ABSTRACT

CONTENTS

I. Introduction
II. Seismic Inputs for Structures
III. Linear Analysis
Static
Response Spectrum Analysis
Time history
IV. Non-linear Analysis
Static: Pushover analysis
Dynamic: Non-linear Time history
P Delta analysis
Large displacement analysis
V. Conclusion







LIST OF TABLES
Table 1

LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1




















I. INTRODUCTION

An earthquake is a sudden and transient motion of the earths surface. The seismic
assessment and design of structures is required because of the occurrence of earthquakes.
Earthquakes are caused by differential movements of the earths crust. The result of these
movements is the well-known ground shaking that can lead to significant damage and/or
collapse of buildings, infrastructure systems (e.g. dams, roads, bridges, viaducts etc.),
landslides, when soil slopes loose their cohesion, liquefaction in sand and destructive waves
or tsunamis in the maritime environments.
Causes of Earthquakes:
Movement of the tectonic plates relative to each other, both in direction and magnitude,
leads to an accumulation of strain, both at the plate boundaries and inside the plates. This
strain energy is the elastic energy that is stored due to the straining of rocks, as for elastic
materials. When the strain reaches its limiting value along a weak region or at existing faults
or at plate boundaries, a sudden movement or slip occurs releasing the accumulated strain
energy. The action generates elastic waves within the rock mass, which propagate through the
elastic medium, and eventually reach the surface of the earth. Most earthquakes are produced
due to slips at the faults or at the plate boundaries. However, there are many instances where
new faults are created due to earthquakes.

The elastic rebound theory of earthquake generation attempts to explain the earthquakes
caused due to a slip along the fault lines. An earthquake caused by a fault typically proceeds
according to the following processes:
a. Owing to various slow processes involved in the tectonic activities of the earths
interior and the crust, strain accumulates in the fault for a long period of time. The large field
of strain at a certain point in time reaches its limiting value.
b. A slip occurs at the faults due to crushing of the rock mass. The strain is released and the
tearing strained layers of the rock mass bounces back to its unstrained condition.
c. The slip that occurs could be of any type, for example, dip slip or strike slip. In most
instances it is a combined slip giving rise to push and pull forces acting at the fault, as shown
in Figure. This situation is equivalent to two pairs of coupled forces suddenly acting.
d. The action causes movement of an irregular rock mass leading to radial wave propagation
in all directions.
e. The propagating wave is complex and is responsible for creating displacement and
acceleration of the soil/rock particles in the ground. The moment of each couple is referred to
as the seismic moment and is defined as the rigidity of rock multiplied by the area of faulting
multiplied by the amount of slip. Recently, it has been used as a measure of earthquake size.
The average slip velocity at an active fault varies and is of the order of 10100mm per year.

Fig: Unstrained and Strained conditions of earth layers along fault line.

Fig: Elastic Rebound Theory

Seismic Waves:
The large strain energy released during an earthquake causes radial propagation of waves
within the earth (as it is an elastic mass) in all directions. These elastic waves, called seismic
waves, transmit energy from one point of earth to another through different layers and finally
carry the energy to the surface, which causes the destruction. Within the earth, the elastic
waves propagate through an almost unbounded, isotropic, and homogeneous media, and form
what are known as body waves. On the surface, these waves propagate as surface waves.
Reflection and refraction of waves take place near the earths surface and at every layer
within the earth. The body waves are of two types, namely, P waves and S waves.
Surface waves propagate on the earths surface. They are better detected in shallow
earthquakes. They are classified as L-waves (Love waves) and R-waves (Rayleigh waves). In
L waves, particle motion takes place in the horizontal plane only and it is transverse to the
direction of propagation. The wave velocity depends on the wavelength, the thickness of the
upper layer, and the elastic properties of the two mediums of the stratified layers. L waves
travel faster than R waves and are the first to appear among the surface wave group. In R
waves, the particle motion is always in a vertical plane and traces an elliptical path, which is
retrograde to the direction of wave propagation.

Fig: Seismic Waves
Measurement of an Earthquake:
The instrument that measures the ground motion is called a seismograph and has three
components, namely, the sensor, the recorder, and the timer. The principle of operation of the
instrument is simple. Right from the earliest seismograph to the most modern one, the
principle of operation is based on the oscillation of a pendulum subjected to the motion of the
support. A pen attached to the tip of an oscillating pendulum. The support is in firm contact
with the ground. Any horizontal motion of the ground will cause the same motion of the
support and the drum. Because of the inertia of the bob in which the pen is attached, a relative
motion of the bob with respect to the support will take place. The relative motion of the bob
can be controlled by providing damping with the aid of a magnet around the string. The trace
of this relative motion can be plotted against time if the drum is rotated at a constant speed.

Fig: Schematic diagram of seismograph
From these instruments the magnitude and intensity of an earthquake are obtained which will
help while calculating the design earthquake forces for the earthquake resistant design of
structures.










II. SEISMIC INPUTS FOR STRUCTURES

Seismic inputs are the earthquake data that are necessary to perform different types of
seismic analysis. In the context of seismic analysis and design of structures, various
earthquake data may be required depending upon the nature of analysis being carried out.
These data are presented in two different ways, namely, in deterministic and probabilistic
forms. Seismic inputs in deterministic form are used for deterministic analysis and design of
structures, while those in probabilistic form are used for random vibration analysis of
structures for earthquake forces, seismic risk analysis of structures, and damage estimation of
structures for future earthquakes. Seismic inputs for structural analysis are provided either in
the time domain or in the frequency domain, or in both time and frequency domains. They
include magnitude, intensity, peak ground acceleration/velocity/displacement, duration,
predominant ground frequency, and so on. Further, certain types of analysis, such as, seismic
risk analysis, damage estimation of structures, and probabilistic seismic analysis, the
prediction of seismic input parameters for future earthquakes are essential.
Time History Records:
The most common way to describe a ground motion is with a time history record. The motion
parameters may be acceleration, velocity, or displacement, or all the three combined together.
Generally, the directly measured quantity is the acceleration and the other parameters are the
derived quantities. However, displacement and velocity can also be measured directly. The
measured time histories of records include errors resulting from many sources, such as noises
at high and low frequencies, base line error, and instrumental error. These errors are removed
from the data before they are used. Further, measured data are in an analogue form, which are
digitized before they are used as seismic inputs. In recent years, digital seismographs are
more commonly used but the various errors mentioned above are equally present in the
analogue and digital forms. Time histories of ground motions are used directly for the time
domain analysis of structures subjected to deterministic seismic inputs. Time history analysis
is carried based on these records.
Frequency Contents of Ground Motion:
As the response of any structure depends on the ratio between the natural frequency of the
structure and the frequency of excitation, it is important to know the frequency contents of
the ground motion. For frequency domain analysis of structures, seismic input is required in
the form of frequency contents of the ground motion. The most convenient and useful way of
providing this information is by way of a Fourier synthesis of the time history of the ground
motion. At any measuring station, ground motions are recorded in three orthogonal
directions; two of them are in horizontal directions and the third is in the vertical direction.
Thus, three components of ground motions are available from any measuring station. For
structural analysis, these three components of ground motions are transformed into those
corresponding to the principal directions. It has been observed that the major direction of
ground motion lies in the direction of the line joining the measuring station and the epicenter.
The other two components of the ground motion are decided accordingly.
Power Spectral Density Function of Ground Motion:
Frequency contents of ground motion can also be represented by a power spectrum or power
spectral density function. The difference between the frequency contents represented by a
power spectrum and the Fourier amplitude spectrum is that the former is used to provide a
probabilistic estimate of the frequency contents of ground motions at a site, which are
unknown.
Response Spectrum of Earthquake:
A third type of spectrum, which is used as seismic input is the response spectrum of an
earthquake. In fact, the response spectrum of an earthquake is the most favored seismic input
for earthquake engineers. There are a number of response spectra that are defined for
representing the ground motion, such as, displacement response spectrum, pseudo velocity
response spectrum, absolute acceleration response spectrum, and energy spectrum. These
spectra also show the frequency contents of the ground motion, but not as directly as the
Fourier spectrum does. The absolute acceleration response spectrum is commonly used as an
input for the response spectrum methods of analysis of structures. Another way of
characterizing the ground motion is to obtain the maximum energy response spectrum.
















III. LINEAR ANALYSIS
Static Analysis:

SEISMICCOEFFICIENT ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS USING IS 1893 (PART 1)-2002
As per IS 1893 (part1)-2002, Seismic Coefficient analysis Procedure is summarized in
following steps (6).
a) Design Seismic Base Shear- The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear
(V
B
) along any principal direction of the building shall be determined by the following
expression
V
B
= A
h
W
Where
A
h
= Design horizontal seismic coefficient
W = Seismic weight of the building.
b) Seismic Weight of Building- The seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus
appropriate amount of imposed load as specified. While computing the seismic weight of
each floor, the weight of columns and walls in any storey shall be equally distributed to
the floors above and below the storey. The seismic weight of the whole building is the
sum of the seismic weights of all the floors. Any weight supported in between the storey
shall be distributed to the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its distance
from the floors.
c) Fundamental Natural Time Period- The fundamental natural time period (Ta)
calculates from the expression
T
a
= 0.075h
0.75
for RC frame building
T
a
= 0.085h
0.75
for steel frame building
If there is brick filling, then the fundamental natural period of vibration, may be taken as
T
a
= 0.09h
d) Distribution of Design Force- The design base shear, V
B
computed above shall be
distributed along the height of the building as per the following expression
Q
i

Response Spectrum Analysis:
The word spectrum in seismic engineering conveys the idea that the response of buildings
having a broad range of period is summarized in a single graph. For a given earthquake
motion and a percentage of critical damping, a typical response spectrum gives a plot of
earthquake-related responses such as acceleration, velocity, and deflection for a complete
range, or spectrum, of building periods. Thus, a response spectrum may be visualized as a
graphical representation of the dynamic response of a series of progressively longer
cantilever pendulums with increasing natural periods subjected to a common lateral seismic
motion of the base. The response spectrum method of analysis is not an exact method of
analysis in the sense that its results are not identical with those of the time history analysis.
However, for most of the cases, the results are accurate enough for structural design
applications. Apart from this drawback, there are other limitations to the method, namely:
(i) It is strictly applicable for linear analysis
(ii) It cannot be applied as such for the case of multi-support excitations.
However, the method has been extended for the latter with additional approximations.
The response spectrum technique is really a simplified special case of modal analysis. The
modes of vibration are determined in period and shape in the usual way and the maximum
response magnitudes corresponding to each mode are found by reference to a response
spectrum. The response spectrum method has the great virtues of speed and cheapness. The
basic mode superposition method, which is restricted to linearly elastic analysis, produces the
complete time history response of joint displacements and member forces due to a specific
ground motion loading.


Response spectrum methodology:
1. This method produces a large amount of output information that can require an
enormous amount of computational effort to conduct all possible design checks as a
function of time.
2. The analysis must be repeated for several different earthquake motions in order to
assure that all the significant modes are excited, since a response spectrum for one
earthquake, in a specified direction, is not a smooth function.
3. There are significant computational advantages in using the response spectra method
of seismic analysis for prediction of displacements and member forces in structural
systems.
4. The method involves the calculation of only the maximum values of the
displacements and member forces in each mode using smooth design spectra that are
the average of several earthquake motions.
5. In this analysis, the CQC method to combine these maximum modal response values
to obtain the most probable peak value of displacement or force is used. In addition, it
will be shown that the SRSS and CQC methods of combining results from orthogonal
earthquake motions will allow one dynamic analysis to produce design forces for all
members of the structure.
6. It is apparent that use of the response spectrum method has limitations, some of which
can be removed by additional development. However, it will never be accurate for
nonlinear analysis of multi degree of freedom structures.
7. All displacements produced by the response spectrum method are positive numbers.
Therefore, a plot of a dynamic displaced shape has very little meaning because each
displacement is an estimation of the maximum value.
8. Inter-story displacements are used to estimate damage to non-structural elements and
cannot be calculated directly from the probable peak values of displacement.
Concept of Equivalent Lateral Force and Response Spectrum Method of Analysis:
The equivalent lateral force for an earthquake is a unique concept used in earthquake
engineering. The concept is attractive because it converts a dynamic analysis into partly
dynamic and partly static analyses for finding the maximum displacement (or stresses)
induced in the structure due to earthquake excitation. For seismic resistant design of
structures, these maximum stresses are of interest only, not the time history of stresses. The
equivalent lateral force for an earthquake is defined as a set of lateral static forces which will
produce the same peak response of the structure as that obtained by the dynamic analysis of
the structure under the same earthquake. This equivalence is restricted only to a single mode
of vibration of the structure, that is, there a set of lateral force exist for each mode of
vibration. The equivalent (static) lateral force for an earthquake is obtained by carrying out a
modal analysis of structures, and then a static analysis of the structure with equivalent (static)
lateral force in each mode of vibration is performed to obtain the desired responses.

The entire procedure is known as the response spectrum method of analysis and is developed
using the following steps.
1. A modal analysis of the structure is carried out to obtain the mode shapes, frequencies, and
mode participation factors for the structure.
2. An equivalent static load is derived to get the same response as the maximum response
obtained in each mode vibration, using the acceleration response spectrum of the earthquake.
3. The maximum modal responses are combined to find the total maximum response of the
structure.
There are no approximations involved in the first two steps. Only the third one involves
approximations.

As a result, the response spectrum method of analysis is called an approximate method of
analysis. The approximation introduces some errors into the computed response. The
magnitude of the error depends upon the problem (both the type of structure and the nature of
earthquake excitation). However, seismic response analysis of a number of structures have
shown that for most practical problems, the response spectrum method of analysis estimates
reasonably good responses for use in design. The method is primarily developed for single-
point excitation with a single-component earthquake. However, the method could be
extended to multi-point-multi-component earthquake excitations with certain additional
assumptions. Furthermore, response spectrum method of analysis is derived for classically
damped structures. Therefore, its application to non-classically damped structural systems is
not strictly valid. However, with some other simplifying assumptions, the method has been
used for non-classically damped systems.

RESPONSE SPECTRUM MODAL ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS USING IS 1893 (PART
1)-2002
As per IS 1893 (part1)-2002, Dynamic analysis shall be performed to obtain the design
seismic force, and its distribution to different levels along the height of the building and to
the various lateral load resisting elements, for the following buildings:
a) Regular buildings -Those greater than 40 m in height in Zones IV and V, and those greater
than 90 m in height in Zones II and III.
b) Irregular buildings - All framed buildings higher than 12 m in Zones IV and V, and those
greater than 40 m in height in Zones II and III.
Dynamic analysis may be performed by The Response Spectrum Method. Procedure is
summarized in following steps (6).
a) Modal mass (M
k
) Modal mass of the structure subjected to horizontal or vertical as
the case may be, ground motion is a part of the total seismic mass of the Structure that
is effective in mode k of vibration. The modal mass for a given mode has a unique
value, irrespective of scaling of the mode shape.
M
k
=

Where
g = acceleration due to gravity
ik = mode shape coefficient at floor i in mode k
W
i
= Seismic weight of floor i.
b) Modal Participation factor (P
k
) Modal participation factor of mode k of vibration is the
amount by which mode k contributes to the overall vibration of the structure under horizontal
or vertical earthquake ground motions. Since the amplitudes of 95% mode shape can be
scaled arbitrarily, the value of this factor depends on the scaling used for the mode shape.
P
k
=

c) Design lateral force at each floor in each mode The peak lateral force (Q
ik
) at floor i in
Mode k is given by
Q
ik
= A
hk

ik
P
k
W
i

Where,
A
hk
= Design horizontal spectrum value using natural period of vibration (T
k
) of mode k.

A
hk
=

Z = zone factor for the maximum considered earthquake
I= Importance factor depending upon the functional use of the structures
R= Response Reduction factor

= Average response acceleration coefficient for rock or soil sites as given by response
spectra and based on appropriate natural periods and damping of the structure.

d) Storey shear forces in each mode The peak shear force (V
ik
) acting in storey i in mode k
is given by

e) Storey shear force due to all modes considered The peak storey shear force (V
i
) in storey
i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining those due to each mode as per SRSS.
If the building does not have closely spaced modes, than the peak response quantity due to all
modes considered shall be obtained as per Square Root of Sum of Square method

Dynamic analysis may be performed either by time history method or by the response
spectrum method. However in either method, the design base shear V
B
shall be compared
with a base shear (V
B
) calculated using a fundamental period T
a
. When V
B
is less than all the
response quantities shall be multiplied by V
B
/V
B
.


Linear Time History Analysis:
The acceleration values, in this alternative, shall not be taken from a general spectrum curve
representing all the earthquakes like in the response spectrum, but from the actual recorded
earthquake acceleration data; and the response given to these accelerations by the structure
and the seismic isolation system shall be calculated step by step.






IV. NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS

Pushover Analysis:


The non-linear static pushover analysis is becoming a popular tool for seismic
performance evaluation of existing and new structures. The expectation is that the pushover
analysis will provide adequate information on seismic demands imposed by the design
ground motion on the structural system and its components. Summarize the basic concepts on
which the pushover analysis can be based, assess the accuracy of pushover predictions,
identify conditions under which the pushover will provide adequate information and, perhaps
more importantly, identify cases in which the pushover predictions will be inadequate or even
misleading. The pushover analysis of a structure is a static non-linear analysis under
permanent vertical loads and gradually increasing lateral loads. The equivalent static lateral
loads approximately represent earthquake induced forces. A plot of the total base shear versus
top displacement in a structure is obtained by this analysis that would indicate any premature
failure or weakness. The analysis is carried out up to failure, thus it enables determination of
collapse load and ductility capacity. On a building frame, and plastic rotation is monitored,
and lateral inelastic forces versus displacement response for the complete structure is
analytically computed. This type of analysis enables weakness in the structure to be
identified. The decision to retrofit can be taken in such studies. The seismic design can be
viewed as a two-step process. The first, and usually most important one, is the conception of
an effective structural system that needs to be configured with due regard to all important
seismic performance objectives, ranging from serviceability considerations. The second step
consists of the design process that involves demand/capacity evaluation at all important
capacity parameters, as well as the prediction of demands imposed by ground motions.
Suitable capacity parameters and their acceptable values, as well as suitable methods for
demand prediction will depend on the performance level to be evaluated.

Necessity of nonlinear static pushover analysis:-
1) The existing building can become seismically deficient since seismic design code
requirements are constantly upgraded and advancement in engineering knowledge. Further,
Indian buildings built over past two decades are seismically deficient because of lack of
awareness regarding seismic behaviour of structures. The widespread damage especially to
RC buildings during earthquakes exposed the construction practices being adopted around the
world, and generated a great demand for seismic evaluation and retrofitting of existing
building stocks. Limitation of pushover is Incorporation of torsional effects (due to mass,
stiffness and strength irregularities).
2) 3-D problems (orthogonality effects, direction of loading, semi-rigid diaphragms, etc)
3) Use of site specific spectra.
4) Cumulative damage issues.
5) Most importantly, the consideration of higher mode effects once a local mechanism has
formed.
Since the pushover analysis is approximate in nature and is based on static loading, as such it
cannot represent dynamic phenomena with a large degree of accuracy. It may not detect some
important deformation modes that occur in a structure subjected to severe earthquakes, and it
may significantly from predictions based on invariant or adaptive static load patterns,
particularly if higher mode effects become important.

Although pushover analysis is advantageous in having a sense on nonlinear behaviour of
structures, the method includes some limitations that restrict its use. Therefore, following
statements are considered before and/or during pushover analysis:
Pushover analysis is valid for low to mid-rise structures that have a fundamental vibration
mode dominant on the structural behaviour. That means the method can be applied on
structures whose higher modes can be neglected. Higher modes are important in nonlinear
analysis results of high-rise and special structures.
The structural system of the building must be simple and regular. Results of pushover
analysis are not reliable for structures that have torsional effects caused by mass, stiffness and
strength irregularities.
Selected lateral load pattern that is applied to structure is important in displacement profile.
An invariant load pattern assumes that the inertia forces are constant during the analysis. As a
result, the structure displaces in accordance with the pattern the invariant load dictates. Since
capacity curve is a summary of loads and global displacements, selection of invariant load
pattern affects the shape of this curve and the target displacement consequently.
Pushover analysis gives an envelope behaviour which is an idealized case of real structural
behaviour. Real behaviour of the structure can be totally different due to chaotic nature of
earthquake ground motions.
Target displacement can differ significantly than the value obtained by dynamic analysis.
This is because of modes different than fundamental modes are ignored and the capacity
curve is idealized by linear lines.
If the structural system shows excessive stiffness degradation, strength deterioration or
pinching, these properties must be incorporated well into the system so as to estimate
inelastic displacement demand better.
If P-delta effect is important for the structural system, it may affect significantly the inter-
storey drift and the target displacement. Therefore, it must be considered in the analysis.
If the effective viscous damping of the system is much more different than 5%, inelastic
displacement demand can be affected considerably.
Target displacement is affected by foundation uplift, torsional effects and semi-rigid floor
diaphragms.








V. CONCLUSION