X-ray machine circuits comprise three main components:
o A circuit for heating the filament. o A circuit for applying a large potential difference (high voltage) between cathode and anode to accelerate electrons. o A timing device to control the length of exposure. The filament circuit The tungsten filament at the cathode is the source of electrons used to produce x-rays. The number of electrons produced at the tungsten filament is dependent upon the temperature of the filament. A tungsten filament needs to be heated to at least !!"# to emit useful numbers of electrons. $lectrons are produced by thermionic emission. %hen a metal is heated its atoms absorb energy which allows some electrons to move a small distance from the surface of the metal. &ig.' (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - filament The filament circuit (&ig. ') consists of: o A step down transformer to reduce the voltage from ! ) to '! ). o A variable resistor to control filament current and therefore filament temperature. o An ammeter to give an indication of filament current which is directly related to mA. The tube current is directly proportional to the filament current so the ammeter is usually placed on the secondary circuit of the high voltage circuit as transformers are not '!!* efficient. High voltage circuit This circuit produces a large potential difference between cathode and anode to accelerate electrons produced at the filament to high velocities. +igh tension transformers convert high Amp and low ,) to mA and high ,). &ig. (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - high voltage -t consists of circuits (an autotransformer and step-up transformer) (&ig. ) . The autotransformer : o .re-reading voltmeter and line voltage compensation. o /easures incoming voltage and allows ad0ustments on the autotransformer so that the incoming line voltage remains constant. o This compensates for fluctuations in national grid. o 1sually automatic on modern x-ray machines. o ,) selector provides pre-determined voltage to primary turnings of the transformer. Step-up transformer : o These alter the incoming voltage to ,). o The ,) meter is placed across the primary circuit and measures incoming voltage but calibrated to read across the x-ray tube voltage (,)). Transformer /ains electricity is 2! ) and has to be modified to produce a high voltage across the x-ray tube head and low voltage to heat the filament. &ig.3 (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - transformer Transformers comprise two coils of wire wound around an iron core (&ig. 3) . %hen current flows through one coil (primary) a magnetic field is generated which induces a current to flow in the secondary wire coil. The ratio of the incoming voltage to outgoing ,ilovolts is proportional to the number of turns on both the primary and secondary side ()p4)s 5 6p46s). -f the number of turns in the secondary coil is 7 than the number in the primary the voltage is increased. 8tep-up transformer has many more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil. The X-Ray Tube The voltage to the tube is supplied by a circuit composing of mains electricity and a step up transformer. A high voltage is needed to produce the ,inetic energy re9uired of the electrons to and a relatively lower one is used for the filament cathode. This is achieved by a potential divider circuit. $lectrons are produced by thermionic emission in the cathode. This is heated by a relatively low voltage supply. At a cathode current of '!! mA: for example: ; x '! '< electrons will travel from the cathode to the anode of the X-ray tube every second.They are accelerated from the cathode to anode across an alternating high voltage - they will therefore only be attracted in half of the cycle. As the ,inetic energy of the electrons increases: both the intensity (number of x-rays) and the energy (their ability to penetrate) of the X-rays produced are increased. %hen these electrons bombard on the heavy metal atoms of the target: they interact with these atoms and transfer their ,inetic energy to the target. These interactions occur within a very small depth of penetration into the target. As they occur: the electrons slow down (bra,e=) and finally come nearly to rest: at which time they can be conducted through the x-ray anode assembly and out into the associated electronic circuitry. The interactions result in the conversion of ,inetic energy into thermal energy and electromagnetic energy in the form of X-rays. Most of the the kinetic energy is converted into heat. The electrons interact with the outer-shell electrons of the target atoms but do not transfer sufficient energy to these outer-shell electrons to ioni>e them. (ather: the outer-shell electrons are simply raised to an excited: or higher: energy level. The outer-shell electrons immediately drop bac, to their normal energy state with the emission of infrared radiation. The constant excitation and restabili>ation of outer-shell electrons is responsible for the heat generated in the anodes of X-ray tubes. ?enerally: more than 99% of the kinetic energy of proectile electrons is converted to thermal energy: leaving less than '* available for the production of X- radiation. -n this sense:the X-ray machine is a very inefficient apparatus. The production of heat in the anode increases directly with increasing tube current. @oubling the tube current doubles the 9uantity of heat produced. +eat production also varies almost directly with varying the high tension voltage too. The efficiency of X-ray production is independent of the tube current. (egardless of what mA is selected: the efficiency of X-ray production remains constant. The efficiency of X-ray production increases with increasing pro0ectile-electron energy. At ;! ,e): only !.A* of the electron ,inetic energy is converted to X-raysB at '! /e): it is <!*. Target material The anode is made to rotate at steady speed so the point of impact continually changes to prevent overheating. Cut it stillneeds to have: - a high ! "proton num#er$ so that transitions of high enough energy to emit X-ray radiation are possible - a high melting point because so much heat energy is produced. Tungsten is ideal (Moly#denum for softer X-rays needed for breast X-rays) %ocal Spot The area of the anode from which X-rays are emitted is referred to as the focal spot. This must be as small as possible otherwise features in the image would be blurred instead of being sharp. The anode surface is at an angle of about <!" to the electron beam so that the X-rays effectively originate from a much smaller area than the impact area of the beam. The &ptions.... 'ction (ffect )raph of *ntensity against +-,ay photon energy Clarity of image -ncreasing the tube voltage -ncreasing the high p.d. that is used to accelerate the electrons will give the average electron more energy when it hits the target 8hape of spectrum spreads out to encompass higher energies range is increased #haracteristics in the same place (natch==) area under the curve increases Too high an energy of X- ray will penetrate too well to give good definition - if they all get through - no shadow - picture= ;!-'A ,) is usually employed - giving energy of about 3! ,e) A#4@# voltage (A# necessary to get higher voltages - can use transformers= @# ac9uired by electronic rectification and DsmoothingD $lectrons produced by thermionic emission only accelerated across half of the time= graphs for both are the same except the @# one is double the intensity throughout (only accelerated across to target on half of the wave). circuitry) -ncreasing the tube current (low voltage one=) -ncreases the rate of thermionic emission - more electrons hit the target - more X-rays produced. 8hape of spectrum remains the same range is the same #haracteristics in the same place (natch==) area under the curve increases Everall increase of exposure of film but bigger dose to patient= more heating of the target -ncreasing exposure time Everall increase of exposure of film but bigger dose to patient= more heating of the target ris, of blur due to movement of patient - big problem with organs that cannot be constrained. #hanging Target /aterial An increase in F (proton number) will increase the probability of electron interactions of enough energy to produce X- rays - so more X-rays will be produced. The #haracteristic pea, positions will change - Gs will shift towards higher energies (these depend on the target material=). range is the same area under the curve increases allows choice of X-ray energies that give best difference in attenuation for the part to viewed. soft X-rays are needed for soft tissue - harder ones for bone. 1sing a filter (material Absorbs mainly lower area under the curve is smaller reduces unwanted X-rays and therefore the scatter placed in the X-ray beam path) energy X-rays - and produces a DharderD more penetrating beam) (as some of the X-rays have been absorbed). 8hape changes as mainly X- rays are reduced from the lower energy values. range is smaller - but high energy the same. #haracteristics in the same place (natch==) due to them - better contrast
(educing beam si>e less scatter - better contrast - especially if a collimator is used (lead grid that only allows X- rays in a particular direction to get through. &ocal spot si>e 8mall focal spot produces sharp images C1T also intense heating of target Artificial #ontrast /edia 8ee Carium /eal and $nema #learly outlines the inner surface of internal bodily organs by coating them in a radio-opa9ue material - barium sulphate. -ntensifying 8creens @ecreases the re9uired exposure time. /a,e image clearer with a lower X-ray dose @etectors photographic film +-,ay -iffraction .rimer X-rays are electromagnetic radiation similar to light: but with a much shorter wavelength. They are produced when electrically charged particles of sufficient energy are decelerated. -n an X-ray tube: the high voltage maintained across the electrodes draws electrons toward a metal target (the anode). X-rays are produced at the point of impact: and radiate in all directions. Tubes with copper targets: which produce their strongest characteristic radiation (G ') at a wavelength of about '.A angstroms: are commonly used for geological applications. -f an incident X-ray beam encounters a crystal lattice: general scattering occurs. Although most scattering interferes with itself and is eliminated (destructive interference): diffraction occurs when scattering in a certain direction is in phase with scattered rays from other atomic planes. 1nder this condition the reflections combine to form new enhanced wave fronts that mutually reinforce each other (constructive interference). The relation by which diffraction occurs is ,nown as the Cragg law or e9uation. Cecause each crystalline material has a characteristic atomic structure: it will diffract X-rays in a uni9ue characteristic pattern. The basic geometry of an X-ray diffractometer involves a source of monochromatic radiation and an X-ray detector situated on the circumference of a graduated circle centered on the powder specimen. @ivergent slits: located between the X-ray source and the specimen: and divergent slits: located between the specimen and the detector: limit scattered (non- diffracted) radiation: reduce bac,ground noise: and collimate the radiation. The detector and specimen holder are mechanically coupled with a goniometer so that a rotation of the detector through x degrees occurs in con0unction with the rotation of the specimen through x degrees: a fixed :' ratio. A curved-crystal monochromator containing a graphite crystal is normally used to ensure that the detected radiation is monochromatic. %hen positioned properly 0ust in front of the detector: only the G radiation is directed into the detector: and the GH radiation: because it is diffracted at a slightly different angle: is directed away. The signals from the detector are filtered by pulse-height analysis: scaled to measurable proportions: and sent to a linear ratemeter for conversion into a continuous current. #ommon output devices include strip-chart recorders: printers: and computer monitors.