatsoever in religious matters, is legally guaranteed by the supreme law of the land. India is, therefore, rightly described as a secular country in which the State has no religion, nor does it seek to promote or discourage any religion or religious belief. It is obvious that the Government and people of India are secular, that is, there is no official religion. That is the legal position. The State stands committed to a policy of non-interference in religious matters. Religion is a matter of personal beliefs and convictions. In January, 1948, Jawaharlal Nehru spoke of secularism thus: We shall proceed on secular and national lines in keeping with the powerful trends towards internationalism ... India will be a land, as in the past, of many faiths equally honoured and respected, but of one national outlook, not, I hope, a narrow nationalism living in its own shell but rather the tolerant, creative nationalism which, believing in itself and the genius of the people, takes full part in the establishment of an international ord The goal of One World is still far, far away, but since independence the Government of this country has undeniably kept itself aloof from religious controversies, not taking any side and taking all possible measures to ensure to every citizen full religious freedom in accordance with enlightened opinion all the world over, except in the Islamic countries where the tenets of Islam are enforced by law and the whole polity is declared as Islamic, not secular in any sense. In fact, Islam, like most other religions, regards secularism as a dangerous challenge.
Again, how is it that in the selection of Ministers of various ranks, adequate representation is generally assured to members of various communities and even castes? There are te bank in the rural areas where the caste factor plays a dominant role in determining the decisions of the village Sarpanches and leaders of the various clans, (and even sub-castes) in directing their followers to exercise their franchise for a particular candidate. Jats and non-Jats, Brahmins and non-Brahmins, Scheduled Castes and non-Scheduled Castes these considerations, undeniably sectarian and narrow, determine their actions. But how far are we, the people, secular in thought, word and deed? When we look around us and examine the working of various non-government institutions, the various political parties, especially national parties, which are supposed to be have thrown their membership open to all communities, we find that the spirit of secularism is being flouted day after day. We are not completely secular in our approach and attitudes. There are cases where admissions to educational institutions are decided on a basis that is anything but secular. If we review closely the working of our political parties, we shall find that candidates for elections are often chosen on communal considerations Hindu candidates for constituencies having a predominantly Hindu electorate, Muslim candidates for areas where the majority of the voters are Muslims, and so on. There are exceptions here and there but, by and large, the observation made above is well founded. The voting in elections is often on communal lines; Hindus voting for Hindu candidates, Muslims for Muslim candidates and Sikhs for Sikh contestants. Political parties are not formed on a religious basis, but how is it that there are some distinctly communal parties in this secular country? 18 In an ideal, well-established, modern polity religion should have no connection whatever with politics. But is that really so in India today? Why do communal riots take place with such disconcerting frequency wherever members of both communities live in parts of the same city or town? Why are there so much destruction, ruthless killings and callous indifference to the plight of people of another community? Outbursts of communal frenzy are totally incompatible with true secularism, and every well- educated community should have no narrow considerations of religion and caste in worldly matters. And yet, there are tensions, strains, fears of the impact of liberalisation on a particular religion, the inward hostility and suspicion towards other religions, and the lack of tolerance. All these point to a state of affairs where genuine secularism has taken a back seat. 13. PORTRAIT OF THE INDIAN POLITICIAN Politics is much too complex a phenomenon for anyone to think of it or describe it in straight lines, and since the vast and ever- growing tribe of politicians practise this art, they too seldom act or plan straight. They are not what they seem, and they seem what they are not. Jawaharlal Nehru was himself a politician, apart of course from being a great statesman, thinker, philosopher and a man of letters. But he was frank enough to concede that politicians usually hide their real reasons and talk pompously of religion, justice, the truth and the like. And still the great majority of the people are taken in by the soft, deceptive talk of politicians. No wonder, this tribe generally proves a roaring success in tod gullible India, where the vast majority of the masses are illiterate and highly credulous. The typical Indian politician is a man without principles and without scruples of any kind; he is an opportunist par excellence. He changes his colours like the chameleon. Loyalty, sincerity and honesty are as far removed from him as the earth is from the sky. It is true that a politician has to deal with human beings and not with stones and steel; even so, there is no end to the trickery, the sham and the hypocrisy which the Indian politician symbolises.
Cartoonists generally present pot-bellied, Khaddar-clad people as politicians. Khaddar has, of course, nothing to do with real Indian politics. Mahatma Gandhi insisted on khaddar and the typical cap as symbols of purity and sacrifice; but the age of sacrifice and of principles has apparently gone. Nor is every politician in the country a habitual wearer of khadi.
The Indian politician is supposed to serve the masses and be their servant. Earnest and devoted service of the masses is, however, rare in this country; instead of selfless service, there is exploitation through deceptive and heart-moving oratory; and instead of promoting social welfare there is promotion of on own interests and those of on nephews and nieces, and feathering of own nest. Lincoln defined politicians as a set of men who have interests aside from the interests of the people and who are generally many steps re-moved from honest and scrupulous men. Cynics, in fact, assert that politicians and scruples are poles apart. A scrupulous person may never become a successful politician, and a politician will never have any he cannot afford to have scruples, otherwise he will not, generally, be able to practise the subtle art that is politics. 19 Defection and desertion of party or group whenever he gets a higher price elsewhere, are the Indian politician favourite pastime. Hypocrisy is closely associated with politics, and in this sense Plato, the inventor of the Lie , is often described as the first hypocrite. men of Athen he said centuries ago, If I were engaged in politics I would have perished long ago and done no good either to you or to myself Just as Plato did a lot of good to himself, so the modern politician in India believes in doing everything for himself; it is his interest that is uppermost in his mind; why bother about the roofless, the shelterless, the foodless and the waterless? It is enough to fight in their name, to seek power in their name and to occupy seats of prestige in their name. And yet, politics and politicians are indispensable, just as political parties are, whether the type of polity is Capitalist, Socialist or Communist. They are the functionaries, the messengers, the wielders and the self- appointed protectors of the weak and the helpless. We just cannot keep them out of society because almost everything in India today is mixed up, in one way or the other, with politics. There is politics in religion, in education, in culture, in the arts and the cinema, in the home and in offices. Where there is politics, there are inevitably clever practitioners of the complex art. Thomas Jefferson, the great American statesman- politician, advised everyone to shun politics. Politics is such a torment, he said, that would advise everyone I love not to mix with it But even he must have known that, like pure air and unadulterated truth, politics- free life has become a virtual impossibility.
14. VIOLENCE AND POLITICS IN INDIA Politics has come to acquire a bad odour and generally implies unfair, underhand dealings, exploitation of the poor and the ignorant, though it need not necessarily be so. Since it generally involves the attainment of certain objectives, such as the seizure of power by all available methods, violence often becomes a part of it. Of course, violence need not be a vital or essential part of politics even in the most ill-governed country, but there is no doubt that unscrupulous politicians seldom hesitate to resort to violent methods to achieve It would not, however, be fair to paint every Indian politician with the same black brush and condemn him (or her, because there are some women members of the tribe too) squarely. There are black sheep, cheats and dishonest people in every profession, it is said. That may well be, but certainly there are more dishonest men and hypocrites among politicians than among any other class of people. The exceptions are so few (even though they may be outstanding), that they make little difference to the generality. Moreover, truthful, honest and principled politicians cannot last in a society such as Ind where straight-forwardness and fair play are at a discount. Just as a lawyer and a diplomat has necessarily to tell lies as a part of his profession, whatever his motives, similarly a politician in India, which is no longer the land of saints, sages and spirituality, politicians are men who do not command credibility. They are quick to make tall promises and give high-sounding assurances at election time, but once they are elected to a legislature for five years or so, they concentrate on safeguarding their own interests and ensuring their own future. In advanced countries, such as the U.S.A. and Britain, politicians do not specialise in dishonesty, falsehood and make-believe. They play fair and accept defeat in the sporting spirit. The people, it is said, get the Government they deserve; perhaps it is correct to say that a country also gets the politicians it deserves. For, after all, politicians are a part of ourselves, our own kith and kin. The profession of politics and the politicians can undeniably be and perhaps the day is not far off when, with the spread of all round education and enlightenment, honest and principled politicians would emerge and gradually eliminate the black sheep from society. 20 their aims. Whenever the practitioners of the art of politics find that normal and socially acceptable methods and practices have not brought them the desired achievements, they stoop to unethical methods, including incitement of sensitive people to violence. It is a tragic reflection on civilisation that with the much-publicised progress in various spheres of human activity the resort to violence has also increased. In fact, one of the dominating factors in the post-war years is the growth of the spirit of violence. Even in India, where the apostle of peace and non-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, preached that violence is both degrading and derogatory to human beings, the menace has been increasing. Proof of this dismal phenomenon is found in the sharp increase in violent crimes in the country, including murders, stabbings and other manifestations of cruelty. The concept of ht is right is being practised with a callousness. That is highly disgraceful and a sorry reflection on civilisation. It is poor consolation that violence has been on the increase not only in India but also all the world over, even in the most civilised countries, such as the U.S.A. and Britain. Naked, unabashed violence has even been glorified in certain continents; the number and intensity of armed clashes between various classes of people is yet another proof; and so is the increasing number of communal riots, many of which have their roots in politics. In fact, there would be no communal disturbances in the country if the spirit of non-violence were universally accepted as a guiding factor of human life. It is indeed a sorry reflection on the state of our civilisation that more politics has come to imply more violence; what is worse, violence begets violence. When one party adopts violent means to achieve its objectives, the other follows suit in the firm, though unwarranted, belief that the only answer to violence is greater violence, not peaceful overtures or non-violent satyagraha which Mahatma so earnestly advocated.
Yet another tragedy of modern civilisation is that politicians refute by their actions the sound principle that a State based on force and violence is built on foundations of sand. There can be no social, economic or political stability where the entire polity is based on force and violence, not on the peop freely expressed and frequently affirmed (through periodic elections) support and consent. Ousters of one group by another are sometimes accompanied by force and violence, together with reprisals in various forms. Violence in politics also takes the form of coercion, which is another form of compulsion, and compulsion involves or implies the use of force or threat of force.
It is not surprising in such circumstances that politics of peace is becoming uncommon, and politics of war is replacing it gradually but surely. Some of those who are very much in politics, and seldom hesitate to adopt violence as a means to an end, quote Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Even though moral force is more effective at times, the Mahatma conceded that in certain circumstances, the refusal to fight violence adequately might smack of cowardice. Why does India maintain a large police force and ever-expanding military forces? The State has to use force to quell riots of various types and has to be in a constant state of preparedness to meet aggression by hostile countries. Violence then becomes inescapable. Ironically, both peace and politics have become difficult to ensure without adequate preparations for fighting violence. This genuine peace in politics has become uncommon and the spirit of violence is abroad like an infection that has seeped into all areas of human activity. 21 15. PEOPLE THE ONLY CENSORS OF GOVERNMENTS There are governments of men who are sincere, honest and true, just as there are governments run by self- seekers, demagogues, power-obsessed tyrants. There are monarchies, oligarchies, dictatorships and democracies. Who serves as a check on all types of government, good, bad or indifferent? Who acts as the final arbiter and the ultimate determinant of their worth and performance? The plain answer is the people. The will of the people is the only legitimate foundation of any government. The legal sovereign, that is, the authority constituted or set up by law, may have a will of its own and may enforce it for some time, but it is the political sovereign (who lies behind, and limits, the legal authority) that ultimately prevails.
During the 16th and 17th centuries the doctrine of popular sovereignt emerged as an expression of resentment of the people against the despotic authority of kings and their reliance on the theory of Divine Rights. The concept of popular sovereignty attributes ultimate sovereignty to the people. Rousseau was its great exponent, and it became a slogan of the French Revolution. The American Declaration of Independence and the U.S. constitution incorporated this principle in the preamble by affirming that Government derives its authority from the consent of the governed. Popular sovereignty has since then become the basis and watchword of democracy.
The General Will and popular sovereignty are admittedly vague, indeterminate and diffusive concepts, but these do convey the basic idea of who is ultimately supreme. Since the electorate sits in judgement over the performance of the Government at the time of elections, it is called the final censor and the real sovereign.
A President, a Prime Minister or a dictator may establish any number of organisations, small or big, to create the impression that his policies and actions are approved by representatives of various sections of society. But this is just for appearances. How can handpicked men and loyalists speak up for the people as a whole? When the time comes for the final censor the people to have their say, nothing else counts. What is more, their assessment and censorsip is sound and effective. Of course it is the final word.
The Indian electorate rebuff to Mrs Gandhi affirmed the dictum that censure is often useful, and praise may at times prove deceitful and misleading. There is also a grain of truth in Swift mment that censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent. It is the eminent people whose actions, which have a direct impact on the people, are subjected to final censorship by the ultimate arbiter. A government whose actions are repeatedly censured by the people does not last long, because every government is ultimately answerable to the people. A censured, rejected government loses all credibility. The universal acceptance of this principle prompted a great philosopher to assert that the voice of the people is the voice of God Another one put the same idea in different words the will of the people is the Significantly, the people s judgement is mature and fully warranted even when they are largely illiterate. The people know how to punish and teach a lesson to leaders who abuse their authority and power and who tend to become arrogant and arbitrary in their conduct. When Mrs Indira Gandhi and her colleagues abused their power and betrayed the trust reposed in them, the people threw them out in the March, 1977, general elections and gave an opportunity to the Janata Party, even though it was a conglomeration of irreconcilable constituents. When the Janata leaders fell out among themselves and proved inept, inefficient and unfit to govern the country well, the people firmly rejected them thus asserting themselves once again, and in an unmistakable manner. 22 best law Then we have the view of the American statesman Jefferson (1787) tha the people are the only sure reliance for the preservation of our libert The people indeed are the only effective censor and sovereign of any country, and no one can fool them for all time.
Public opinion is a great force far more powerful than any other. In fact, public opinion has been described as much stronger than the mightiest Power on earth. As time passes and as education and general enlightenment spread, public opinion becomes more and more influential and decisive. The Press reflects it, faithfully in most cases. In the West the ouster of the Shah of Iran a decade ago is quoted as a notable example of public opinion acting as the final arbiter of the destiny of a powerful, arrogant Shah who thought no one could harm him and that he was destined to rule his country for ever. If public opinion is well organised and clearly articulated, it acts invariably as a mighty censor. There is, however, the danger of public opinion being misguided in the heat of the moment. Calm and cool judgement is sometimes not given by the public when, for instance, they are swayed by momentary passions, anger and deep resentment over a specific act. So the public voice too has its limitations and all public verdicts need not necessarily be perfect or unexceptionable. But such exceptions apart, the general proposition that the people alone are the final censors is well-founded and universally accepted. 16. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA TODAY The magic of the printed word and the mesmerism of the visual media, though appearing or seeming to vie with each other to occupy the paramount position, are the two facets equally relevant and revealing in the fast changing world of today. Without cutting into each oth area of operation, the media best serves the interests of those who see them, not as crass competitors but as comradesin-arms seriously committed to expose and explore those areas of human strengths and stupidities that comprise the entire gamut of life. The role to inform, educate and stir the conscience of the masses is unique and unequal. Journalists and others associated with the media may find their role cut out for them in the fields of news, views and reviews, but their functions or contributions in the large socio-economic and socio-cultural context have changed manifold. In free societies, the media is supposed to meticulously meet the challenges thrown up every moment, with courage and conviction. Of course, there is no denying the fact that on many occasions the Like the mighty human mind, medi reach is vast and its role vigorous. In the context of present-day realities, both pleasant and painful, the question that troubles most right thinking persons is: Does the media today fulfil the role of Sanjaya, describing the state of affairs to a population as blind and helpless as Dhirtrashatra? Is the media the ring in the nose of the bull, being used to lead the masses in the direction people in power want them to be led? Working under constraints, the media does play the role of separating the wheat from the chaff and the resultant exposure does cause a few ripples in the murky waters of polity, whether the scoop relates to corruption, violation of human rights, exploitation of the weaker and dispossessed segments of society. Judicial activism may be attributed to some extent to investigative journalism or visual capturing of sordid scenes that the media publishes or transmits, as the case may be. Many skeletons in the cupboards see the light of the day simply because some persons challenge the power- that-be and come out with startling secrets that have b een allowed to remain hidden or concealed under the wraps. 23 danger of their freedom being curbed or conditioned by subterfuge or subtle dangling of carrot and stick policy, keeps hanging over their heads.
Media, even when it has now become an industry like any other, should never lose its missionary character. It is always up against many odds, at home and abroad, and, like a consistent crusader and campaigner, it has to fight many a battle on many fronts such as political and economic hegemony of some nation-States, environmental degradation, drug-trafficking and terrorism, preservation and protection of democracy and human rights. Undoubtedly, the media needs celebrities and vice versa. Though the law allows the media to burrow, pry, expose public personalities, its role to indulge in scandals for fun or money, or both, is highly questionable and even immoral. Such an attempt on the part of `paparazz in recent times has already brought a bad name to the media. in an age of consumerism is not the end for which the media has acquired so much power and prest role is not confined to yellow journalism and sensational scoops only.
The media does not function directly as an instrument of social change its primary role is to observe and describe national and international issues objectively, accommodating diverse views without being dictatorial. Like any other mirror, the state of the media reflects the condition of the times. The media cannot construct society those who believe this labour under an illusion. If the media follows a progressive path, being critical of traditions and history, it must have a clear mental picture of where its slant will take it and how this will influence the people.
If dress makes a man, extraordinary events make the media. Where even angels fear to tread, some media men rush in to cover eventy like bloody scenes and armed confrontations, even at the risk of their lives. It brings into focus those sore points of a society that have remained utterly neglected as a result of some default or design. Because of its global network, the media brings to the people the immediacy of what is happening within and outside the national frontiers. If the visual media shows the events and whets the curiosity of viewers, the pring media informs and satiates peop oppetite for more information and knowledge. All successful persons have to curry favour with the media, because it is the only channel, if properly cultivated, that can go a long in ensuring their longevity on the political, cultural, sports and other horizons. None should dare antagonise it. It is the all-powerful and all-pervasive deity that demands attention and adulation for its unique role in the lives of one and all. Its influence is like that of an icon, and those sitting pretty safe in their ivory towers of glory and grandeur can ill-afford to offend it. 17. ADVERTISING Advertising, though a close companion of market economy, is an unpleasant feature of modern life. Watching from the sidelines, the glut of consumer goods and the crass craze for something quick and queer, the conscientious critic sees the menace and mesmerism that advertising has brought about in the lives of all. To be taken in, or taken for a ride, the confused consumer is always at his wit end on how to sift the chaff from the grain. Besides the bewilderment that advertising causes in many a case, sometimes strange but sensational commercials on TV can cost heavily to on pocket or even to life. Recently an innocent student tried to imitate the acrobat of the youngman in a commercial ad and lost his precious life, for nothing. 24 Advertising and consumerism have reached a stage in America where critics are demanding adequate checks and balances, because it has begun to influence even human relations on an everyday basis. In some cases, advertising has started to erode individual provacy. In the name of educating and enlightening the consumer about his rights to choose the right product, the magazines, television and movies keep dinning into the ears that material things and sensual pleasures are what life is about. The happiness lies in automatic appliances and automobiles churned out in various forms and colours. When this instant gratification does not get translated into reality, the world seems to fall apart. Gradually, the voices of sanity and restraint are being raised to rein in the wild animal within all and sundry, before it becomes too strong to stop in the face of temptations let loose by the awful agent called advertising.
There is no denying the fact that advertising has invaded every aspect of human existence and this is being reached and achieved through sponsoring of events, especially sports, on a global basis. In everyday life, we find advertising aims at selling goods and services, exploring new avenues and markets and, finally, reaching out to those people and places that have remained untouched by its ever-expanding shadows and shades. Propaganda a cheap or inferior form of affecting peop minds and influencing their thinking and psyche too plays a vital role on certain occasions and situations where static senses and sensibilities have to be stirred and stimulated to new ideas and ideologies. In the words of Jacques Ellul: Propaganda by its very nature is an enterprise for perverting the significance of events and insinuating false intentions....The propagandist will not accuse the enemy of just any misdeed; he will accuse him of the very intention he himself has and of trying to commit the very crime he himself is about to commit
It is now recognised that solving complex social issues is a managerial task. Communication and advertising find a crucial place in this new approach. The Green Revolution could not have come about in India without the help of radio and TV advertisin says an expert. Advertising sells not only goods, it sells ideas as well. Ideas like national integration and communal harmony have been spread through advertisin Advertising flourishes in an environment which is free an atmosphere which encourages a different point of view, an environment where people can disagree without being disagreeable. In addition to commercial advertising and ideological propaganda there is social advertising, which refers to the advertisements which deal with social causes and are aimed at the welfare and well-being of the people. Its target audience is not specific class but the masses who can be educated about socially relevant issues like health, family welfare, literacy, national security, to mention a few issues only. The importance of such advertisements has reached such heights that even the government falls back upon them quite often to highlight the issues to immediate concern. Undoubtedly, in tod context, carrying out compaigns through social communication is of paramount importance. The society, the economy, the politics and the media exposure are bringing about changes which are so radical and dynamic that they are creating dissonance and upheavals. In order to withstand the negative effects of changes, we certainly need these kinds of campaigns through advertising or propaganda, for sustaining communication with the masses at large. In short, advertising not only influences the bu perception but also his responses to social problems. It has its negative effects but the positive side far out-strips the negative side. 18. WE TALK MORE, WORK LESS Undeniably, there are millions of people in India who think little, act even less but talk too much. Indulgence 25 and kismat have in fact become national pastimes. The number of those who can claim that they keep their tongue within their lips and never talk in vain is limited. The talk of the common people, mostly irresponsible, creates the impression that they have little to do. Indians are indeed typical of the people of the Orient who have nothing worthwhile to say, and yet contrive to spend the longest time in saying it. Those who have endless time on their hands are great babblers. Thinking and reflection postulate a certain degree of education and intellectual development. About 64 per cent of the people in India are illiterate; so they have not developed the qualities of thinking and reflection. Montesquieu truly said that the less men think, the more they talk. India is a land of myriad tongues. The 1961 census listed 1652 languages as mother tongues spoken in India, and the 1971 census, retaining the number, presented a somewhat more realistic picture. Judged by any standard, India is a babel of tongues, perhaps the largest in the world. This babel has been the outcome of a cumulative process resulting from the influx of various races into the country through the centuries.
Talkers are never good doers; this explains the proverbial sloth, idleness and complacency of the average Indian. Our material output, our productivity and production, our net contribution to the countr Gross National Product (GNP) are all far too low. While people should learn to use their hands and to be active all the time (like the Japanese who have raised their country to the pinnacle of glory despite the havoc done to their economy during World War II), we have mastered the technique of whiling away time talking and talking, doing little positive, constructive and concrete work.
Jawaharlal Nehru, in a speech way back in 1952, said he was tired of people who merely talk about various things. However wise you may be (in India the number of truly wise, sagacious men and women is limited), he said, you can never enter into the spirit of a thing if you only talk about it and do nothing. We do not know the value of time; so we do not mind spending precious hours in idle gossip. In part the disinclination to be up and doing all the time is the result of our fatalistic beliefs and attitudes. Most of us tend to believe that what God has ordained cannot be averted. What will be, will be; so, they argue, why needlessly waste energy in thwarting God s will? Besides, there are many among us who believe that flattery is the shortest route to success in toda dia. The great talkers, the wily, garrulous politicians who sway audiences through their loud talk, all manage to mislead the people and promote their selfish ends. A flatterer is in the excellent company of imitators because imitation is considered the sincerest form of flattery. The easiest weapon adopted by flatterers and sycophants is smooth talk, not work. A ready and glib tongue has at times proved to be a more precious weapon than gifts of cash and kind. Through a facile tongue the flatterers continually create illusions and a world of make-believe. Almost all great talkers are great flatterers; praise inevitably becomes their forte.
Then there are those whose talk mostly comprises advice to all and sundry on everything on earth. Like air and water, advice too can be had free. Self-appointed advisers are great talkers; they talk their way into your hearts and they even drive away rationality, good sense and the quality of discriminating between chalk and cheese. Adking for advice is to tout for flatterers. And flattery feeds the ego and is exhilarating. Most talkers become bores. But let it be said in defence of the growing tribe of talkers that they do manage at times to relieve boredom. A quiet gathering at which all those present are serious-minded people deeply engrossed in thought and philosophy would appear to maintain the silence of the graveyard. The talkers relate funny 26 people, for hours together. There is no tax on talk and gossip. So the idle, endless talker flourishes at the cost of the silent, constructive worker. It is the latter who can help ensure national progress, not the ceaseless twisters of the tongue, even though the latter manage to find credulous audiences. True, sincere and genuine workers cannot stand non-sensical postures, including nonsense talk. But work does not lie in marching up and down the streets, shouting slogans and lodging protests. Many of us tend to resort to strikes and work stoppages. Undeniably, our future amongst nations, and the good name of our country, depends entirely upon our work and work alone. Much valuable work can be done silently and without becoming noisy or indulging in aimless talk. If everyone realises the truth of this dictum, the salvation of the country would not be far off. 19. LIBERTY WITHOUT DISCIPLINE Liberty denotes absence of restraint; in fact the word liberty is derived from the Latin word ibe which means free. It implies freedom to do what one likes, regardless of the conditions, the environments and the postures of leaders who rule the land with or without the peop consent. In many regions, especially those under authoritarian rule, individual liberty in the real sense is still an ideal to be achieved. It is only in genuine democracies that there can be true liberty for the individual. Liberty or freedom means doing or acting without any restrictions; where there is restraint or restriction, liberty is limited to that extent. But liberty does not, and in effect cannot, mean licence to do or act as one pleases, regardless of the consequences for others. Liberty is a highly cherished and much valued privilege; it implies that we can go where we like, do what we like, and work as and where we like. But absolute liberty, like absolute rights, is absolute nonsense, because everyone lives in society and living in society means we have all to observe certain rules and regulations. That is where discipline comes in. Discipline involves a restraint on liberty but it is a necessary and vital restraint in the interest of society. Ever since the origin of man and society, discipline of some kind has been found necessary for both individual and social welfare. Discipline and restraint were deemed essential in prehistoric times also, and as society has become more and more complex, the urgency and importance of discipline has been felt all the more. Actually, discipline is not only desirable but indispensable. Wherever discipline and regulation of human conduct are absent, moral and material deterioration has set in. And where such deterioration starts the nation falls a victim to aggression by better organised and more disciplined people from outside. So the absence of discipline and restraint often means decay; to prevent such decay, discipline has to be imposed in the common interest and for the common good. Such discipline may be internal, that is, accepted without demur or protest by the people themselves, or it may be external, in which case it sometimes means the rule of the jack-booted commissars, as in Communist countries. Discipline has, therefore, to be distinguished from dictatorship under which individual liberty is rapidly taken away, supposedly in the interest of the State but in reality to promote the interests of the dictator. History has shown that dictators are firmly opposed to the grant of basic rights and liberties to the people. They want blind, unflinching obedience instead; the people are blandly told that theirs is not to reason why but to do and die as and when they are told all in the interest of their Fatherland or Motherland. That was Hit technique in Nazi Germany and Benito Mussolin technique in Italy.
The truth, repeatedly affirmed by human experience over the ages, is that it is discipline that enables all the people to enjoy their liberty while living in the community. Thus liberty and discipline are not contradictory 27 or mutually exclusive terms; they are very much complementary and both are indispensable. One, in fact, feeds and reinforces the other. When we say that discipline is essential we mean discipline in all walks of life, social, economic, political and industrial. In social life the enjoyment of liberties and fundamental rights becomes possible only through due regard for the corresponding rights and liberties of others. Whoever disregards the corresponding rights of others becomes a law breaker and an offender, making himself liable to action under the law Do as you want to be done b is a golden rule. Discipline means full realisation of the sense of responsibility, and where there is irresponsibility there is confusion, chaos and worse. It has been well said that we can have discipline without liberty but we cannot have liberty without discipline. When there is discipline, liberty is not endangered, but when there is liberty or rather excessive emphasis on liberty alone, it will soon be lost. This leads us to the conclusion that a proper and reasonable balance has to be struck between liberty and discipline or restraint. The restraints must of course be designed for the social good, and it is obvious that excessive restraints will inevitably lead to the erosion of human liberties.
It is this sound reasoning that prompted law-makers to assert that law is the essential condition of liberty. For instance, if I claim the liberty to rob, kill or injure another, or defy the traffic rules and drive my car or scooter on the wrong side of the road, I endanger myself as well as others, besides making myself quil of defying the law and discipline. If everyone thus defies the laws and rules, designed to ensure discipline and smooth living, what will become of society?
Those who describe laws as restraints on liberty and hostile to individual freedom apparently fail to understand the true concept of liberty and discipline. It is the State acting through laws that ensures justice and equality of opportunity to all, especially the weaker sections of society. So it is true to say that discipline ensures justice and fair play. Is it not a fact that the law which punishes the murderer, the thief, the robber and the violator of rules and regulations is thereby promoting the rights and liberties of others? The truly free man is he who, while living in society, invariably observes discipline and accepts the limitations on his actions imposed for the common good. Thus discipline is as necessary as liberty itself. Each reinforces the other.
20. OUR STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE Ind struggle for freedom can be said to have started soon after the battle of Plassey in 1757. The Indians, since that time, cherished a burning desire in their hearts for driving away from their country the new alien conquerors who had won that historic battle, not through fair combat but by a treacherous tactical fraud. However, the flame of patriotism remained largely suppressed till 1857 when Indians Hindus, Muslims and sikhs, all united made the first organized attempt to drive away the British from India. It was our first battle of independence against the alien rulers. Though British historians have tried their best to dub this national uprising of a righteous and patriotic people as a mere mutin of the Indian sepoys, latest researches made by impartial historians reveal that the 1857 movement had its seeds in the patriotic urge of the Indian people to make their motherland free. Had it not been purely a national movement, it could not have united the people of various religions and sects. As the famous Indian historian, Sir Jadunath Sarkar has said, The revolt had been secret and well organized. It was much more than a mere mutiny of soldiers. It spread rapidly and 28 assumed the character of a popular rebellion of the masses; it was not confined to Delhi alone as most of the British historians take the view; it spread all over the land now known as U.P., Central India, Bihar and Bengal. Essentially it was not a religious or sentimental outburst. It was a national rising in which Hindus and Muslims took equal part. A highly significant feature of life in India after 1857 was the emergence of the middle classes as a political force. The first impact of Western political thought, numerous reformist movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, growing economic and political discontent, the arrogance of the new rulers, improvements in the means of transport and communications, the introduction of the printing-press and several other factors stimulated the growth of a well-organised middle-class opinion. The first sign of political organization in India was the formation of the Indian Association by Surendranath Bannerjee in 1876.
But in course of time, it was the Indian National Congress which came to spearhead the national freedom movement. The party owed its origin to the inspiration provided by Surendranath Bannerjee and A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant who suggested forming an organization for the mental, moral, social and political regeneration of the people of Ind The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay in December 1885 under the Presidentship of Mr Woomesh Chandra Bonnerjee. To begin with, the Congress started as an organization committed to the use of constitutional means only for securing certain rights for Indians. This stage in its career as a political party lasted from 1885 to 1905. During this period, the party leadership pressed modest demands through prayers, appeals, petitions, deputations etc. It shunned all extra-constitutional or agitational approach.
But gradually extremist elements inspired by revolutionary nationalism in Europe found their way into the Congress. Prominent among extremist Congress leaders were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghose and many others. Tilak hailed from Maharashtra. It was he who first gave the call waraj is my birth-right Extremism held sway from 1906 to 1918. It was the second stage in the life of the Indian National Congress.
Another wave of nationalistic fervour swept India when the British Parliament, at the end of World War I, passed the notorious Rowlatt Act. It was an oppressive measure designed to invest the government with unbridled power to arrest and imprison suspects without trial and to crush civil liberties. This was the reward India got for having collaborated with Britain in the pursuit of the latt war aims. The Indian people felt outraged. Mahatma Gandhi who had upto that time maintained that the Congress should serve the country only as a social and moral reformative organization declared that it should give a tough (non-violent) fight against this wless law Inspired by Mahatma Gandh patriotic idealism, millions of Indian patriots came forward to protest against this gross injustice. British imperialism used barbaric means to suppress the movement. The Jallianwala Bagth tragedy the worst act of inhumanity done by the British administration in India shocked the entire civilized world. Men, women, children and old men were shot dead by Gen. Dyer specially deputed by the British Governmen to teach the Indians a lesson
The Jallianwala Bagh incident proved to be a milestone in India fight for freedom. It marked the beginning of the Gandhian era in Indian politics. Mahatma Gandhi gave a new direction to the national freedom movement. He adopted a policy of progressive non-violent non-co-operation to agitate political issues. It 29 was a novel technique which had not been tried anywhere else in the world. It envisaged surrender of titles, boycott of legislative bodies and courts and foreign goods, resignations from nominated posts etc. To crush the movement the Government resorted to a policy of repression which provoked a call of civil disobedience from Mahatma Gandhi. The civil disobedience movement passed through many vicissitudes but ultimately it forced the British Government to have a second look at the working of its administration in India. Meanwhile, the national movement also had entered a new phase. At its annual session held in Lahore in December 1929 under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress had passed a resolution declaring complete independence to be Indi goal. During the next decade or so, it was a see-saw battle between the resurgent forces of Indian nationalism and British imperialism. The British introduced half-hearted measures to increase Indian participation in the task of administering the country but continued to be allergic to the idea of conceding independence to India. The breaking out of World War II in 1939 had a profound impact on the political situation in India. When the war broke out, popular Congress ministries were functioning in eight provinces but as India had not been consulted before war was declared on behalf of the country by its British rulers, the popular ministries resigned. The British Government did not take much notice to begin with, but when in 1942 the Japan ese advance became a real threat to Ind borders, it sent Sir Stafford Cripps with a package of constitutional reform measures which were found unacceptable by the Indian political leaders. The next high point in India struggle for freedom was reached in 1942 when Indian patriots were active on several fronts. Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit Ind movement within the country. He demanded immediate end of British rule and sanctioned a non-violent mass struggle on a wide scale to achieve the objective. A revolutionary upsurge swept the country from one corner to the other and the Government used its entire machinery to crush the rebellion by ruthless measures and wholesale arrests without trial. Subhash Chandra Bose, popularly and affectionately known as Net escaped from British captivity and organized the Indian National Army the first organized and trained army of nationally-inspired and patriotic Indians. The soldiers of the Indian National Army fought against the British and American forces in Burma, Malaya and at other places. The revolt of the Indian members of the naval forces in Bombay and Cochin was a pointer that the Indian soldiers and sailors had also been drawn into the freedom struggle and could no longer be depended upon by the British. The plant of independence which sprouted in 1947 was the culmination of more than a century of sacrifices offered by numberless patriots at the altar of national freedom. We are today free, but we have to preserve our hard won freedom. For this we have to keep alive in our hearts the sacred memory of those great martyrs who made tremendous sacrifices for the attainment of freedom. From their memories we can derive inspiration to work hard to consolidate the freedom we have won at such great cost. 30 21. THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENT-CONSCIOUSNESS Today, there is now a premium on fresh air and there even are bars in Japan where people can buy whiffs of oxygen. If we continue to play foul with the environment and interfere with the already disturbed eco- system, the day is not far off when we shall rue over the mind-boggling progress and excessive exploitation of nature to feed our follies and glorify our greed.
It is neither a fad nor a fashion to show our concern for the environment. It is a feeling for the fast deteriorating milieu, both natural and man-made, that pricks the conscience of some who take upon themselves the rigorous but moral responsibility of creating an awareness among the people, to preserve the delicate balance in the entire eco-system that has been disturbed beyond repair and recognitiion in many cases. Since the problem of environmental degradation is global, a concerted effort needs to be launched to infuse environment-consciousn among all and sundry before it gets too late to mend the matters.
In its mad race to make miracles and bring about a complete metamorphosis in the living styles, modern human kind seems to have failed to appreciate the inherent worth of animal and plant life in totality. In ancient times nature held our respect, perhaps due to religious or supernatural associations. Now that we have a scientific grasp of nature, we have lost sight of its wider aesthetic, spiritual and complementary value. With the onslaught of industrialisation, nature has been through a rapid exploitation leading to pollution and depletion of its resources. The destructive trend can be slowed down, if not completely reversed, if collective care and concern for environment-consciousness is created through different media, education, visual and performing arts.
Science and technology, glitter and glamour, speed and success these are some of the telling traits of human condition today, at the cost of degraded eco-system, near extinction of some forms of life, global warming, and the like. In order to feel secure, without having a clear conscience of the environment, is like walking waywardly on a land mine. The impression that conservation of the environment is an elitist concern of some individuals and groups, should be dispelled through every possible means.
Nature rather environment or ecology in all its moods and manifestations represents harmony and deep power of joy that can enable us to into the life of thin nd thus escape from the sinister sway and swing of materialistic mores that have made most of us strangers and aliens to the life sustaining forces on this planet. The urgency to take stock of the current status of biodiversity is the crying need of the hour. It is because of lack of awareness on our part, of the many species of flora and fauna, that they are being lost by u unknowingly How to bring such facts close to the consciousness of the people should be the foremost task of all those who have the good of the earth in their hearts. No how we manipulate the achievements of science and technology, the moot question would always stare us in the face. If we fail to create constructive consciousn towards environment, in our work culture, developmental activities will end in allied areas of action and inter-action. We shall be heading for an impending catastrophe that a highly polluted environment is going to unleash on one and all. Our ancestors were more environment-conscious and conscientious that us. Their common needs did not go beyond fuel collection, flower plucking, fruit gathering and the like. They did not indulge in wanton destruction of forests nor did they resort to hunting and poaching in an unscrupulous manner. Unlike the plunder of today, where the governing passion is to explore and exploit the known and unknown sources of 31 wealth, the attitude of our forefathers towards life and its mission was and let others Willy-nilly, planners, policymakers and wheeler-dealers of political power have allowed the things to drift and degenerate for long. It is time now that we should sit up and see the writing on the wall. The warning signals are ringing all round. GAMBLING WITH SURVIVAL
We, the world people, want to survive, but more than that, we want a satisfactory life for all of us and for our descendants. To achieve that goal, we need a new kind of development and we must learn to live differently. We depend on the resources of the earth to meet our basic and vital needs. If they are diminished or deteriorate, we risk our needs and those of our descendants. Because we have been failing to care for the earth and living unsustainably the risks have become dangerously high. We are today gambling with the survival of the civilisation. We need not lose. We can eliminate the risk by ensuring that the benefits of development and distributed equitably. Our civilisation is at risk because we are misusing natural resources and natural ecological systems. We are pressing the earth to the limits of its capacity. The unprecedented increase in the human numbers and activity have had major impacts on the environment. The capacity of the earth to support human and other life forms has significantly diminished. In less than 200 years, the planet has lost six million square kilometers of forests, the sediment load from soil erosion has risen three-fold in major river basin, and by eight times in smaller, more intensively used ones, and eater withdrawals have grown from 100 to 3,600 cubic kilometres a year. Atmospheric systems have been disturbed, threatening the climatic regime to which we and other forms of life have long been adapted. Since the mid-eighteenth century, human activities have more than doubled the methane in the atmosphere, increased the concentrations of carbon-dioxide by 287 per cent and significantly damaged the stratospheric ozone layer. Most astonishing to all, the 5.5 billion people now on earth are already using 40 per cent of our most elemental resource the energy from the sun, made available by green plants on land. Despite this vast takeover of nature, hundreds of millions of people struggle in poverty, lacking a tolerable quality of life. One person in five cannot get enough food to support an active working life. A quarter of the world people are without safe drinking potable water. Every year millions of children die from malnutrition and preventable diseases. Such conditions are grossly unjust. They also threaten the peace and stability of many countries, and of the whole world, eventually. Learning to live sustainably and caring for the earth is the need of the hour. For a start we will need to understand and accept the consequences of being part of the great community of life and to become more conscious of the effects of our decisions on other societies, future generations and other species. We will need to perfect and promote an ethic for living sustainably. 32 Living sustainably must be the guiding principle for all the world people, but it never will be when hundreds of millions live without the basic essentials of life. Today, we need a new kind of development that rapidly improves the quality of life for the disadvantaged. The earth has its limits. With the best technology imaginable the limits are not infinitely expandable. To live within these limits and see that those who now have can soon get more, two things are needed to be done: population growth rate of the world must be reduced, and the rich must stabilise, and in some cases, reduce their consumption of resources. Ways exist to do this, without reducing the real quality of life.
Sustainable living must be the new pattern of living at all levels individuals, communities, nations and the world. To adopt a new pattern will require a significant change in the attitudes and practices of many people. We will need to ensure that education programmes reflect the importance of ethics of living sustainably and that information campaigns are mounted to disseminate it.
Local communities are the focus for much that needs to be done in making the change to living sustainable, but there is little that they can do it if they lack the power to act. Subject to vital interests of the larger community, they must be allowed to manage the resources on which they depend and to have an effective voice in the decisions that affect them.
Progress towards sustainability has been slow because of the belief that conservation and development are opposite. Legal, social, economic and technical measures, aimed at sustainability are to be integrated in planning and aimed at all levels, particularly in national governments.
The framework already exists for the cooperation, monitoring and management of resources, but programmes are poorly coordinated and rearly integrated. A new alliance of all the countries, to affect the reforms and improve the quality of life, should be the agenda to save the possible oblivion of the earth. 22. ITS IMPACT ON OUR SOCIETY Drinking is a curse. A nation, addicted to drinking has its future completely doomed. A Government which fattens its purse by selling alcoholic drinks to its people makes prostitution of its sacred function, of making its people morally better and spiritually elevated. A nation of drunkards is a morally and spiritually dwarfed section of humanity.
Indeed, drinking has all along been the worst misfortune that has ever befallen mankind. It has been a damned curse which is responsible for the utter ruin of many a nation. The great Roman Empire, the mighty Mughal Empire and many others had been cast into oblivion of sheer degeneration under destructive and damaging impact of drinking. In almost all the religions of the world Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism drinking has been condemned as a sin. According to Islam, a drunkard has no place in Paradise and that his place would be in the worst part of Hell, where he would be cast into eternal fire of torture. He can never expect to be forgiven by God.
Prohibition implies banning of alcoholic drinks. It was first introduced in America in 1923 but due to certain unavoidable reasons it failed completely. Then it was experimented in China, where the Government laid special stress on banning of opium. The scheme which operated in the country for a period of three years had a partial success. The Indian National Congress, even before Ind independence had made it one of their basic features of programme to launch a country-wide campaign for prohibiting intoxicating drinks. 33 Satyagrahas were offered for the same purpose and our leaders had to court imprisonment for picketing wine shops during the British regime. Immediately after independence when the Congress formed Government at the Centre and in all the States (then known as Provinces) excepting Punjab and Bengal, prohibition was experimented and in most of the States it did have a substantial success. At the All India Congress session of 1953 it was unanimously resolved that in some States there should be complete prohibition. The Constitution (Article 47) enjoin on the State to endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs. In December 1954, the Prohibition Enquiry Committee was appointed to suggest a programme and machinery for the implementation of the Directive. The Committee recommended that schemes of prohibition be integrated with the countr development plans. This was affirmed by a resolution in the Lok Sabha on March 31, 1956.
At present there is complete prohibition in the States of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu only. There is ban on drinking in the public places and partial prohibition in most other States. Now let us recall a brief history of drinking. It is thought that during the Ashokan period of Indian history, indulgence in drinks and drugs was considered to be a crime something contrary to the principles of religion, i.e., Buddhism. According to Magasthenese who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the Government strictly supervised the manufacture and sale of intoxicating drinks. Most of the Muslim rulers in India had put strict restrictions on sale of intoxicating wines even though they themselves lavishly indulged in drinking. It was, however, during the days of the East India Company that Ind cultural and national progress suffered a heavy loss. The alien rulers in their anxiety to find more money from India to fill their own count coffer, introduced liquor-revenue and revenue on exploit-drugs. Since the British came to India there has been an unending chain of public-spirited propaganda for prohibition. All the Indian reformers, whether social or religious, condemned drinking in unequivocal terms. Men like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chander Sen, Dr Annie Besant, Tagore, Swami Shardanand condemned the evil of drinking and accused the British Government of committing a public sin
In India, the story of prohibition, properly speaking, begins with Ma-hatma Gandh campaign against this injurious habit. Gandhiji regarded it as one of the causes that demoralized the world, because it had brought the downfall of many a mighty empire. However, prohibition through legislation was introduced in India after the count attaining independence. Prohibition creates certain difficult problems. The first problem is unemployment. In Andhra, Bengal and Assam there are lakhs of people engaged in the production of Tari, a kind of intoxicating drink. In the event of introducing complete prohibition in these States, all these men would be thrown out of their source of earning livelihood. Then there is the toughest problem to check illicit manufacture and sale of intoxicating drinks. The report of the All India Prohibition Committee revealed the fact that in most of the dry are there have been floods of illicit win It is a pity and a matter of disgrace, too, to note that police and excise officials and their staff, deputed to make the scheme a success, most miserably abused rather prostituted their basic functions, thereby making prohibition an utter failure in some States. Prohibition is a measure of social reform, which has a moral basis. Mere legislative sanction cannot make it a success, though it can be enforced with the aid of law. For making prohibition a genuine success, the first and foremost task is to give special type of moral and social education to the masses. People must be morally convinced of the evils of intoxicating drinks. They should be taught to hate intoxicating drinks through a 34 conviction and mere lip services will not make prohibition a success. Prohibition has to be enforced gradually and not all of a sudden. People must co-operate with the Government in making prohibition a success in the real sense of the term. 23. DEVELOPMENT The advent of freedom released a number of forces making for radical changes in the rural areas of India. The introduction of Universal suffrage is a revolutionary measure which has placed a powerful weapon in the hands of the traditionally under-privileged sections of our population, i.e., the village dwellers. They have awakened from the deep sleep of prejudice, illiteracy and degeneration. With the addition of another great factor of national re-construction Panchayati Raj they have been inspired to develop themselves as healthy and self-supporting community.
The Community Development Programme, which had its august inauguration in 1952 six years after the independence of our country is a land-mark in the history of the development of rural India and, at the same time, it is a dynamo of inspiration for our future village constructors and social reformers.
The scheme, in a nut-shell, aims at providing first increased employment and increased production by the application of latest methods of agriculture, including horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries etc. and the establishment of subsidiary and cottage industries; secondly self-help and self-reliance and the possible extension of the principle of co-operation, and thirdly, the need for devoting a portion of the vast unutilized time and energy in the countryside for the benefit of the village community. There were in 1960, more than two thousand Community Development blocs each one consisting of a hundred villages and they were expected to serve about 194 million villagers all over the country. By now, virtually all of Ind 560,000 villages have come under the Community Development Programme. A huge administrative machinery, engaging hundreds of officials including the Gram Sevak units at the base has been created. Villagers are beginning to be aware of the fact that there is a Governmental organization charged with the responsibility of rural development. Our Indian villagers have been suffering from a chronic disease indebtedness which has been one of the major causes of their economic miseries. According to the Community Development Programme arrangements are made for giving loans to poor and deserving cultivators to be paid back conveniently by easy methods. This had a remarkably encouraging effect. The Indian cultivators, who from ages had been squeezed and exploited by money lenders and zamindars, are now having a sigh of relief. It is natural that economic well being leads to social well being. Being economically unworried and unburdened, they can now look to other avenues of their progress social, cultural and moral. Again, backward groups, like Harijans, who were throttled by the high caste oneyed have been greatly benefited by the agricultural loan-giving system.
The Development officials, in their understandable eagerness to achieve the set targets and to show quick results have been compelled to ignore the less tangible but more important aim of teaching the villagers to help themse he peasants have to be taught that there are resources at their disposal such as their own capacity for hard work, their skill, initiative and loyalty to the community and the region. This objective can be realized only by proper local leadership. Panchayati Raj has already been introduced in a number of States, like Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and U.P. 35 nd villages have been changing for well over a hundred years. This fact has been obscured by the myths which educated Indians and foreigners have perpetrated about them. Since Independence, the Government has launched a vast programme of developing the country as a whole and agriculture in particular. The gigantic hydro-electric projects as well as the minor irrigation works, the development of transport facilities, the determined effort to industrialize the country, the Community Development Programme and the policy of decentralization will ensure that in the not too-distant future Ind villages will change radically.
24. OUR STRENGTH OUTSIDE DEPENDS ON OUR STRENGTH WITHIN The statement is true of individuals as well as of nations. It emphasizes the quality of strength which is an attribute essential to the life of both, a person as also a nation. It goes on to point out the dependence of the external aspect of strength on its innate content. Strength is, in fact, a basic condition of life. We have to be strong in order to exist. The smallest catastrophe will annihilate a weakling but the biggest tragedy will bring out hidden reserves of strength in a person made of sterner stuff, and leave him the stronger for having faced it bravely. We need strength to be able to resist attacks on our freedom, our honour, our possessions and our person; because strength alone knows conflict. Weakness is born vanquished. The weak live in a state of constant fear and have to pay dearly for protection. Finally, we need strength to enjoy life in all its glory, and to enrich it with achievement. strength in relation to outsid signifies the physical and moral force which we can bring to bear on our actions in relation to outsiders. It consists in our capacity to make room for ourselves, to gain our rightful place, not giving any chance to others to push us about. It lies in our ability to uphold and enforce the law for everyone, without fear. It is something which helps us to attain a position where we become a source of strength for all on the side of the right, so that we are sought after in friendship, and do not have to go about looking for friends. In its negative aspect, our strength in relation to outside means that we should be able to inspire in the hearts of the evil and the wicked the sort of respect they feel for the gun or the tiger. We should have the capacity to make them realize that our calmness in the face or provocation is an aspect of the power we command, and that our forbearance implies strength. They should know that we have the capacity and the will to punish the wrong- doer.
strength within means that innate strength which enables us to stand on our own feet and thus endows us with self-respect. If we stand on borrowed feet, we shall have to mortgage our heads and hearts. In that case we cannot have any pretensions to strength; and hence to self-respect. trength within also denotes the ability to hold our own against opposing forces so that neither a powerful outside foe nor the inner foes of passions and temptations can pull us to pieces. Inner strength also signifies that soundness of mind and body which enables us to think and act straight without feeling the necessity of resorting to subterfuge or being overwhelmed by vacillation which is the hallmark of the weak. Unless we are strong within and make determined efforts to consolidate and augment that strength, we stand exposed to aggression, and all other humiliations which are showered on the weak. A reference to the history of India will very aptly illustrate the truth in whatever has been stated above. Whenever India was weakened by internal conflicts and dissensions, she fell a prey to foreign depredations, so much so that we forfeited our freedom, and had to suffer foreign domination for centuries. But as the 36 brave freedom-fighters instilled in the masses a burning desire for freedom and the national movement gathered strength, our foreign rulers were left with no other course but to quit the country. Having broken the chains that bound us, it was our duty to consolidate our freedom, to augment our strength. But once again we forget the lesson of history. While designing neighbours were keeping a keen eye on how we went about the business of consolidating our freedom and augmenting our strength, we were keeping ourselves occupied with party politics and with bids to capture the moral leadership of the world. The enemy could easily find the chinks in our armour. The result was the Chinese attack of 1962 in which the Indian Army was worsted for the first time in recent history. As a result of this fresh humiliation which we had to suffer, we lost face in the sphere of international politics. As our internal weakness stood exposed, the hollow prestige we had built up vanished into thin air, and we were left almost friendless in the world. To-day, we go about seeking the help and protection of others. Except in so far as it helps to advance the interests of the powerful nations, our friendship is worth nothing. We are ridiculed, snubbed and patronized. And it has to be so, because the world knows that we do not possess that inner strength which can help us to lay claims to respect in the international sphere. It cannot, therefore, be gainsaid that our strength in relation to outside depends on our strength within. Weakness is a sin. Just as it is the moral duty of everyone to maintain and preserve good health, it is the bounden duty of nations to build up enough inner strength, so that they can exist in this violence-ridden world with self-respect. It is only innate strength which can help them to win their rightful place in the comity of nations. 25. INDIA AND THE CONCEPT OF SELF-RELIANCE Those who expect to reap the blessings of freedom must, like men, undergo the fatigue of supporting it
Thomas Paine.
The 1965 Indo-Pak conflict has been beneficial to India in more than one ways. It has helped us to realize the need for a reappraisal of our foreign policy, and also for some much-needed rectification of attitudes towards the count economic problems. Perhaps the most significant trend it has unleashed is a universal demand for making India self-reliant in every respect, particularly in the spheres of food and defence. There is nothing new in the concept of self-reliance which is just another name for economic freedom, always regarded as a necessary concomitant of political freedom. In fact, the two types of freedom are complementary to each other. Without one, the other is incomplete and meaningless. People who rely on their own strength and know how to help themselves cannot be held in bondage for long. Conversely, a nation which, though free, depends on other nations for anything it needs, whether it is food, weapons or machinery, must always be subject to pressures, and so, stands perpetually in danger of losing its freedom.
The imperative need for making the people of India realize the value of self-reliance for the purpose of acquiring political strength was always keenly felt by the leaders of Ind national movement. That was the idea behind the cult of Swadeshi which Mahatma Gandhi propagated. Self-reliance was, in fact, the corner- stone of the constructive programme he advocated. But while the call for throwing out the British struck a responsive chord in every Indian heart, the significance of the campaign in favour of self-sufficiency was never fully appreciated. 37 Even after we had attained independence, our outlook in this respect did not undergo any change. Though we had become politically free, we retained our preference for things foreign. We were free to build our national economy as we liked. The choice was between a Gandhian approach based on intensive development effort starting from the grass-roots level on the one hand, and adoption of large-scale industrialization on the other. While the former presupposed maximum self-reliance at every level and in every sphere, the latter had to be based on foreign aid. Adoption of the former course meant very hard work and slow progress, while resort to latter held the promise of quicker and more spectacular result. Those in power at that time opted in favour of large-scale industrialization with foreign aid. They had their reasons for taking that decision. Firstly, they felt that if the world was to be made a better and happier place to live in for the whole human race, the more advanced nations owed it to the under-developed countries not only to help them in winning political freedom but also to assist them in getting rid of poverty and other basic ills that plagued them. Secondly, they believed that if India was to keep pace with the modern world, it was necessary to import and adopt the latest techniques and to develop the most modern sources of power. In Ind case, foreign aid was readily available. In fact it was pressed upon her from almost all directions. It came to us in the form of international grants, foreign exchange loans, rupee credit technical aid, private foreign capital investment etc. At the time we accepted such aid, we told those who gave it to us and also assured ourselves that it had to be and was sans political strings of any sort. In keeping with our policy of non-alignment vis-a-vis the rival power blocs, we accepted such help from both sides.
Undoubtedly, such generous foreign assistance contributed a lot to the economic development of India. It enabled us to build a nucleus of heavy industries which, with the passage of time, may help us to progressively reduce our dependence on foreign aid. But while this in itself is enough cause for satisfaction, we cannot possibly ignore the other side of the picture, which has been so clearly brought into focus by the 1965 armed conflict with Pakistan. The shape of things as it had emerged shows that acceptance of foreign aid has definitely not been an unmixed blessing. Along with the advantages it has brought us, it has also produced quite a few undesirable results. First of all, we must know that we have been gradually developing an attitude of dependence on foreign aid. This will be evident if we have a look at our trade balance position. Obviously, we have been living beyond our means. But it is only one of the many results of the dangerous mental attitude we have been developing. It has also served to kill initiative. It is only now when ruination stares us in the face that we have been obliged to think of import substitution and finding indigenous alternative for imported materials. Furthermore, it has prevented the full utilization of technical and scientific talent available in the country. Whereas on the one hand we have been complaining of a serious brain-drain through Indian scientists preferring to make their homes abroad, on the other we have been persistently and pathetically dependent on costly foreign expert to advise us on matters well within the competence of indigenous talent. This over-dependence on foreign technicians has hampered and even discouraged the building us of a base of indigenous scientific, technological and managerial manpower so necessary for a developing country. It is also the reason why very few really important industries have been started without foreign collaboration. 38 The sense of urgency now felt about self-reliance as the national goal should also help us to realize that our habitual dependence on help from abroad has also prevented us from making the best use of assistance given to us. We must admit that we have not been able to secure the maximum possible growth in those sectors of our economy where dependence on foreign aid could have been eliminated by now.
Besides all this, in the light of recent events, it cannot be gainsaid that our pet assumptions about all foreign aid being without strings have also been proved wrong. It has been proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that the part of it contributed by the western nations was aimed at gaining political leverage in this part of the world. While we believed that they were just helping us to overcome our initial difficulties, they were trying to use economic aid to lure India into joining the string of defence pacts with which they were planning to surround Russia and China in a bid to ontain commun When they failed in deflecting India from her chosen course of non-alignment, they began to strengthen her arch-enemy, Pakistan, with liberal arms aid. The Indian leaders naturally protested against this, but they were assured that Pakistan would not be allowed to use those arms against India. We have seen how much those assurances were worth.
In 1971, while Pakistan was butchering the people of Bangladesh, and India was facing the huge influx of refugees from that part of Pakistan, the U.S.A., fishing in troubled waters, was secretly supplying ship loads of lethal weapons to Pakistan (in Pad an Sunderban the two Pakistani ships) in spite of their earlier commitment and assurance to our Foreign Minister, not to give any arms to Pakistan till the situation in Bangladesh had become normal. After the 1965 Indo-Pak war also, in their anxiety to placate Pakistan, and to retain her on their side, they had stopped aid to India to pressurise the latter into compromising her sovereignty and territorial integrity. Britain clamped a ban on even commercial purchases of arms by India; and the U.S.A. tried to tie up deliveries of foodgrains under the P.L. 480 agreement with certain political objectives she was anxious to achieve.
All this has convincingly demonstrated that we were seriously mistaken in placing any reliance on foreign aid. Such reliance not only undermines our freedom of action, but is also capable of endangering our very survival. The present upsurge in favour of self-reliance signifies a realistic appreciation of the obligations of free nationhood. It is an expression of the national desire to invest our political freedom with a more positive content by achieving economic freedom as well. Over the years, in a changing context, the implications of self- reliance for India have also undergone profound changes. When India was a slave country, the word had a connotation quite different from what it has now when we are free and have to hold our own in a community of nations largely guided by self-interest rather than by any desire to make this world a better place for mankind as a whole. We have, therefore, to co-relate our concept of self-reliance with our changed situation and understand clearly what it means. Judging from the extent to which we have hitherto allowed ourselves to become dependent on foreign aid, we have to go a long way before we can hope to become self-reliant. We have to lift ourselves up virtually by our bootstraps. It will require a truly Herculean effort and however inspired we may be by a sense of urgency, we can at best hope to achieve the ideal only over a period of time. In spite of the earnest efforts put in during the last eighteen years to remove want and poverty from this land of ours, we have not so far been able to touch even the fringe of the problem. There is quite a big gap between requirements and means 39 and it has to be bridged. We are up against a formidable economic issue and unless we adopt a practical approach in tackling it, we shall be seriously jeopardising our chances of achieving success.
Much confusion is created by the common assumption that self- reliance and self-sufficiency are synonymous terms. It will be wholly wrong to believe that, granted the most strenuous effort, we can become completely self-sufficient now or in the near future. Even the most advanced nations have not been able to achieve that goal. In the complex modern industrial society, it is just not possible. No country in the world can turn its back on international co-operation without endangering its own progress. It is, therefore, obvious that we cannot hope to ban all imports for all times. What we have to do immediately is to see in what spheres, to what extent and how soon we can progressively reduce our dependence on imports. The main items which are at present being imported are capital goods, certain essential raw materials and oil. It should be obvious to anyone that the import of oil is a recurring drain on our meagre resources. At the same time, oil being one of the necessaries, our dependence on other countries for it exposes us to unhealthy political pressures. Therefore, we have to strain every nerve to make ourselves self-sufficient at least in respect of our requirements of oil. We can do it by increasing production, reducing consumption and eliminating waste. It would not, however, be possible to do without imports of capital equipment and essential raw-materials. But by making better use of the assistance we receive, by applying our minds seriously to import substitution, and by utilizing indigenous scientific and technical skill and talent, we can hope to reduce such imports considerably. For achieving a real break-through towards self-reliance in this sphere, however, we shall have to concentrate on the creation of a large and exportable industrial surplus by which we should be able to pay for everything we may have to import.
In the final analysis, the attainment of self-reliance mainly involves riddding ourselves of the dangerous attitude of dependence which we have developed. That the need for it has been realized augurs well, but the path is certainly beset with difficulties, and only sustained and well-directed efforts, combined with the practice of maximum austerity on a national level can pull us through. 26. POVERTY IN PLENTY overty in plent may be an expression of contradiction, but as far as the human race is concerned we have more poverty to see and suffer around than any other phenomenon. Whatever achievements of mankind may have been in the areas of development over the ages, the one eye-sore that has remained abhorrent and abominable by all standards is poverty economic, intellectual and ethical (moral). There is no denying that poverty is a curse for those who suffer it and a blessing for those who sermonise on it. Notwithstanding the fact that religions generally have sung the praise of poverty, and promised the poor the kingdom of heaven, it is a virtual hell that they undergo in their lives spent in slums, hovels, gutters and the like. Though the modern Messiah, Mother Teresa, loved the poor, she consistently refused to address issues of social justice. Her belief that poverty was a desirable state, non-criticism of the world-order that perpetuated poverty, runs counter to the ground realities that are further compounded by the tortuous trinity poverty, population and pollution. This tyrannical triangle eloquently tells why South Asia is universally acknowledged as a place of the most wretched, demeaning poverty in the world. When we eulogize the success stories of those who go up the ladder from to rich we indirectly berate poverty as despicable and 40 dehumanised state of human existence. Who in his senses would covet such life as holds pompous promise of God grace in heaven but yields virtually no place, pelf and prestige on this planet. Surely, poverty for a politi-cal-cum-economic thinker like Marx, was an object state of helplessness heapedd upon those who have nothing to lose but eheir poverty, if properly united and organised under one banner. The State of poverty that legendary figures like Raja Harishchander, Ma-hatma Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi et al and an entire tribe of Indian saints and sages, embraced, is entirely different from the d p ssing depths of deprivation and degradation that millions and millions below the poverty line in India and elsewhere face. Having led the life of self-abnegation himself, Gandhiji was of the firm conviction that there was enough in the world for each man s need but not enough for even one man ed
Catchwords and conferences cannot banish poverty. Had it been so somple the garibi hatao slogan of 1971 would have accomplished in one country what the United Nations set out to dor for the world at the summit for social development in Cophenhagen. The summit was intended to come up with a programme of policies, actions and measures towards eradication of poverty, full employment and social integration of the dispossessed and underprivileged. Today in the world, more than a billion people live in miserable poverty, eight million children die every year from curable diseases and at least a third of the poor Stat population is undernourished. The British charity organisation, Action aid, has warned that by the end of the century, a quarter of the word population will be living in abject poverty. The countries where domestic discord prevails in the form of civil wars, riots or other disturbances are the worst hit. It is a meaningless exercise to discuss poverty eradication and full employment at national and international conferences without reference to who will pay for it in an unequal world. The issue of raising the estimated $ 235 billion needed to take over one billion people living in abysmal poverty, to a level where their basic needs can be met, in the next five years, does not figure in the declarations; nor does the issue of creating jobs for the 120 million people unemployed in the world. With economic liberalisation programmes concentrating on a consumer-oriented global market, it is hard to imagine how the problems of global poverty and unemployment are going look like in future. The resources are not scarce but they are cornered and controlled by the rich. In the opinion of some knowledgeable persons, it is the unsustainable consumption levels of the rich nations that have resulted in the poor being denied access to resources. Who can deny the fact that less than a quarter of the global expenditure on arms would be enough to finance a for universal primary health care, vaccination against killer diseases, drinking water and primary education. Too often assumptions are made about what the poor want or their views are interpreted to such a point that they bear little relationship to the development priorities originally identified by the poo (Juan Somavia) All said and done, let us remember what Rishi Vasishtha tells Rama in Yoga Vasishtham: Poverty is a curse. A very poor person is hardly alive. I see no difference between a poor man and a dead man Removal of poverty is indeed the prime duty of all rulers at all times.
27. FUTURE OF ENGLISH IN INDIA Opinions about the role and future of the English language in India have varied with the years. Before the attainment of independence both English and Englishmen were condemned as foreign and hence hostile to the national interests. Mahatma Gandhi, though admittedly a good, effective writer in English, expressed 41 the view that English education has emasculated us, constrained our intellect, and the manner of imparting this education has rendered us effeminate . He felt that English education put a severe strain upon Indian student nervous energy and has made us imitators. Many others have also held the view that among the many evils of foreign rule, the blighting imposition of a foreign medium of instruction upon the youth of the country will be counted by history as one of the greatest.
Nobel Prize winner Rabindranath Tagore, whose writings in English and Bengali won him international fame, however, paid a deserving tribute to the contribution which English literature made. It nourished our minds, he said, and even now conveys its deep resonance to the recesses of our heart. The days and nights of educated people of those times were eloquent with the stately declamations of Burke, and Macaula long- rolling sentences. Jawaharlal Nehru, himself a master of the English languagge, while admitting that we cannot educate millions of people, (Ind masses) in a totally foreign language, contended that English will inevitably remain an important language for us because of our past associations and also because of its present importance in the world. English cannot become a common all-India medium of communication but it is, and will continue to be, the principal medium for us to communicate with the outside world. English education widened the Indian outlook and horizon. It developed an admiration for the unique English literature and insti u i ons. It is to English education that the country owes a debt for the emergence of a new class of liberal-minded people in the professions and the services. English is among the world atest and richest languages. It is estimated that next only to Chinese, which is spoken by nearly 800 million people, English is the most popular language in the world. About two-thirds of the scientific and technical books in the world are published in English. For the people of India English is perhaps the easiest foreign language to learn. There are other important languages too, but because of the educational set-up already established in India by the British, English has some foundations which would be difficult to establish for any other language. Article 343(1) of India Constitution lays down that the count official language will be Hindi in the Devanagari script. The second clause of that article provides for the simultaneous use of English, initially for a period of 15 years from the commencement of the Constitution in 1950. In conformity with the demand of the Southern States, the provision for the use of English for official purposes of the Union has been extended several times. All indications point to the continuation of the status quo for an indefinite period, even though the Founding Fathers of the Constitution and millions of other people, especially in North and Central India, regarded the provision for the use of English language as essentially a transitional measure.
The English language, instead of being gradually discarded and replaced by Hindi, has become more popular. This is evident from the number of students opting for the English medium for school, college and university instruction. Families belonging to the middle and the affluent classes take pride in sending their children to schools where the medium of instruction is English. They believe, and with considerable justification, that the careers of their wards, in government and also in private offices, can be built only on the basis of education in the English medium.
English at present is the language of the elite, who form a small section of the people, and it will continue to be so. The efforts to popularise the use of Hindi as a national language for official work have succeeded only 42 partially. As a result, work in Central Government offices is done in English, which continues to be the only acceptable link language for communication between the Centre and the States and among the States themselves. Moreover, there is widespread recognition of the fact that scientific and technical knowledge can be acquired only through books and journals published in English. Technical books translated into Hindi and other Indian languages have not proved popular for various reasons. English has several advantages precision of expression, worldwide popularity and a rich literature. These ensure for it a bright future despite the loud protests by language fanatics and the anti-English pleadings in the name of patriotism. While English cannot become Ind main language, its use as a second language is beneficial to the country. 28. SHOULD ENGLISH QUIT? When the British left Indian shores it was hoped that English also would leave this country at a no distant date. The most sanguine of its protagonists could only expect that even if it stayed on in some form it would forfeit its predominant status. The view was reinforced by the unequivocal declaration in our Constitution: The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. For a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commence
The Constitution commenced in 1950 and English should have been replaced even as a link language in 1965 but by an irony of circumstances this language goes on as merrily as, if not merrier than, before. The number of public schools, of Convents, of Montessories, all English medium institutions has registered a steep rise. Cases have come to light where the use of a Hindi word in a class is punishable with a fine, if not a slap. Every middle-class family prides itself on sending its children to these schools. Not only government officials, even ministers who cry themselves hoarse on our duty towards Rashtrabhasha do not feel any qualm in patronising these schools. Et tu, Brute. All sorts of arguments, quite a few of them specious, are advanced in support of the retention of English and even the status quo. The most vehement of these is that it is our doorway to the west, and opens up vast vistas of science, technology and literature. It is the most widely used, spoken as well as written. It has subtle nuances and shades of expression which makes it an ideal medium of communication. If nothing else, we should retain it for its beneficent role in our movement of freedom and democracy as well as its contribution towards our cultural renaissance.
Even the most ardent advocate will have to admit that the role of English has been that of a catalytic agent. When the experiment is over, only a fool will cling to the catalytic agent. And there is the irregutable argument from statistics. English, today, touches only a fringe of our population. In fact, it is the language of our elite or on lower levels, the petty officials, the quill-drivers who move the juggernaut of bureaucratic administration. More than eighty per cent of our people residing in villages do not understand it, except for a word here or a word there which they have picked up during their visit to the town. At a modest estimate it might take two centuries to make this language our lingua franca. With our huge democratic Leviathan waking up out of the slumber of centuries English cannot remain our medium of mass-communication. Apart from this argument of non-feasibility there is the question of national self-respect. Already a good deal of damage has been done. Our schools, colleges and universities have been greatly handicapped by the use of English as a compulsory subject. How much of our talent has withered and rotted. The sooner this tyranny is over, the better for the country. 43 Withthe lucidity and precision characteristic of him, Gandhiji put the issue in the correct perspective. English should go as the medium of instruction and be replaced with the mother-tongue. Gandhiji was no English- hater. In fact he wrote in an English which even the Englishmen envied. But as a patriot his heart was sore at what harm this language had done. is my considered opinion that English education in the manner in which it has been given has emasculated the English educated Indians, constrained our intellect and rendered us effeminate.
English has no legal or moral right to occupy the pre-eminent position it did during the British regime. Its place might well be in the eighth schedule of our Constitution. 29. LANGUAGE AS UNITING AND DIVISIVE FORCE Language, as Samuel Johnson said, is the dress of thought; it is only the instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas. When the ideas are good and constructive, language promotes unity and cohesion, but when the ideas are basically faulty, ill-conceived, deceitful and subversive, language has the contrary effect. Instead of promoting harmony and serving as the means of purposeful communication between human beings, it begins to corrode the mind, feeding the base instincts of man and encouraging tendencies that inevitably lead to divisive and fissiparous tendencies. It then breaks up society into warring factions, each fighting for its own linguistic rights and preferences. So language does not necessarily ensure unity and harmony. Bernard Shaw s witty saying that England and America are two countries separated by the same langu carries a subtle meaning. Language controversies also developed in Pakistan (Urdu Vs Punjabi), Bangladesh (Urdu Vs Bengali) and other countries.
Much, of course, depends upon the quality and content of a language; a living language, Jawaharlal Nehru used to say, a throbbing, vital thing, ever changing, ever growing and mirroring the people who speak and write it. It has its roots in the masses, though its superstructure may represent the culture of a few. Both language and the faculty of speech are ediate gifts of God and language should do anything it is told, undertake any job required and not be a stubborn one-idea thing. Linguistic controversies on a national scale (mostly about the advisability of adopting English or Hindi or both for education and administration) and also in the various regions (in Punjab, West Bengal, U.P. and elsewhere), have done havoc in India. The decision to create States on a linguistic basis, following prolonged agitations in several parts of the country, beginning with Andhra Pradesh for which there was a fast unto death more than three decades ago in the name of language and linguistic States separating the Telegu- speaking areas (to form Andhra Pradesh) from the Tamil-speaking areas. As a result we had a Linguistic States Commission many of whose recommendations for splitting up certain regions into separate and small States had a distinctly divisive sequel. The divisions thus effected had a far-reaching effect and at times even cut at the roots of national integration. Trouble arises when language and those who speak it develop a one-channel mind. When language becomes an obsession and when some people think their own language is the best in the world and must have primacy over others even if such primacy is not in the national interest, there is endless discord, disharmony, even violence and riots, supposedly in the name of a good cause. But no religion and no language propagates the cult of violence and murder. Those who quarrel and kill in the name of language or religion do a distinct disservice to both. 44 The J.V.P. Report on linguistic provinces, sponsored by the Congress many years back, was most unfortunate in many respects. It laid down certain conditions under which re-drawing of provincial boundaries could be undertaken. The creation of Andhra Pradesh for the benefit of the Telegu-speaking people constituted an unfortunate precent which has been exploited to justify the splitting up of several States and the redrawing of boundaries in many cases. In all these cases language has served only to divide, not to unite. Article 343(1) of the Constitution of India lays down that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The provision for the use of English (Article 343 (2)) has all along been interpreted by the founding fathers, and countless others, as essentially a transitional measure. But the southern States of the country strongly oppose any Central measure that smacks of an intention to impose Hindi on them. Every time there is talk of promoting the use of Hindi for administrative purposes at the Centre and in Centre-State communications in accordance with the provision in the Constitution, there is much resentment in the South. It was this resentment that prompted a leader of the South to coin the slogan: English ever, Hindi n The language issue is among the principal causes of the strains in the relations of the Centre and the southern States. After every few years the near-crisis on this issue is got over by an assurance that there would be no position of any language and that there would be no linguistic switch-over without the consent of the southern States. The linguistic issue thus hinders the progress of national unity and integration. The deadliness in this regard have lost credibility. What is more, students seeking bright careers in the national context have often indicated a preference for English as the medium of instruction for post-graduate courses. To some extent the student preference has countered the linguistic fervour among the political leaders of the southern States.
Language has at times prompted fanaticism. For instance, some zealous advocates of Hindi have insisted that the Head of State should always deliver formal addresses in Hindi. A young man disturbed former President Redd address to the Sangeet Natak Akademi in March, 1979, insisting that Mr Reddy should speak in Hindi. The fanatic was downright impertinent and the President remarked: do not like fanatics and I don want to encourage fanatic The interests of any language are ill-served by linguistic purohit claiming a monopoly of cultural patriotism.
30. THE INDIAN WOMAN TODAY The times have changed radically, and the Indian woman of today is no longer reconciled to her traditional role as a mere housewife, a mother or a daughter. Whether it is higher education, or the general and fast spreading enlightenment about rights and privileges, and the concepts of equality between man and woman, that are responsible for the distinctly notable awakening among this section of mankind, it is difficult to say. Perhaps the change in attitudes and the increasing demands for a better status in life and a more important role in national life, are the cumulative result of all relevant factors operating simultaneously. The more enlightened women of today take delight in recalling that woman was regarded in ancient times as the perfect workmanship of God and the glory of angels.
But is the typical Indian woman, especially in the urban areas, a specimen of the perfect workmanship of God, a symbol of self-sacrifice, an angel in human form, a source of eternal joy, devotion and everlasting love and affection? Far from it. Countless women, notably those who are well-educated or otherwise qualified for certain types of jobs, are eager to get employed and become economically independent. 45 Generally, the desire to get jobs is prompted by the eagerness to supplement the family income in these hard times, but this is not always the case.
There are cases of women who take up jobs in order to earn some money for their own use, on sarees, ornaments, cosmetics, etc., and in order to live like modern women. Not every Indian woman even in the towns and cities is a butterfly, or a society woman, but some indeed are. Their bribe is probably increasing with the continuous fall in ancient values, the change in the age-old concept of the Indian woman as a devoted wife, mother or daughter, and with the impact of modern education.
Again, women are supposed to be unique refining influences, and many of them certainly are. But quite a number of them are not. When a city woman, believing more in the modern concepts of women lib., is becoming increasingly aware of her rights in the world today, it is futile for the parents or the husband to expect that she would confine herself to the kitchen and attend to her duties to the family with devotion and earnestness. Domesticity is, in fact, no longer favoured by thousands of Indian women; they seek independence and freedom from the boredo which they associate with the home and the care of children. Why, they ask, should they be expected to serve their husbands when the equality of sexes is guaranteed by the Indian Constitution? Why, so runs the argument, must they be regarded as inferior human beings when they are not so in any way? It is not for nothing that the modern woman is believed to be jealous, quarrelsome, selfish and more conscious of fashions, dress and physical makeup than need be. Are we to accept the modern woman as she is because our society has become materialistic and there is all-round deterioration in moral values and ethical standards of conduct? Are men any better in the performance of their duty? What is the justification for men regarding as superior beings? How many husbands, some people ask, share the domestic responsibilities with their wives? Can we blame the various declarations, such as the Mexico Declaration on the Equality of Women, 1975, and the various resolutions passed by international organisations prescribing equal wages for equal work? The Constitution of India also lays down that men and women are equal in status and that there should not be any discrimination on grounds of sex in any area of employment or in respect of rights and privileges.
But to deplore the attitudes of the odern woman is to ignore the majority of Indian women, especially in the rural areas, who toil at home day after day, without grumbling and without a protest even when they are ill-treated by their husbands. The vast majority of them are still devoted, self-effacing and silent sufferers. Many of them have been debased and exploited, and yet they continue to accept their fate as if it is ordained by God. To them the World Plan of Action for improving the lot of women all over the world carries no meaning. The Indian woman will continue to do her duty to her family, irrespective of illness, indisposition and the general talk of women ib.
The enlightened section of Indian womanhood several of them hold positions of responsibility, such as ministerships, managership, executive posts, company control, policy-making assignments, educationists and there are some legislators too. Mrs Vijaylakshmi Pandit was President of the U.N. General Assembly for a year, and Mrs Indira Gandhi served as Prime Minister for over a decade. They have brought credit to the country and some of them perform their household duties too and do not neglect their children. Even today the typical Indian woman has a better sense of responsibility, a better image in the country and abroad and 46 a more secure future than the women of the West who frantically seek jobs and leave their husbands and children to look after themselves.
It will be relevant to recall what Plato said about women. In his scheme of things women are assigned a place of complete equality with man. The ancient Indian sages have all regarded women as the very symbols of patience, fortitude and sacrifice. The recent talk of liberating women from the boredom verging on bondage has both a positive and a negative aspect. The loud pronouncements about the rights of women are valid up to a point; when overstressed they are likely to lead to unpleasant consequences and distort Indian life in millions of homes where the husband and the father are the principal wage earners and where women are required by custom and tradition to look after the home and the family.
In the Indian context, it is not incorrect to say that the mod berated fashionable and socially busy society women are ill-fits. The question whether a world ruled by women would be free of corruption and frull of joy and laughter seems irrelevant in such a context. Women are more honest than men, it is true, but the physical disabilities and handicaps hardly make them suitable for the onerous duties in the world outside the home. Only a small minority of working women are successful; the majority of them are known to be inefficient in administration and have little output. 31. SPACE AND MANKIND All available evidence points to the fact that the Universe is open and it is ceaselessly expanding. Space means the whole universe, including the earth, while outer space refers to space other than the earth; outer space begins where the earth atmosphere ends and extends in all directions. Like the air we breathe, space is everywhere and all round us. Most people describe space as the universe and do not distinguish between them. When the Universe was first talked of, as an orderly unit, it was calledx the cosmos, to distinguish it from chaos or disorder. The study of the cosmos was known as Cosmogony or Cosmology. The popular references now are to space and space sciences. Space is a wholly natural phenomenon and cannot either be created or destroyed by mankind, while the space sciences are evolved by talented scientists, a part of mankind.
The observable universe has a diameter of 25 billion light years and the number of galaxies it contains is still uncertain. Theories of space also differ, and these are based on the flight of galaxies. Outer space is infinite; in fact it is so vast that the usual terrestrial units of measurement hardly suit its dimensions. The new units of measurement evolved by scientists are Light Years and the Astronomical Unit. It is well known that light and sound are the two principal media through which we gather our impressions of the external world.
The study of space and of outer space is, of course, not the common man s cup of tea, but the interests of mankind are deeply involved when space is put to certain uses, not all of which are peaceful. The use of space for civilian flights within a country and for the worldwide air services which have brought mankind and continents closer than they ever were and which have established means of communication unimagined by man even a few decades ago. In a matter of hours a person can fly from one continent to another; the communications gap has been bridged by what seem to be fantastic means through space. The dreamer and visionarie talk of One World has come true in this sense, even though from the political and military angle the world stands as badly split and torn asunder as ever. Thus in at least one way the vast expanse space has been put to good use. Overland or sea routes take months for travelling from one country to a 47 distant one. Travel through space by aircraft of various types and sizes, jets, supersonic, jumbos and others, is a notable achievement of mankind. The air in space has also been used for radio broadcasts and television programmes for instruction and entertainment. Radio waves with different wavelengths have been put to various uses. The spectacular advances in space technology during the past 25 years or so have enabled mankind to scan outer space. Today we can study astral phenomena from groundbased radio, optical and infra-red telescopes and also ultra-violet X-ray and Gamma ray telescopes functioning above the atmosphere of the earth. While these telescopes operating through space and the atmosphere (which is an insulating blanket protecting the earth) have brought many benefits to mankind, it is the military use to which space is being put that has been causing a great deal of worry to billions of people. Spacecraft and satellites launched by several progressive and technically developed countries have become an index of scientific progress and of modern civilisation. But these satellites themselves are being put to a vast variety of uses for broadcasting entertainment programmes, educational programmes, even medical knowledge, and have thus been of immense benefit to the masses. In fact, instruction and education through satellites stationed in space (in their allotted places) is a potent instrument for mankind progress. Through rapid education will come all-round enlightenment and economic prosperity. It is, however, the spy satellites, the nuclear aircraft, the bombers, the orbiting military stations being set up in space by the Soviet Union and the U.S.A. that pose a grave danger to mankind. These spies and nuclear equipped spacecraft enable a big Power to keep an eye on the secret military preparations of the other; the vicious circle thus set up defies description. The next world war, it is said, will be fought not on land or on the sea but in space. When space itself becomes an arena of terrible and highly destructive warfare, with the inevitable nuclear fall-out over many continents, the resultant havoc to mankind can be well imagined. Rocketry and missiles have opened the way for ceaseless space exploration and the epoch-making landing of man on the moon. Atomic power has been harnessed for peaceful purposes, it is true, but the highly destructive uses to which space is likely to be put during a full-scale war between the giant powers is difficult even to imagine. Space has thus been put by various countries to different uses, both peaceful and dangerous to global security. So far as can be foreseen, the position will continue because of the failure of the major countries to reach any agreement on the uses to which space can be put. Advanced space technologies can certainly be put to fruitful uses such as solving the basic problems of man and society. Grandiose space schemes are however best avoided by less affluent countries, despite its great potentialities. Care by mankind is especially called for because danger constantly lurks in the sky.
32. ORGANISATIONS Official agencies admittedly form an essential constituent of the governmental set-up in every country, but nowhere can they perform all the functions and tasks which the people expect of them. The role which such agencies play has to be supplemented by non-official or voluntary organisations comprising workers inspired by the spirit of social and national service, without any expectations of regular salaries or other material rewards and perquisites. Such agencies make a substantial contribution to positive and constructive activity, 48 filling in the gaps and carrying on other useful activity the importance of which is being increasingly recognised in the modern State.
For several decades the Government of India was indifferent to voluntary organisations. The vital impact of voluntee work during the count freedom struggle was forgotten. Most of the national activity in those years was conducted on a voluntary basis; at best some of the workers received a petty subsistence allowance to keep their body and soul together. In this connection we may recall the work done in the rural areas, caste-ridden societies, the tribal regions, and among women to facilitate their social transformation, by voluntary organisations established by G.K. Gokhale, Mahadev Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai. As a matter of fact, India has for decades been famous for its voluntary agencies, their mechanism and methods of collaboration. Some of the well-known voluntary organisations currently doing valuable public service are the Harijan Sevak Sangh, the Bharatiya Depressed Classes League, the Indian Red Cross Society, the Ramakrishna Mission, the Servants of India Society and the Social Work Centre (Rajasthan). Official recognition of the vital role which non-official agencies can play was indicated recently through the Central Government policy clarification. The Government now seeks the widest possible participation of voluntary organisations in the whole range of nation-building and development activity. The Government has called for voluntary action for women uplift, child welfare, family planning, and in health, sanitation, educational, social and economic fields. This alone can involve massive involvement in programmes; in fact, such schemes are ineffective unless mass participation and community action are assured. In the area of rural reconstruction and poverty eradication, in particular, the contribution of voluntary organisations has been considerable. These workers command the local peop confidence while officials of various categories are regarded as outsiders merely carrying on their prescribed duties and then disappearing like birds of passage.
Voluntary bodies, especially those working at the grassroots level, can render service of which official agencies and their staff are incapable. Unfortunately, many high officials, for reasons which smack of prejudice and mistrust, dislike voluntary organisations. During the Emergency (1975-77), for instance, most of the voluntary agencies became suspect. Very often there is lack of encouragement by the Government and the necessary atmosphere conducive to voluntary work is lacking. As a result, according to a recent study, substantial funds sanctioned under various schemes for voluntary work have remained unutilised.
It is now officially conceded that the selection of intended beneficiaries (the individuals and groups for whom certain economic assistance and constructive employment programmes are drawn up) is better in every way and the peop genuine participation is also greater if voluntary agencies are brought into the picture in a planned manner. Implementation of Government programmes implemented through officials suffers from various shortcomings and deficiencies bureaucratic attitudes, red-tapism, delays, complacency, lack of earnestness and of sincerity among the workers, waste and leakage of funds, corruption. No wonder the overall results are poor despite the heavy expenditure. Human beings are nowhere perfect, but experience has shown that voluntary workers, especially when they are given certain incentives, provided with the requisite facilities and are not looked upon with disfavour by officials, can ensure better results in the social and economic arenas. They have shown initiative as well as 49 enterprise. They have adopted new paths and motivated large sections of the masses while officials are able to create only temporary fervour and enthusiasm. The tragedy is that many voluntary organisations, except those which enjoy the patronage of high-ups at the Central or State levels, have been compelled to fold up owing to several adverse circumstances, including intense rivalries and lack of adequate funds and workers. Unless they are regarded as partners in progress and accorded their due place (just as the role of the private sector in the planned economy is described as vital), they cannot function without let or hindrance. Since the field is now wide open for voluntary organisations, the prospects of expediting national reconstruction are brighter. 33. EXPERIENCE OF A JOINT FAMILY The word f comes from the Latin word f which means household. This was truly applicable to a joint family in India. Living together under the same roof with grandparents, their sons and grandsons, with their wives and children, is indeed a unique experience, especially in Indian villages. The earnings of every adult member go into a common fund or pool out of which all expenditure is incurred.
The final authority in family matters is the grandfather, but the grandmother has authority over all the younger women in the family. There was extended kinship in the real sense of the word. Family ties were close and highly commendable. There is a common kitchen and there is no question of even newly married couples having separate arrangements for cooking and eating food. The parental hold on the children was remarkable; defiance of elders was unthinkable. There was total and genuine respect for all elders, and firm discipline was maintained. Joint families, like the autonomous village community and the caste system, were distinctive features of the Indian social structure for centuries. Since all the members were joint sharers in the common property of the family, inheritance was by survivorship and the principle of primogeniture, the eldest son succeeding to the property of his father on the latt demise. Women seldom enjoyed equality of status. In fact, they were all too preoccupied with domestic duties and chores to think of rights and privileges. But the joint family system has been rapidly breaking up in India as a result of the increasing individualistic and independent attitudes of grown-up children. In a joint family there is no scope for individual initiative or enterprise. My experience has been that there is far too much of suppression, implicit, blind obedience to the eldest memb dictates, even when these commands are irrational, biassed and disciminative in nature and impact. A joint family allows for no argument, dissent or discussion; it is all command on one side and obedience on the other. Disobedience is almost unimaginable. There is seldom any case of a rebel, defiant child. After marriage, I found that we had all to eat what was cooked in the common family kitchen, whether the food was to our taste or not. In fact in no aspect of life was there individual freedom. Personal choice in any matter was virtually ruled out. It all amounted to a silent, rigid life. The women had hardly any liberty to move out of the house or dress as they pleased, or to establish friendship with other women of their age group. The social inhibitions were many; personal liberties few. The caste system further imposed social restrictions. Every member, male or female, was bound by the customs, traditions and culture to which the elders were habituated. Little wonder that there was no opportunity for the development of individual personality. Life was dull and boring; there was no variety, 50 which is rightly regarded as the spice of life. Nor was every one happy and contented though the system had perforce to be accepted as inevitable, as if ordained by God.
There certainly was social and economic security for all members. No member of the joint family, elder and youngster, had to bother about food and shelter problems which cause a great deal of worry to people who are living separately and entirely on their own limited resources.
Expenditure on illness also came from the common kitty. But this didn ensure happiness always. Each couple in olden times had a fairly large number of children, the belief being that there would be shelter and food for every additional pair of hands. The fires of the common kitchen would be kept burning all the day through. The feeding system was very much like the community kitchen. As compared to the busy, crowded joint family establishment in sprawling, though old-fashioned, badly ventilated and congested ancestral mansions, the small, separate homes of couples choosing to live away from their parents often look like empty she when both husband and wife are away to work. Under the traditional joint family system, women were never allowed to take up employment elsewhere, though many of them worked on the f jointly owned farm, small or big. But in modern times, women, both before and after marriage, take up employment in offices and factories to supplement the family income. In joint families there was no incentive for supplementing the parent or husband income; nor was there any eagerness to maintain or enhance the standard of living. In the joint family one had to suffer silently; no voices were raised and no protests were made. Joint families are wholly unsuitable for modern social and economic conditions. As was inevitable, the system has broken up in most places under the mounting modern pressures of various types. There are very few exceptions of joint families now, and even these may not last long.
34. INDIAN CINEMA: GOOD VS BAD Hindi masala films are cinematic litter. In order to accept them, one must exercise willing suspension of disbelief Even then a sensitive viewer gets shifty at senseless scenes, situations and characters. Often, all three in a combination. The viewer cannot help craving for the credible. Barring the mindless masses who see films for catharsis, our viewers expect cinema which has at least some semblance reality, at least. The means films which mirror our time.
True, there is difficulty in rendering masala films as interpretors of the contemporary society. Thus, cinema has been imbalanced and grotesque. Some bits of reality are portrayed but they are outclassed by perversities, distortions, and inanities. An armless Sanjeev Kumar subjugating Gabbar Singh is pitiable than heroic.
There is truth in this contention. There are few realistic films on India, 80% of which lives in villages. There is a glut of those dealing with lusty, greedy zaminars and money-lenders. Yet, the bulk of 80% population lives in villages, and the modernisation process touches them only marginally. The dramatic changes this brings about in the life of a family and changes in human relationships and values, are ignored. Garam Hawa, a tragic cinematic essay on the life of a family in the wake of the partition, falls into good, realistic category. 51 Also, some of the features of present history have never been dramastised in the fiction format (life is springboard for fiction), while incidental and unexceptional subjects are repeated by our high-budget film- makers.
In this mindless masala stuff, the less articulate sections of society are overlooked. This does not mean that they are the least important, or that their share in shaping contemporary life is unimportant. They are often confined to documentaries. Violent and crime films are the pet themes. Despite the unfortunate spurt in crime, the proportion of murders in our midst is mercifully not as formidable as it is made out to be! Killings, lootings, rapes, according to our cinema, strike again and again. Crime pays in seeking social justice, has become the most popular line in Hindi showbusiness world.
The treatment in any populist crime film is akin to near-perfect. The implications look impressive, until one sees how non-committal the maker is. Each case of so-called injustice appears to bbe an isolated case, suggesting vendetta and violence as only possible solutions. Nothing could be more artificial and non-realistic than this anti-social approach. One reason of lack of realism in Hindi films is its unwillingness to grapple with real issues. On the contrary, there is all too familiar willingness to embrace cliches which cover its lack of moral or artistic content and conviction.
In some films, the honourabl job is assigned to the heroine as in Zakhmi Aurat and Insaf Ki Devi. The characterization is laughable, if not sad! The hero becomes an appendage unwanted like the sixth finger! Projection of women is another sickening aspect of our films. Whether it is mother, sister, wife, mistress, beloved or vamp, it is the same story of a character distorted into grotesque proportions.
Mother is a door-mat, a self-sacrificing woman who puts t to shame. Much the same could be said of the sister who, in any case, is wronged and seduced by bad characters. The love girl is sex personified. She wears less clothing but more seductive smiles. She gets chased in public parks, school or college is teased and tormented all in the name of pyar and finally surrenders to her tormentor. She f in love! Absurdity touches its acme when a decent woman goes out for a job. She at once runs into smugglers, pistol- wielding goondas and ruffians who take her to the oldest profession. Love is a nobel sentiment. What happens on the silver screen? Anything but silvery. Women do fall in love. But they do not fall the way they fall in our films. She sheds all inhibitions. She sings, dances and does all sorts of things, even in public parks. Never mind if she is a doctor, a professor or a highly placed person in society. All that matters is love. It is dil and sachi mohabaat. The tragedy is that our makers cannot bring the film story down to the level of everyday reality. Reasons are: poor scripts, lack of human depth and directors who have no mastery over their crafts manship. 52 Traditional film-making in India has remained in a perpetual quagmir It did not call for evolution of new sysmbols, but the pinpointing of familiar fragments of visible reality and endowing them with a particular meaning in a particular context. The audience is expected to see (read) a film in the way its maker wants it to see. 35. INFLUENCE OF FILMS ON YOUNG PEOPLE Going to the pictures has now become a craze with young people, both boys and girls, and it has been noticed that they often economise on other items of expenditure but they must see films every week, if not twice or thrice a week. A healthy hobby is, of course, to be welcomed but seeing films too frequently is far from such a hobby. This fast growing habit is not only expensive (because of the high rates of admission to cinema halls) but also results in considerable waste of precious time which can certainly be devoted to healthier, less wasteful and more gainful pursuits. If Indian films had been well and properly made, with a sound educative theme forming a part of the story, the harm done to youth would have been much less than it actually is. But the tragedy is that most Indian films present scenes of sex, violence, crime and other deviations from normal human behaviour. The pernicious influence of films is thus obvious. When grossly vulgar and crude romantic scenes are presented on the screen, along with songs and duets, and when boys are shown chasing girls, indulging in improper jokes, and singing catchy, lilting tunes, it is no wonder that young boys imitate the screen heroes in everyday life and try to turn what they see in films into realities. Education and other experts have repeatedly found that the main source of eve-teasing and assaults on girls in our towns and cities, in the market place and elsewhere, is the cinema. Young people see on the screen a hero running after a heroine, approaching and tempting her in subtle ways. Such talk and gestures naturally catch the attention of the immature cinema fans and affect their thinking and conduct. Thus the social fabric and the morals of the young people are adversely affected.
The efforts of parents and teachers to give their boys and girls sound education and to teach them good, ethical behaviour and good morals in order that they may become good citizens are thus defeated. The parent own hard-earned money is spent by their grown-up boys and girls in seeing films which have an adverse impact on character and morals, apart from queering the pitch for the training for good citizenship. The cinema, it is said, can serve as a good medium of education and instruction, and the message that can be conveyed through films cannot be conveyed as effectively through any other channel, such as the radio, because of the colourful, visual impact made by gorgeously dressed girls conducting themselves in a particular fashion, defying their parents and guardians, challenging their judgement, describing them as old- fashioned etc., walking out of their houses at odd hours and sometimes marrying the hero secretly and then creating awkward situations or giving major shocks to their parents. The love scenes, the amorous couples, the stereotyped formula stories and the eternal triangle all create an effect that is far from healthy or conducive to good morals and good conduct. The modern cinema propagates false social values and specialises in presenting artificial situations, far too much of make-believe, deception and hypocrisy. The tragedy is that the general standard of Indian films, poor as it has been, has been deteriorating in recent years. The trend is towards imitating Western films with their faminine liberties, free mixing up of the sexes which violate Indian culture, cabaret scenes and semi- 53 naked human postures. Young boys and girls are attracted by the affluence and glamour they see on the screen, and there are many cases of youth either running away from home or pressing their parents to let them go to Bombay to take up the film line. Each cinema-crazy boy and girl (especially those having an attractive personality) thinks he or she can prosper like the heroes and the t seen on the screen. All the stories they hear of top st being paid lakhs of rupees for each film and living in grand style proves irresistible. Thousands of young boys and girls have virtually ruined themselves in the senseless quest for becoming cinema tar . Only a handful of talented actors and actresses prosper, while most of the young aspirants have to face intense frustration and utter disappointment because everyone cannot become a cinema hero or heroine. Most of them have to remain content with secondary or supporting roles, sometimes not even that.
Another notable aspect of the situation is that whenever some enterprising producer presents a simple, true-to-life story, based on the works of famous short story or fiction writers as Prem Chand or Sarat Chandra, such films, and also art films free of glamour, seldom prove successful and prove to be flops at the box office. The modern audiences want songs and dances, spectacle and gorgeous costumes, love scenes and fights. What sort of citizens can the country hope to produce when the films the young see are totally misleading, lack aesthetical values. The film censors also seem to be more liberal than ever and allow sex and violent scenes which have a bad effect on the mental make-up of youth. Visiting the cinemas too often at the cost of class lectures and by missing lectures also spoil the education of youth. Instead of imbibing the basic virtues of life, our youth begin to think of flirting and seducing, like the screen heroes. The youth imbibe negative social values. Both rural and urban youth thus fall victims to vicious temptations. It is not contended that there should be a total ban on films. But steps should certainly be taken to see that good instructive films are made, not trash and ruinous presentations merely to cater to cheap tastes.
36. SOCIAL OF FILM-MAKERS India is one of the world major film producers, next only, in respect of the number of motion pictures produced, to the U.S.A. and Japan. Moreover, in a country like India where the literacy percentage is only 36, the cinema and television (TV) are the best and the most effective audio-visual media; they open the flood-gates of communication and heighten the effectiveness and acceptability of the message sought to be conveyed. The cinema in particular is the easiest medium to reach the masses in the country because television is confined largely to the urban areas, the community reception centres in the rural areas being very limited and these, too, not in full working order. But the quality of Indian films is distinctly poor; the stories and the method of presentation of various situations are hackneyed and obsolete. They conform to a set, all-too-familiar formula, the departures being few and far between, and where certain film producers show initiative and try to present make a bold breakthrough in a bid to create pictures of great social utility, the lack of adequate responses by the audiences (poor box-office returns) act as a damper and a source of discouragement. The result is a return to commercialisation, the craze for the box-office, cheap popularity and the demand of the masses so as to make profits or at least to ensure satisfactory returns on the heavy investment generally made in the productions, partly because of the fabulous fees of the top st the attractive leading heroes and heroines, who dictate their terms and whose names attract large crowds. 54 It is indeed unfortunate that our film producers forget their social responsibility the duty of imparting real education and instruction to the masses, to rid them of superstitions and false beliefs and notions. While films should enlighten them on various issues and thus promote the causes which the Government pursues, they concentrate only on entertainment, dances and songs, cheap love scenes and lilting, catchy tunes. Instead of presenting life as it is and as it should be in a country such as India, our film producers create false values, generally present stories of affluent classes, of life in bungalows and palaces, gorgeous dresses and costumes, eye-catching dresses and artificial situations far removed from the actualities of Indian life. The craze for Western styles of dress and living, the cabarets and the dances, etc., also reflect a failure to discharge the film produc ocial responsibility. The cinema can certainly act as an effective and highly useful instrument of social change, a change in the outmoded attitudes and customs, especially in the rural areas. Instead, Indian films lay stress on deportment and dating (open or secret meetings of handsome boys and girls) by the urban youth. It is true that traditions die hard and that social change is a matter of evolution and is a time-consuming process. Social reformers often use the religious cover to usher in radical ideas and propagate a noble ideology. The cinema is unrivalled in many ways as a communications medium, but whatever little it does by way of conveying sound and healthy messages is confined, by and large, to the urban and the semi-urban areas. The real fulfilment of social responsibility is needed in the rural areas where, unfortunately, only the cheap and worn-out films permeate, mostly because of the lack of good theatres and cinema halls. It must be recognised, however, that Hindi films, or rather Hindustani films, have helped to command an all- India market, thus making this language popular and understandable in all parts of the country. It is a factor worth noting that even in Tamil Nadu and certain other South Indian areas, where there is a strong anti- Hindi fervour, Bombay-made Hindi films are popular. It is true, however, that if the cinema is to institute the desired social changes, the regional films must conform more and more to the national ethos. Through well- developed techniques the films in regional languages can be dubbed It is also a notable and highly regrettable fact that the Indian cinema remains, by and large, reactionary and hence incapable of discharging its social duty. Like all industrialists, film makers too have a distinct social responsibility, and they must not forget their duty towards society in their craze for making profits by all popular techniques, even by pampering to cheap tastes of the masses. They reflect a deplorable lack of the sense of citizenship when they make cheap, substandard films merely because these bring them more profits. Our films seldom give adequate food for serious thought.
37. FILMS AND INDIAN CULTURE The cinema is unrivalled as a mass communication medium in a country of Ind dimensions and diversities, especially in rural areas. India produces more films every year than any other country except the U.S.A., whose cinema city Hollywood is widely known as the world biggest centre of its kind and a trend setter on the silver screen. But the tragedy is that most of the Indian films, whether in Hindi or in the various regional languages, depict scenes of luxurious life in palatial houses or the five-star culture associated with artificial living and the most prosperous section of society.
These films present scenes of violent crime and other types of abnormal behaviour, besides incredible situations. True-to-life stories, reflecting the normal conditions in the country, are filmed only once in a 55 while. For the most part, it is false, misleading glamour all the way, costumes, ultra-modern make-up and deportment and Western ways of living, with pop music, cabaret scenes, sensual dances and romantic episodes are seductively presented. These create false impressions, arouse abnormal feelings, promote eve-teasing and in some cases prompt criminal acts. Indian film-makers often copy Western films, and think that scenes showing semi-naked, attractive girls jumping about, displaying their ware and running after each other, can ensure commercial success. It is the lure of the box office that has turned films into an instrument for exploitation of the masses by catering to the baser instincts.
Indian social standards and our cultural values are totally different, but so distorted have the tastes of the cinema goers become that films which are based on harsh Indian realities, rather than the world of make- believe and hypocrisy, do not become popular and have to be taken off after short runs of a week or two. Such films prove to be losing propositions.
The formula for popularity adopted by almost all film producers comprises colourful song-and-dance sequences, with catchy tunes thrown in on every possible occasion. Surely these do not represent Indian culture. While parents and sincere teachers try to instruct children on the right lines, stressing the importance of truth, character, honesty, devotion to duty, ethical values, good morals and respect for elders, the films are based on unrealistic stories and depict situations which are wholly un-Indian. Culture is a source of ultimate values held by a particular society which it seeks to express in its institutions, feelings, art and artistic creations. But our films seem totally differnt from Indian art and Indian ethos, knowledge and essential unity of outlook. Young boys and girls are very fond of seeing modern films (they even miss school or college classes and play truant at other places), and the effect on their character and general mental approach towards life is often ruinous. They seem to think that living in grand style, dressing as film stars do and reckless indulgence in wasteful entertainment are all part of life which they should try to emulate. No wonder all the efforts of the Government and of sensible parents to make good citizens out of the younger generations misfire.
Like most industrialists, businessmen and profiteers, Indi film producers forget their social responsibilities. Through films they can help build character and inculcate commendable qualities. They can promote the efforts to rid the country of superstitions and obsolete beliefs. They can enlighten the masses by educating them even while providing entertainment. But they do no such thing. Their emphasis is almost exclusively on cheap, frivolous entertainment. Cultural traditions have been almost drowned in commercial gimmicks. Moreover, the quality of Indian films continues to deteriorate. There is no sign of a renaissance in the Indian cinema. Scenes of violence are being continually presented on the silver screen as if villains indulging in the use of the gun and fighting hand-to-hand battles are an important of our cultural background. It is true that Indian culture is not all spiritual or religious or wholly asceticism. But it does stand for high ideals of duty and conduct and for noble ideals. It has a universality of outlook and has promoted a synthesis even when confronted with conflicting views. Most Indian films do not reflect this culture. The censors have failed to protect the interests of the young (who constitute the majority of cinema goers today), or to prevent the repeated cinemative onslaughts on Indian culture. Those who argue that it is quite unrealistic to shield young people from the facts of aggression and violence forget that exaggeration of such 56 evils certainly develops a wrong perspective in the minds of those who are exposed to such depiction almost week by week. It is no surprise that countless Indians have imbibed negative social values which are wholly contradictory to Indian culture. 38. JUDGE A MAN BY THE WAY HE SPENDS LEISURE A man or woman free time, when there is nothing specific to do and no duty to perform may be described as his or her leisure. It is generally agreed that leisure enables a person to do what one likes sleep, walk about, go for an adventure and be wholly oneself for some time. Without some leisure life would become a heavy burden and totally unbearable. It would not be wrong to say that there would be hardly any art, literature, crafts, poetry or philosophy if there is no leisure, for all these are the products of spare time when there is no restriction or limitation. Diversity in various areas of activity also depends on leisure; the more the leisure the greater the diversity, and the more the colour in the countr fe and living.
But it is possible to judge the culture, education and mental development of a person by the way he spends his leisure. Those who merely while away or waste time twiddling their thumbs or remaining idle, or sleeping for long hours even after a good night rest, or spend their spare time quarrelling with members of their family or just loaf about cannot be called a cultured or mentally developed people. He is ignorant and of human values a wasteful type; for, leisure has also to be meaningfully and purposefully utilised. When we are much too busy with our daily chores, either in office, factory or at home, to read the books we like or indulge in other constructive and gainful activity, or attend to the duties remaining after the previous day s or week busy schedule, we show a lack of the true sense of citizenship and unawareness of how leisure should be utilised. Obviously, leisure should be treated as opportunity for fruitful activity and creativeness. It is through creativity, the feeling that we have achieved something in a healthy sphere of human activity that we can promote our and our fa well being. Time is undoubtedly the most precious thing on earth; it can never be called back; one hour or a day wasted is gone for ever, never to return. The hours and the minutes tickle past us constantly, and it is said that time and tide wait for no one. This realisation should make us all fully conscious of the value of time and of leisure, for leisure is, after all, time that we spend according to our choice. And our culture and capacity, our education and our sense of good citizenship are all reflected in the use we make of leisure.
There are people who are so material minded, and so anxious to earn and save money, that they believe leisure should be utilised for supplementing earnings so as to make up for the deficit in the family budget caused by inadequate incomes and ever-mounting expenditure and prices. But that would mean taking a narrow and worldly view of leisure. Repetitive tasks certainly lead to boredom, and the frantic continuation of the money-earning process, by working overtime or taking up some other boring work during the leisure hours, merely adds to the burdens of life. In such cases there would be no difference between regular working days and on holidays during which we should have some change in our occupation and enrich our minds in one way or the other.
Of course, too much leisure means mere idleness and is hardly helpful in on life. Leisure and rest are appreciated only when there is enough work during the rest of the week or the month. Excess or surfeit of 57 leisure is, therefore, inadvisable; there must be a sense of proportion, that is, a period of sustained work, followed by a break or rest or change, to refresh the mind and the body. Strain during days or hours of leisure defeats the very purpose of providing leisure and giving holidays.
Typical examples of people merely wasting their leisure are provided by the count youth who have many weeks of vacation every year from the colleges and universities but do little constructive work either for their own mental and intellectual enrichment or for the social good. Efforts have been made at many centres of education to persuade the students to take to useful activity, according to their taste or preference, during the long summer vacations, but very limited success has been achieved in this area. Our youth prefer to waste time in gossip, scandalous talk, personal, defamatory or libellous conversation, outright censure and condemnation of everyone else, not excluding their own teachers, Principals, and sometimes their parents. That, surely, is gross abuse of precious leisure. All the talk of enjoyin on holidays contains many wrong notions about leisure. One can enjo leisure even while doing some other useful work, such as social service, helping the weak, the handicapped elders and the hapless, educating the illiterate. In our country the vast majority urgently need instruction and enlightenment from those who are better placed in life and have had the benefit of education. And yet it is the height of callousness and a distinct failure of on duty as a wideawake citizen if we are selfish and ignore our social responsibility because there is no punishment of any kind yet devised by even the most powerful administrator or dictator for those who k time and waste their leisure. But this does not mean that we should become irresponsible and wasteful or that we would behave and conduct ourselves better only under the fear of some punishment. A person mental, moral and intellectual development can be judged by this yardstick. Does he know how to make the best possible use of leisure? Of course there is no uniformity in this area; people can, and do, use their leisure hours differently depending upon their circumstances. But while a good intelligent citizen uses his leisure gainfully, a bad, careless and irresponsible citizen merely wastes his time when there is leisure. Examples have been known in history of people who have utilised their leisure to overcome their crippling weaknesses and handicaps. The story goes that in ancient Greece, Demosthenes, who was a stammerer and was conscious of his handicap even though he wanted to become a great orator, overcame his handicap during his spare time by putting pebbles in his mouth, shouting and speaking hour after hour against the noise of the sea waves. After some time he discovered that, as a result of the prolonged practice he could speak clearly, fairly well and without stammering. Leisure thus can be used to overcome deficiencies, and add an extra dimension to our character and capacities. It all depends on how we spend it. 39. AND CRIME Everyday the morning papers bring news of dacoities and murders, kidnappings and rapes, hold-ups of trains and hijackings of planes, adulteration of foodstuffs, drugs and even of poisons. All this makes one sit up and wonder whether crime is inseparable from civilized life. We appear to live on an earth of well-dressed gangs.
Men have been barbarians much longer than they have been civilized. They are only precariously civilized and deep within them there is the propensity, persistent as the force of gravity to revert to our first natures. 58 Small wonder that under stress and strain the most civilized people are as near barbarism as the most polished steel is to rust. Nations, like metals have only a superficial brilliancy. Compared with our wonderful progress in physical service and practical applications, our system of government, of administering justice of national education, and our whole social and moral organization, remains in a state of barbarism. The wealth and knowledge and culture of the few do not constitute civilization. Shaw has castigated our superficial civilization in words bitter but true: Our laws make law impossible; our liberties destroy all freedom; our property is organized robbery; our morality is an impudent hypocrisy; our wisdom is administered by in-experinced or mal-exeprienced dupes, our power wielded by cowards and weaklings, and our honour false in all its points.
Crime and violence are inherent in our political and social system. The poor are always with u said Christ and the believer reconciled himself to his lot. But the time comes when it is asserted that poverty is man- made and stems from the inequity of the wicked system that obtains. The covert crime begets the overt crime.
The biggest of all crimes that we associate with this civilization is the horror of war. War today is murder on a gigantic scale. At one time it was thought a few hundred corpses would be enough; then came a time when thousands were still too few and today we cannot even count all the dead wherever we look. And the irony is that this large-scale killing, this organized butchery is eulogized in glowing terms, and Victoria Crosses are awarded. Besides, being organized murder, war is also organized loot. All efforts are directed towards crippling the economy of the enemy. The atom bomb was thrown not on Tokyo, the capital of Japan but on Hiroshima, the industrial hub of that country. The outcome of war in the modern world is unpayable debts, repudiations, ruined investments, the utter disorganization of finance, the collapse of the monetary system, the disappearance of the greater part of foreign trade, and, usually, on top of it, revolution from below. Here then is a crime which does not pay. The crimes of extreme civilization are probably worse than those of extreme barbarism, because of their refinement, the corruption they presuppose and their superior degree of intellectuality. The barbarian hacked the enemy to pieces; the civilized man tortures him mentally, wins him financially and then, if necessary liquidates him physically. Politicians are past masters in this sordid game. The barbarian was cruel but open-handed, his descendant today is no less cruel but hypocritical. The barbarian was a beast, with beastly appetites. He was a tiger, an ape, a camel, a goat in turn, whatever suited the occasion. After all it was a struggle for survival, for him. He acted like an automation. There was no consciousness of crime. The modern civilized man perpetrates crime deliberately. He hoards foodstuffs with a view to selling them at the opportune moment. And in the meantime millions are starved to death. Bengal famine was a glaring example of this sordid game. The civilized man stabs in the dark. His crimes wear a thick cloak. 40. CONCEPT AND OF HUMAN RIGHTS Human suffering and misery in the remotest part of the world invariably affects the whole family of man. Man has to suffer, not only when the part of the world in which he is residing is visited by natural calamities like earthquakes, famines, floods, diseases etc., but occasionally also at the hands of men driven mad by power political, economic or social. In both types of situations response from the rest of humanity is 59 spontaneous. In the former case, it takes the form of efforts to bring relief to the stricken. But whenever man has been made to suffer at the hands of other men, the conscience of humanity has been outraged, and the cry has gone round for some sort of guarantees to afford protection to him against the tyranny of his fellow human beings, so that he can be assured of at least his rights to life, liberty and security of person. Situations in which the call has gone out for such guarantees have arisen when a State has failed to protect foreigners against abuse by local authorities, or has adopted an oppressive or discriminatory attitude towards minorities or racial groups. There are quite a few such black spots in the annals of man. In the nineteenth century, heart-rending tales of atrocities committed by white slave traders on poor, ignorant Africans gave rise to cries of protest in Europe and America. Similarly, the massacre of minorities in some countries in the middle east horrified the world. Nearer our times, before and during World War II, the atrocities perpetrated by Hit Germany on the jews gave rise to wide-spread insistence that some mechanism must be evolved to assure international protection for basic human rights. In fact such demands had been voiced earlier also. Through a series of treaties concluded after World War II, several European countries had accepted special obligations for the protection of racial and religious minorities, and had given the League of Nations the right to supervise the fulfilment of these obligations. But all this could not save thousands of German jews who were exterminated by the Nazis. Therefore, after the Second World War had come to a conclusion and the victors met in San Francisco to draw up the blueprint of a new world free of strike, voices were raised urging that provisions covering human rights should be included in the Charter of the United Nations. As a result, the Conference accepted as one among the purposes of the United Nations to achieve international co-operation... in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for the fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion (Article 1 of the U.N. Charter). The Charter specifically referred t human right and fundamental freedoms at six other places, but it did not go beyond saying that the world body was to promot respect for them and to encourage their observance. Neither did it define these rights and freedoms in precise terms.
As the Charter, thus, did not create any definite obligations for the United Nations to fulfil, the task of drawing up a declaration of general principles and a treaty containing binding obligations was entrusted to a Commission the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Declaration drawn up by the Commission recognized two types of human rights, viz., (i) civil and political, e.g., life, liberty and security of person, freedom from arbitrary arrest, imprisonment or exile, right to a fair trial, freedom of thought, conscience and religion and freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and (ii) economic, social and cultural rights, e.g., rights to work, social security, education, participation in the cultural life of the community, sharing in scientific advancement and its benefits and enjoying the arts. The declaration was adopted by the U.N. General Assembly at its session held in Paris in 1948 and declared to be common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance . Although the Declaration defined human rights, yet there were more than one opinions as to its effect. Some wanted to accord to it the status of an international treaty or agreement whereas there were others who 60 refused to accept it as a statement of legal obligations. In any case, it had served to enunciate in precise terms the obligations which members of the U.N. had already accepted while subscribing to its Charter. On its basis, the General Assembly condemned the apartheid legislation enacted by South Africa as contrary to the Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Right
To make the enforcement of human rights more effective, the General Assembly charged the Commission on Human Rights with drawing up two covenants in treaty form one covering civil and political rights and the other dealing with economic, social and cultural rights. The task was beset with difficulties but the Commission fulfilled it and the two covenants were unanimously adopted by the world today. These covenants define the rights referred to in the Declaration even more precisely and also embody provisions directing signatory States to enforce the civil and political rights through legislative action and provision of adequate remedies against violation of such rights. The enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights has, however, been made contingent upon availability of resources. The ures of implementation embodied in the covenants also envisage arrangements for an international review of the manner in which States carry out their obligations under them. Ultimately, the sanction behind this body of international law which has been created on the subject are the universal dictates of humanity. That is why the Declaration and the relative covenants may sometimes appear to be transgressing a Stat right to deal with its citizens as it sees fit. But till the ideal of one world has been achieved, it is certain that no international organization will be able to over-ride the authority of supreme national bodies in each State. However, it can be expected that States will find inspiration for their attitudes and actions in the standards set by the international community represented in the United Nations. The main instrument at the disposal of the world body is exposure to world public opinion. The reporting procedure under the international covenants is designed to give publicity to the progress made by each country in enforcing human rights and the obstacles it encountered in the process.
Although this is about all that the international community can do to enforce human rights, yet humanity will under-rate the task at its own peril. States which do not recognise basic human rights or deny them to their citizens are, sooner or later, bound to find themselves heading towards political and social unrest. Men cannot hope to rid the world of the scourge of civil and international conflicts nor make it a safe place till they have created for each member of the human race conditions of life which allow for full development and unrestricted use of human intelligence and capabilities, so that man should not only be able to satisfy his physical and spiritual needs, but also seek fulfilment in other ways. Till this has been assured, the fires of strife and conflict will go on smouldering in the world and lasting peace on earth will remain an empty dream, therein lies the significance of human rights and their enforcement. 41. EVILS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION Now-a-days industrialization is regarded as the measure of economic development and material progress achieved by a country. Economists categorise the nations of the world as developed or highly industrialized and developin which means on the way to becoming industrialized. The former are rich in material wealth and their people enjoy high standards of living. As compared to them, the latter are backward and an 61 overwhelming majority of their population is poor. From this it would however be wrong to conclude that industrialization has been an unmixed blessing for man. The process of industrialization can be said to have had its beginnings in Europe in the eighteenth century. It has been continuing ever since in different places and at different times. That is how in the contemporary world we see that whereas countries like the U.S.A. and the West European nations are entering their nd industrial revolutions, late-comers like India and China have just made a start in that direction. The socio-economic impact of industrialization has, however, been similar everywhere. Wherever it has started and as it has progressed, industrialization has brought about a very profound and many-sided transformation in society. It has served to draw away men and women from agriculture, the main occupation of mankind since the beginnings of civilization, and introduced them to new ways of working, living and thinking. This in turn has led to increasing urbanization with its own peculiar problems, development of working class movements, evolution of new state policies suited to the needs of industrialized societies and political changes corresponding with the shift in the centres of economic power. Industrialization has been made possible by the march of science and the progress of technology. But while great strides have been made in technology, international trade has grown manifold, the national wealth of industrialised countries has multiplied and what are generally referred to as tandards o have gone up, man himself has lost more than he has gained in the process.
Besides the changes wrought in men ways of thinking and living, the transformation of agrarian societies into modern industrial societies has also brought in its wake a host of other problems. The transition from the cottage in the countryside to factories in cities was bound to create social tensions. The lure of regular work and wages has induced a large number of men from the rural areas to migrate to the cities. But once they have settled down to the new ways, they find that the drudgery of performing the same task continuously and the new regimen of factory discipline tends to turn them into automatons, reducing them to machines and making the machines their masters. Alongwith the growth of cities has come the problem Writing on the industrial revolution in Europe and the U.S.A., Lewis Mumford has observed that it produced a new barb wherein civilization shifted from an interest in human values to measuring life in material and pecuniary te This has already happened in the western countries and is now happening wherever industrialization is proceeding apace. It has enabled man to produce more, to travel faster and to communicate more rapidly. At the same time it has brought within his reach more material comforts and conveniences. Employment of the techniques of mass production has brought into play the arts of advertising and sales promotion to needs where none existed before. All this has helped in the evolution of the acquisitive society wherein material prosperity, rather than moral stature or intrinsic worth is the yardstick of success for every individual. Instead of finding happiness in limiting their needs, people belonging to affluent society appear to be engaged constantly in trying to outdo each other in the rat-race for more and more of money and material comforts, even at the cost of their sanity. This Midas touch is perhaps the biggest evil resulting from industrialization. It has created in the minds and hearts of men a restlessness which pines for instant rewards. It is very much in evidence in the permissiveness we see in the west and the get-rich-quick mentality which afflicts the young in most of the countries of the third world. All this has been acting as social and spiritual corrosive, undermining both the family and the individual wherever industrialization has been taking place. 62 of slums, known as fertile breeding grounds for crime. In spite of all efforts made to stop their growth, slums have become a necessary adjunct of industry, particularly in under-developed countries where industrial growth has just begun and industry is not yet sufficiently aware of its social responsibilities. In countries in which the pattern of ownership of industry is oligarchical, industrialization has served to accentuate the disparities of wealth and income. The invention and introduction of machinery has no doubt helped man in many ways but as Karl Marx has observed, it has without doubt greatly increased the number of well-to-do id The introduction of labour-saving devices and automation which enables one machine to do the work of many men has served to add to the difficulties of labour and also to create a new social phenomenon: chronic mass Instead of being used always to help and ease human effort, in order to increase profits, it is quite often employed to snatch bread out of the mouths of millions willing to work.
The economic imbalance created by industrialization has had deep ramifications at all levels from the individual to the international. The mania for mass-production which gripped Europe in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries gave birth to economic imperialism and launched European nations like Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany and others on the path of exploiting the weaker and unorganized races of the world and ultimately subjugating them. It plunged a large number of countries in Asia and Africa into slavery for several generations. To a very great extent, it is the insatiable material ambition of the industrialized or developed nations which has repeatedly led to global and international conflicts in the twentieth century. Great strides in scientific research and technology have enabled man to bring into use new basic materials, to develop new sources of power, to invent new machines and to evolve better and faster methods of transportation and communication. He claims to have gained mastery over nature but the outcry now being heard against increasing environmental pollution and progressive depletion of natural resources available to man shows how nature has been suffering on account of thoughtless human intervention in its recycling process ever since industrialization became the vogue. The problem did not assume serious proportions as long as the damage was containable and not beyond self-repair. But with the spectacular technological break-through accomplished during and after the second world war, those limits were exceeded. It is the highly developed nations of the world which have benefited most from this breakthrough and it was in their domains that environmental pestilence bred by advanced technology first raised its head. The outcry against environmental pollution has been the loudest in the U.S.A. which is one of the two most industrially advanced countries. The bye-products of industrialization, e.g., industrial wastes, discarded packaging material and other junk, and exhaust fumes from automobiles have contaminated the atmosphere so much that school-children are warned against deep breathing as dangerous to health. Fears have been expressed that the rapid combustion of fossil fuels for power and the increasing invasion of the stratosphere by aircraft are rapidly changing the earth heat balance about which men know very little, and this may well bring on a new ice-age or cause a deluge.
Environmental pollution following in the wake of growing industrialization is by no means a phenomenon peculiar to the U.S.A. alone. It is a worldwide problem. In India, the pollution of the Ganga by emissions from the Barauni oil refinery a few years ago led to a public outcry. The profound changes which the relationship between man and his environment has been undergoing as the pace of industrialization has grown faster, 63 and the continuing and accelerating impairment of the biosphere by modern scientific and technological developments have been causing international concern for quite some time now.
At the root of most of the socio-cultural, economic, and ecological evils of industrialization is a wrong order of priorities which places man and his welfare below pecuniary benefits which can be derived from modern technology. 42. RELATIONS BETWEEN ART AND LIFE Art is life, not something to be placed in a shrine and substituted for life. Actually, art is an effort to create, besides the real world, a more human entity. Moreover, a true work of art is but a shadow of the divine perfection. Indeed, even those who regard art as an ideal and artists as idealists cannot deny that art is a faithful mirror of the life and civilisation of a period. Everyone concedes what Nehru said that Indian civilisation of the past periods was full of life; it created things of beauty, the arts flourished, and the echoes reached distant countries. Nehru was also stating the reality when he said that the art of a people is a true mirror of their minds. Both arts and crafts have indeed close connections with life; there is no line of demarcation between arts, crafts and life when the arts have really been an integral constituent of the peopl daily existence. Obviously, it is impossible to separate art, or the arts, from life; they are a part and parcel of it. The idea can also be expressed by saying that when life declines and the standards of living deteriorate, art also declines. On the other hand, when life marks an upward swing and shows all-round improvement, such an upswing inevitably gets reflected in the arts. It is during the regimes of eminent influential kings and emperors, Maharajas and Nawabs in history, especially during the Golden Age, that the arts, such as painting, music, dance and crafts of various types prospered. Who bothers about art and the artists when there is poverty and destitution all round, when the rulers are constantly engaged in internecine warfare or struggles for power during which art is the first casualty? This is also true of the age of exploitation, colonial, imperial or other. To say that art is only confined to the artist the painter, the sculptor, the dancer, the musician, the singer or other craftsman is to take a needlessly rigid and restricted view. Real art is all-round illumination and adds stature to life. The object of art, it has been well said, is to crystallise human emotions into thought, and then fix it in a concrete form. After all, a painter thinks, reflects for a long time, tries to imagine something good and great, has a vision or a dream, and then draws a picture, a drawing or moulds clay or metal into a figure he has dreamed or thought of. Since dreams, thoughts and visions are all a part of our life, art is also very much a part of our existence. Even the illusions, which often get reflected in masterpieces of art, can be entertained only by human beings of talent and cannot, therefore, be separated from life. Those who seek to present a higher reality are, after all, human beings and very much a part of life and society. Some people contend that art is mere copying Nature, but this is a fallacious belief. It is true that much of art is the result of inspiration derived from Nature and from what one sees around oneself the hills, the rivers, the seas, the beautiful environment, the creatures of God such as birds and butterflies, etc. not to mention human beings themselves. But even then art is linked with life and living.
An unfortunate aspect of life in the modern world is that misconceptions about art and artists, and about their role, have been spreading fast. Anyone, it is said, who finds a way to make a lamp or some other artistic 64 piece out of a Campa-Cola bottle gets more protection than a humble man who creates a work of real art. There is indeed a distortion of values in the world of art; really talented artists often starve because of the lack of patronagte by those who lead a life devoted to unartistic activity. An artist who revolts against man s fate in life may or may not get adequate encouragement. Moreover, what passes for rt in today world may in reality be fraud or cheap imitation of a masterpiece. Again, is it not true that the measure of the creator is the amount of life he puts into his work. A real work of art has to be full of life; if it is lifeless and soulless or dull, it evidently lacks life. Who can deny that a painting or a piece of sculpture has great appeal if it is life-like, emanating vigour and activity and if it inspires human feelings. Besides, the real artist is he who does not cater to cheap tastes or panders to the low, inhuman or base instincts of men and women. If an artist sells himself for the baser things, he is a traitor to art.
True art grasps, rediscovers and reveals to us reality which human beings tend to forget and from which we often seek to get away. Often the reality is harsh; even that serves as a reminder of what we are prone to ignore. When the reality is pleasant, and artistic creations please, we begin to appreciate art, not otherwise. Art, like most human beings, is temperamental; it is no secret that artists, poets and musicians work when they get the requisite inspiration. Dictation and imposition of authority are what art and artists firmly resent. In this sense art is an intense form of individualism. Even so, art should never seek popularity; on the contrary the people should try to value art and make themselves artistic as far as they can. Life itself is an art, and though artists and poets may seem visionaries, they have a specific and distinct role to play. The irony, however, is that if art and artists continue to live in a world of their own, far removed from life, they may have to starve unless they are able to get permanent and affluent patrons. Art and artists are now being patronised and encouraged by the Government of India and the State Governments. But official patronage alone cannot be a lasting guarantee of the prosperity of art; the people themselves must learn to appreciate art in whichever form it comes before them. Life itself is an art. The swing of the pendulum may raise art to the skies or bring it down crashing to the earth. Experimentation is what art thrives on, and such experimentation, as in science, ultimately proves highly beneficial to society. The progress in art reveals the progress of a country and its innermost character. The relationship is, therefore, intimate and is becoming increasingly obvious. 65 Descriptive Questions - English 1. What effective/pragmatic steps would you suggest to protect under in India? Ans. There is nothing more damning and deplorable than the fact that it is not just Ind national animal t which is in danger at the hands of poachers but other animals in the wild such as elephants, rhinos and critically endangered gharials who are equally under threat of being poached and rendered extinct in the years to come. Official figures, if not fudged, suggest in no uncertain terms that Ind wildlife has been under threat for quite some time. A few steps taken by the Central and State governments, it seems to our dismay, have not deterred the poachers and others of their ilk from playing havoc with Ind diverse and unique wildlife spread across the landscape of varying shapes and colours, climate and topography. The wake-up c is there to rise and act now or never. There is no option but to address the problem in all seriousness by taking such effective and pragmatic steps as are urgently required to protect our wildlife before it gets too late to mend the matters
In order to meet the challenge that the depleting number of tigers in the country posed, the Finance Minister announced a special grant of Rs 50 crore in the Budget (2008-09) to raise a tiger protection force and thus enable the National Tiger Conservation Authority to redouble efforts to protect the big cat In the case of gharials the reason for their decline over the years has been attributed to possibility of nephrotoxin entering the food chain and loss of habitat due to illegal sand mining. These aberrations, coupled with poaching, shrinking of the forest areas as a result of urbanization, mining and industrialization need to be rectified by devising such ways and means as are practical and do not come in the way of economic development The constitution of multidisciplinary Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau, comprising officers from the police, forest, customs and other enforcement agencies, is one of the most effective ways to control illegal trade in wildlife. An increase in patrolling and co-ordination with other law-enforcing agencies at the State level can go a long way in addressing the problem and thus protecting the wild-life in India
2. Suggest some steps to make urban life in India safe and free from the menace of crime and violence Ans. There is no denying that urban India is getting congested and crowded beyond its known means of tackling day-to-day needs of its people, as a result of which the entire urban scenario tends to get vitiated with all hues and hypes of crime and violence. The ground realities call for deep introspection on the part of those who are supposed to run the affairs of the State and take such suitable and stringent steps as can ensure safety for urban citizens, both at homes and on the roads. It is nobod demand that we should have a utopian State where milk and honey flows and people can leave their hearths and homes unlocked without any trace of anxiety and angst on their faces. What a civilised society like ours requires is an atmosphere of reasonable safety and security in the fast growing urban milieu. In order to realize such an ambience of peace, certain measures have to be taken to establish the rule of law where it has either been allowed to disappear or implemented half heartedly 66 No doubt, urban India offers a multitude of opportunities, both for those who come to earn as also to those who are eager to learn. Coupled with this rosy side of the picture, is the growing perception that there are too many hazards that urban dwellers have to face day in and day out
The increasing incidents of chain/purse snatchings, road-rage, dacoities, house break-ins, coldblooded murder of elderly people by domestic help, thefts of two/four wheelers with impunity, are some of the dark spots that send the chill down the spine of urban dwellers. Eve-teasing and molestation of women, kidnapping of children are all signs of a worsening law and order situation In order to meet the menace head-on and make urban life safe, it is incumbent on law enforcing agencies to strengthen their intelligence network and the urban dwellers, particularly the women to be vigilant all the time
The tendency on the part of powers-that-b to remit sentences of those undergoing jail-terms for serious crimes, is not only a practice bad in law but also suspect in intent and purpose. Such an uncalled- for generosity should be avoided because it sends a wrong signal to other prospective law-breakers 3. In the opinion of legal luminaries, victims of crime must get justice. Comment Ans. Under our judicial system, the court proceedings are influenced by direct or circumstantial evidence and in some high profile cases witnesses turn hostile as a result of which the victims of crime are left high and dry. If the crux and soul of the proposition under discussion says that victims of crime must get justice under all circumstance, it is certainly the crying need of the hour
When legal luminaries and people at large say that victims of crime must be given justice, to strengthen their confidence in the administration of justice, they are absolutely in tune with the spirit and mainstay of the edifice of judicial system. In the event of justice eluding the victims of it would mean an open invitation to anarchy, oppression and injustice Irrespective of the fact that there is a growing trend of witnesses turning hostile in some high profile cases, no stone should be left unturned by all those concerned with free and free trial of the cases to search the truth and help courts to take a participatory role in the trial. In the august opinion of a legal luminary, the courts are not expected to be tape recorders to record whatever is being stated by the witnesses. The presiding officers of courts are empowered to elicit all necessary materials by playing an active role in the evidence collecting process. Despite the fact that threats, coercion and monetary considerations at the instance of those in power, to smother and stifle truth and realities coming out to surface, it is the duty of the courts that justice is given to the victims of crime 4. Discuss the gender inequality in our country and its impact on our socioeconomic development Ans. There is no denying that India is living with the ignominy of a gender imbalance as a result of continuing gender inequality. Multiple deprivations, with roots in the oppressive structure of patriarchy in most parts of our country, have resulted in bias against girls and women. Publically, one and all agree that no nation, no society, no community can hold its head high and claim to be part of the civilized world if it condones the practice of discriminating against one half of its own population, but when one scans the ground realities as 67 they prevail in our country, one finds that there is nothing but an open dance of bias and prejudice practiced against girls and women The most mortifying manifestations of gender inequality in our country are the pernicious proclivities on the part of males to indulge in wife beatin and force child bearing mothers to resort to female foeticid All thinking persons know that the declining number of females vis-vis males is going to create a very dangerous situation in future. Too many males chasing too few girls for matrimony would give rise to social tensions with all its adverse consequences. The United Nations reports on the girl child and expectant mothers are equally disturbing because of the fact that there is a high mortality rate among girls and mothers at the time of birth/delivery. The social and economic costs of such a deplorable situation are too high to bear for a developing country like ours Victims of both physical and mental violence and vulnerable to all kinds of harassment and humiliation, a majority of Indian women remain at the receiving end most of the time of their existence. Malnourished and maltreated at every stage of their existence, they tend to become malfunctional
Objects of wilful neglect, they are made to work like beasts of burden with no wages in return nor any acknowledgement of their contribution in fields and factories, at home or outside Barring a few exceptions here and there, women in general are treated badly in our maledominated society The crying need of the hour is a drastic change in the mindset of males, which is the fundamental cause of gender inequality. Besides, in matters of education, food, security and much more, discrimination against the girl child must go because civilisations are judged by the way they treat their women
5. Suggest three effective measures to deal with the problem of stress among students Ans. Earlier it was speed and success that kept people on their toes. Now it is stress and success that are causing tension, and in some cases even tearing trouble among people, particularly in case of students at the secondary level. Scoring exceptionally high marks and writing on own success story have become compulsive obsessions with students and their highly ambitious parents Failure has come to mean the end of all dreams and a long nightmare ahead. All right thinking people, whether intellectuals, creative artists or parliamentarians, are genuinely concerned about the levels of stress that our youngsters have to face before examinations. It is high time for parents, teachers and others to sit up and see if the following measures could effectively deal with the problem of stress among students Since charity begins at home, it is the parents who have to be on guard and restrain themselves from realizing their unfulfilled aspirations through their children. They must know that capability and capacity differs from child to child. Instead of imposing their will on children, the latter should be allowed to pursue his/her passion or courses of study. Such an attitude on the part of parents would spare children from unwanted pressure and stress that are responsible for so many unsavoury happenings
School is the other place where a child develops an unrealistic ambition or aspiration. The system of education and grading needs to be rehauled. The intense competition of entering colleges or simply 68 performing well which at its most intense level is the proverbial at race will remain unless one disables the very source of extreme stress before examinations In the days gone by, growing pains were always tended to within the family. But for many teenagers a traditional family structure no longer exists. Faster-paced lives with parents absorbed in their own lives and careers, often provoke feelings of alienation, rejection and neglect among teenagers. In most cases family members remain unaware of the inchoate emotional forces running rampant in adolescent minds. Such distortions need to be addressed and corrected, both at home and outside, to effectively cope with stress among students
6. badly needs to hasten its justice Comment Ans. All agree that unless we do something concrete and candid to hasten justice delivery in our country, the whole system would get crushed under its weight. We must guard against the system getting discredited every passing day and people losing faith in it and taking recourse to extra legal remedies. Needless to reiterate that the Constitution of India reflects the aspiration of all Indians, irrespective of their socio- economic status, for justice, when its preamble speaks of justice in all its forms: social, economic and political. Those who suffer physically, mentally or economically approach the courts with great hope for redressal of their grievances. As law abiding citizens they refrain from taking law into their own hands, as they believe that one day or the other, they would get justice from the courts. Justice delivery system is under an obligation to deliver prompt and inexpensive justice to its seekers, without in any manner compromising on the quality of justice or the elements of fairness, equality and impartiality. However, there is a growing concern about the inability of courts to effectively deal with and wipe out the huge backlog of cases. The delay in the disposal of cases has affected not only the ordinary type of cases but also those which by their very nature call for early relief Many a times, inordinate delay contributes to acquittal of guilty persons either because the evidence is lost or because of lapse of time, or the witnesses turn hostile or they do not come forward to give true evidence due to threats, inducement or sympathy. Whatever may be the reason, it is justice that becomes a casualty. We must realise that the very existence of an orderly society depends upon a sound and efficient functioning of criminal justice system
It is high time we make a scientific and rational analysis of the factors behind accumulation of arrears and devise specific plans to at least bring them within acceptable limit in a reasonable time frame. We have to put our heads together and find out ways and means to deal with the problem, so as to retain the confidence of our people in the credibility and candidness of the system
7. hanging fire for the last twelve years, the of the Women Bill in the Rajya Sabha recently would go a long way in ensuring better status for women in the Societ Give arguments For and Against this view Ans. It is a matter of common knowledge that the women suffer from several social disadvantages in India and such disadvantages can only be undone if there is political and economic empowerment of women. While the government has introduced several schemes for socioeconomic empowerment of the women, 69 particularly for the women belonging to the weaker sections of the society, true political empowerment has continued to remain a pipedream. Since 1996, the Women Reservation Bill has remained only in discussions and every time this Bill is introduced, several political parties either oppose the format of the Bill or object to the fact that no quota within qu for the weaker sections has been proposed. The net result is that the women continue to get a raw deal and have been waiting for this major empowerment initiative to materialise for more than a decade. It is felt by many social scientists that the introduction of the Reservation Bill would go a long way in ensuring a better place for women in Indian society
Arguments For the View (a) Reservation of one-third seats in the Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of the States would result in a positive shift in the perception of the society about the women (b) Reservation of at least one-third seats in the Panchayati Raj Institutions and the Urban Local Bodies in the country was introduced way back in early nineties. It is all the more important to have similar provisions for elections to the Parliament and the Legislative Assemblies, which denote epitome of political power (c) Traditionally, women in all sections of society in India have been suffering from several social handicaps for the last few centuries. It has been long overdue that the women got their due share in the governance of the country by being entitled to at least one-third quota as against their 50 per cent share in the total population
(d) In most of the developed countries, the percentage of women in governance and politics is quite high but in India their proportion in political governance in the highest echelons of governance is dismally low. Reservation of seats will help in removing this anomaly. Arguments Against the View (a) Mere introduction of the Reservation Bill in Rajya Sabha does not mean anything. It has been introduced many times in the Parliament, only to be withdrawn later. Actual empowerment would take place only after the Legislative Act is enacted
Status of women in any society is determined by their economic empowerment. Economic empowerment brings with it social as well. Rather than pushing for political it would be more appropriate to strive for economic empowerment of women
Most of the political parties have only tried to get the political mileage out of the proposal. Even this time the very fact that the Bill has been introduced in the Rajya Sabha, shows that the aim is on only getting political benefit in the forthcoming Parliament elections
8. Indian youth is required to be channelized properly as per their aptitudes to get their best, if Indians are to do well in the modern-day world Give arguments for and against this view Ans. Globally speaking, Indian economy has several advantages which include its being broadbased, versatile and vibrant. One additional advantage that India enjoys over most of the developing and developed economies is that the average age of its labour force is quite low and it can continue to be the major supplier of the workforce to the world economy for many decades to follow. This calls for a very careful human resource development effort in the country 70 Unfortunately, there has not been any serious attempt in this direction and if the country is to excel in the labour market for many years, it has to train the right people in the right profession and skills. It is felt that the country needs to identify the aptitudes and talents of youth early and train them in the respective fields. Arguments For the View Indian students have to undergo very intense competition, which is particularly tough in the fields of quality education in medicine, engineering, commerce and management. At times, under pressure from the parents, students keep pursuing the disciplines in which they have no interests or aptitude. Such practice must stop. There is a need for searching the aptitude and talent of the youth at early stage of their career, without which will result in putting the proverbial ound peg in a square hole Aptitude search and right channelization at early age is required to compete in extremely competitive and specialized environment worldwide Arguments Against the View (a) India is a democratic country and every individual has the right to pursue the studies of his choice. The educational system must not try to force a person to a particular stream In a country like ours, with its geographical size and massive population it may not be humanly possible to cover each and every student at the early stages of his career and have his aptitude test carried out In India, availability of quality education is very poor. Particularly in the rural areas, there is a need to improve the quality of education immensely. Under such a scenario, it is utopian to talk of aptitude tests and quality education. The government should first try to consolidate the gains made in the educational sector and then think of these innovations The country also needs to pay more attention to improve the standards of higher, technical and professional education rather than providing for facilities for aptitude testing. 71 Descriptive Questions - Economics 1. Should the policy of giving freebies and subsidies be allowed to continue or done away with? Ans. All populist programs in India have come to stay and no political party is prepared to voice its opposition against their continuation for fear of losing their grass-root support. Whether the policy of giving freebies, subsidies, sops, grants et al is politically sound and economically viable, no political person, whatever his/her affiliation or ideology, is ever prepared to consider. In the heart of heart every thinking person feels that it is a suicidal course to continue with freebies like free power and water, highly subsidized items of food and energy, doles and grants that seldom reach the targeted groups or persons, yet there is a studied silence on the issue. The issue needs to be scrutinized in view of the precarious financial health of many an Indian State on account of populist policies
In 2008 Budget, the Finance Minister added a new page to the practice of populist or vote bank politics by announcing a massive farm loan waiver running to thousands of crores. Every political party knows fully well that a benefit given once can never be withdrawn, however adversely it may affect the economic health of the State. It is quite ironical that instead of tackling the root causes of rural indebtedness, poverty, unemployment and a host of other problems affecting the lives of the rural poor and deprived, our rulers resort to short-cuts like freebies, unbridled grants and what not. None can deny the fact that free power means its wastage and misuse with the result that overdraw of under-ground has resulted in the water-table going down drastically. Similar is the fate of other concessions because they seldom reach the intended people in full measure. The harsh realities stare us in the face but no political person or party can dare do away with or withdraw these sops. It is time that a broad consensus was arrived among parties to not indulge in competitive politics because bad politics is certainly bad economic 2. What is micro-financing and how is it progressing in our country? Discuss Ans. In lay man language, micro-financing means providing finance/funds by banks, financial institution, Industrial Development Corporations etc. at the micro level i.e. to small traders, selfemployed persons, small but skilled entrepreneurs, auto-drivers and the like, for productive and promotional purposes. As compared to macro-financing, where big industrial houses and their ilk manage to garner huge credits, under the micro-financing dispensation, adequate and timely finances are made available to the deserving at the lowest level and remotest corner of our socioeconomic spectrum. The journey from micro-financing to financial inclusion has witnessed many ups and downs. Right from 1969, when banks were nationalised, to the present-day, the intention of every government and those sitting in the opposition has been to help the ordinary man engaged in some productive pursuit to enhance his business prospects/entrepreneurial proclivities. A constant and consistent attempt has been on board that no one at micro-level of our society should suffer because of lack of finance. Policies have been made in such a way that with least hassle, micro- financing becomes a reality for each Indian who merits attention, and at the most favourable terms 72 3. the ongoing food grain in the the being followed by most of the surplus countries may run contrary to the of the World Trade Give arguments For and Against this view Ans. With the ongoing shortages of the food articles being experienced all over the world, most the agri- surplus countries have either banned the exports of the food articles from their countries or have imposed restrictions in the form of increased export duties on the food articles. In this regard most of the countries have acted in their self-interest to ensure that there was no shortage of food articles in their respective countries and the prices of such articles were also kept in check. This may have protected the interests of the agriculture surplus countries but this measure has put the agriculture deficit and importing countries in a quandary. Countries like Japan, which have remained dependent on huge quantities of import of food articles, are feeling the crunch of serious food shortages and facing exorbitant rise in their prices. The practice is considered to be against the dictates of the World Trade Organisation (WTO)
Arguments for the View
(a)WTO aims at terminating all the subsidies in the agriculture sector. But for most of the developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of their economies. It is debatable whether the developing world would ever agree for such a stipulation for doing away with all the subsidies in the agriculture sector (b)The WTO also requires that reduction in tariffs must be introduced by all the countries simultaneously. Under such a stipulation, the WTO members are bound to object to the proposals of agriculture exporting countries to increase the export duties on the agriculture products (c)Most of the developed countries are actually importers of agriculture produce and they insist on a format of agreement on agriculture which it is to their advantage. As a result, the developing countries are always fighting out against any agreement on agriculture which is to their detriment The attitudes of the developed countries may now change and they may begin to look for a sustainable settlement which could be to their advantage, especially during the periods of food scarcity Arguments against the View (a)No agreement or treaty is above the national interests of any country and it becomes even more important when it comes to food security for its population
(b)Food security and the need to feed the population is of prime concern for the developing countries. International trade, comes to the fore only after countries have exportable surpluses. It does not matter whether it is as per WTO requirement or not
(c) Even the WTO has recognised the rights of the member countries to take care of their specific problems and the regulations of the WTO are not rigid in this regard 73 4. best way to control the current price rise is to introduce government regulated controls and checks. Give arguments For and Against this view Ans. Despite high growth of around 9 per cent in the past few years, and the projections of over 8 per cent growth rate during the current financial year, the prices have continued to rise. The government has taken certain measures by banning and restricting export of certain essential commodities, on the one hand, and liberalising the imports of food articles, on the other, but the inflationary pressures have continued to mount. What worries the economists is that price rise has continued to happen despite certain active measures taken by the government of India as well as a few State governments. Many people feel that the best way to control the current price rise is to re-introduce the system of price controls, regulations and checks so that immediate relief is given to the people Arguments for the View (a) It is the duty of the government to protect the consumers from the excessive price rise Particularly in the developing countries the weaker sections of the society have to be protected. In case the economic methods like monetary policy and fiscal policy fail to moderate the price level, the government must introduce controls and checks
(b) It is well known that it is the prices of the commodities like the petroleum products, food articles and the building materials which are putting pressure on the overall price level of the country. Introduction of government controls over the prices of these few commodities would go a long way in controlling the price rise (c) Till early nineties, the government followed the system of administered prices in case of certain essential commodities and also had dual pricing for the products like cement to protect the interests of the people belonging to the vulnerable sections of the society. It would not be a bad idea to re-introduce such checks and controls
(d)While the fiscal and monetary measures undertaken by the government take some time to show results on the price level in the economy, the direct methods of price controls would have immediate and certain impact on the price line
Arguments against the View (a)Most of the countries in the world today are following the system that allows free interaction of the market forces of demand and supply for determining the prices in the economy. Reintroducing control on prices will have negative effect in the long-term (b)Artificial price level by price controls and checks suppresses the operation of the forces of demand and supply and actually results in sudden and exorbitant price rise as and when such checks are lifted. Hence, such a measure may actually do more harm to the economy (c)When there is increase in the global prices of the inputs of several commodities, the artificial controls fail to check the resultant price rise. For example, the petroleum prices have been increasing mainly on account 74 of spurt in the crude prices in the world and no amount of price controls by the government of India would be able to check this
(d)Price rise is an economic problem and it can best be tackled by economic measures only and not by administrative acts like artificial price controls 5. recent budget announcement about waiving of agricultural loans would help the farming community in the country and would also assist in checking the tendency of suicide among the farmers. arguments For and Against this view Ans. One important scheme for the benefit of small and marginal farmers is the budget announcement about waiving of agricultural loans of the farmers. While the defaulting amount in respect of all small and medium farmers is proposed to be waived, 25% of the amount of such loans pertaining to the bigger farmers is also proposed for waiving off. This announcement has been seen by many in the context of the recent tendency of suicides on part of the farming community of the country. One of the reasons advanced for this tendency has been that the agricultural operations are not profitable and the farmers who are fully dependent on such operations find themselves unable to repay the bank loans. Further, since significant proportion of the cultivable land is rain-fed, failure of a monsoon or one winter rain spells doom for them
Regular failure of rains in a region for a couple of years also coerces the farmers of that particular region to commit suicide. Many feel that the new scheme of loan waivers introduced by the Finance Minister would go a long way in checking this tendency Arguments for the View (a) It is well known that the growth of incomes in the agricultural sector is not as fast as in other sectors of the economy. This slower growth rate makes the farmers indebted and the loan waiver is a welcome step in this direction (b)Productivity of agricultural sector in the country is among the lowest in the world. The reasons include lack of irrigation facilities, lack of capital investment, use of primitive implements, lack of good variety of seeds and fertilizers and use of traditional cropping patterns. This results in low returns to the farmers and indebts them (c)Waiving of loans would help the farming community to overcome the problems offered by agricultural operations in the country. If the outstanding loans are taken care, the farmers can begin their journey afresh into the new globalised era (d)Many a time, the farmers take loans for the purposes other than agriculture with the hope of repaying out of their future agricultural incomes. Such loans are sanctioned as agricultural loans on paper and waiver of such loans would immensely reduce the pressure off the farming sector
Arguments against the View
(a)Waiving off the loans may be good politics but is certainly bad economics. There is every likelihood of the money being misutilised, defeating the very purpose of the scheme 75 (b)The decision to waive outstanding agricultural loans is a political gimmick aimed at winning votes. It is a glaring example of wasting the hard earned money of the tax payers (c)Many people feel that this measure would benefit only the banks concerned, as the dead loans of the banks would be recovered and their non-performing assets would go down drastically, resulting in a welcome change in their balance sheets (d)Loan waiver is a short-term measure which would not tackle this problem of indebtedness of the farmers in the long run. Rather than making such knee-jerk reactions, the Finance Minister should have come up with a long-term plan to tackle the problem of agricultural productivity 6. National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), now extended to all the districts of the country, is going to be the panacea for the problem of rural unemploy Give arguments For and Against this view Ans. After the passing of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and its implementation in some select districts during 2007-08, a new and ambitious scheme of rural employment guarantee was introduced as a flagship programme of the Union government. The new scheme envisaged that at least one member of every rural household, willing to employ himself in manual labour work, shall be provided with employment for at least 100 days within his own Panchayat area. The employment is to be provided in creating permanent assets, for which labour and material component at 60:40 ratio is admissible. In case the government failed to provide the prescribed employment, it shall provide unemployment dole for 100 days to the registered persons. Encouraged by the response that the Scheme received, the government of India decided to introduce the same to all 596 rural districts in the country
Arguments for the View
(a)With more than two-third of the total households in the country living in the rural areas and dependent on agriculture, they are unemployed for some part of the year when not busy with farm operations. This seasonal unemployment period can be gainfully utilised with employment guarantee from the government under the NREGS (b)There is an utter lack of employment opportunities in the rural areas, particularly if there are no industries in the vicinity. Agriculture operations are also known to be less remunerative Additional employment guarantee for more than three months in a year for every rural household has the potential of revolutionising the rural economy (c) In the 2008 Budget, the government of India has provided a sum of Rs 16,000 crore for the scheme, with the assurance from the Finance Minister that if required, more funds shall be provided. With this kind of money being spent in the rural areas, the rural economy is expected to receive a big push in the coming years Arguments against the View 76 (a) Executing agencies of the government in the field are not known for their efficiency. The programme may be good but if it is not executed properly, it may fail utterly. This has happened in the past when many good schemes failed to deliver because of poor implementation (b)NREGS has been extended to all the rural districts of the country by the Union government in undue hurry, due to the compulsions of election year. It would have been appropriate if the scheme was watched for a couple of years and then extended to the other districts with the required modifications (c) As per the information available, the utilisation of the NREGS has been less than 50 per cent in select districts. Even several of the officials executing the scheme are themselves not clear about its features. It would have been better had the scheme been introduced after training the field functionaries properly
(d) Indian system is well-known for its leakages and it is understood that only a fraction of every rupee spent by the government agencies actually travels to the beneficiaries and rest of the funds get leaked. It is not understood as to how such a system would make a dent on the problem of rural unemployment. 77
John Baylis, Steve Smith, and Patricia Owens - The Globalization of World Politics An Introduction To International Relations-Oxford University Press (2023)