1)SOIL STRUCTURE - Is define as the property of soil which provides the integrity of the sistem and

which is responsible for response to externally applied and internally induced sets of forces and fluids.
The structure of a coarse grained soil is governed by gravitational forces:
-single grained structure
-in honeycomb structure
-in floccular structure




2)Soil texture may be defined as the visual appearance of a soil based on a qualitative composition of
soil grain sizes in a gives soil mass.
Texture of the cohesionless soils: -homogeneous
-non-homogeneous
Texture of the cohesive soil : -homogeneous
-leyered
-in lens form







3)Grain size distribution,:
Grain size of a soil refers to the diameters of the soil particles making up the soil mass.
The grain-size distribution
-coarse-grained soil sire analysis
-fine-grained soil can be obtained by means hydrometer analysis
To obtain the grain size distribution of a soil in laboratory we use the grain-size analysis.
Sieve Analysis:
realizated to dry,well pulverized soi
1) the uniformity coefficient (Cu)
2) the coefficient of gradation (Cz)














4)Hydrometer analysis :
-is conducted on the principle of sedimentation of soil particles in water. In this test, one uses 50 grams
of dry, pulverized soil. A deflocculating agent is always added to the soil. The most common
deflocculating agent used for hydrometer analysis is 125 cc of 4% solution of sodium
hexametaphosphate. The soil is allowed to soak for at least 16 hours in the deflocculating agent. After
the soaking period, distilled water is added, and the soil-deflocculating agent mixture is agitated. The
sample is then transferred to a 1000-ml glass cylinder. More distilled water is added to the cylinder to fill
it up to the 1000-ml mark, and then the mixture is again agitated.
The largest diameter of the soil particles still in suspension at time t can be determined by Stokes Law.

5) Uniformity coefficient ;Soil separate size limits







6) Importance of mineral composition of clay
The clay minerals are commonly found in soils belong to the larger mineral family termed
PHYLLOSILICATES, which also contains other layer of silicates.
The clay minerals usually occur in small particle size.
The two basic units in the clay mineral structures:
- SILICA TETRAHEDRON, with a tetrahedral silicon ion coordinated with four oxygen atoms
- ALUMINIUM or MAGNESIUM OCTAHEDRON, wherein aluminum or a magnesium ion is
octahedrally coordinated with six oxygen atoms or hydroxyls.

Clay minerals:
Kaolinete - structure of alternating silicon and octahedru
Halloysite 2 forms:
- 2HO
- 4HO

Illite -consists of three layers silicate-gibbsite-silicate resulting pyraphyllite
Montmorillonite consists of 3 layers of silicate-octahedral-silicate

7)Type of water in soil:
- after state aggregation:
- -fluid water (liquid)
- -solid water (ice)
- -gaseous water (vaporous water)

- forces which act on the water molecules
- chemical bound water
- -physical bound water-electro molecular
- -free water: capillary(surface tension), gravitational ( hydrocolloidal forces )

8) Indices for soil characterization

In nature, soil is three-phase systems : solid soil particles, water and air
To determine the physical properties of soils we have to know three simplest characteristics:
- specific weight , s, of solid particles of the soil;
- unit weight, , of the soil of natural structure;
- Natural moisture content, w, of the soil.

Where: Ws = the weight of the solid particles
Vs= volume of soil solids

Where: W =total weight of the soil specimen
V= total volume of soil

Porosity

- void volume
V-specimen volume

Void ratio

saturation level

[%]


moisture content :

100 [%]


dry unit weight

saturation unit weight

9) Loose and dense states of cohesionless soils
In granular soils, can be measured relative density Dr, or density index ID, by the formula (ex):
S
S
S
V
W
=
V
W
=

= void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
= void ratio in the densest state ; e = in situ void ratio.
The relative density can also be expressed in terms of dry unit weight
in situ dry unit weight
dry unit weight in the densest state that is, when the void ratio is
dry unit weight in the loosest state that is, when the void ratio is


10) Plasticity of soil, Atterberg limits
Plasticity may be defined as the ability of the material to change, shape continuously under the
influence of a constant applied stress and to retain the new shape on the removal of the stress
The plastic limit is the water content at which a soil element will start to crumble when rolled into a
pencil shape of 3 mm diameter
Plasticity index

consistency index

Atterberg limits, is defined by the liquidity index LI

activity index

e e
max
D I
r
D
e e
max
min

= =

e
max
e
min
d d
d
max min
D
r
d d d
max
min
| |

|
=
|

|
\ .
d
=
d
max
=
d
min
=
e
min
e
max
PL LL W W PI
P L
= =
P L P
W W I =
PI
w w
LI
P

=
002 . 0
A
PI
I
A
=
2 002 . 0
A A =

The figure represents the relation between the volume and weight of a soil sample at its different stages
of plasticity, beginning from the dry state and ending at the liquid state.
It shows clearly the different ranges of plasticity.

11) CAPILLARITY SOIL AND CAPILLARY EFFECTS
The capillary action is attributed to intermolecular forces existing between the water molecules.
The capillarity rise in a tube depends on the atmospheric pressure.
It is a well-known fact that when capillary tube is placed in water, the water level in the tube rises.
This is caused by the surface tension effect.
If the adhesion forces between a liquid and any other material are larger than the intermolecular
attraction of the liquid, the surface of the dissimilar material will be wetted by liquid.
Since surface tension is a material property of liquids and depends on intermolecular attraction it will
be temperature dependent.
So for equilibrium and .

If the equilibrium of the water column in the capillary tube is now considered, the downward
acting force is the weight of the water, and the upward acting force is the vertical component of the
reaction of the meniscus along the circumference.

Surface tension
the capillary height

the capillary meniscus

for a glass tube

The pore pressure in the capillary tube above the actual outside level is negative and its value is
obtained by considering that for any elevation z must be
=>
F 0
h
=
F 0
v
=
2
d
h d T cos
w c
4
t
= t o
( )
4 T 0.03
m
h
c
mm
d d
w

= =

w
u z 0 + =
u z
v w
=
for z = 0 to
and z = 0, u=0

The capillary pressure
The pore water pressure at any point in the zone of capillary rise in soil can be approximated as:

Where: - degree of saturation of soil ;
- distance measured above the ground water table.

In this respect if the head of the free surface is considered versus the degree of saturation, it is
possible to define the following limits:
- the highest elevation from the free surface ;
- the height at which the maximum degree of saturation exists,
- the highest elevation at which a continuous channel of water exists in the case of under
drainage,


12)Permeability of soils, Darys low (1856)
The flow on the unit surface is a function of height of the two points
Where : v=velocity [cm/sec]
k=coefficient of permeability of soil [mm/sec]
i=hydraulic gradient

Where: h=piezometric head difference between the sections at AA and BB
L=distance between the sections AA and BB
Hanzen (1930) proposal for k:

(mm/sec ) Where: A an constant that varies between 10 and 15
D10 effective soil, (mm)
h
c
u z
w
=
u S z
w r
' = S
r
z'
h
cm
h
csm
h
cr
v K i =
h
i
L
A
=
2
k A D
10
=

13)Compression and consolidation- phenomenon definition
Compressibility describes the volumetric response behavior of a soil mass and behavior characteristics
under compression.
Consolidation the change in volume of a soil mass with time due to remove a small amount of water
Rheologic behavior the volume change
performance is identified as a stress-strain-time
phenomenon

For consolidation -oedometer
The result of oedometer test is plotted in
compression - settlement curve.



Deformation of soil: -stiffness structure, elastic structure
Test of deformation: lab compressibility, in site test with plate

14)Establishment of compressibility in situ with plate.