Aashto 1996

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
for
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
SIXTEENTH EDITION
1996
American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Inc.
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
Copyright 1996 by the American Association of State Highway and
TransportationOYficials. Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printedin the United
States of America. This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of the publishers.
I B R A R Y & D O C U M E N T A T I O N C E N T h E
r~&TOUBROL~
.~T R U C T 1O N G ROUP
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FO O N A M A LLE E R O A D
,~.KKA M , M A D R A S-C O O
Adopted and Published by the
ISBN 1-56051-040-4
AMERICANASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
19951996
VOTING MEMBERS
Officers:
President: Bill Burnett, Texas
Vice President: Darrell Rensink, Iowa
Secretary/Treasurer: Clyde F. Pyers, Maryland
Regional Representatives:
Regions:
I Carlos I. Pesquara, Puerto Rico
II Robert L. Robinson, Mississippi
III Patrick Nowak, Michigan
LV Marshall W. Moore, North Dakota
NON-VOTING MEMBERS
immediate Past President: Wayne Shackelford, Georgia
Erecutive Director: Francis B. Erancois. Washington, D.C.
H
HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES 1995
JAMES E. SIEBELS, COLORADO, Chairman
G. CHARLES LEWIS, GEORGIA, Vice Chairman
STANLEY GORDON, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
ALABAMA, William F. Conway
ALASKA, Steve Bradford, Ray Shumway
ARIZONA, William R. Brucsch,
F. Daniel Davis
ARKANSAS, Dale Loe
CALIFORNIA, James E. Roberts
COLORADO, Stephen Horton
CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton
DELAWARE, Chao H. Hu
D.C., Jacob Patnaik, Luke DiPompo
FLORIDA, Jerry Potter
G EORG IA, Paul Liles
HAWAII, Donald C. Ornellas
IDAHO, Scott Stokes
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson
INDIANA, John J. White
IOWA, William A. Lundquist
KANSAS, Kennth F. Hurst
KENTUCKY, Richard Sutherland
LOUISIANA, Norval Knapp, Wayne Aymond
MAINE, Larry L. Roberts, James E. Tukey
MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow
MICHIGAN, Sudhakar Kulkarni
MINNESOTA, Donald J. Flemming
MISSISSIPPI, Wilbur F. Massey
MISSOURI, Allen F Laffoon
MONTANA, Joseph Kolman
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon
NEV ADA, Floyd I. Marcucci
NEW HAMSPHIRE, James A. Moore
NEW JERSEY, Robert Pege
NEW MEXICO, Martin A. Gavurnick
NEW YORK, (vacant)
NORTH CAROLINA, John L. Smith
NORTH DAKOTA, Steven J. Miller
OHIO, Richard L. Engel
OKLAHOMA, V eldo M. Goins
OREGON, Teriy J. Shike
PENNSYLV ANIA, (vacant)
PUERTORICO, Jorge L. Melendez,
Hector Camacho
RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand
SOUTH CAROLINA, Rocque L. Kneece
SOUTH DAKOTA, John Cole
TENNESSEE, Clellon Loveall,
Ed Wasserman
TEXAS, Robert Wilson
U.S. DOT, Stanley Gordon (FHWA),
Nick E. Mpars (USCG)
UTAH, Dave Christensen
V ERMONT, Warren B. Tripp
V IRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
WASHINGTON, Myint Lwin
WEST V IRGINIA, James Sothen
WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
WYOMING, David Pope
ALBERTA, Bob Ramsay
BRITISH COLUMBIA, Peter Brett
MANITOBA, W. Saltzbcrg
MARIANA ISLANDS, Elizabeth H.
Salas-Balajadia
NEW BRUNSWICK, G.A. Rushton
NEWFOUNDLAND, Peter Lester
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, Jivko Jivkov
NOV A SCOTIA, Al MacRae
ONTARIO, Ranjit S. Reel
SASKATCHEWAN, Lorne J. Hamblin
MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David
Lenhardt
N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Wallace R.
Grant
PORT AUTH. OF NY AND NJ, Joseph K.
Kelly
NY STATE BRIDGEAUTHORITY,
William Moreau
BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS,
Wade Cosey
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
FOREST SERV ICE, Nelson Hernandez
MILITARY TRAFHC MANAGEMENT
COMMAND, Robert D. Franz
U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS-
DEPT. OF THE ARMY, Paul C. T. Tan
iii
PREFACE
to
Sixteenth Edition
Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:
I. The Interim Specifications of 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996 have been adopted and are in-
cluded. (Note the 1996 interim, with commentary, were never published as a separate document.)
2 . Entire Division I-A, Seismic Design, was revised. Entire sectionof Commentary and Sup-
plements A & B of Division I-A were deleted.
3. Section 17, Soil-Reinforced Concrete Structure Interaction Systems, of Division I was
revised.
4. Section 26, Metal Culverts, of Division It was revised.
5. Section 27, Concrete Culverts, of Division II was revised.
6. Section 29, Embedment Anchors, was added to Division II.
iv
INTRODUCTION
The compilation of these specifications began in 1921 with the organization of the
Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American Association of State Highway
Officials. During the period from 1921, until printed in 1931, the specifications were
gradually developed, andas the several divisions were approved fromtime to time, they
were made available in mimeographed form for use of the State Highway Departments
and other organizations. A complete specification was available in 1926 and it was re-
vised in 1928. Though not in printed form, the specifications were valuable to the
bridge engineering profession during the period of development.
The first edition of the Standard Specifications was published in 193 I, and it was
followed by the 1 9 3 5 , 1941, 1944, 1949, 1 9 5 3 , 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977,
1 9 8 3 , 1989, and 1992 revised editions. The present sixteenth edition constitutes a re-
vision of the 1992 specifications, including those changes adopted since the publica-
tion of the fifteenth edition and those through 1995. The constant research and devel-
opment in steel, concrete, and timber structures practically dictates the necessity of
revising the specifications every few years, and the 1996 edition continues this trend.
Interim Specifications are usually published in the middle of the calendar year, and
a revised edition of this book is generally published every 4 years. The Interim Speci-
fications have the same status as standards of the American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials, but are tentative revisions approved by at least two-
thirds of the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. These revisions are voted on by
the Association Member Departments prior to the publication of each new edition of
this book, and if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are included
in the new edition as standards of the Association. Members of the Association are the
50 State Highway or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico. Each member has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is a
nonvoting member.
Annual Interim Specifications are generally used by the States after their adoption
by the Bridge Subcommittee. Orders for these annual Interim Specifications should be
sent to the Publication Sales Office of the Association at 444 North Capitol Street,
N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001, (202)624-5800.
The Standard Specifi cations for Highway Bridges are intended to serve as a stan-
dard or guide for the preparation of State specifications and for reference by bridge
engineers.
Primarily, the specifications set forth minimum requirements which are consistent
with current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary to suit local condi-
t i o n s . They a p p l y t o o r d i n a r y hi ghwa y b r i d ges a n d s u p p l em en t a l s p ec i f i c a t i o n s m a y b e
r eq u i r ed f o r u n u s u a l t yp es a n d f o r b r i d ges wi t h s p a n s l o n ger t ha n 5 00 f eet .
S p ec i f i c a t i o n s o f t he Am er i c a n Society for Testing and Materials, the American
Welding Society, the American Wood Preservers Association, and the National Forest
Products Association are referred to, or are recognized. Numerous research bulletins
are noted for references.
The Am er i c a n As s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway and Transportation Officials wishes to
express its sincere appreciation to the above organizations, as well as to those univer-
sities and representatives of industry whose research efforts and consultations have
been most helpful in continual improvement of these specifications.
Extensive references have been made to the Standard Specifications for Tramis-
porration Materials published by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, including eq u i v a l en t AS TM s p ec i f i c a t i o n s whi c h ha v e b een
reproduced in the Associations Standard Specifications by permission of the Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials.
Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by
t he B r i d ge S u b c o m m i t t ee:
v
Construction Manual for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures1973
Edition
Guide Specificationsfor Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Mem-
bers1978 Edition, updated to 1986
Guide Specificationsfor Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges1980 Edition,
updated to 1993
Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges 1988 Edition
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals1985 Edition, updated to 1994
Guide Specificationsfor Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel
Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections199 1 Edition
AASHTO Commentary on ANSI/AASHTO/AWSBridge Welding Code D].5-88
1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor
Design) 1986 Edition
Guide Spec(fications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges1990
Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete
Bridges 1989 Edition
Guide Specifications for Design and Construction and Segmental Concrete
Bridges1989 Edition
Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings1989 Edition
Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers1989 Edition
AASHTO Guide SpecificationsThermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Super-
structureI 989 Edition
ANSI/AASHTO/AWSBridge Welding Code DJ.5
Foundation Investigation Manual1978 Edition
Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges1991 Edition
Guide Specification for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks1991
Edition
Guidelinesfor Bridge Management Svstems1993 Edition
Manualfor Condition Evaluation ofBridges1994 Edition
Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges1994
E d i t i o n
Guide Specifications for AluminumHighway Bridges1991 Edition
GuideSpecifications for Seismic Isolation Design1991 Edition
GuideSpecifications for Fatigue Design of Steel Bridges1989 Edition
vi
AASHTO LRFDBridge Design Specifications1994 U.S. U n i t s E d i t i o n , 1 9 9 4
SI Units Edition
Guide Design Specificationsfor Bridge Temporary Work1995 Edition
Construction Handbookfor Bridge Temporary Work1995 Edition
Guidefor Painting Steel Structures1996 Edition
The f o l l o wi n g ha v e s er v ed a s c ha i r m en o f t he Co m m i t t ee s i n c e i t s i n c ep t i o n i n 1 9 2 1 :
Mes s r s , E . F . K el l ey, who p i o n eer ed t he wo r k o f t he Co m m i t t ee, Al b i n L . Gem en y,
R. B. McMinn, Raymond Archiband, G. S. Paxson, E. M. Johnson, Wa r d Go o d m a n ,
Charles Matlock, Joseph S. Jones, Sidney Poleynard, Jack Freidenrich, Henry W.
Derthick, Robert C. Cassano, Clellon Loveall, and James E. Siebels. The Committee
expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those active mem-
bers of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.
Suggestions for the improvement of the specifications are welcomed. They should
be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444
North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001. Inquiries as to the
intent or application of the specifications should be sent to the same address.
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO
ACI
AITC
ASCE
ASTM
ANS I
AWS
AWPA
CS
NDS
NFPA
SAF
WPA
WWPA
Am er i c a n As s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Hi ghwa y a n d Tr a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s
American Concrete Institute
American Institute of Timber Construction
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society for Testing and Materials
American National Standards Institute
American Welding Society
American Wood Preservers Association
Commercial Standards
National Design Specifications for Stress
Fastenings
National Forest Products Association
Society of Automotive Engineers
Western Pine Association
Wes t er n Wo o d Pr o d u c t s As s o c i a t i o n
Grade Lumber and Its
vii
AASHTOSTANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION IGENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGNANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES 3
1 . 1 . 1 Design Analysis . . . . 3
1.1.2 Structural Integrity . 3
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS 3
1.3 WATERWAYS 3
1 . 3 . 1 General 3
1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies 4
1 . 3 . 2 . 1 S i t e Da t a 4
1 . 3 . 2 . 2 Hyd r o l o gi c An a l ys i s 4
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysts . .. .4
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS 4
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE . . .. 4
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES 4
1.6.1 Clearances 4
1 . 6 . 2 Blast Protection . 4
1.7 SUPERELEVATION S
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES 5
1.9 UTILITIES 5
SECTION 2GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL . 7
2.1.1 Notations 7
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk 7
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCESGENERAL . . 7
2.2.1 Navigational .... .. ... 7
2.2.2 Roadway Width 7
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance 7
9 2.4 Other 7
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks 8
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES 8
2.3.1 Width . 8
2.3.2 Vertical Clearance .. 8
24 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES 8
241 Width 8
~)4 2 Vertical Clearance 8
2.4.3 Curbs 8
25 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS 8
2.5.1 Roadway Width. . 8
2.5.2 Clearance Between Walls 10
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance 10
2.5.4 Curbs 10
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR DEPRESSED ROADWXYS 10
\111
ix
Division I CONTENTS
2.6.1 Roadway Width 10
2 . 6 . 2 Clearance Between Wails 10
2 . 6 . 3 Curbs 10
2.7 RAILINGS 10
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing 10
2 . 7 . 1 . 1 Gen er a l 10
2.7.1.2 Geometry 10
2.7.1.3 Loads 11
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing 11
2.7.2.1 General 11
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads II
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing 12
2.7.3.1 General 12
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads 13
2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines 13
SECTION 3LOADS
PART ATYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS 17
3.2 GENERAL .. 19
3.3 DEAD LOAD 19
3.4 LIVE LOAD 20
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS 20
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES ... 20
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS 20
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads 20
3.7.2 Classes of Loading 21
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings 21
3.7 4 Minimum Loading 21
375 HLoading 21
376 HSLoading 21
3.8 IMPACT 21
3.8.1 Application 21
3.8.1.1 GroupA 21
3.8.1.2 GroupB 21
3.8.2 Impact Formula . . 21
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES . 23
3 . 1 0 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES 25
3 . 1 1 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD . 25
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units . 25
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units 25
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans 25
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress 25
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY 25
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS .. 25
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING 26
3 14 1 Sidewalk Loading . . 26
3.14.2 Curb Loading 26
3.14.3 Railing Loading 26
3.15 WINDLOADS 26
x
CONTENTS
Division I
3.15.1 Superstructure Design 26
3.15.1.1 GroupII and Group V Loadings 26
3.15.1.2 Group III and GroupV I Loadings 26
3.15.2 Substructure Design 26
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure 27
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure 27
3.15.3 Overturning Forces 27
3.16 THERMAL FORCES 27
3.17 UPLIFT . . .. 28
3 . 1 8 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT, FLOATING ICE,
AND DRIFT CONDITIONS 28
3. 1 8 . 1 Force of Stream Current on Piers 28
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure 28
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components 28
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier 28
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers 28
3 . 1 8 . 2 . 1 Gen er a l 28
3 . 1 8 . 2 . 2 Dyn a m i c Ic e F o r c e 2 9
3 . 1 8 . 2 . 3 S t a t i c Ic e Pr es s u r e 2 9
3 . 1 9 BUOYANCY 3 1
3 . 2 0 EARTH PRESSURE 3 1
3.21 EARTHQUAKES 31
PART BCOMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS 31
PART CDISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL
BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS 32
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear 32
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams 33
3.23.2.1 General 33
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams 33
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams 33
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams 33
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders 33
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams 33
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) 33
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks 34
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE
SLABS ... . . . 35
3.24.1 Span Lengths 35
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads 35
3.24.3 Bending Moment
3.24.3.1 Case AMain Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) 36
3.24.3.2 Case BMain Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic 36
3.24.4 Shear and Bond 36
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs 36
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads 36
3.24.5.1.1 Case AReinforcement Perpendicular toTraffic 36
3.24.5. 1.2 Case BReinforcement Parallel toTraffic 36
xi
Division I CONTENTS
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads 36
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides 36
3.24.7 Median Slabs 37
3.2 4.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams 37
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges 37
3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement . . 37
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OFWHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER FLOORING .. .37
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring .. . 37
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring 39
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks 39
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment . .. .... 39
3.25.3.2 Shear 39
3.25.3.3 Deflections 40
3 . 2 5 . 3 . 4 S t i f f en er Ar r a n gem en t 40
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring . 4 0
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS 40
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Moment
and Shear 40
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans 40
3.26.3 Design 40
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON STEEL
GRID FLOORS.. .. . 40
3.27.1 General 40
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete 41
3.27.3 Open Floors 41
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT
IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS ... 41
3.28.1 Interior Beams . . . 41
3.28.2 Exterior Beams 41
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS .. 41
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA 41
SECTION 4FOUNDATIONS
PART AGENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL . .. 43
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY 43
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type .. 43
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity 43
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity 43
4.2.2.2 Settlement 43
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability 43
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions 43
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONAND TESTING
43
PROGRAMS . .
4 . 3 . 1 General Requirements 43
4.3.2 Minimum Depth 44
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage 45
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing 45
4.3.5 Scour 45
xii CONTENTS
Division I
PART BSERV ICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
SPREAD FOOTINGS 45
General .... 45
Applicability 45
Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns or Piers 45
Footings in Fill 45
Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments
Di s t r i b u t i o n o f B ea r i n g Pr es s u r e
Notations
Design Terminology
Soil and Rock Property Selection
Depth
Minimum Embedment and Bench Width ...
Scour Protection
Footing Excavations
Piping
Anchorage
Geotechnical Design on Soil
B ea r i n g Ca p a c i t y
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
E c c en t r i c L o a d i n g ....
45
45
45
48
48
48
48
49
49
49
49
49
49
50
50
51
51
51
51
5
55
57
57
57
57
F o o t i n g S ha p e
In c l i n ed L o a d i n g
Ground Surface Slope
Embedment Depth
Ground Water
Layered Soils
Inclined Base
Factors of Safety
Settlement
Stress Distribution
Elastic Settlement 58
Co n s o l i d a t i o n Settlement 58
S ec o n d a r y S et t l em en t 6 1
To l er a b l e Mo v em en t 6 1
Dyn a m i c Gr o u n d S t a b i l i t y 6 1
Geotechnical Design on Rock 61
B ea r i n g Ca p a c i t y 62
Footings on Competent Rock 62
Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock 62
Factors of Safety 63
Settlement 63
Footings on Competent Rock 63
63
64
64
66
66
66
Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
Tolerable Movement
Overall Stability
Dynamic/Seismic Design
Structural Design
Loads and Reactions
Ac t i o n o f L o a d s a n d R ea c t i o n s .66
4.4
4.4.1
4 . 4 . 1 . 1
4 . 4 . 1 . 2
4 . 4 . 1 . 3
4.4.1.4
4 . 4 . 1 . 5
4.4.2
4 . 4 . 3
4.4.4
4 . 4 . 5
4 . 4 . 5 . 1
4.4.5.2
4.4.5.3
4.4.5.4
4 . 4 . 6
4.4.7
4.4.7.1
4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . 1
4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 1
4.4.7.1.1.2
4.4.7.1.1.3
4.4.7.1.1.4
4.4.7.1.1.5
4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 6
4.4.7.1. 1.7
4.4.7.1.1.8
4.4.7.1.2
4.4.7.2
4.4.7.2.1
4.4.7.2.2
4.4.7.2.3
4.4.7.2.4
4.4.7.2.5
4.4.7.3
4 . 4 . 8
4.4.8.1
4.4.8. 1.1
4.4.8.1.2
4.4.8.1.3
4.4.8.2
4.4.8.2.1
4.4.8.2.2
4.4.8.2.3
4 . 4 . 9
4 . 4 . 1 0
4 . 4 . 1 1
4.4.11.1
4.4.11.1.1
4.4.11. 1.2 Is o l a t ed a n d Mu l t i p l e F o o t i n g Reactions 67
Division I CONTENTS xiii
4.4.11.2 Moments 67
4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section 67
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement 67
4.4.11.3 Shear 67
4.4.11.3.1 Critical Section 67
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts 67
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement 67
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length 67
4 . 4 . 1 1 . 4 . 2 Cr i t i c a l S ec t i o n 67
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Co l u m n 6 7
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force 67
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces 67
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing 68
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement 68
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size 68
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length 68
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing 68
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings 68
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress 68
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals 68
4.5 DRIVEN PILES 68
4 . 5 . 1 General 68
4.5.1.1 Application 68
4.5.1.2 Materials 68
4.5.1.3 Penetration 68
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint 69
4 . 5 . 1 . 5 Estimated Lengths 69
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation 69
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill 69
4 . 5 . 1 . 8 Tes t Piles 69
4 . 5 . 2 Pile Typ es 6 9
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles 69
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles 69
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles 69
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles 69
4.5.3 Notations 69
4.5.4 Design Terminology 70
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties 70
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity 70
4 . 5 . 6 . 1 U l t i m a t e Geo t ec hn i c a l Capacity 70
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Ca p a c i t y 7 0
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils 70
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils 70
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock 70
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection 71
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading 71
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles 72
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles 72
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile 72
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group 72
4.5.6.7 V ertical Ground Movement 72
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction 72
CONTENTS Division I
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil 72
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design 73
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section 73
4 . 5 . 7 . 1 Load Capacity Requirements 73
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface 73
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stress in Piles 73
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion 73
4.5.7.5 Scour 74
4 . 5 . 8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion 74
4 . 5 . 9 Wave Equation Analysis 74
4 . 5 . 1 0 Dynamic Monitoring 74
4 . 5 . 1 1 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses 74
4.5.12 Tolerable Movement 74
4.5.13 Buoyancy 74
4 . 5 . 1 4 Protection Against Deterioration 74
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles 74
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles 75
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles 75
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment 75
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings 75
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing 75
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap 75
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps 75
4 . 5 . 1 6 Precast Concrete Piles 75
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape 75
4.5.16.2 MinimumArea 75
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles 75
4 . 5 . 1 6 . 4 Dr i v i n g Po i n t s 75
4.5.16.5 V ertical Reinforcement 75
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement 75
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover 76
4.516.8 Splices 76
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses 76
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles 76
4 . 5 . 1 7 . 1 Ma t er i a l s 7 6
4 . 5 . 1 7 . 2 S ha p e 7 6
4.5.17.3 Minimum Ar ea 7 6
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements 76
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure 76
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements 76
4.5.17.7 Splices 76
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover 76
4.5.18 Steel H-Piles 76
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness 76
4.5.18.2 Splices 76
4.5.18.3 Caps 77
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers 77
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments 77
4.5.19 Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles 77
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness 77
4.5.19.2 Splices 77
4.5.19.3 Driving 77
4.5.19.4 Column Action 77
x i v
Division I CONTENTS xv
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles 77
4 . 5 . 2 0. 1 S i z e a n d S ha p e 7 7
4 . 5 . 2 0. 2 Ma i n R ei n f o r c em en t 7 7
4 . 5 . 2 0. 3 V er t i c a l R ei n f o r c em en t 7 7
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles 78
4.5.20.5 Splices 78
4.5.21 Timber Piles 78
4 . 5 . 2 1 . 2 L i m i t a t i o n s o n U n t r ea t ed Ti m b er Pi l e Use 78
4 . 5 . 2 1 . 3 L i m i t a t i o n s o n Tr ea t ed Ti m b er Pi l e U s e 7 8
4 . 6 DRILLED SHAFTS 7 8
4 . 6 . 1 General . . 7 8
4.6.1. 1 Application 78
4.6.1.3 Construction 78
4.6.1.4 Embedment 78
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter 78
4 . 6 . 1 . 6 Batter Shafts 78
4 . 6 . 1 . 7 S ha f t s Through Embankment Fill 79
4 . 6 . 2 No t a t i o n s 7 9
4 . 6 . 3 Design Ter m i n o l o gy 8 0
4 . 6 . 4 S el ec t i o n o f S o i l and Rock Pr o p er t i es 8 0
4 . 6 . 4 . 1 Pr es u m p t i v e V a l u es 8 0
4 . 6 . 4 . 2 Mea s u r ed V a l u es 8 0
4 . 6 . 5 Geo t ec hn i c a l Des i gn 8 0
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil 80
4 . 6 . 5 . 1 . I S i d e R es i s t a n c e i n Co hes i v e S o i l 81
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil 81
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil 82
4 . 6 . 5 . 1 . 4 Ti p R es i s t a n c e i n Co hes i o n l es s Soil 83
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil 83
4 . 6 . 5 . 2 . 1 S o i l L a yer i n g a n d V a r i a b l e Soil Strength with Depth 83
4.6.5.2.2 Gr o u n d Wa t er 8 3
4 . 6 . 5 . 2 . 3 E n l a r ged B a s es 8 3
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action 83
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil 83
4 . 6 . 5 . 2 . 4 . 2 Co hes i o n l es s S o i l 84
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil 84
4.6.5.2.5 V ertical Ground Movement 84
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction 84
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock 84
4.6.5.3. I Side Resistance 85
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance 85
4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock 85
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification 85
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities 86
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction 86
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety 86
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts 86
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil 86
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil 86
4 . 6 . 5 . 5 . 1 . 2 Co hes i o n l es s S o i l 86
4 . 6 . 5 . 5 . 1 . 3 Mi x ed S o i l Pr o f i l e 8 7
xvi CONTENTS Division I
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock 87
4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movement 87
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading 88
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts 88
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering 88
4.6.5.6.1.2 GroundWater 88
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour 88
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action 88
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading 89
4.6.5.6.1.6 CombinedAxial and Lateral Loading 89
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground 89
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements 89
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design 90
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions 90
4.6.6.1 General 90
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement 90
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing 90
4.6.6.2.2 Splices 90
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement 90
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses 90
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover 90
4 . 6 . 6 . 2 . 6 R ei n f o r c em en t into Superstructure 90
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases 90
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing 91
4.6.7 Load Testing 91
4 . 6 . 7 . 1 Gen er a l 91
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures 91
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection 91
4.7 NOTE: Article Number Intentionally Not Used
PART CSTRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
4.8 SCOPE 91
4.9 DEFINITIONS 92
4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS,
AND RESISTANCE FACTORS 92
4 . 1 0. 1 General . 92
4 . 1 0. 2 S er v i c ea b i l i t y Limit S t a t es 9 2
4 . 1 0. 3 Strength Limit S t a t es 9 2
4.10.4 Strength Requirement 93
4 . 1 0. 5 Load Combinations and Load Factors 93
4 . 1 0. 6 Performance Factors 93
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS 93
4 . 1 1 . 1 General Considerations 93
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 1 Gen er a l 9 3
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 Dep t h 9 3
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 3 S c o u r Pr o t ec t i o n 9 3
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 4 F r o s t Ac t i o n 9 3
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 5 An c ho r a ge 9 3
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 6 Gr o u n d wa t er 9 4
4.11.1.7 Uplift 94
4.11 .1.8 Deterioration 94
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures 95
Division I CONTENTS xvii
4.11.2 Notations 95
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States 97
4.11.3.1 General 97
4.11.3.2 Loads 97
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria 97
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses 97
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils 97
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils 97
4.11.3.4.3 Settlement of Footings on Rock 97
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure 97
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils 97
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation 98
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-Empirical Procedures 98
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test 98
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive V alues 98
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity 98
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table 98
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock 98
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-Empirical Procedures 98
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method 100
4.11.4.2.3 LoadTest 100
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing V alues 100
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity 100
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding 100
4 . 1 1 . 4 . 4 L o s s of Overall Stability 100
4.11.5 Structural Capacity 100
4 . 1 1 . 6 Construction Considerations for ShallowFoundations. 100
4.11.6.1 General 100
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring 100
4 . 1 1 . 6 . 3 Co m p a c t i o n Mo n i t o r i n g 100
4 . 1 2 DRIVEN PILES 1 00
4.12.1 General .... 1 00
4.12.2 Notations 101
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity 102
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity 102
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration 102
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy 102
4.12.3.1.3 Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces 102
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift 103
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State 103
4.12.3.2.1 General 103
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement 103
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement 103
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil 103
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil 103
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement 103
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 R es i s t a n c e a t S t r en gt h L i m i t States 103
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles 103
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity 104
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based on In Situ Tests 104
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock 104
4.12.3.3.5 PileLoadTest 104
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities 104
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift 104
xviii
CONTENTS Di v i s i o n I
Single Pile Uplift Capacity 104
Pile Group Uplift Capacity 104
Lateral Load 104
Batter Pile 104
Group Capacity 104
Cohesive Soil 104
Cohesionless Soil 105
Pi l e Gr o u p in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak
o r Co m p r es s i b l e S o i l 1 05
Dyn a m i c /S ei s m i c Des i gn 1 05
Structural Design 105
Buckling of Piles 105
Construction Considerations 105
DRILLED SHAFTS 105
General 105
Notations 105
Geotechnical Design 106
Factors Affecting Axial Capacity 107
Downdrag Loads 107
Uplift 107
Movement Under Serviceability Limit State 107
General 107
Tolerable Movement 107
Settlement 107
Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts 107
Group Settlement 107
Lateral Displacement 107
Resistance at Strength Limit States 107
Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts 107
Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity
in Cohesive Soils 107
Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils 107
Axial Capacity in Rock 107
LoadTest 108
Uplift Capacity 108
Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft 108
Group Uplift Capacity 108
Lateral Load 108
Group Capacity 108
Cohesive Soil 108
Cohesionless Soil 108
Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Compressible Soil .... 108
Dynamic/Seismic Design 108
Structural Design 108
Buckling of Drilled Shafts 109
SECTION 5RETAINING WALLS
5.1 GENERAL 111
5.2 WALLTYPEAND CAPACITY 111
4.12 7a
4.12.3.3.7b
4. 12.3.3.8
4. 12.3.3.9
4. 12.3.3. 10
4. 12.3.3. lOa
4. 12.3.3. lOb
4. 12.3.3. lOc
4.12.3.3.11
4.12.4
4. 12.4.
4 . 1 2 . 5
4.13
4.13.1
4 . 1 3 . 2
4.13.3
4. 13.3.1
4.13.3.1.1
4. 13.3. 1.2
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 2
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 2 . 1
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 2 . 2
4.13.3.2.3
4. 13.3.2.3a
4.1 3.3.2.3b
4.13.3.2.4
4.13.3.3
4. 13.3.3. 1
4.13.3.3.2
4.13.3.3.3
4.13.3.3.4
4.13.3.3.5
4. 13.3.3.6
4.13.3.3.6a
4. 13.3.3.6b
4.13.3.3.7
4.13.3.3.8
4.13.3.3.8a
4.13.3.3.8 b
4.13.3.3.8 c
4.13.3.3.9
4.13.4
4.13.4.1
Division I CONTENTS xix
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type Ill
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls 111
5 . 2 . 1 . 2 No n gr a v i t y Ca n t i l ev er ed Walls Ill
5 . 2 . 1 . 3 An c ho r ed Wa l l s 1 1 2
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls 112
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls 112
5.2.2 Wall Capacity 113
5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity 113
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Movements 113
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions 113
5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONAND TESTING PROGRAMS . .113
5.3.1 General Requirements . 113
5.3.2 Minimum Depth ... 114
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage 114
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing 114
5.3.5 Scour 114
5.4 NOTATIONS 114
PART BSERV ICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN 116
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings 116
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage 119
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure 120
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability 123
5.5.6 Structure Design 123
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs 123
5 . 5 . 6 . 2 Wa l l S t em s 123
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses 123
5 . 5 . 6 . 5 E x p a n s i o n and Contraction Joints 125
5.5.7 Backfill 125
5.5.8 Overall Stability 125
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN 125
5.6.1 Design Terminology . 125
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection 129
5.7 ANCHOREDWALL DESIGN 129
xx CONTENTS Division I
5.7.6.1 General 132
5.7.6.2 Anchor Design 133
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing 133
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN 134
5.8.1 Structure Dimensions ... 134
5.8.2 External Stability .. . 134
5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability 136
5.8.4 Internal Stability . .. 138
5.8.4.1 Inextensible Reinforcements 138
5 . 8 . 4 . 2 E x t en s i b l e Reinforcements 139
5.8.5 Pullout Design Parameters 139
5.8.6 Design Life Requirements 139
5 . 8 . 6 . 1 S t eel R ei n f o r c em en t 139
5.8.6.2 Polymeric Reinforcement 140
5.8.7 Allowable Stresses 141
5.8.7.1 Steel Reinforcements 141
5.8.7.2 Polymeric Reinforcements 141
5.8.8 Drainage 141
5.8 .9 Special Loading Conditions 141
5 . 8 . 1 0 Seismic Design 142
5.8. 10.1 External Stability 142
5.8. 10.2 Internal Stability 142
5.8 .11 Structural Requirements ... . 142
5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN 142
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions . .. .. 142
5.9.2 External Stability 143
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability 143
5.9.5 Drainage 144
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE 144
5.11 DEFINITIONS 144
5.12 NOTATIONS 146
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORSAND RESISTANCE
FACTORS 146
5.13. I Serviceability Limit States 146
5.13.2 Strength Limit States 146
5.13.3 Strength Requirement 146
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors 146
5 . 1 3 . 5 Performance Factors 147
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN,
AND CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN 147
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill 147
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge 147
5 . 1 4 . 5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States 148
5 . 1 4 . 6 Safety Against Soil Failure 148
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure 148
xxi
Division I CONTENTS
5.14.6.2 Sliding 150
5.14.6.3 Overturning 150
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure ISO
5.14.7.1 BaseofFootingSlabs 150
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems 150
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses 150
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints 150
5.14.8 Backfill 151
SECTION 6CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY
OPENINGS 153
6.2 DEAD LOADS 153
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on yielding foundation.. .153
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation 153
6.3 FOOTINGS 153
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH
EARTH FILLS . . 153
6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT 153
6.6 DESIGN ... 153
SECTION 7SUBSTRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL 155
7.1.1 Definition 155
7.1.2 Loads 155
7.1.3 Settlement 155
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design 155
7.2 NOTATIONS 155
PART BSERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
7.3 PIERS 155
7.3.1 PierTypes 155
7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers 155
7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers 155
7.3.1.3. Bent Piers 156
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers 156
7.3.2 Pier Protection 156
7.3.2.1 Collision 156
7 . 3 . 2 . 2 Co l l i s i o n Wa l l s 156
7 . 3 . 2 . 3 S c o u r 1 5 6
7.3.2.4 Facing . 1 5 6
74 TUBULAR PIERS 156
7.4.1 Materials . 1S6
7.4.2 Configuration 1S6
7.S ABUTMENTS 1S6
7.5.1 AbutmentTypes 156
xxii CONTENTS Division I
7.5.1.1 StubAbutment 156
7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment 156
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment 156
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment 157
7.5.2 Loading 157
7.5.2.1 Stability 157
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature 157
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling 157
7.5.3 Integral Abutments 157
7.5.4 Abutments onMechanically Stabilized Earth Walls 157
7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems 159
7.5.6 Wingwalls 159
7.5.6.1 Length 159
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.6 GENERAL 160
SECTION 8 REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.1 APPLICATION 161
8.1.1 General 161
8.1.2 Notations 161
8.1.3 Definitions . 164
8.2 CONCRETE 164
8.3 REINFORCEMENT 165
PART BANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL 165
8.5 EXPANSIONAND CONTRACTION 165
8 .6 STIFFNESS . 165
8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSONS RATIO 165
8.8 SPAN LENGTH . . ... 165
8 .9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS 166
8 .9.1 General . . 166
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations 166
8.9.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations 166
8 .10 COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH 166
8 .10.1 T-Girder ... . 166
8.10.2 Box Girders 166
8 .11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS 166
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS . 167
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS 167
PART CDESIGN
8.14 GENERAL 167
8.14.1 Design Methods 167
Division I CONTENTS xxiii
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members 168
8.14.3 Concrete Arches .... . . . 168
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD (Allowable Stress Design) .... 169
8.15.1 General Requirements 169
8.15.2.1 Concrete 169
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure 169
8.15.2.1.2 Shear 169
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress 169
8.15.3 Flexure 169
8.15.4 Compression Members 169
8.15.5 Shear 170
8 . 1 5 . 5 . 1 S hea r S t r es s 1 7 0
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete 170
8.15.5.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings 170
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members 170
8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members 170
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete 170
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement 171
8.15.5.4 Shear Friction 171
8.15.5.4.3 Shear-Friction Design Method 171
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members 172
8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear 172
8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings 172
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts 173
8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels 173
8.16 STRENGTHDESIGN METHOD (Load Factor Design) 174
8 .16.1 Strength Requirements 174
8.16.1.1 Required Strength . 174
8.16.1.2 Design Strength 174
8 . 1 6 . 2 Design Assumptions 174
8.16.3 Fiexure 175
8.16.3. 1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members 175
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only 175
8.16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only 175
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression Reinforcement 176
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections 176
8 .16.4 Compression Members 176
8 . 1 6 . 4 . 1 Gen er a l Requirements 176
8.16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths 176
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression 176
8.16.4.2.2 PureFlexure 177
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions 177
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load 177
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading 177
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members 177
8.16.5.1 General Requirements 177
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects 177
8.16.6 Shear 178
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength 178
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete 179
xxiv CONTENTS Division I
8.16.6.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings 179
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members 179
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members 179
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete 179
8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement 179
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction 180
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Method 180
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members 181
8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal S hea r 181
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings 181
8 . 1 6 . 6 . 7 S p ec i a l Pr o v i s i o n s f o r S l a b s o f B o x Culverts 182
8 . 1 6 . 6 . 8 S p ec i a l Pr o v i s i o n s for Brackets and Corbels 182
8 . 1 6 . 7 Bearing S t r en gt h 1 8 3
8 . 1 6 . 8 S er v i c ea b i l i t y R eq u i r em en t s 1 8 3
8.16.8.1 Application 183
8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses 183
8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits 183
8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement 184
PART DREINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 184
8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement 184
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement 184
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of Maximum Tension... .184
8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in T-Girders
and Box Girders 185
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box Girders 185
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members 185
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 185
8 .1 8.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement 185
8 . 1 8 . 2 Lateral Reinforcement 18 6
8.18.2.1 General 186
8.18.2.2 Spirals 186
8.18.2.3 Ties 186
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements 186
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . 186
8 . 1 9 . 1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement 18 6
8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement 187
8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement . . ... 187
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT 187
8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT . 187
8.22 PROTECTIONAGAINST CORROSION . . 187
8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS .. 188
8.23.1 Standard Hooks 188
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters . . 188
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT 188
8.24.1 General . .. 188
8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement 189
8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement 189
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION 189
DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION 190 8.26
Division I CONTENTS xxv
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OFSHEAR REINFORCEMENT 191
8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS 191
8.29 DEV ELOPMENT OF STANDARDHOOKS IN TENSION 191
8.30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION . . . .192
8 .30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric 192
8 . 3 0. 2 Smooth Wire Fabric 193
8 .31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE . 193
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT 193
8 . 3 2 . 1 Lap Splices 193
8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections 193
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension 193
8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression 194
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Co m p r es s i o n 194
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices 194
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connections 194
8.32.5 Splices of Welded DeformedWire Fabric in Tension 194
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension 194
SECTION 9PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9.1 APPLICATION 195
9.1.1 General 195
9.1.2 Notations 195
9.1.3 Definitions 197
9.2 CONCRETE 198
9.3 REINFORCEMENT 198
9.3.1 Prestressing Steel 198
9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement 198
PART BANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL 198
9.6 SPAN LENGTH . 198
9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION 198
9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges 198
9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast Prestressed Girders
Made Continuous 199
9.7.2.1 General . 199
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers 199
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments 199
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders 199
9.7.3.1 General 199
9.7.3.2 Flexure 199
9.7.3.3 Torsion 199
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH 199
9.8.1 T-Beams 199
9.8.2 Box Girders 199
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges 200
9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESSBOX GIRDERS 200
9.9.1 Top Flange . . . 200
xxvi CONTENTS Division I
9.9.2 Bottom Flange 200
9.9.3 Web 200
9.10 DIAPHRAGMS 200
9.10.1 General 200
9.10.2 T-Beams 200
9 . 1 0. 3 Box Girders 200
9.11 DEFLECTIONS 200
9.11.1 General. . . 200
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders 201
9 . 1 1 . 3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations 201
9.12 DECKPANELS 201
9 . 1 2 . 1 General . 201
9 . 1 2 . 2 Bending Moment 201
PART CDESIGN
9.13 GENERAL.. 201
9 . 1 3 . 1 Design Theory and General Considerations 201
9.13.2 Basic Assumption 201
9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members 201
9.14 LOAD FACTORS ... . 202
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES 202
9 . 1 5 . 1 Prestressing Steel. . . . . 202
9.15.2 Concrete 202
9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep
and Shrinkage 202
9.15.2.2 Stress at Service LoadAfter Losses Have Occurred 202
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress 2 03
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress 203
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS 203
9.16.1 Friction Losses 203
9.16.2 Prestress Losses 203
9 . 1 6 . 2 . 1 Gen er a l 203
9 . 1 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 S hr i n ka ge 203
9 . 1 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 E l a s t i c Shortening 204
9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete 204
9.16.2.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel 204
9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses 206
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH 206
9 . 1 7 . 1 General 206
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections 206
9 . 1 7 . 3 Flanged Sections 206
9.17.4 Steel Stress 207
9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS 207
9.18 .1 Maximum Prestressing Steel 207
9 . 1 8 . 2 Minimum Steel 207
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT 207
9.20 SHEAR 208
9 . 2 0. 1 General 208
9.20.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete 208
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement 209
9 . 2 0. 4 Horizontal Shear DesignComposite Flexural Members 209
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear 209
Division I CONTENTS xxvu
9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGEZONES 210
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone 210
9.2 1.2 General Zone and Local Zone 210
9.21.2.1 General Zone 210
9.21.2.2 Local Zone 210
9.21.2.3 Responsibilities ... 210
9.21.3 DesignoftheGeneralZone 210
9.21.3.1 Design Methods 210
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths 211
9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices 211
9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements 211
9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages 212
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms 213
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages 213
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design
of Anchorage Zones 213
9.21.4.1 General 213
9.21.4.2 Nodes 214
9 . 2 1 . 4 . 3 S t r u t s 214
9 . 2 1 . 4 . 4 Ti es 2 1 4
9.21.5 E l a s t i c S t r es s An a l ys i s 2 1 4
9 . 2 1 . 6 Approximate Met ho d s 2 1 4
9.21.6.1 Limitations 214
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses 214
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces 215
9 . 2 1 . 6 . 4 Edge-Tension Forces 215
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone 216
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone 216
9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength 216
9.2 1.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices 217
9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES . 217
9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTHAT STRESS TRANSFER 217
9.24 DECK PANELS 217
PART DDETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT . 218
9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL 218
9.26.1 Minimum Cover ... . 218
9.26.2 Minimum Spacing 218
9.26.3 Bundling 218
9.26.4 Size of Ducts . 218
9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS 218
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED STRAND 21 8A
9.29 BEARINGS . . . . . .. 218A
SECTION 10STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.1 APPLICATION . 219
10.1.1 Notations .. . 219
xxviii CONTENTS Division I
10.2 MATERIALS 223
10.2.1 General 223
10.2 .2 Structural Steels ... . 223
10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers 223
10.2.4 FastenersRivets and Bolts 223
10.2.5 Weld Metal 223
10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings, Cast Iron,
and Bronze or Copper Alloy 225
1 0. 2 . 6 . 1 Ca s t S t eel a n d Du c t i l e Ir o n 925
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings 225
10.2.6.3 Cast Iron 225
1 0. 2 . 6 . 4 Bronze or Copper Alloy 225
PART BDESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS
CONSIDERATIONS . 225
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress 225
10.3.2 Load Cycles 225
10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements 225
10.3.4 Shear 26
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN 26
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS 26
10.6 DEFLECTION . 226
10.7 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS 231
10.8 MINIMUMTHICKNESS OF METAL 231
10.9 EFFECTIVEAREA OF ANGLES AND TEE SECTIONS
IN TENSION 232
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES 232
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS . .. 32
10.13 COVER PLATES .... 232
10.14 CAMBER . 233
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND WELDED
PLATE GIRDERS 233
10.15.1 Scope . 233
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature 233
10.15.3 Camber 233
10.16 TRUSSES 234
10.16.1 General . 234
10.16.2 Truss Members 234
1 0. 1 6 . 3 Secondary Stresses 234
10.16.4 Diaphragms 234
1 0. 1 6 . 5 Camber 235
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes 235
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing 235
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates 235
10.16.9 Stay Plates 235
10.16.10 Lacing Bars 236
10.16.11 Gusset Plates 236
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans 236
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression Members 237
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength Bolted
Tension Members 237
Division I CONTENTS xxix
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS 237
1 0. 1 7 . 1 General 237
10.17.2 SingleRents 237
10.17.3 Batter 237
1 0. 1 7 . 4 Bracing 237
10.17.5 Bottom Struts 238
10.18 SPLICES 238
1 0. 1 8 . 1 General 238
1 0. 1 8 . 2 BeamsandGirders 238
10.18 .3 Columns 238
10.18 .4 Tension Members 239
10.18 .5 Welding .. 239
1 0. 1 8 . 6 Fillers 239
10.19 STRENGTH OFCONNECTIONS 239
10.19.1 General . 239
1 0. 1 9 . 2 End Connections of Floor Beams and Stringers 239
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross Frames 240
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES 241
1 0. 2 0. 1 General 241
1 0. 2 0. 2 Stresses Due to Wind LoadingWhen Top Flanges
are Continuously Supported 241
10.20.2.1 Flanges 241
10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames 241
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load When Top Flanges
are not Continuously Supported 241
10.21 LATERAL BRACING ... 241
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONSAND POCKETS 242
10.23 WELDING 242
10.23.1 General 242
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds 242
10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds 242
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds 242
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds 242
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns 242
10.23.5 Seal Welds 242
10.24 FASTENERS (Rivets and Bolts) 243
1 0. 2 4 . 1 General. .. . 243
10.24.2 Hole Types 243
10.24.3 Washer Requirements . 244
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-Strength Bolts) 244
1 0. 2 4 . 5 Spacing of Fasteners 244
1 0. 2 4 . 5 . 1 Pi t c h a n d Ga ge o f F a s t en er s 2 4 4
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners 245
10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance Between Holes 245
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners 245
10.24.6 Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch Fasteners 245
10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners 245
10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners 245
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners 245
10.24.7.1 General 245
1 0. 2 4 . 8 Long Rivets 246
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS 246
1 0. 2 5 . 1 Net Section 246
xxx CONTENTS Division I
10.25.2 Location of Pins 246
10.25.3 Size of Pins 246
1 0. 2 5 . 4 Pin Plates 246
10.25.5 Pins and Pin Nuts 246
10.26 UPSET ENDS 246
10.27 EYEBARS 246
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section 246
10.27.2 Packing of Eyebars 247
10.28 FORKED ENDS . 247
10.29 FIXEDAND EXPANSION BEARINGS 247
10.29.1 General . 247
10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearings 247
10.29.3 Rollers 247
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates 247
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings 247
1 0. 2 9 . 6 Anchor Bolts 247
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes 248
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM 248
1 0. 3 0. 1 Stringers 248
1 0. 3 0. 2 Floor B ea m s 2 4 8
1 0. 3 0. 3 Cr o s s Frames 2 4 8
1 0. 3 0. 4 Expansion Joints 2 4 8
1 0. 3 0. 5 End Floor Beams ... 2 4 8
1 0. 3 0. 6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges 248
1 0. 3 0. 7 Sidewalk Brackets 248
10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms 248
10.30.8.1 Concrete Deck Panels 248
10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms 248
PART CSERV ICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
10.31 SCOPE 249
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES 249
10.32.1 Steel .. .. . 249
10.32.2 WeldMetal 249
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts) 249
10.32.3.1 General 249
10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, Combined Tension and Shear 253
10.32.3.4 Fatigue 254
10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers 254
10.32.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings,
and Cast Iron 255
1 0. 3 2 . 5 . 1 Ca s t S t eel a n d Du c t i l e Ir o n 255
1 0. 3 2 . 5 . 2 Ma l l ea b l e Ca s t i n gs 2 5 5
1 0. 3 2 . 5 . 3 Ca s t Ir o n 2 5 5
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy 255
1 0. 3 2 . 6 Bearing on Masonry 255
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS 256
10.33.1 General 256
10.33.2 Bearing Stiffeners 256
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS 256
xxxi
Division I CONTENTS
10.34.1 General 256
10.34.2 Flanges 256
10.34.2.1 Welded Girders 256
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders 257
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates 257
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally 257
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally 258
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners 258
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners 260
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders 260
10 34 6 2 Riveted or Bolted Girders 261
10 35 TRUSSES 261
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars 261
10.35.2 Compression MembersThickness of Metal 261
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES ... 263
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES 263
1 0. 3 7 . 1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress 263
10.37.2 Web Plates 264
10.37.3 Flange Plates . . 265
10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS 265
10.38.1 General . .. 265
10.38.2 Shear Connectors .. 265
10.38.3 Effective Flange Width 266
10.38 .4 Stresses 266
1 0. 3 8 . 5 Shear 266
10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear 266
10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue 266
10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength 267
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to Develop Slab Stresses 268
10.38.5.2 V ertical Shear 268
10.38.6 Deflection 268
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS 268
10.39.1 General 268
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment 269
10.39.3 Design of Web Plates 269
10.39.3.1 V ertical Shear 269
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses 269
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates 269
1 0. 3 9 . 4 . 1 Ten s i o n F l a n ges 269
10. 39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened 269
10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges StiffenedLongitudinally 272
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges StiffenedLongitudinally and Transversely .. .272
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General 273
10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds 273
10.39.6 Diaphragms 273
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing 273
10.39.8 Access and Drainage 274
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS 274
10.40.1 General 274
1 0. 4 0. 2 Allowable Stresses 274
10.40.2.1 Bending 274
xxxii CONTENTS Division I
10.40.2.2 Shear 275
10.40.2.3 Fatigue 275
10.40.3 PlateThickness Requirements 275
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements 275
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECKSUPERSTRUCTURES 275
10.41.1 General 275
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area 275
10.41.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate 275
10.4 1.3.1 Ribs and Beams 275
10.4 1.3.2 Girders 276
10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate 276
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs 276
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams 276
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and Girders 276
10.41.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements 276
10.4 1.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate 276
10.4 1.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams 276
10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of Longitudinal Ribs 276
10.41.4.7 Diaphragms 277
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements 277
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections 277
10.41.4.8.2 V ibrations 277
10.41.4.9 Wearing Surface 277
10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs 277
PART DSTRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
10.42 SCOPE 277
10.43 LOADS 277
10.44 DESIGN THEORY 277
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS . 278
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL 278
10.47 MAXIMUMDESIGN LOADS . 278
10.48 SYMMETRICAL BEAMSAND GIRDERS 278
10.48.1 Compact Sections .. 278
1 0. 4 8 . 2 Braced Non-Compact Sections 279
10.48.3 Transitions 280
10.48.4 Unbraced Sections 280
10.48.5 Transversely Stiffened Girders 281
10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders 281
10.48.8 Shear 282
10.49 UNSYMMETRICAL BEAMS AND GIRDERS 283
10.49.1 General ... 283
10.49.2 Unsymmetrical Sections with Transverse Stiffeners 283
1 0. 4 9 . 3 Longitudinally Stiffened Unsymmetrical Sections 283
10.49.4 Unsymmetrical Braced Non-Compact Sections 283
10.49.5 Unbraced Unsymmetrical Sections 283
10.50 COMPOSITE BEAMSAND GIRDERS 283
10.50. I Positive Moment Sections of Composite Beams
and Girders 284
Compact Sections 284 10.50.1.1
Division I CONTENTS xxxiii
10.50.1.2 Non-Compact Sections 286
10.50.2 Negative Moment Section of Composite Beams
and Girders 286
10.50.2.1 Compact Sections 286
10.50.2.2 Non-Compact Sections 286
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS . . 286
10.51.1 Maximum Strength. ... 287
10.51.2 Lateral Distribution 287
10.51.4 Tension Flanges 287
10.5 1.5 Compression Flanges 287
10.5 1.6 Diaphragms 288
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS 288
10.52.1 General . .. 288
10.52.2 Design of Connectors 288
10.52.3 Maximum Spacing 288
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS 288
10.53.1 Non-Composite Hybrid Girders 289
10.53.1.1 Compact Sections 289
1 0. 5 3 . 1 . 2 B r a c ed No n -Co m p a c t Sections 289
10.53.1.3 Unbraced Non-Compact S ec t i o n s 2 8 9
10.53.1.4 Transversely Stiffened Girders 289
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Girders 289
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 289
10.54.1 Axial Loading . 289
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity 289
10.54.1.2 Effective Length .. . 290
10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending 290
10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity 290
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C 290
10.55 SOLID RIBARCHES. 291
10.55.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stresses 291
10.55.3 Flange Plates . . 291
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS 291
10.56. 1 Connectors . 291
10.56.1.1 General 291
10.56.1.2 Welds 291
10.56.1.3 BoltsandRivets 291
10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints 292
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by Connected Parts 292
10.56.3 Rigid Connections 292
10.57 OVERLOAD 293
10.57.1 Non-Composite Beams and Girders 293
10.57.2 Composite Beams and Girders 293
10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints 294
10.58 FATIGUE 295
10.58.1 General 295
10.58.2 Composite Construction 295
10.58.2.1 Slab Reinforcement 295
10.58.2.2 Shear Connectors 295
10.58.3 Hybrid Beams and Girders 295
10.59 DEFLECTION 295
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES 295
xxxiv CONTENTS Division I
SECTION 11ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1 GENERAL 297
11.2 BRIDGES 297
11.3 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION SYSTEMS 297
11.4 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY SIGNS,
LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS 297
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING 297
SECTION 12-SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL 299
12.1.1 Scope 299
12.1.2 N ot at ions 299
12.1.3 Loads 299
12.1.4 Design 300
12.1.5 M at erials 300
1 2 . 1 . 6 Soil Design 300
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters 300
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design 300
12.1.6.3 Arch Design 300
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions 301
12.1.9 EndTreatment 301
1 2 . 1 . 1 0 Construction and Installation 301
12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN 301
12.2.1 WallArea .... .. 301
12.2.2 Buckling 301
12.2.3 SeamStrength 301
12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength 301
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN 302
12.3.1 WallArea 301
12.3.2 Buckling 302
12.3.3 Seam Strength 302
12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE 302
12.4.1 General.. .. . 302
12.4.1.2 Service Load Designsafety factor, SF 302
1 2 . 4 . 1 . 3 Load Factor Designcapacity modification factor, ~ 302
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor 303
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover 303
12.4.3 Section Properties 304
1 2 . 4 . 3 . 1 S t eel Co n d u i t s 304
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits 304
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements 305
12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe . .... 305
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE 305
12.5.1 General .. . . . 305
12.5.2 Soil Design . 305
Division I CONTENTS xxxv
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design . .. 305
1 2 . 5 . 2 . 4 S p ec i a l Co n d i t i o n s 305
1 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 Co n s t r u c t i o n a n d In s t a l l a t i o n 3 05
1 2 . 5 . 3 Design 3 05
12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits 306
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements
AASHTOM218 306
12.5.5.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements
AASHTO M 197 306
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES 307
12.6.1 General 307
12.6.1.2 Service Load Designsafety factor, SF 307
12.6.1.3 Load Factor Designcapacity modification
factor, ~ 307
12.6.3 Sect ion Properties 307
12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits 307
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties 308
1 2 . 6 . 4 . 1 Al u m i n u m S t r u c t u r a l Pl a t e Pi p e, Pi p e-Ar c h, a n d Ar c h Ma t er i a l
RequirementsAASHTO M 219, Alloy 5 05 2 3 08
1 2 . 6 . 4 . 2 S t eel S t r u c t u r a l Pl a t e Pi p e, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
RequirementsAASHTO M 167 3 08
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches 308
12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE STRUCTURES 308
12.7.1 General 308
12.7.2 Design 308
12.7.2.1 General 308
12.7.2.2 Acceptable Special Features 309
12.7.2.3 Design for Deflection 309
12.7.2.4 Soil Design . . 309
12.7.3 Structural Plate Shapes 310
12.7.5 Multiple Structures 310
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS 310
12.8.1 General . .. . 310
12.8.1.1 Scope 311
12.8.2 Structural Standards 311
12.8.3 Structure Backfill 311
12.8.4 Design 311
12.8.4.1 Analytical Basis for Design 311
12.8.4.2 Load Factor Method 311
12.8.4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements 311
12.8.4.4 Footing Reactions 313
12.8.5 Manufacturing and Installation 313
xxxvi CONTENTS Division I
SECTION 13-WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL ANDNOTATIONS 315
13.1.1 General 315
13.1.2 Net Section 315
13.1.3 Impact 315
13.2 MATERIALS . 316
13.2.1 SawnLumber 316
1 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 General 316
1 3 . 2 . 1 . 2 Di m en s i o n s 316
13.2.2 Glued Laminated Timber 316
13.2.2.1 General 316
13.2.2.2 Dimensions 316
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumber 317
13.2.3.1 General 317
13.2.3.2 Laminated V eneer Lumber 317
13.2.3.3 Parallel Strand Lumber 317
13.2.4 Piles 317
13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT 317
13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment 317
13.3.2 Treatment Chemicals 317
13.3.3 FieldTreating 317
13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments 317
13.4 DEFLECTION 317
13.5 DESIGNVALUES 318
13.5.1 General . 318
13.5.2 Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber 318
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades inFlexure 318
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated Timber 318
13.5.4 Tabulated Valuesfor Structural Composite Lumber 318
13.5.5 Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values 318
1 3 . 5 . 5 . 1 Wet Service Factor, CM 318
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, C~ 327
13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment 327
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS 327
13.6.1 General 327
13.6.2 Notching 335
13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity 335
13.6.4 Bending 335
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress 335
13.6.4.2 Size Factor, CF 335
1 3 . 6 . 4 . 3 V o l u m e F a c t o r , Cv 336
13.6.4.4 Beam Stability Factor, CL 336
13.6.4.5 Form Factor, Cf 337
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain 337
13.6.5.1 General 337
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress 337
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain 338
1 3 . 6 . 6 . 1 Gen er a l 338
Division I CONTENTS xxxvii
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, Cb 338
13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces 338
13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 38
13.7.1 General .. 338
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses 339
13 7 3 Compression 39
13.7.3.1 Net Section 339
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, C ~ 339
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns 340
13.7.3.5 Round Columns 340
13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain 340
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS 340
13.8.1 Tension Parallel to Grain 340
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain 341
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS 341
13.9.1 General 341
13.9.3 Fasteners 341
13.9.4 Washers 341
SECTION 14ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
14.1 GENERAL . 343
14.2 DEFINITIONS . 343
14.3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 344
14.4 BEARING DESIGN METHODS 344
14.4.1 Method ADesign Procedure for Steel Reinforced,
Fabric Reinforced or Plain Bearings 344
14.4.1.1 Compressive Stress 344
14.4.1.2 Compressive Deflection 345
14.4.1.3 Shear 345
14.4.1.4 Rotation 345
14.4.2 Method BOptional Design Procedure
for Steel Reinforced Bearings 346
14.4.2.1 Compressive Stress 346
14.4.2.2 Compressive Deflection 346
14.4.2.3 Shear 347
14.4.2.4 Rotation and Combined Compression
and Rotation 347
145 ANCHORAGE .. 347
14.6 DESIGN FORCES FOR SUPPORTING
STRUCTURE 348
14.6.1 Shear Force . . . 348
14.6.2 Moment . .... . 348
14.7 STIFFENERS FOR STEEL BEAMS
AND GIRDERS 348
PROVISIONS FORINSTALLATION EFFECTS 348 14.8
xxxviti CONTENTS Division I
SECTION 15TFE BEARING SURFACE
15.1 GENERAL 349
15.2 DESIGN . . 349
SECTION 16-STEEL TUNNELLINER PLATES
16.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS 351
16.1.1 General 351
16.2 LOADS 351
16.3 DESIGN 352
16.3.1 Criteria 352
16.3.2 Joint Strength 352
16.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation 353
16.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall 353
16.3.5 Deflection or Flattening . 353
164 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 354
1 6 . 4 . 1 C hemical C omposit ion .... 354
16.4.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Pipe
Before Cold Forming 354
16.4.3 Dimensions and Tolerances 354
16.5 SECTION PROPERTIES 94
16.6 COATINGS 354
16.7 BOLTS . 354
16.8 SAFETY FACTORS 354
SECTION 17SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1 GENERAL 355
17.1.1 Scope 355
17.1.3 Loads 356
17.1.4 Design 357
17.1.5 Materials 357
1 7 . 1 . 6 Soil 357
17.1 .7 Abrasive or C orrosive C ondit ions 357
17.1.8 End St ru ct u res 357
17.1.9 Construction and Installation 357
17.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN. 357
17.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE 357
17.4.1 Application . ... . 357
17.4.2 M at erials 357
17.4.2.1 Concrete 357
1 7 . 4 . 2 . 3 Co n c r et e Co v er f o r Reinforcement 357
17.4.3 Intallations 3 5 8
17.4.3.1 Standard Installations 358
17.4.3.2 Soils 358
17.4.4 Design 358
Division I
CONTENTS
xxxix
1 7 . 4 . 4 . 1
1 7 . 4 . 4 . 2
17.4.4.2.1
17.4.4.2. 1.1
17.4.4.2.1.2
17.4.4.2.2
17.4.4.2.3
1 7 . 4 . 4 . 3
17.4.4.4
17.4.5
17.4.5.1
17.4.5.2
17.4.5.2.1
17.4.5.2.2
17.4.5.2.3
17.4.5.2.4
17.4.6
1 7 . 4 . 6 . 1
17.4.6.2
17.4.6.3
17.4.6.4
17.4.6.4.1
17.4.6.4.2
17.4.6.4.3
17.4.6.4.3.1
17.4.6.4.3.2
17.4.6.4.4
17.4.6.4.5
17.4.6.4.6
17.4.6.4.6.1
17.4.6.4.6.2
17.4.6.4.6.3
17.4.6.4.6.3.1
17.4.6.4.6.3.2
17.4.6.4.6.3.3
17.4.6.4.6.3.4
17.5
17.5.1
17.5.2
17.5.2.1
17.5.2.2
17.5.3
17.5.3.1
17.5.3.2
17.5.3.3
17.5.3.4
17.5.3.5
17.6
17.6.1
17.6.2
1 7 . 6 . 2 . 1
17.6.2.2
General Requirements 358
Loads 359
Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution 359
Standard Installations 359
Nonstandard Installations 359
Pipe Fluid Weight 360
Live Loads 360
Minimun Fill 360
Design Methods 360
Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength
and Load-Carrying Capacity 360
Loads 360
Bedding Factor 363
Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular Pipe 363
Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch and Elliptical Pipe 363
Live Load Bedding Factor 363
Intermediate Trench Widths 363
Direct Design Method Based on Pressure Distribution 363
Loads 363
Strength-Reduction Factors 364
Process and Material Factors 364
Reinforcement 364
Reinforcement for Flexural Strength 364
Minimum Reinforcement 365
Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Without Stirrups 365
Limited by Radial Tension 365
Limited by Concrete Compression 366
CrackWidth Control 366
Shear Strength 367
Radial Stirrups 369
Radial Tension Stirrups 369
Shear Stirrups 370
Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage 370
Radial Tension StirrupAnchorage 370
Shear StirrupAnchorage 370
Stirrup Embedment 370
Other Provisions .... . ... 370
REINFORCED CONCRETEARCH, CAST-IN-PLACE 370
Application 370
Materials 370
Concrete 370
Reinforcement 370
Design 370
Minimum Cover 370
Splices of Reinforcement 370
Footing Design 371
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, CAST-IN-PLACE 371
Application.. 371
Materials 371
Concrete 371
Reinforcement 371
xl CONTENTS
Division I
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
Design .
General Requirements
Modification of Earth Loads for Soil Structure
Interaction
Embankment Installations
Trench Installations
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects to Bottom Slab
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed Culverts ....
Span Length
Strength-Reduction Factors
Crack Control
Minimum Reinforcement
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, PRECAST
Application.. . ...
Materials
Concrete
Reinforcement
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
Design
General Requirements
371
371
371
.371
.371
.371
.371
.371
372
372
372
372
372
372
372
372
372
372
373
373
Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction 373
Embankment Installations 373
Trench Installations 373
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects
in Sides and Bottoms 373
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed Culverts 373
.373
CrackControl 373
Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . 373
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETETHREE-SIDED
STRUCTURES 374
Application . 374
Materials 374
Concrete 374
Reinforcement 374
Concrete Cover for Reinforcement 374
Geometric Properties 374
Design 374
Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects in Sides
Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed Culverts
Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints Between Culvert
Sections
Span Length
Strength-Reduction Factor
Crack Control
Minimum Reinforcement
Deflection Control
Footing Design
Structure Backfill
Scour Protection
.374
374
374
374
374
375
375
375
375
375
375
17.6.3
17.6.4
17.6.4.1
17.6.4.2
17.6.4.2.1
17.6.4.2.2
17.6.4.3
17.6.4.4
17.6.4.5
17.6.4.6
17.6.4.7
17.6.4.8
17.7
17.7.1
17.7.2
17.7.2.1
17.7.2.2
17.7.3
17.7.4
17.7.4.1
17.7.4.2
17.7.4.2.1
17.7.4.2.2
17.7.4.3
17.7.4.4
17.7.4.5
17.7.4.6
17.7.4.7
17.7.4.8
17.8
17.8.1
17.8.2
17.8.2.1
17.8.2.2
17.8.3
17.8.4
17.8.5
17.8.5.1
17.8.5.2
17.8.5.3
17.8.5.4
17.8.5.5
17.8.5.6
17.8.5.7
17.8.5.8
17.8.5.9
17.8.5. 10
17.8.5.11
17.8.5.12
Span Length
Division I CONTENTS xli
SEC TION 1 8-SOIL-THERM OPLASTIC PIPE IN TERAC TION SYSTEM S
18.1 GENERAL 377
1 8. 1 . 1 Scope 377
1 8. 1 . 2 N ot at ions 377
18.1.3 Loads 377
18.1.4 Design 377
18 .1.6 Soil Design 377
1 8 . 1 . 6 . 1 S o i l Pa r a m et er s 377
18.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions 378
18.1.10 Construction and Installation 378
18.2.1 WallArea 78
18.2.2 Buckling 378
183 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN 379
18.3.1 Wall Area 379
18.3.2 Buckling 379
184 PLASTIC PIPE 79
18.4.1 General 79
18.4.1.2 Service Load DesignSafety Factor, SF 380
18.4.1.3 Load Factor DesignCapacity Modification Factor, ~ 380
18.4.1.6 Maximum Strain 380
18.4.1.7 Local Buckling 380
18.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes 380
18.4.2.2 PE Ribbed Pipes 380
18.4.2.3 Profile Wall PV C Pipes 380
18.4.3.1 Polyethylene 381
18.4.3.1.1 Smooth Wall PE Pipe Requirements 381
18.4.3. 1.2 Corrugated PE Pipe Requirements 381
18.4.3.1.3 RibbedPEPipeRequirements 381
18.4.3.2 Poly (V inyl Chloride) (PV C) 381
18.4.3.2.1 Smooth Wall PV C Pipe Requirements 381
18.4.3.2.2 Ribbed PV C Pipe Requirements 382
SEC TION 1 9POT BEARIN GS
19.1 GENERAL . 383
19.1.1 Fixed Bearings 383
19.1.2 Guided Expansion Bearings 383
19 1 3 Nonguided Expansion Bearings 383
19.2 DESIGN 383
19.2.1 Design Paramet ers 383
19.2.2 Types of Pot-BearingDesign 384
19.2.3 Limitations of Pot Bearings 384
xlii CONTENTS Division I-A
SECTION 20DISC BEARINGS
20.1 GENERAL 38 5
20.1.1 Fixed Bearings 38 5
20.1.2 Guided Expansion Bearings 385
20.1.3 Nonguided Expansion Bearings 385
20.2 DESIGN 395
20.2.1 Design Parameters 385
2 0.2 .2 Limitations of Disc Bearings 386
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 1INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSEAND PHILOSOPHY 389
1.2 BACKGROUND 389
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS 390
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION 390
1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS 390
1.6 FLOWCHARTS .... 390
SECTION 2-SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS .. .. 395
SECTION 3-GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS 397
3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT. 397
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION ... 399
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES 399
3.5 SITE EFFECTS 399
3.5.1 Site Coefficient . 399
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT 400
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Single Mode Analysis ... .400
3.6.2 Elast ic Seismic Response Coefficient for Multimodal Analysis . . . .400
3.7 RESPON SE M ODIFIC ATION FAC TORS 4 00
3.8 DETERM IN ATION OF ELASTIC FORC ES
AN D DISPLAC EM EN TS 4 00
3 . 9 C OM BIN ATION OF ORTHOGON AL SEISM IC FORC ES 4 00
3.10 M IN IM UM SEAT-WIDTH REQUIREM EN TS 4 01
3.11 DESIGN REQUIREM EN TS FOR SIN GLE SPAN BRIDGES 4 01
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGED
CONSTRUCTION ... 402
SECTION 4-ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL 403
4.2 SELECTION OFANALYSIS METHOD 403
Division I-A
CONTENTS
xliii
4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A . 403
4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges 403
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges 404
4.3 UNIFORMLOAD METHODPROCEDURE 1 404
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD
PROCEDURE 2 404
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRALANALYSIS METHOD
PROCEDURE 3 405
4.5.1 General 405
4.5.2 Mathematical Model 405
4 5 NA) Superstructure 406
4.5.2(B) Substructure 406
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods 406
4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis 406
4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and Displacements 406
4.6 TIME HISTORY METHODPROCEDURE 4 406
SECTION 5DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FORBRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL 407
5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A . 407
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FORSEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORYA .. 407
5.4 FOUNDATIONAND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FORSEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORVA 407
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FORSEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A 408
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORYA 408
SECTION 6-DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL 409
CATEGORY B 409
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections 409
6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations 409
6 2 3 Design Forces forAbutments and Retaining Walls . 410
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY B .. . 410
6.3 I Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category B ... . .410
6 . 4 FOUN DATION AN D ABUTM EN T DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B 410
6.4.1 General . . 410
6.4.2 Foundations 410
6.4.2(A Investigation 410
6.4.2(B) Foundation Design 411
xliv
CONTENTS Division I-A
6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements 411
6.4.3 Abutments 411
6.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments 411
6 . 4 . 3 ( B ) Mo n o l i t hi c Abutments 412
6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMICPERFORMANCE CATEGORY B . . 412
6.5.1 General . 412
6.5.2 P-delta Effects ... 412
6.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B 412
6.6.1 General 412
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement Requirements
for Seismic Performance Category B 412
6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement 412
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement 413
SECTION 7DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISM IC PERFORM AN C E C ATEGORIES C AN D D
7.1 GENERAL 415
CATEGORIES C AND D 415
7.2.1 Modified Design Forces 415
7.2.1(A) Modified Design Forces for Structural Members
and Connections 415
7.2.1(B) Modified Design Forces for Foundations 415
7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in the Columns,
Piers, or Bents 416
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers 416
7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns 416
7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces 417
7.2.4 Pier Design Forces 417
7.2.5 C onnect ion Design Forces 417
7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces 417
7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices 417
7 . 2 . 5 ( C) Co l u m n a n d Pi er Co n n ec t i o n s t o Ca p B ea m s and Footings 417
7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces 417
7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces 418
7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORIES C AND D .... . 418
7.3 I Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D 418
7.4 FOUNDATIONANDABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FORSEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
CANDD 418
7.4.1 General. ... 418
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C 419
7.4.2(A) Investigation 419
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements 419
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C 420
Division II CONTENTS
xlv
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments 420
7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments 420
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations
forSeismic Performance Category D 420
7.4.4(A) Investigation 420
7.4.5 Additional Requirements forAbutments
for Seismic Performance Category D .421
7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D . . . 421
7.5.1 General . 421
7.5.2 P-delta Effects ... . 421
7.6 REINFORCEDCONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
CANDD 421
7.6.1 General 421
7.6.2 Column Requirements 421
7.6.2(A) V ertical Reinforcement 421
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength 421
7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement 422
7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement at Plastic Hinges 422
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement 423
7.6.2(F) Splices 423
7.6.3 Pier Requirements 423
7.6.4 Column Connections 424
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns 424
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION . . 426
SECTION ISTRUCTURE EXCAVATIONAND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL.. 427
1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS 427
1.3 MATERIALS 427
1.4 CONSTRUCTION 427
1.4.1 Depth of Footings 427
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control ofWater 428
1.4.2.1 General 428
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels 428
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock 428
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations 428
1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation 428
1.4.3 Backfill 428
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 429
1.5.1 Measurement 429
1.5.2 Payment 429
SECTION 2-REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2,1 DESCRIPTION .... 431
xlvi CONTENTS Division II
2.3.1 General 431
2.3.2 Salvage 431
2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures 431
2.3.4 Disposal 432
2.4 MEASUREMENTAND PAYMENT 432
SECTION 3-TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL 433
3.1.1 Description 433
3.1.2 Working Drawings 433
3.1.3 Design 433
3.1.4 Construction 433
3.1.5 Removal 433
3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS 434
3.2.1 General. .. 434
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction 434
3.2.2.1 Loads 434
3.2.2.2 Foundations 434
3.2.2.3 Defiections 434
3.2.2.4 Clearances 434
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction 435
3.2.3.1 General 435
3.2.3.2 Design 435
3.2.3.4 Tube Forms 435
3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms 436
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms 436
3.2.4.1 General . 436
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal 436
3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal 436
3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING 437
3.3.1 General . 437
3.3.2 Protection of Concrete 437
3.3.3 Removal 437
3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS 437
3.4.1 General . ... . ... 437
3.4.2 Drawings 437
3.4.3 Operations 437
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES 437
3.5.1 General .. . 437
3.5.2 Detour Bridges 438
3.5.3 Haul Bridges 438
3.5.4 Maintenance 438
SECTION 4-DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION .. 439
4.2 MATERIALS 439
Division II CONTENTS xlvii
4.2.1 Steel Piles 439
4.2.1.1 Painting 439
4.2.2 Timber Piles 439
4.2.3 Concrete Piles 439
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES 440
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles 440
4.3.1.1 Forms 440
4.3.1.2 Casting 440
4.3.1.3 Finish 440
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection 440
4.3.1.5 Prestressing 440
4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings 440
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling 440
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles 440
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells .440
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete 440
4.4 DRIVING PILES 441
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment 441
4.4.1.1 Hammers . 441
4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 Gen er a l . 441
4.4.1.1.2 DropHammers 441
4.4.1.1.3 AirSteamHammers 441
4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers 441
4.4.1.1.5 V ibratory Hammers 442
4.4.1 .1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods 442
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances 442
4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion 442
4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head 442
4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion 442
4.4.1.2.4 Leads 442
4.4.1.2.5 Followers 442
4.4.1.2.6 Jets 443
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving 443
4.4.2.1 Site Work 443
4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 E x c a v a t i o n 443
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving 443
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments 443
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling 443
4.4.2.2.1 Collars 443
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing 443
4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs 443
4.4.3 Driving 443
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles 443
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving 444
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity 444
4.4.4.1 General 444
4.4.4.2 Method AEmpirical Pile Formulas 444
4.4.4.3 Method BWave Equation Analysis 444
4.4.4.4 Method CDynamic Load Tests 445
4.4.4.5 Method DStatic Load Tests 445
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles 446
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles . 446
4 . 4 . 5 . 2 Co n c r et e Pi l es . . 446
xlviii CONTENTS Division II
4.4.6 Defective Piles 446
4.4.7 Pile Cut-Off 446
4.4.7.1 General . . 446
4.5.1 Method of Measurement 447
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles 447
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished 447
4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven 447
4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs 447
4.5.1.3 LoadTests 447
4.5.2 Basis of Payment 447
SECTION 5DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION 449
5.3 MATERIALS . 449
5.3.1 Concrete .. 449
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel 449
5.3.3 Casings 449
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures 449
5.4.2 Construction Sequence 449
5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment 450
5.4.4 Dry Construction Method 450
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method . . . 450
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method 450
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method 450
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods .. 450
5.4.9 Excavations 451
5.4.10 Casings 451
5.4.11 Slurry 451
5.4.12 Excavation Inspection 451
5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and Placement 452
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, and Protection 452
5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells 452
5.4.16 Construction Tolerances 452
5.4.17 Int egrit y Test ing .. 453
5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS 453
5.6 M EASUREM EN T AND PAYMENT 453
5.6.1 M easu rement . . 453
5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft 453
5.6.1.2 Bell Footings 453
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts 453
5.6.1.4 Test Bells 454
5.6.1.5 Exploration 454
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing 454
5.6.2 Payment 454
5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft 454
Division II CONTENTS xlix
5.6.2.2 Bell Footings 454
5.6.2.3 Test Shafts 454
5.6.2.4 Test Bells 454
5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes 454
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing 454
SECTION 6-GROUNDANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION 455
6.3 MATERIALS. 455
6.3.1 Prestressing Steel 455
6.3.2 Grout 455
6.3.3 Steel Elements 456
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements 456
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements 456
6.4 FABRICATION . 456
6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length 456
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon 456
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor Tendon 457
6.4.2 Unbonded Length 457
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet 457
6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling 457
6.5 INSTALLATION 457
6.5.1 Drilling 457
6.5.2 Tendon Insertion 458
6.5.3 Grouting 458
6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage 458
6.5.5 Testing and Stressing 458
6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment 458
6.5.5.2 Peformance Test 459
6.5.5.3 ProofTest 459
6.5.5.4 CreepTest 460
6.5.5.5 GroundAnchor LoadTest Acceptance Criteria 460
6.5.5.6 Lock Off 461
SECTION 7EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION . 463
7.3 MATERIALS . 463
7.3.1 Concrete 463
7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place 463
7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar 463
7 . 3 . 1 . 3 Pr ec a s t E l em en t s
7.3.3 Structural Steel 463
7.3.4 Timber 464
7.3.5 Drainage Elements 464
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe 464
CONTENTS Division II
7.3.5.2 Filter Fabric 464
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material 464
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems 464
7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material 464
7.3.6.1 General 464
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls 464
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls 464
7.4 EARTHWORK 464
7.4.1 Structure Excavation 464
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment 464
7.4.3 Structure Backfill 465
7.5 DRAINAGE 465
7.5.1 Concrete Gutters 465
7.5.2 Weep Holes 465
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets 465
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems 465
7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls 466
7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls 466
7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls 466
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls 466
7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls 467
7.6.2.3.1 General 467
7.6.2.3.2 Wales 467
7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems 467
7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods 467
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors 467
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork 467
7.6.3 C rib Walls and C ellu lar Walls 467
7.6.3.1 Foundation 468
7.6.3.2 Crib Members 468
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members 468
7.6.3.4 Member Placement 468
7.6.3.5 Backfilling 468
7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls 468
7.6.4.1 Facing 468
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement 469
7.7 MEASUREMENTAND PAYMENT 469
SECTION 8 -CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8 .1 GENERAL . 471
8 .1.1 Description 471
8.1.2 Related Work 471
8 .1.3 Construction Methods 471
8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE 471
8.2.1 General 471
8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete 471
8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete 471
8 .3 MATERIALS 471
8 .3.1 Cements 471
8.3.2 Water 472
8.3.3 Fine Aggregate 472
8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate 472
8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate 472
8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures 472
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures 473
8.3.8 Steel 473
8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE 473
8.4.1 Mix Design 473
8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria 473
8.4.1.2 TrialBatchTests 473
8.4.1.3 Approval 473
8.4.2 Water Content 473
8.4.3 Cement Content 474
8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures 474
8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures 474
8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE 474
8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates 474
8.5.2 Storage of Cement 474
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials 475
8.5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete 475
8.5.4.1 Batching 475
8.5.4.2 Mixing 475
8.5.5 Delivery 475
8.5.6 Sampling and Testing 475
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength 476
8.5.7.1 Tests 476
8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction Operations 476
8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete 476
8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design 476
8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured Concrete . 476
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS 477
8.6.1 General 477
8.6.2 Rain Protection 477
8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection 477
8.6.4 ColdWeather Protection 477
8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure 477
8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing 477
8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix 477
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks 478
8 .6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water 478
8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water 478
8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE 478
8.7.1 General . ... . 478
8.7.2 Sequence of Placement 478
8.7.2.1 V ertical Members 478
8.7.2.2 Superstructures 479
8.7.2.3 Arches 479
8.7.2.4 Box Culverts 479
8.7.2.5 Precast Elements 479
8.7.3 Placing Methods 479
8.7.3.1 General 479
lii CONTENTS Division II
8.7.3.2 Equipment 479
8.7.4 Consolidation 480
8.7.5 Underwater Placement 480
8.7.5.1 General 480
8.7.5.3 Cleanup . .. 481
8 .8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS 481
8.8.1 General .. ... 481
8.8.2 Bonding 481
8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures 481
8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints 48 1
8 .9 EXPANSIONAND CONTRACTIONJOINTS 48 1
8 .9.1 General . 48 1
8.9.2 Materials 48 2
8.9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers 482
8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers 482
8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material 482
8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants 482
8.9.2.5 Metal Armor 482
8.9.2.6 Waterstops 482
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops 482
8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops 482
8 . 9 . 2 . 6 . 3 Copper Waterstops 483
8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material 483
8.9.3 Installation 483
8.9.3.1 Open Joints 483
8.9.3.2 Filled Joints 483
8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints 483
8.9.3.4 Waterstops 483
8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint ArmorAssemblies 483
8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE 483
8.10.1 General 483
8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish 48 4
8 . 1 0. 2 . 1 S t r i ki n g Off and Floating 484
8.10.2.2 Straightedging 484
8. 10.2.3 Texturing 484
8. 10.2.3.1 Dragged 484
8. 10.2.3.2 Broomed 485
8.10.2.3.3 Tined 485
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction 485
8 .10.3 PedestrianWalkway Surface Finish 485
8 .10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish 485
8 .10.5 Surface Under Bearings .. 485
8 .11 CURING CONCRETE 485
8 .11.1 General 48 5
8.11.2 Materials 48 6
8 .11.2.1 Water 48 6
8 .11.2.2 Liquid Membranes 48 6
8 . 1 1 . 2 . 3 Wa t er p r o o f Sheet Materials 486
8 .11.3 Methods 48 6
8 .11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method 48 6
8 .11.3.2 WaterMethod 48 6
8 . 1 1 . 3 . 3 L i q u i d Mem b r a n e Curing Compound Method 486
liii
8.11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method 486
8.11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method 487
8.11.4 Bridge Decks 487
8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE SURFACES 487
8.12.1 General . .. 487
8.12.2 Class 1Ordinary Surface Finish 487
8.12.3 Class 2-Rubbed Finish 488
8.12.4 Class 3-Tooled Finish . . 488
8.12.5 Class 4-Sandblasted Finish 488
8.12.6 Class 5Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish 488
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS... 488
8.13.1 General . 488
8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture 48 9
8.13.4 Curing 48 9
8.13.5 Storage and Handling 489
8.13.6 Erection 489
8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast Segmental Box Girders 490
8.13.7.1.1 Test 1Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent 490
8.13.7.1.2 Test 2Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent 490
8.13.7.1.3 Test 3Open Time of Bonding Agent 490
8.13.7.1.4 Test 4Three-Point Tensile Bending Test 491
8.13.7.1.5 Test 5Compression Strength of Cured Epoxy
Bonding Agent 491
8.13.7.1.6 Test 6Temperature Deflection of Epoxy Bonding Agent 491
8.13.7.1.7 Test 7Compression and Shear Strength of Cured Epoxy
Bonding Agent 491
8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy 492
8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT 492
8 .14.1 General 492
8.14.2 Materials and Mixing 492
8.14.3 Placing and Curing . 493
8 .15 APPLICATION OF LOADS 493
8 .15.1 General 493
8.15.2 Earth Loads 493
8.15.3 Construction Loads 493
8.15.4 Traffic Loads 493
8 .16 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 493
8 .16.1 Measurement .. 493
8.16.2 Payment . 494
SECTION 9REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION 495
9.2 MATERIAL 495
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing 495
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing 495
9.2.3 Mill Test Reports .... 495
9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS 495
9.4 FABRICATION. 495
9.4.1 Bending . 495
liv CONTENTS Division II
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions 496
9.4.3 Identification 496
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDITION
OF REINFORCEMENT 496
9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING 496
9.6.1 General ... ... 496
9.6.2 Support Systems 496
9.6.3 Mortar Blocks 496
9.6.4 Wire Supports . 496
9.6.5 Adjustments 497
9.6.6 Repair of Epoxy Coating 497
9.7 SPLICING OF BARS 497
9.7.1 General 497
9.7.2 Lapped Splices 497
9.7.3 Welded Splices 497
9.7.4 Mechanical Coupler Splices 497
9.8 SPLICING OF MESH OR MATS 497
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS 497
9.10 MEASUREMENT 497
9.11 PAYMENT 498
SECTION 10PRESTRESSING
10.1 GENERAL 499
10.1 . I Description 499
10.1 .2 Details of Design 499
10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS 499
10.2.1 Working Drawings . . 499
10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings 500
10.3 MATERIALS 500
10.3.1 Prestressing Steel and Anchorages 500
10.3.1.1 Strand 500
10.3.1.2 Wire 500
10.3.1.3 Bars 500
10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers 500
10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems 500
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems 500
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test 501
10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test 501
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test 501
10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test 501
104 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE
HARDWARE . . .. 502
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts 502
10.4.1.1 V ents and Drains 502
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel 502
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning 902
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning 503
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation 503
10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware 503
10.5 IDENTIFICATIONAND TESTING 503
10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons 504
lv
10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons 504
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers 504
10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL . ... 504
10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR.. 504
10.8 DUCTS 504
10.8.1 Metal Ducts 505
10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct 505
10.8.3 Duct Area .... 505
10.8.4 Duct Fittings 505
10.9 GROUT 505
10.9.1 Portland Cement 505
10.9.2 Water 505
10.9.3 Admixtures . . 506
10.10 TENSIONING. . . 506
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements 506
10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength .. .. 506
10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment 506
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing 507
10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress 507
10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements 507
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements 508
10.11 GROUTING 508
10.11.1 General 508
10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts 508
10.11.3 Equipment 508
10.11.4 Mixing of Grout 508
10.11.5 Injection of Grout 509
10.11.6 Temperature Considerations 509
10.12.1 Measurement 509
10.12.2 Payment . 509
SECTION 11STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL 511
11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work 511
11.1.3 Inspection 511
11.1.4 Inspectors Authority 511
11.2.1 ShopDrawings .... 512
11.2.2 Erection Drawings 512
11.2.3 CamberDiagram 512
11.3 MATERIALS 512
11.3.1 StructuralSteel 512
11.3.1.1 General 512
11.3.1.2 CarbonSteel 512
11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel 512
11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched and TemperedStructural
Steel Plate 512
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and TemperedAlloy Steel Plate .. .512
11.3.1.6 Eyebars 513
lvi CONTENTS Division II
11.3.1.7 Structural Tubing 513
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners 513
11.3.2.1 Material 513
11.3.2.2 IdentifyingMarks 513
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners 514
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners 514
11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices 514
11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors 514
1 1 . 3 . 3 . 1 Ma t er i a l s 514
11.3.3.2 Test Methods 514
11.3.3.3 Finish 514
11.3.3.4 Certification 515
11.3.3.5 Check Samples 515
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting 515
1 1 . 3 . 4 . 1 S t eel Forgings 515
1 1 . 3 . 4 . 2 Co l d F i n i s hed Ca r b o n S t eel S ha f t i n g 5 1 5
1 1 . 3 . 5 S t eel Ca s t i n gs 5 1 5
1 1 . 3 . 5 . 1 Mi l d S t eel Ca s t i n gs 5 1 5
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings 515
11.3.6 Iron Castings 515
11.3.6.2 WorkmanshipandFinish 515
11.3.6.3 Cleaning 515
11.3.7 Galvanizing . 515
11.4 FABRICATION 516
11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication 516
11.4.2 Storage of Materials 516
11.4.3 Plates 516
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling 516
11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges 516
11.4.3.2.1 EdgePlaning 516
11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting 516
11.4.3.2.3 V isual Inspection and Repair of Plate Cut Edges 516
11.4.3.3 Bent Plates 516
11.4.3.3.1 General 516
11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending 516
11.4.3.3.3 HotBending 517
11.4.4 FitofStiffeners 517
11.4.5 AbuttingJoints 517
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces 517
11.4.7 Straightening Material 517
11.4.8 Bolt Holes 517
11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and Unfinished
Bolts 517
11.4.8.1.1 General 517
11.4.8.1.2 PunchedHoles 518
11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes 518
11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes 518
11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group 518
11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming 518
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming 518
11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field Connections 518
Division II CONTENTS lvii
11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts,
or Other Approved BearingType Bolts 518
11.4.8 .5 Preparation of Field Connections 519
11.4.9 PinsandRollers 519
11.4.9.1 General 519
11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes 519
11.4.9.3 ThreadsforBoltsandPins 519
11.4.10 Eyebars 519
11.4.11 Annealingand Stress Relieving 519
11.4.12 Curved Girders 520
11.4.12.1 General 520
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and Welded Girders 520
11.4.12.2.1 Materials 520
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating 520
11.4.12.2.3 Temperature 520
11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating 520
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations 521
11.4.12.2.6 Camber 521
11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature and Camber 521
11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Su perst ru ct u res 521
11.4.13.1 General 521
11.4.13.2 FlatnessofPanels 521
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated
Compressive Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs 522
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners
Not Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress 522
11.4.14 Full-SizedTests 522
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping 522
11.5 ASSEMBLY . ... 522
11.5.1 Bolting 522
11.5.2 Welded Connections 522
11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections 522
11.5.3.1 General 522
11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections 523
11.5.3.3 Check AssemblyNumerically Controlled Drilling 523
11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections 523
1 1 . 5 . 4 M at ch M arking 523
11.5.5 C onnect ions Using Unfinished, Turned, or Ribbed Bolts 523
11.5.5.1 General 523
11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts 523
11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts 523
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts 524
11.5.6.1 General 524
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts 524
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions 524
11.5.6.4 Installation 524
11.5.6.4.1 General 524
11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests 525
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers 525
11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Tightening 526
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Tightening 527
11.5.6.4.6 Installation of Alternate Design Bolts 527
11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Tightening 527
lviii
CONTENTS
Division II
11.5.6.4.7(A)
11.5.6.4.7(B)
11.5.6.4.8
11.5.6.4.9
11.5.7
11.6
11.6.1
11.6.2
11.6.3
11.6.4
11.6.4.1
11.6.4.2
11.6.4.3
11.6.5
11.6.6
11.6.7
11.7
11.7.1
11.7.2
12.1
12.1.1
12.1.2
12.2
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.9.1
12.9.2
12.10
13.1
13.1.1
13.1.2
13.1.3
13.1.4
13.2
13.2.1
13.2.2
13.2.3
V erification 527
Installation 528
Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners 528
Inspection 529
Welding 529
ERECTION 529
General 529
Handling and Storing Materials 529
Bearings and Anchorages 529
Erection Procedure 530
Conformance to Drawings 530
Erection Stresses 530
Maintaining Alignment and Camber 530
Field Assembly 530
Pin Connections 530
Misfits . 530
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 530
Method of Measurement 530
Basis of Payment 531
SECTION 12-STEEL GRID FLOORING
GENERAL 533
Description 533
Working Drawings 533
MATERIALS 533
Steel 533
Protective Treatment 533
Concrete 533
Skid Resistance . . 533
ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS 533
PROVISION FOR CAMBER 534
FIELD ASSEMBLY 534
CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS 534
WELDING 534
REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS 534
PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER 534
Forms 534
Placement . 535
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 535
GENERAL 537
Description 537
Protection of Public and Property 537
Protection of the Work 537
Color 537
PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES 537
Coating Systems and Paints 537
Weather Conditions 537
Surface Preparation 538
SECTION 13-PAINTING
Division II CONTENTS lix
13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning 538
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning 539
13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning 539
13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning 539
13.2.4 Application of Paints 539
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers 540
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment 540
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES 540
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER . 541
13.4.1 General . 541
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces 541
13.4.3 Paint 541
13.4.4 Application 541
13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber 541
13.4.6 Payment . . 541
13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE 541
13.5.1 Surface Preparation 541
13.5.2 Paint 542
13.5.3 Applicat ion 542
13.5.4 M easu rement and Payment 542
SECTION 14-STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIPTION 543
14.1.1 Rubble Masonry 543
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry 543
14.2 MATERIALS 543
14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone 543
14.2.1.2 AshlarStone 543
14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone 543
14.2.3 Mortar .. ... . 543
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY 544
14.3.1 General 544
14 3 2 Surface Finishes of Stone 544
14 3 3 Rubble Masonry 544
14.3.3.1 Size 544
14.3.3.2 Shape 544
14.3.3.3 Dressing 544
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry 544
14.3.4.1 Size 544
14.3.4.2 Dressing 544
14.3.4.3 Stretchers 545
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones 545
14.4.1 Weather Conditions 545
14.4.2 Mixing Mortar 545
14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone 545
14.4.3.1 General 545
14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry 545
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry 546
14.4.4 Beds and Joints 546
14.4.5 Headers 546
lx CONTENTS Division II
14.4.6 Cores and Backing . 546
14.4.6.1 General 546
14.4.6.2 Stone 546
14.4.6.3 Concrete 546
14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses 546
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete 547
14.4.8 Copings 547
14.4.8.1 Stone 547
14.4.8.2 Concrete 547
14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps 547
14.4.10 Weep Holes 547
14.4.11 Pointing 547
14.4.12 Arches 548
SECTION 15CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.2 MATERIALS .... 549
15.2.1 Concrete Block 549
15.2.2 Brick 549
15.2.4 Mortar 549
15.2.5 Grout 549
15.2.6.1 Mortar 549
15.2.6.2 Grout .. 550
15.3.1 Weather Conditions 550
15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick 550
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement 550
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids 550
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls 551
SECTION 16-TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL 553
16.1.1 RelatedWork 553
16.2 MATERIALS 553
16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued Laminated) 553
16.2.2 Steel Components . 553
16.2.3 Castings .. 554
16.2.4 Hardware 554
16.2.5 Galvanizing 554
16.2.6 Timber Connectors 554
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors 554
16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors 554
16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors 554
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION 555
16.3.1 Workmanship 555
Division II CONTENTS lxi
16.3.2 Storage of Material .. 555
16.3.3 TreatedTimber 555
16.3.3.1 Handling 555
16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring 555
16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions 556
16.3.3.4 Bored Holes 556
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment 556
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors 556
16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag Screws 556
16.3.6 Bolts and Washers... 556
16.3.7 Countersinking 557
16.3.8 Framing 557
16.3.9 Framed Bents 557
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills 557
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals 557
16.3.9.3 Sills 557
16.3.9.4 Posts 557
16.3.9.5 Caps 557
16.3.9.6 Bracing 557
16.3. 10 Stringers.... 557
16.3.11 PlankFloors.. 558
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors 558
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks 558
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks 558
16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing 558
16.3.16 Trusses 559
16.4 PAINTING 559
16.6 PAYMENT 559
SECTION 17PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL 561
17.2 MATERIALS 561
17.2.1 Wood.. 561
17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments 561
17.2.3 Coal-Tar Roofing Cement 561
17.3 IDENTIFICATIONAND INSPECTION 561
17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection 561
17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant 562
17.3.3 Certificate of Compliance 562
SECTION 18 -BEARING DEVICES
18.1 GENERAL 563
18.1.2 Packaging, Handling, and Storage 563
18 .1.3 Manufacture or Fabrication 563
18 .1.4 Construction and Installation 563
18 .2 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS 564
1 8. 2 . 1 Scope 5 6 4
lxii CONTENTS Division II
18.2.2 General Requirements 564
18.2 3 Materials 564
18.2.3.1 Properties of the Elastomer 564
18.2.3.2 Steel Laminates 564
18.2.3.3 Fabric Reinforcement 564
18.2.3.4 Bond 564
18.2.4 Fabrication 564
18.2.5 Fabrication Tolerances 567
18.2.6 Marking and Certification 567
18.2.7 Testing 567
18.2.7.1 Scope 567
18.2.7.2 Frequency of Testing 567
18.2.7.3 Ambient-Temperature Tests on the Elastomer 568
18.2.7.4 Low-Temperature Tests on the Elastomer 568
18.2.7.5 V isual Inspection of the Finished Bearing 568
18.2.7.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings 568
18.2.7.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings 568
18.2.7.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Material from Bearings 568
18.3 POT AND DISC BEARINGS 569
18.3.1 General . .. 569
18.3.3.1 Elastomeric Rotational Element 569
18.3.3.2 Sealant 569
18.3.3.3 Sealing Rings 569
18.3.3.4 Steel 570
18.3.3.5 Stainless Steel 570
18.3.3.6 Polytetrafluorethylene Sheet and Strip 570
18.3.3.7 Polyether Urethane Structural Element 570
18.3.4 Fabrication Details 570
18.3.5.1 Lot Size 571
18.3.5.2 Sampling and Testing Requirements 571
18.3.5.2.1 Testing by Manufacturer 571
18.3.5.2.2 Testing by the Engineer 571
18.3.5.3 Performance Characteristics 572
18.3.5.3.1 Proof Load Test 572
18.3.53.2 Sliding Coefficient of Friction 572
18.3.6 Installation . 572
18.4 ROCKER, ROLLER, AND SLIDING BEARINGS 572
18.4.3 Installation . 572
18.5 SPHERICAL BEARINGS 573
18 .6 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOYED PLATES FOR BEARINGS ... .573
18 .6.1 Bronze Bearing and Expansion Plates 573
18.6.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy Bearings and Expansion Plates 573
18 .6.3 Metal Powder Sintered Bearings and Expansion Joints
(Oil Impregnated) 573
18.7 MASONRY, SOLE, AND SHIM PLATES FOR BEARINGS 973
Division II CONTENTS lxiii
18 .8 TFE SURFACES FOR BEARINGS 573
18 .8 .1 Materials 573
18 .8 .1.1 General 573
18 .8 .1.2 TFE Resin 573
18 .8 .1.3 Filler Material 573
18.8.1.4 Adhesive Material 573
18.8.1.5 Unfilled TFE Sheet 573
18.8.1.6 Filled TFESheet 574
18.8.1.7 Fabric Containing TFE Fibers 574
18.8.1.8 Interlocked Bronze and Filled TFEStructures 574
18.8.1.9 TFEMetal Composite 574
18.8.1.10 SurfaceTreatment 574
18.8.1.11 Stainless Steel Mating Surface 574
18.8.2 Manufacturing Requirements 574
18.8.2.1 Attachment of TFEMaterial 574
18.8.2.1.1 Bonding 574
18.8.2.1.2 Mechanically Fastened 574
18.8.2.1.3 Fabric Containing TFE Fibers 574
18.8.3 Testing and Acceptance 575
18 .8 .3.1 General 575
18 .8 .3.2 Test Specimens 575
18.8.3.3 Test Method 575
18 .9 ANCHOR BOLTS 575
18 .9.1 Materials 575
18.9.3 Installation .. 575
18 .10 BEDDING OF MASONRY PLATES 575
18 .10.1 General . . . .. 575
18 .10.2 Materials .. 576
18 .11 MEASUREMENT 576
18.12 PAYMENT 576
SECTION 19BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL 577
19.3 MATERIALS 577
19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION 577
19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints .. 577
19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies 577
19.5.1 General .. 577
19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints 578
19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies . 578
19.6 M EASUREM EN T AN D PAYMENT 578
SECTION 20-RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL 579
lxiv CONTENTS Division II
20.1.3 Construction 579
20.1.4 Line and Grade .. 579
20.2 METAL RAILING 579
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication 579
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing 579
20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing 579
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing 579
20.2.1.4 Welding 579
20.2.3 Finish 580
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING 580
20.3.1 Materials and Construction 580
20.4 TIMBER RAILING 580
20.5 STON E AN D BRIC K RAILINGS 580
20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING 580
20.7.1 Measurement 58 0
20.7.2 Payment 580
SECTION 21WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL 581
21.1.1 Waterproofing 581
21.1.2 Dampproofing 581
21.2 MATERIALS . 58 1
21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing System 58 1
21.2.1.1 Asphalt 58 1
21.2.1.2 Primer 581
21.2.1.3 Fabric 581
21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems 581
21.2.2.1 Primer 58 1
2 1.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet 581
21.2.2.3 Mastic 582
2 1.2.3 Protective Covers 582
21.2.4 Dampproofing 582
2 1.2.5 Inspection and Delivery 582
21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION 582
21.4 APPLICATION 582
21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing 583
21.4.1.1 General 583
2 1.4.1.3 Special Details 583
21.4.1.4 Damage Patching . . 583
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems 584
21.4.2.1 General . 584
21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks 584
21 4 2 3 Installaion on Other Surfaces . 584
21 4 3 Protective Cover .... . 584
2144 Dampproofing . 585
21 5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT. 585
Division II CONTENTS lxv
SECTION 22SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL . 587
22.1.2 Types 587
2 2 .3 MATERIALS .. .. . 987
22.3.1 Aggregate 587
22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) 587
22.3.3 Filter Fabric 587
2 2 .3.4 Grout 588
2 2 .3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap 588
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete 588
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar 588
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement ConcreteBlocks
and Shapes 588
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain 588
22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes 588
22.4.2 Bedding 588
2 2 .4.3 Filter Fabric 588
22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain 589
22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones 589
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones 589
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement 589
22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement 589
22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) 589
22.4.7.1 Fabrication 589
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap 590
22.4.9 Sacked C oncret e Riprap 590
22.4.10 C oncret e Slope Paving 590
22.4.10.1 General 590
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving 991
22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving 591
22.5 M EASUREM EN T AND PAYMENT 591
22.5.1 Method of Measurement 591
22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket 591
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap 591
22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) 991
22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving 592
22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving 592
22.5.2 Payment 592
22.5.2.1 General 592
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap 592
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap 592
22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) 592
22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving 592
22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving 592
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket 592
lxvi CONTENTS Division II
22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System 592
SECTION 23MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.2 MATERIALS .... 593
23.3 FABRICATION 593
23.4 GALVANIZING 593
23.6 PAYMENT 593
SECTION 24PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.2 MATERIALS 595
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water, and Admixtures 595
24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs 595
24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING 595
24.3.1 Proportioning 595
24.3.2 Mixing 595
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION 596
24.4.1 Earth 596
24.4.2 Forms 596
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock 596
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing 596
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar 596
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations 597
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work 597
24.5.3 Finishing 597
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting 597
24.6 MEASUREMENT ANDPAYMENT 597
SECTION 25STEELAND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE 599
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION 599
25.3.1 General 599
2 5 . 3 . 2 Forming and Pu nching of St eel Liner Plat es 599
2 5 . 4 IN STALLATION 6 00
25.4.1 Steel LinerPlates 600
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates 600
25.4.3 Grouting ... . 600
25.6 PAYMENT 600
Division II CONTENTS lxvii
SECTION 26-METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL 601
26.3 MATERIALS 601
26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe 601
26.3.2 Structural Plate 601
26.3.3 NutsandBolts 601
26.3.4 Mixing of Materials 601
26.3.6 Welding 602
26.3.7 Protective Coatings 602
26.3.8 Bedding and Backfill Materials 602
26.3.8.1 General 602
26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures 602
26.4 ASSEMBLY 602
26.4.1 General 602
26.4.2 Joints 602
26.4.2.1 Field Joints 603
26.4.2.2 Joint Types 603
26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions 603
26.4.2.4 Joint Properties 603
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures 604
26.5. 1 Placing CulvertsGeneral 604
26.5.2 Foundation 604
26.5.3 Bedding 606
26.5.4 Structural Backfill 607
26.5.4.1 General 607
26.5.4.2 Arches 607
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures 607
26.5.4.5 Bracing 608
26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls 608
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS 609
26.8 PAYMENT .. 609
SECTION 27CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL 611
273 MATERIALS 611
27 3 1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts 611
27.3.2 Joint Sealants 611
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar 611
27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskets 611
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials 612
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill Material .. .612
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, Arch, and Elliptical Pipe .. . .612
lxviii CONTENTS Division II
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections 612
27.4 ASSEMBLY 612
27.4.1 General 612
27.4.2 Joints 612
27.5.1 General . 612
27.5.2 Bedding 612
27.5.2.1 General 612
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe 615
27.5.2.3 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections 615
27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections 615
27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill 616
27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe 616
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material 616
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material 619
27.5.4.1.3 Overfill 619
27.5 .4.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections 619
27.5.4.2.1 Backfill 619
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill 619
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction 620
27.7 PAYMENT 620
SECTION 28 -WEARING SURFACES
28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE . . .621
28.2.1 General . 621
28.2.2.1 Portland Cement 621
28.2.2.2 Aggregate 621
28.2.2.3 Water 621
28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion 621
28.2.2.5 Latex Modified Concrete 622
28.2.3 Surface Preparation 622
28.2.3.1 New Decks 622
28.2.3.2 Existing Decks 622
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing 623
28.2.5 Installation . . 623
28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions 623
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing 623
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints 624
28.2.5.3.2 Placing 624
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing 624
28.2.6 Curing 624
28.2.7 Acceptance Testing 624
28.2.8 M easu rement and Payment 625
SECTION 29EMBEDMENTANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION . 627
29.2 PREQUALIFICATION 627
Division II
CONTENTS lxix
29.3 MATERIALS 627
29.4 C ON STRUC TION METHODS 627
29.5 INSPECTION ANDTESTING 627
29.6 MEASUREMENT. .. 628
29.7 PAYMENT. 628
APPENDICES:
ALive Load Tables 629
BTruck Train Loadings 633
CColumns 634
DPlastic Section Modulus 38
EMetric Equivalents and Expressions 639
INDEX 671
COMMENTARYInterim SpecificationsBridges1996 C-I
Division I
DESIGN
Section 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES
1.3 WATERWAYS
1.3.1 General
The intent of these Specifications is to produce in-
tegrity of design in bridges.
1.1.1 DesignAnalysis
When these Specifications provide for empirical for-
mulae, alternate rational analyses, based on theories or
tests and accepted by the authority having jurisdiction,
will be considered as compliance with these Specifica-
tions.
1.1.2 Structural Integrity
Designs and details for new bridges should address
structural integrity by considering the following:
(a) The use of continuity and redundancy to provide
one or more alternate load paths.
(b) Structural members and bearing seat widths that
are resistant to damage or instability.
(c) External protection systems to minimize the ef-
fects of reasonably conceived severe loads.
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS
The general location of a bridge is governed by the
route of the highway it carries, which, in the case of a new
highway, could be one of several routes under considera-
tion. The bridge location should be selected to suit the par-
ticular obstacle being crossed. Stream crossings shouldbe
located with regard to initial capital cost of bridgeworks
and the minimization of total cost including river channel
training works and the maintenance measures necessary
to reduce erosion. Highway and railroad crossings should
provide for possible future works such as road widening.
1.3.1.1 Selecting favorable stream crossings should
be considered in the preliminary route determination to
minimize construction, maintenance, and replacement
costs. Natural stream meanders should be studied and, if
necessary, channel changes, river training works, and
other construction that would reduce erosion problems
and prevent possible loss of the structure should be con-
sidered. The foundations of bridges constructed across
channels that have been realigned should be designed for
possible deepening and widening of the relocated channel
due to natural causes. On wide flood plains, the lowering
of approach embankments to provide overflow sections
that would pass unusual floods over the highway is a
means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief
bridges are needed to maintain the natural flow distribu-
tion and reduce backwater, caution must be exercised in
proportioning the size and in locating such structures to
avoid undue scour or changes in the course of the main
river channel.
1.3.1.2 Usually, bridge waterways are sized to pass
a design flood of a magnitude and frequency consistent
with the type or class of highway. In the selection of the
waterway opening, consideration should be given to the
amount of upstream ponding, the passage of ice and de-
bris and possible scour of the bridge foundations. Where
floods exceeding the design flood have occurred, or where
superfioods would cause extensive damage to adjoining
property or the loss of a costly structure, a larger water-
way opening may be warranted. Due considerationshould
be given to any Federal, State, and local requirements.
1.3.1.3 Relief openings, spur-dikes. debris defiectors
and channel training works should be used where needed
to minimize the effect of adverse flood flow conditions.
Where scour is likely tooccur, protection against damage
from scour should be provided in the design of bridge
piers and abutments. Embankment slopes adjacent to
structures subject to erosion should be adequately pro-
3
4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1.3.1.3
tected by rip-rap, flexible mattresses, retards, spur dikes
or other appropriate construction. Clearing of brush and
trees along embankments in the vicinity of bridge open-
ings should be avoided toprevent high flow velocities and
possible scour. Borrow pits should not be located inareas
which would increase velocities and the possibility of
scour at bridges.
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND
WATERWAY OPENINGS
Culvert location, length, and waterway openings
should be in accordance with the AASHTO Guide on the
Hydraulic Design of Culverts in Highway Drainage
Guidelines.
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE
1 . 3 . 2 Hydrau lic St u dies
Hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of
the preliminary design of a bridge and reports of such
studies should include applicable parts of the following
outline:
1.3.2.1 Site Data
(a) Maps. stream cross sections, aerial photographs.
(b) Complete data on existingbridges, including dates
of construction and performance during past floods.
(c) Available high water marks with (lates of occur-
rence.
(d) Information on ice, debris, and channel stability.
(e) Factors affecting water stages such as high water
from other streams, reservoirs, flood control projects.
and tides.
(f) Geomorphic changcs in channel flow.
The transverse drainage of the roadway should be pro-
vided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and lon-
gitudinal drainage by camber or gradient. Water flowing
downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and
not permitted to run onto the bridge. Short, continuous
span bridges, particularly overpasses, may be built with-
out inlets and the water from the bridge roadway carried
downslope by open or closed chutes near the end of the
bridge structure. Longitudinal drainage on long bridges
should be provided by scuppers or inlets which should be
of sufficient size and number to drain the gutters ade-
quately. Downspouts, where required, should be made of
rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than 4 inches in
least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the
discharge of drainage water against any portion of the
structure or on moving traffic below, and to prevent ero-
sion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck drains may be
connected to conduits leading to storm water outfalls at
ground level. Overhanging portions of concrete decks
should be provided with a drip bead or notch.
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis
(a) Flood data applicable to estimating floods at site.
including both historical floods and maximum floods
of record.
(b) Flood-frequency curve for site.
(c) Distribution of flow and velocities at site for flood
discharges to be considered in design of structure.
(d) Stage-discharge curve for site.
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis
(a) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening
for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges.
(b) Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of
proposed structures.
(c) Effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern
changes on the proposed structure.
(d) Consideration of geomorphic changes on nearby
structures in the vicinity of the proposed structure.
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES
1.6.1 Clearances
Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in
accordance with standards established and used by the af-
fected railroad in its normal practice. These overpass
structures shall comply with applicable Federal. State, and
local laws.
Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a mini-
mum, meet the specifications and design standards of the
American Railway Engineering Association, the Associa-
tion of American Railroads. and AASHTO.
1.6.2 Blast Protection
On bridges over railroads with steam locomotives,
metal likely to be damaged by locomotive gases, and all
concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks. shall
be protected by blast plates. The plates shall be placed to
1.6.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN 5
take account of the direction of blast when the locomotive
is on level or superelevated tracks by centering them on a
line normal to the plane of the two rails at the centerline
of the tracks. The plates shall be not less than 4 feet wide
and shall be cast-iron, a corrosionand blast-resisting alloy,
or asbestos-board shields, so supported that they may be
readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other parts in
direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not less than
3/4 inch for cast iron, 3/~ inch for alloy 1 inch for plain as-
bestos-board, and 7/,~ inch for corrugated asbestos-board.
Bolts shall be not less than 5/~ inch in diameter. Pockets
which may hold locomotive gases shall be avoided as far
as practical. All fastenings shall be galvanized or made of
corrosion-resistant material.
1.7 SUPERELEVATION
The superelevation of the Iloor surface of a bridge on
a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with
the standard practice of the commission for the highway
construction, except that the superelevation shall not ex-
ceed 0.10 foot per foot width of roadway.
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES
All bridge floors shall have skid-resistant characteris-
tics.
1.9 UTILITIES
Where required. provisions shall be made for trolley
wire supports and poles, lighting pillars. electric conduits,
telephone conduits, water pipes, gas pipes, sanitary sew-
ers, and other utility appurtenances.
Section 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2 . 1 GEN ERAL
2.1.1 Notations
= area of flanges (Article 2.7.4.3)
b = flange width (Article 2.7.4.3)
C = modification factorfor concentrated load, P, used in
the design of rail members (Article 2.7.1.3.1)
D = clear unsupported distance between flange compo-
nents (Article 2.7.4.3)
d = depth of W or I section (Article 2.7.4.3)
Fa = a l l o wa b l e a x i a l s t r es s ( Ar t i c l e 2 . 7 . 4 . 3 )
Fb = allowable bending stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
F, = allowable shear stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
F
5 = m i n i m u m yi el d s t r es s ( Ar t i c l e 2 . 7 . 4 . 2 )
= axial compression stress (Article 2.7.4.3)
h = hei ght o f t o p r a i l above reference surface (Figure
2.7.4B)
L =post spacing (Figure 2.7.4B)
P = railing design loading = 10 kips (Article 2.7.1.3
and Figure 2.7.4B)
= railing design loading equal to R P/2 or P/3 (Article
2.7.1.3.5)
=flange or web thickness (Article 2.7.4.3)
w = pedestrian or bicycle loading (Articles 2.7.2.2 and
2.7.3.2)
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk
The width of roadway shall be the clear width mea-
sured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of the
bridge between the bottoms of curbs. If brush curbs or
curbs are not used, the clear width shall be the minimum
width measured between the nearest faces of the bridge
railing.
The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width,
m ea s u r ed a t r i ght a n gl es t o t he l o n gi t u d i n a l c en t er l i n e o f
t he b r i d ge, f r o m t he ex t r em e inside portion of the handrail
to the bottom of the curb orguardtimber. Ifthere is a truss,
girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway curb, the
width shall be measured to the extreme walk side of these
members.
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES
GENERAL
2.2.1 Navigational
Permits for the construction of crossings over naviga-
ble streams must be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guard
and other appropriate agencies. Requests for such permits
from the U.S. Coast Guard shouldbe addressed to the ap-
propriate District Commander. Permit exemptions are al-
lowed on nontidal waterways which are not used as a
means to transport interstate or foreigncommerce, and are
not susceptible to such use intheir natural condition or by
reasonable improvement.
2.2.2 Roadway Width
For recommendations on roadway widths for various
volumes of traffic, see AASHTO A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, or A Policy on Design
StandardsInterstate System.
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance
V ertical clearance on State trunk highways and inter-
state systems in rural areas shall be at least 16 feet over
the entire roadway width with an allowance for resurfac-
ing. On State trunk highways and interstate routes through
urban areas, a 16-foot clearance shall be provided except
in highly developed areas. A 16-foot clearance shouldbe
provided in both rural and urban areas where such clear-
ance is not unreasonably costly and where needed for de-
fense requirements. V ertical clearance on all other high-
ways shall be at least 14 feet over the entire roadway
width with an allowance for resurfacing.
2.2.4 Other
The channel openings and clearances shall be accept-
able to agencies having jurisdiction over such matters.
Channel openings and clearances shall conform in
width, height, and location to all Federal, State, and local
requirements.
7
8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.2.5
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks
The face of the curb is defined as the vertical or s1op-
ing surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
measurements of roadway curbs are from the bottom of
the face, or, in the case of stepped back curbs, from the
bottom of the lower face. Maximum widthof brush curbs,
if used, shall be 9 inches.
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the road-
way approach, at either or both ends of the bridge, the
curb height on the bridge may equal or exceed the curb
height on the roadway approach. Where no curbs are used
on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge curb
above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches, and
preferably not more than 10 inches.
Where sidewalks are used for pedestrian traffic on
urban expressways, they shall be separated from the
bridge roadway by the use of a combination railing as
shown in Figure 2.7.4B.
In those cases where a New Jersey type parapet or a
curb is constructed on a bridge, particularly in urban areas
that have curbs and gutters leading to a bridge, the same
widths between curbs on the approach roadways will be
maintained across the bridge structure. A parapet or other
railing installed at or near the curb line shall have its ends
properly flared, sloped, or shielded.
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES
2.3.1 Width
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Fioure ~ 3 I
The roadway width shall generally equal the width of
the approach roadway section includingshoulders. Where
curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the same
section shall be carried across the structure.
The provisions of Arttcle 2 2 3 shall be used.
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES
FOR UNDERPASSES
See Figure 2.4A.
2.4.1 Width
The pier columns or walls for grade separation struc-
tures shall generally be locateda minimumof 30 feet from
the edges of the through-traffic lanes. Where the practical
F
HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE
LL
I-
C,)
4
w
-J
I-
I-
z
0
a:
C.)
w
0
z
4
a:
w
-J
0
-J
.4:
0
I-
a:
w
FIGURE 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges
limits of structure costs, type of structure, volume and de-
sign speedof through traffic, span arrangement, skew, and
terrain make the 30-foot offset impractical, the pier or
wall may be placed closer than 30 feet and protected by
the use of guardrail or other barrier devices. The guardrail
or other device shall be independently supported with the
roadway face at least 2 feet 0 inches from the face of pier
or abutment.
The face of the guardrail or other device shall be at
least 2 feet 0 inches outside the normal shoulder line.
2.4.2 V ertical Clearance
A vertical clearance of not less than 14 feet shall be
provided between curbs, or if curbs are not used, over the
entire width that is available for traffic.
2.4.3 C u rbs
Curbs, if used, shall match those of the approach road-
way section.
2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS
See Figure 2.5.
2.5.1 Roadway Width
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.5.
Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the
structures shall be constructed to secure the following
limitingdimensions or clearances for traffic.
~FACE OF CURB
OR BARRIER.
(OP TIONAL)
9 (MAX.) BRUSH CURB
OR SIDEWALK IF WARRANTED.
ROADWAY WIDTH
DIVISION IDESIGN
AT LEAST 60-OG REATER THAN AP P ROACH P AVEMENT
~.-FACE OF WALL
OR P IER
FACE OF WALL..
OR P IER
I -.
C l,
-
-J
I
L 30-0 MIN. P AVEMENT { 300 MIN.
z
0
C .)
C.)
z
Lu
C.)
C.
)
I -
Lu
r
G ENERAL CONDITION
,.-FACE OF WALL
OR P IER
FACE OF WALL.
OR P IER
Lu
C.)
z
FACE OF FACE OF
BARRIER G UARD RAIL C.)
K
* Lu
4<
C.)
I2-0 MIN 2-0 MIN I-
w <a:
P AVEMENT
SHOULDER SHOULDER MeN
LIMITED CONDITION
*The barrier to face of wall or pier distance should not be less than the dynamic deflection ofthe barrier for impact by a full-sized automobile at
impact conditions of approximately 25 degrees and 60 mites per hour. For information on dynamic deflection of various barriers, see AASHTO Road-
side Design Guide.
FIGURE 2.4A. Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses (See Article 2.4 for General Requirements.)
I -
g E
0
~O T LE SS T HA N 30 FT .
HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE
CURB OR
SIDEWALK
18 INCHES
MINIMUM
ROADWAY WIDTH
p.
AT LEAST 2 FT. G REATER THAN
AP P ROACH TRAVELLED WAY
BUT NOT LESS THAN 24 FT.
I.-.
U-
1~
I-
U)
w
-J
I-
z
0
0
w
0
z
w
-J
0
-j
0
cr
w
CURB OR
SI DEWALK
18 INCHES
MINIMUM
2.5.1
9
FIGURE2.5. Clearance Diagram for IbnnelsTwo-Lane Highway Traffic
10 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2.5.1
The clearances and width of roadway for two-lane traf-
fic shall be not less than those shown in Figure 2.5. The
roadway width shall be increased at least 10 feet and
preferably 12 feet for each additional traffic lane.
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls
The minimum width between walls of two-lane tunnels
shall be 30 feet.
The vertical clearance between curbs shall be not less
than 14 feet.
2.5.4 C u rbs
The widthof curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.
For heavy traffic roads, roadway widths greater than
the above minima are recommended.
If traffic lane widths exceed 12 feet the roadway width
may be reduced 2 feet 0 inches from that calculated from
Figure 2.5.
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR
DEPRESSED ROADWAYS
2.6.1 Roadway Width
The clear width between curbs shall be not less than
that specified for tunnels.
2.6.2 Clearance between Walls
The minimum widthbetween walls for depressed road-
ways carrying two lanes of traffic shall be 30 feet.
2.6.3 Curbs
The widthof curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.
2.7 RAILINGS
Railings shall be providedalong the edges of structures
for protection of traffic and pedestrians. Other suitable
applications may be warranted on bridge-length culverts
as addressed in the 1989 AASHTO Roadside Design
Guide.
Except on urban expressways, a pedestrian walkway
may be separated from an adjacent roadway by a traffic
railing or barrier with a pedestrian railing along the edge
of the structure. On urban expressways, the separation
shall be made by a combination railing.
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing
2.7.1.1 General
2.7.1.1.1 Although the primary purpose of traffic
railing is to contain the average vehicle using the struc-
ture, consideration should also be given to (a) protection
of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing,
(b) protection of other vehicles near the collision, (c) pro-
tection of vehicles or pedestrians on roadways underneath
the structure, and (d) appearance and freedom of view
from passing vehicles.
2.7.1.1.2 Materials for traffic railings shall be con-
crete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof. Metal ma-
terials with less than 10-percent tested elongation shall
not be used.
2.7.1.1.3 Traffic railings should provide a smooth,
continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the posts set
back from the face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail
members, including anchorage of ends, is essential. The
railing system shall be able to resist the applied loads at
all locations.
2.7.1.1.4 Protrusions or depressions at rail joints
shall be acceptable provided their thickness or depth is no
greater than the wall thickness of the rail member or 3/8
inch, whichever is less.
2.7.1.1.5 Careful attention shall be given to the treat-
ment of railings at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends,
posts, and sharp changes in the geometry of the railing
shall be avoided. A smooth transition by means of a con-
tinuation of the bridge barrier, guardrail anchored to the
bridge end, or other effective means shall be provided to
protect the traffic from direct collision withthe bridge rail
ends.
2.7.1.2 Geometry
2.7.1.2.1 The heights of rails shall be measured rela-
tive to the reference surface which shall be the top of the
roadway, the top of the future overlay if resurfacing is an-
ticipated, or the top of curb when the curb projection is
greater than 9 inches from the traffic face of the railing.
2.7.1.2.2 Traffic railings and traffic portions of
combination railings shall not be less than 2 feet 3 inches
2.7.1.2.2
DIVISION IDESIGN
11
from the top of the reference surface. Parapets designed
with sloping traffic faces intended to allow vehicles to
ride up them under low angle contacts shall be at least 2
feet 8 inches in height.
2.7.1.2.3 The lower element of a traffic or combina-
tion railing should consist of either a parapet projecting
at least 18 inches above the reference surface or a rail
centered between 15 and 20 inches above the reference
surface.
2.7.1.2.4 For traffic railings, the maximum clear
opening belowthe bottom rail shall not exceed 17 inches
and the maximum opening between succeeding rails shall
not exceed 15 inches. For combination railings, accom-
modating pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the maximum
opening between railing members shall be governed by
Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1, respectively.
2.7.1.2.5 The traffic faces of all traffic rails must be
within 1 inch of a vertical plane through the traffic face of
the rail closest to traffic.
2.7.1.3 Loads
2.7.1.3.1 When the height of the top of the top traffic
rail exceeds 2-9, the total transverse load distributed to
the traffic rails and posts shall be increased by the factor
C. However, the maximum load applied to any one ele-
ment need not exceed P, the transverse design load.
2.7.1.3.2 Rails whose traffic face is more than 1 inch
behind a vertical plane through the face of the traffic rail
closest to traffic or centered less than 15 inches above the
reference surface shall not be considered tobe traffic rails
for the purpose of distributing P or CP, but may be con-
stdered in determining the maximum clear vertical open-
ing, provided they are designed for a transverse loading
equal to that applied to an adjacent traffic rail or P/2,
whichever is less.
2.7.1.3.3 Transverse loads on posts, equal to P, or CP,
shall be distributed as shown in Figure 2.7.4B. A load
equal to one-half the transverse load on a post shall si-
multaneously be applied longitudinally, divided among
not more than four posts in a continuous rail length. Each
traffic post shall also be designed to resist an indepen-
dently applied inward load equal to one-fourth the out-
ward transverse load.
2.7.1.3.4 The attachment of each rail required in a
traffic or combination railing shall be designed to resist a
vertical load equal to one-fourth of the transverse design
load of the rail. The vertical load shall be applied alter-
nately upward or downward. The attachment shall also be
designed to resist an inwardtransverse load equal toone-
fourth the transverse rail design load.
2.7.1.3.5 Rail members shall be designed for a mo-
ment, due to concentrated loads, at the center of the panel
and at the posts of PL/6 where L is the post spacing and
P is equal to P, P/2, or P/3, as modified by the factor C
where required. The handrail members of combination
railings shall be designedfor a moment at the center of the
panel and at the posts of 0.1 wL
2.
2.7.1.3.6 The transverse force on concrete parapet
and harrier walls shall be spread over a longitudinal length
of 5 feet.
2.7.1.3.7 Railings other than those shown in Figure
2.7.4B are permissible provided they meet the require-
ments of this Article. Railing configurations that have
been successfully tested by full-scale impact tests are ex-
empt from the provisions of this Article.
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing
2.7.2.1 General
2.7.2.1.1 Bicycle railing shall be used on bridges
specifically designed to carry bicycle traffic, and on
bridges where specific protection of bicyclists is deemed
necessary.
2.7.2.1.2 Railing components shall be designed
with consideration to safety, appearance, and when the
bridge carries mixed traffic freedom of view frompassing
vehicles.
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads
2.7.2.2.1 The minimum height of a railing used to
protect a bicyclist shall be 54 inches, measured from the
top of the surface on which the bicycle rides to the top of
the top rail.
2.7.2.2.2 Within a band bordered by the bikeway
surface and a line 27 inches above it, all elements of the
railing assembly shall be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere
will not pass through any opening. Within a band bor-
dered by lines 27 and 54 inches, elements shall be spaced
such that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any
opening. If a railing assembly employs both horizontal
and vertical elements, the spacing requirements shall
apply to one or the other, but not to both. Chainlink fence
12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2 .7.2 .2 .2
is exempt from the rail spacing requirements listed
above. In general, rails should project beyond the face of
posts and/or pickets.
2.7.2.2.3 The minimum design loadings for bicycle
railing shall be w = 50 pounds per linear foot transversely
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each rail.
2.7.2.2.4 Design loads for rails located more than 54
inches abt)ve the riding surface shall be determined by the
designer.
2.7.2.2.5 Posts shall be designed for a transverse
load of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the cen-
ter of gravity of the upper rail, but at a height not greater
than 54 inches.
2.7.2.2.6 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing
2.7.3.1 General
2.7.3.1.1 Railing components shall be proportioned
ct)mmensurate with the type and volume of anticipated
E
C
to
tW W
w WL WL
I
E W
_____ E
c 6
E W
T
to W ,c
:A Walking surface
A
(To be used adjacent to a sidewalk when highway traffic is separated from pedestrian
traffic by a traffic railing.)
P EDESTRIAN RAILING
E
E
C
to
W
W
W
Hit
W
WL
E
to
W
U.
BICYCLE RAILING
surf ace
NOTE:
If screening or solid face is presented, number ofrails may be reduced; wind loads must be added ifsolid face is
utilized.
NOTES:
I. Loadings on left are applied to rails.
2. Loads on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes of rail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of materials listed in Article
2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacing illustrated are maximum values. Rail elements spacings shall conform to Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and
2.7.3.2.1.
NOMENCLATURE:
w = Pedestrian or bicycle loading per unit length of rail
L = Post spacing
E
c
to
FIGURE 2.7.4A. Pedest rian Railing, Bicycle Railing
2.7.3.1.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 13
pedestrian traffic. Consideration should be given to ap-
pearance, safety and freedom of view from passing vehi-
cles.
2.7.3.1.2 Materials for pedestrian railing may be
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof.
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads
2.7.3.2.1 The minimum height of a pedestrian railing
shall be 42 inches measured from the top of the walkway
to the top of the upper rail member. Within a band bor-
dered by the walkway surface and a line 27 inches above
it, all elements of the railing assembly shall be spaced
such that a 6-inch sphere will not pass through any open-
ing. For elements between 27 and 42 inches above the
walking surface, elements shall be spaced such that an
eight-inch sphere will not pass through any opening.
E
C
91
C.)
__
P /2 P /2
-~- -~
Cl,,X
U
P /2
E .
i~ E ~
E . :
~
2.7.3.2.2 The minimum design loading for pedestrian
railing shall be w =50 pounds per linear foot, transversely
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each longitudinal
member. Rail members located more than 5 feet 0 inches
above the walkway are excluded from these requirements.
2.7.3.2.3 Posts shall be designed for a transverse load
of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the center of
gravity of the upper rail or, for high rails, at 5 feet 0 inches
maximum above the walkway.
2.7.3.2.4 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines
2.7.4.1 Railings shall be designed by the elastic meth-
od to the allowable stresses for the appropriate material.
E
C
C.)
W
______ WL
P /2
P /2
C
b A
A:
I
(To be used when curb projects more than 9 from the traffic face of railing.)
COMBINATION TRAFFIC AND PEDESTRIAN RAILING
(To be used where there is no curb orcurb prolects 9 or less from traffic face of railing4
TRAFFIC RAILING
FIGURE 2.7.4B. Traffic Railing
14
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2.7.4.1
COMBINATIONTRAFFIC AND BICYCLE RAILING
NOTES:
I. Loadings on left are applied to rails.
2. Loadings on right are applied to posts.
3. The shapes ofrail members are illustrative only. Any material or combination of materials listed in Article
2.7 may be used in any configuration.
4. The spacings illustrated are maximum values. Rail element spacings shall conform to Article 2.7.1.2.4.
NOMENCLATURE:
P =Highway design loading 10 kips
h = Heightof top of top rail above reference surface (in.).
L = Post spacing (ft).
w = Pedestrian loading per unit length of rail.
C=1+ h 33
18 =1
FIGURE 2.7.4B. ( C ont inu ed)
For aluminum alloys the design stresses given in the
Specitic(!tions tar AluminumStructure.s Fifth Edition, De-
cember 1986, for Bridge andSimilar Type Structure.s pub-
lishedby the Aluminum Association, Inc. for alloys 6061-
T6 (Table A.6), 6351 -T5 (Table A.6) and 6063-T6 (Table
A.6) shall apply, and for cast aluminum alloys the design
stresses given for alloys A444.0-T4 (Table A.9), A356.0-
T61 (Table A.9) and A356.0-T6 (Table A.9) shall apply.
For fabrication and welding of aluminum railing, see
Article 11.5.
2.7.4.2 The allowable unit stresses for steel shall be
as given in Article 10.32, except as modified below.
For steels not generally covered by the Standard
Specifications, but having a guaranteed yield strength,
F~, the allowable unit stress, shall be derived by applying
the general formulas as given in the Standard Specifica-
tions under Unit Stresses except as indicated below.
The allowable unit stress for shear shall be F
0.33F,.
Round or oval steel tubes may be proportioned using
an allowable bending stress, F
5 =0.66F~., provided the R!t
ratio (radius/thickness) is less than or equal to 40.
Square and rectangular steel tubes and steel W and
I sections in bending with tension and compression
on extreme fibers of laterally supported compact see-
lions having an axis of symmetry in the plane of
loading may be designed for an allowable stress F1, =
0.60F~.
2.7.4.3 The requirements for a compact section are
as follows:
(a) The width to thickness ratio of projecting elements
of the compression flange of W and I sections shall not
exceed
b 1600
< F--
(2-I)
(b) The width to thickness ratio of the compression
flange of square or rectangular tubes shall not exceed
b 6000
(2-2)
DIV ISION IDESIGN
(c) The D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
D 13,000
t= ~J~;
(e) the distance between lateral supports in inches of
W or I sections shall not exceed
(2-3~
(d) If subject to combined axial force and bending, the
D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
13, 300[Il.43 !~ V
D [ _ l~F
1 )]
K
<2.400b
(2-6)
or
<2O,OOO,OOOA~
dF~
(2-4)
(2-7)
but need not be less than
D 7,000
K
\{ Fy
2.7.4.3
15
(2-5)
Section 3
LOADS
Part A
TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS
A =maximum expected acceleration of bedrock at the site
a =length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B =buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b =width of pier or diameter of pile (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
b =length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C =combined response coefficient
C =stiffness parameter =K(W/L) (Article 3.23.4.3)
C =centrifugal force in percent of live load (Article 3.10. 1)
CF =centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
C. =coefficient for nose inclination (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
CM = steel bending stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
CR =steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
D =parameter used in determination of load fraction of wheel load (Article 3.23.4.3)
D = degree of curve (Article 3.10.1)
D =dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F. = fraction of wheel load applied to beam (Article 3.28.1)
DL =contributing dead load
E =width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed (Article 3.24.3)
E =earth pressure (Article 3.22)
EQ = equivalent static horizontal force applied at the center of gravity of the structure
=modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article 3.26.3)
=modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
= modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
F = horizontal ice force on pier (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
F = framing factor (Article 3.21.1.1)
Fb =allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
F, = allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
g = 32.2 ft./sec.
2
I = impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
I = gross flexural moment of inertia of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
ICE =ice pressure (Article 3.22)
I =gross Saint-V enant torsional constant of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
K = stream flow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
K =stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)
K =wheel load distribution constant for timber flooring (Article 3.25.1.3)
k =live load distribution constant for spread box girders (Article 3.28.1)
L =loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2)
L = loaded length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
17
18
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.1
L = live load (Article 3.22)
L span lengt h ( Art icle 3.23.4)
LF = longitudinal force from live load (Article 3.22)
= moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
M x = primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3)
= total transferred secondary moment (Article 3.25.1.4)
NB =number of beams (Article 3.28.1)
NL =number of traffic lanes (Article 3.23.4)
n = number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4)
P = live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
P = stream flow pressure (Article 3.18.1)
P =total uniform force required to cause unit horizontal deflection of whole structure
P = load on one rear wheel of truck (Article 3.24.3)
P =wheel load (Article 3.24.5)
P =design wheel load (Article 3.25.1.3)
P
1 5 = 12,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
P-,0 = 16,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
p =effective ice strength (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
p =proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1)
R =radius of curve (Article 3.10.1)
R = normalized rock response
R =rib shortening (Article 3.22)
RD =shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
=primary shear (Article 3.25.1.3)
=total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.1.4)
S =design speed (Article 3.10.1)
S = soil amplification spectral ratio
S = shrinkage (Article 3.22)
S =average stringer spacing (Article 3.23.2.3.1)
S = spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3)
S =width of precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
S =effective span length (Article 3.24.1)
S =span length (Article 3.24.8.2)
S =beam spacing (Article 3.28.1)
s =effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
SF =stream flow (Article 3.22)
T =period of vibration
T =temperature (Article 3.22)
=thickness of ice (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
=deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
V = variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.3A)
V =velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
W =combined weight on the first two axles of a standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.7A)
W =width of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1 .1)
W = wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
W = total dead weight of the structure
= width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
W =overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
W =roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
WL = wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
w =width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
X = distance from load to point of support (Article 3.24.5.1)
x = subscript denoting direction perpendicular to longitudinal stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
3.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 19
z
13
y
U PL
13B
13c
13E
I3EQ
13
ICE
I3~.
f3R
13w
13wL
= reduction for ductility and risk assessment
= (with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads for service load and load factor designs (Article 3.22)
=load factor (Article 3.22)
=proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article 3.25.1.4)
=load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Article 3.22.1)
=load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for dead load (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for earth pressure (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for earthquake (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for ice (Article 3.22.1)
=load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage, and temperature (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for stream flow (Article 3.22.1)
= load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1)
=load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article 3.22.1)
p =Poissons ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
3.2 GENERAL 3.2.5 The loading combinations shall be in accordance
with Article 3.22.
3.2.1 Structures shall be designed tocarry the following
loads and forces:
Dead load.
Live load.
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load.
Wind loads.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows:
Longitudinal forces, centrifugal force, thermal forces,
earth pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses, rib short-
ening, erection stresses, ice and current pressure, and
earthquake stresses.
Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces be-
tween the superstructure and substructure to reflect the ef-
fect of friction at expansion bearings or shear resistance at
elastomeric bearings.
3.2.2 Members shall be proportioned either with refer-
ence to service loads and allowable stresses as provided
in Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design) or, al-
ternatively, with reference to load factors and factored
strength as provided in Strength Design (LoadFactor De-
sign).
3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or no-
tation of the assumed loads shall be shown and the
stresses due to the various loads shall be shown separately.
3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete
placing sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the
special provisions.
3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces car-
ried by the bridge through the deck system to pin connec-
tions and hangers should be resolved into vertical, lateral,
and longitudinal force components to be considered in the
design.
3.3 DEAD LOAD
3.3.1 The dead load shall consist of the weight of the
entire structure, including the roadway, sidewalks, car
tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility
services.
3.3.2 The snow and ice load is considered to be offset
by an accompanying decrease inlive load and impact and
shall not be included except under special conditions.
3.3.2.1 If differential settlement is anticipated in a
structure, consideration should be given to stresses result-
ing from this settlement.
3 . 3 . 3 If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when
the bridge is constructed, or is expected tobe placed in the
future, adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in
the design dead load. Otherwise, provision for a future
wearing surface is not required.
3.3.4 Special consideration shall be given to the neces-
sity for a separate wearing surface for those regions where
the use of chains on tires or studded snow tires can be
a n t i c i p a t ed .
20 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.3.5
3.3.5 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected,
the traffic may bear directly on the concrete slab. If con-
sidered desirable, Y 4 inch or more may be added to the
slab for a wearing surface.
3.3.6 The following weights are to be used in comput-
ing the dead load:
Steel or cast steel
Cast iron
Aluminum alloys
Timber (treated or untreated)
Concrete, plain or reinforced
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast
Loose sand, earth, and gravel
Macadam or gravel, rolled
Cinder filling
Pavement, other than wood block
Railway rails, guardrails, and fastenings
(per linear foot of track)
Stone masonry
Asphalt plank, I in. thick
#/cu.ft
.
490
450
175
50
150
120
100
140
60
150
200
170
9 lb. sq. ft.
3.4 LIVE LOAD
The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied
moving load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrians.
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS
3.5.1 For all loadings less than H 20, provision shall be
made for an infrequent heavy load by applying Loading
Combination IA (see Article 3.22), with the live load as-
sumed to be I-I or HS truck and to occupy a single lane
without concurrent loading in any other lane. The over-
load shall apply to all parts of the structure affected, ex-
cept the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stiff-
ening ribs in the case of orthotropic bridge super-
structures.
traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway
width measured between curbs.
3.6.3 Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used,
but roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall have two de-
sign lanes each equal to one-half the roadway width.
3.6.4 The traffic lanes shall be placed in such numbers
and positions on the roadway, and the loads shall be
placed in such positions within their individual traffic
lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the mem-
ber under consideration.
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads*
3.7.1.1 The highway live loadings on the roadways
of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard
trucks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck trains. Two
systems of loading are provided, the H loadings and the
HS loadingsthe HS loadings being heavier than the cor-
responding H loadings.
3.7.1.2 Each lane load shall consist of a uniform load
per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a single con-
centrated load (or two concentrated loads in the case of
continuous spanssee Article 3.11.3), so placed on the
span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated
load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
distributed over a 10-foot width on a line normal to the
center line of the lane.
3 . 7 . 1 . 3 For the computation of moments and shears,
different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in
Figure 3.7.6B. The lighter concentrated loads shall be
used when the stresses are primarily bending stresses, and
the heavier concentrated loads shall be used when the
stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
3.5.2 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is
selected by the operating agency in accordance with
Loading Combination Group lB inArticle 3.22.
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES
3.6.1 The lane loading or standard truck shall be as-
sumed to occupy a width of 10 feet.
*Note: The systemof lane loads defined here (and illustrated in Figure
3.7.6.B) was developed in order to give a simpler method of calculating
moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of the truck.
Appendix B shows the truck train loadings of the 1935 Specifications
of AASHO and the corresponding lane loadings.
In 1944, the HS series oftrucks was developed. These approximate the
effect of the corresponding 1935 truck preceded and followed by a train
of trucks weighing three-fourths as much as the basic truck. 3.6.2 These loads shall be placed in 12-foot wide design
3.7.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN 21
3.7.2 Classes of Loading
There are four standard classes of highway loading: H
20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Loading H 15 is 75 percent
of loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75 percent of Loading
HS 20. If loadings other than those designated are desired,
they shall be obtained by proportionately changing the
weights shown for both the standard truck and the corre-
sponding lane loads.
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings
The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify
them was instituted with the publication of the 1944 Edi-
tion in the following manner:
H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated H 15-44
H 20 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated H 20-44
H 15-S 12 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated HS 15-44
H 20-S 16 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated HS 20-44
The affix shall remain unchanged until such time as the
loading specification is revised. The same policy for iden-
tification shall be applied, for future reference, to loadings
previously adopted by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials.
3.7.4 Minimum Loading
Bridges supporting Interstate highways or other high-
ways which carry, or which may carry, heavy truck traf-
fic, shall be designed for H520-44 Loading or an Alternate
Military Loading of two axles four feet apart with each
axle weighing 24,000 pounds, whichever produces the
greatest stress.
3.7.5 H Loading
The H loadings consist of a two-axle truck or the cor-
responding lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A
and 3.7.6B. The H loadings are designated H followed by
a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the stan-
dard truck.
3.7.6 HS Loading
The HS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semi-
trailer or the corresponding lane load as illustrated in Fie-
ures 3.7.7A and 3.7.6B. The HS loadings are designated
by the letters HS followed by a number indicating the
gross weight in tons of the tractor truck. The variable axle
spacing has been introduced in order that the spacing of
axles may approximate more closely the tractor trailers
now inuse. The variable spacing also provides a more sat-
isfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy axle
loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce
maximum negative moments.
3.8 IMPACT
3.8 .1 Application
Highway Live Loads shall be increased for those struc-
tural elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic,
vibratory and impact effects. Impact allowances shall not
be applied to items in Group B. It is intended that impact
be included as part of the loads transferred from super-
structure to substructure, but shall not be included inloads
transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or
columns that are below ground.
3.8 .1.1 Group AImpact shall be included.
(I) Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.
(2) Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of type)
excluding footings and those portions below the
ground line.
(3) The portions above the ground line of concrete or
steel piles that support the superstructure.
3 . 8. 1 . 2 Grou p BImpact shall not he inclu ded.
(1) Abutments, retaining walls, piles except as speci-
fied in 3.8.1.1 (3).
(2) Foundation pressures and footings.
(3) Timber structures.
(4) Sidewalk loads.
(5) Culverts and structures having 3 feet or more
cover.
3.8 .2. Impact Formula
3.8.2.1 The amount of the impact allowance or In-
crement is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress.
and shall be determined by the formula:
50
1=L+125 (3-I)
in which,
I = impact fraction (maximum 30 percent)~
14-0
=TOTAL WEIG HT OF
7~
5~j~UCK_AND LOAD
01W -_____
0.1 W -_____ - _____
CLEARANCE AND
LOAD LANE WIDTH
2- 6-0
1CURB.~
L2~~
FIGURE 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks
In the design of rimbcr floors and orthoiropic steel decks lexcluding transverse beams) for H 21) loading, one
axle toad of 24.001) pounds or isso axle loads of I 6,01))) pounds each spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
l)r~duces ihe greater stress, instead oi the 32,0(X)pound axle shosso.
H 20-U 8 ,000 LBS. 32,000 LBS.~
H 15-U 6,000 LBS. 24,000 LBS.
10.-0,,
I
iI ~L
For slab design. the center line ofwheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (Sec Article 3.24.2.)
3.8.2.1 DIV ISION IDESIGN
23
18,000 LB S. FO R M O M E N T *
yCONCENTRATED LOAD 26,000 LBS. FOR SHEAR
LOAD 640 LBS. P ER LINEAR FOOT OF LOAD LANE
H2 0-44 LO A D I N G
HS2 O -44 LO A D I N G
I 13,500 LB S. FO R M O M E N T *
~CONCENTRATED LOAD 19,500 LBS. FOR SHEAR
LOAD 48 0 LBS. P ER LINEAR FOOT OF LOAD LANE
H15-44 LO A D I N G
HS15-44 LO A D I N G
FIGURE 3.7.6B. Lane Loading
*For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 which provides for an
additional concentrated load.
L = length in feet of the portion of the span that is
loaded to produce the maximitm stress in the
member.
3.8.2.2 For uniformity of application. inthis formula,
the loaded length, L, shall be as follows:
(a) For roadway floors: the design span length.
(b) For transverse members, such as floor beams: the
span length of member center to center of supports.
(c) For computing truck load moments: the span
length, or for cantilever arms the length from the mo-
ment center to the farthermost axle.
(d) For shear due to truck loads: the length of the
loaded portion of span from the point under consider-
ation to the far reaction; except, for cantilever arms,
use a 30 percent impact factor.
(e) For continuous spans: the length of span under
consideration for positive moment, and the average of
two adjacent loaded spans for negative moment.
3.8.2.3 For culverts with cover
00 to 1-0 inc. I = 30%
I -I to 2-0 inc. I =20%
2-lto 2-Il inc.l = 10%
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES
Provision shall be made for the effect of a longitudinal
force of 5 percent of the live load inall laties carrying traf-
fic headed in the same direction. All lanes shall be loaded
for bridges likely to become one directional in the future.
The load used, without impact, shall be the lane load plus
the concentrated load for moment specitied inArticle 3.7,
with reduction for multiple-loaded lanes as specilied in
Article 3.12. The center of gravity of the longitudinal
force shall be assumed to be located 6 feet above the floor
slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the
superstructure.
24 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.9
~r -Y .J ~,
H52 0-44 8,000 LB S.
H515-44 6.000 LB S.
32,000 LBS.*
2 4,000 LB S.
32 ,000 LB S*
24,000 LB S.
---0.4W
W = C O M B I N E D WE I GHT O N T HE FI R ST T WO A XLE S WHI C H
A S FO R T HE C O R R E SPO N D I N G H T R U C K.
V = V A R I A B LE SPA C I N G 14 FE E T T O 30 FE E T I N C LU SI V E .
U SE D I S T HA T WHI C H PR O D U C E S M A XI M U M ST R E SSE S.
IS THE SA M E
SPA C I N G T O B E
FIGURE3.7.7A. Standard 115 Trucks
*ln the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 loading, one
axle load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each, spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
0
0
U
D
V.
p
T Q L T
CLEARANCE AND
LANE WII
~*Forslab design,the center line ofwheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face ofcurb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
3.10 DIVISION IDESIGN
25
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
3.10.1 Structures on curves shall be designed for a hor-
izontal radial force equal to the following percentage of
the live load, without impact, in all traffic lanes:
C =0.001 175
2D 6.68S2
R
where,
C =the centrifugal force in percent of the live load,
without impact;
S =the design speed in miles per hour;
D =the degree of curve;
R =the radius of the curve in feet.
3.10.2 The effects of superelevation shall be taken into
a c c o u n t .
3.10.3 The centrifugal force shall be applied 6 feet
above the roadway surface, measured along the center line
of the roadway. The design speed shall be determined with
regard to the amount of superelevation provided in the
roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance
with the provisions of Article 3.7 with one standard truck
on each design traffic lane placed in position for maxi-
mum loading.
3.10.4 Lane loads shall not be used in the computation
of centrifugal forces.
3.10.5 When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel
grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting mem-
bers, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its
plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces act-
ing on the live load.
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane load or single
standard truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractions
of load lane widths or trucks shall not be used.
3 . 1 1 . 2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units
The number and position of the lane load or truck loads
shall be as specified in Article 3.7 and, whether lane or
truck loads, shall be such as to produce maximum stress,
subject to the reduction specified in Article 3.12.
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans
For the determination of maximum negative moment
in the design of continuous spans, the lane load shown in
Figure 3.7.6B shall be modified by the addition of a sec-
ond, equal weight concentrated load placed in one other
span in the series in such position to produce the maxi-
(3 - 2) mum effect. For maximum positive moment, only one
concentrated load shall be used per lane, combined with
as many spans loaded uniformly as are required to pro-
duce maximum moment.
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress
3.11.4.1 On both simple and continuous spans, the
type of loading, whether lane load or truckload, tobe used
shall be the loading which produces the maximum stress.
The moment and shear tables given in Appendix A show
which types of loading controls for simple spans.
3.11.4.2 For continuous spans, the lane loading shall
be continuous dr discontinuous; only one standard H or
HS truck per lane shall be considered on the structure.
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
3.12.1 Where maximum stresses are produced in any
member by loading a number of traffic lanes simultane-
ously, the following percentages of the live loads shall be
u s ed i n v i ew of the improbability of coincident maximum
l o a d i n g:
Per c en t
O n e o r t wo l a n es 1 00
Thr ee l a n es 9 0
F o u r l a n es o r m o r e 7 5
3.12.2 The reduction in intensity of loads on transverse
members such as floor beams shall be determinedas in the
case of main trusses or girders, using the number of traf-
fic lanes across the width of roadway that must be loaded
to produce maximum stresses in the floor beam.
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the
railway loads shall be determined from the class of traffic
which the bridge may be expected to carry. The possibil-
ity that the bridge may be required to carry railroad freight
cars shall be given consideration.
26
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.14
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING
LOADING
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading
3.14.1.1 Sidewalk floors, stringers, and their imme-
diate supports shall be designed for a live load of 85
pounds per square foot of sidewalk area. Girders, trusses,
arches, and other members shall be designed for the fol-
lowing sidewalk live loads:
Spans 0 to 25 feet in length 85 lb/ft.
2
Spans 26 to 100 feet in length 60 lb/ft.2
Spans over 100 feet in length according to the formula
3000 55W
C
~= 30+ II L A 50 )
in which
3.15 WIND LOADS
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly dis-
tributed loads applied to the exposed area of the structure.
The exposedarea shall be the sumof the areas of all mem-
bers, including floor system and railing, as seen in eleva-
tion at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the structure.
The forces and loads given herein are for a base wind ve-
locity of 100 miles per hour. For Group II and Group V
loadings, but not for Group III and Group V I loadings,
they may be reduced or increased inthe ratio of the square
of the design wind velocity to the square of the base wind
velocity provided that the maximum probable wind ve-
locity can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy, or
provided that there are permanent features of the terrain
which make such changes safe and advisable. If a change
(3 in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind ye-
locity shall be shown on the plans.
3.15.1 Superstructure Design
P = live load per square foot, max. 60-lb. per sq. ft.
L =loaded length of sidewalk in feet.
W =width of sidewalk in feet.
3.14.1.2 In calculating stresses in structures that sup-
port cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be fully
loaded on only one side of the structure if this condition
produces maximum stress.
3.14.1.3 Bridges for pedestrian andlor bicycle traffic
shall be designed for a live load of 85 PSF.
3.14.1.4 Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges are ex-
pected to be used by maintenance vehicles, special design
consideration should be made for these loads.
3 . 1 4 . 2 C u rb Loading
3.14.2.1 Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral
force of not less than 500 pounds per linear foot of curb,
applied at the top of the curb, or at an elevation 10 inches
above the floor if the curb is higher than 10 inches.
3.14.2.2 Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail form
an integral system, the traffic railing loading shall be ap-
plied and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.
3.14.3 Railing Loading
3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings
3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity
shall be applied horizontally at right angles to the longi-
tudinal axis of the structure:
For trusses and arches 75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams 50 pounds per square foot
3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than 300
pounds per linear foot in the plane of the windward chord
and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the leeward
chord on truss spans, and not less than 300 pounds per lin-
ear foot on girder spans.
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings
Group III and Group V I loadings shall comprise the
loads used for Group II and Group V loadings reduced by
70 percent and a load of 100 pounds per linear foot ap-
plied at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the struc-
ture and 6 feet above the deck as a wind load on a moving
live load. When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel
grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting mem-
bers, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its
plane, the shear resulting from the wind load on the mov-
ing live load.
3.15.2 Substructure Design
Forces transmitted to the substructure by the super-
structure and forces applied directly to the substructure by
wind loads shall be as follows:
For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.
DIVISION IDESIGN
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure
3.15.2.1.1 The transverse and longitudinal forces
transmitted by the superstructure to the substructure for
various angles of wind direction shall be as set forth in the
following table. The skewangle is measured from the per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis and the assumed wind
direction shall be that which produces the maximum
stress in the substructure. The transverse and longitudinal
forces shall be applied simultaneously at the elevation of
the center of gravity of the exposed are~t of the super-
structure.
Trusses Girders
Skew Angle Lsteral Longitudinal Lateral Longitudinal
of Wind Load Load Load Load
Degrees PSF PSF PSF PSF
0 75 0 50 0
15 70 12 44 6
30 65 28 41 12
45 47 41 33 16
60 24 50 17 19
The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and
Group V loadings as given in Article 3.22.
WL ( wind load on live load)
100 pounds per linear foot, transverse
40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly
to the Substructure
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied di-
rectly to the substructure for a 100-mile per hour wind
shall be calculated from an assumed wind force of 40
pounds per square foot. For wind directions assumed
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved
into components perpendicular to the end and front ele-
vations of the substructure. The component perpendicular
to the end elevation shall act on the exposed substructure
area as seen in end elevation and the component perpen-
dicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas
and shall be applied simultaneously with the wind loads
from the superstructure. The above loads are for Group II
and Group V loadings and may be reduced by 70 percent
for Group III and Group V I loadings, as indicated in Arti-
cle 3.22.
3.15.2.1.2 For Group III and Group V I loadings,
these loads may be reduced by 70 percent and a load per
linear foot added as a wind load on a moving live load, as
given in the following table:
Skew Angle
of Wind Lateral Load Longitudinal Load
Degrees lb/ft. lb/ft.
0 100 0
15 88 12
30 82 24
45 66 32
60 34 38
3.15.3 Overturning Forces
The effect of forces tending to overturn structures
shall be calculated under Groups II, III, V , and V I of
Article 3.22 assuming that the wind direction is at right
angles tothe longitudinal axis of the structure. In addition,
an upward force shall be applied at the windward quarter
point of the transverse superstructure width. This force
shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk
plan area for Group II and Group V combinations and
6 pounds per square foot for Group III and Group V I
combinations.
This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the
deck.
3.16 THERMAL FORCES
3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges hav-
ing maximum span lengths of 125 feet, the following
wind loading may be used inlieu of the more precise load-
ing specified above:
W (wind load on structure)
50 pounds per square foot, transverse
12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
Provision shall be made for stresses or movements re-
sulting from variations intemperature. The rise and fall in
temperature shall be fixed for the locality in which the
structure is to be constructed and shall be computed from
an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due con-
sideration shall be given to the lag between air tempera-
ture and the interior temperature of massive concrete
members or structures.
3.15.2
27
28
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.16
The range of temperature shall generally be as follows:
Metal structures:
Moderate climate, from 0 to I 20F
Cold climate, from 30 to 120F
Temperature Temperature
Rise Fall
Concrete structures:
Moderate climate
Cold climate
30F
35
0F
400F
45F
3.17 UPLIFT
3.17.1 Provision shall be made for adequate attachment
of the superstructure to the substructure by ensuring that
the calculated uplift at any support is resisted by tension
members engaging a mass of masonry equal to the largest
force obtained under one of the following conditions:
(a) 100 percent of the calculated uplift caused by any
loading or combination of loadings in which the live
plus impact loading is increased by 100 percent.
(b) 150 percent of the calculated uplift at working load
level.
3.17.2 Anchor bolts subject totension or other elements
of the structure stressed under the above conditions shall
be designed at 150 percent of the allowable basic stress.
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND
FLOATIN G IC E, AN D DRIFT C ON DITION S
All piers and other portions of structures that are sub-
ject to the force of flowing water, floating ice, or drift shall
be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced
thereby.
3.18 .1 Force of Stream Current on Piers
3.18 .1.1 Stream Pressure
3.18.1.1.1 The effect of flowing water on piers and
drift build-up, assuming a second-degree parabolic veloc-
ity distribution and thus a triangular pressure distribution,
shall be calculated by the formula:
Pay
5 =K(V .y.g)
2 (3-4)
where,
=average stream pressure, in pounds per square
foot,
=average velocity of water in feet per second,
computed by dividing the flow rate by the flow
area,
K =a constant, being 1 .4 for all piers subjected to
drift build-up and square-ended piers, 0.7 for
circular piers, and 0.5 for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, P~
5, shall be
equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, P~.com-
puted by Equation 3-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a tri-
angular distribution with P,,.,. located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
3.18.1.1.2 The stream flow forces shall be computed
by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into ac-
count the pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area.
In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is
above the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the
superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flowpres-
sure acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pm,. with
a uniform distribution.
3.18.1.2 Pressure C omponent s
When the direction of stream flow is other than normal
to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects
of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
3.18 .1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier
Where a significant atnount of drift lodged against a
pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift buildup shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the
bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
buildup shall reflect the selected pier locations, site con-
ditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is an-
ticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked
by drift buildup, increases in high water elevations,
stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential
increases tn scour depths shall be investigated.
3.18 .2 Force of Ice on Piers
3.18 .2.1 General
Ice forces on piers shall be selected, having regard
to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be cx-
pected. Consideration shall be given to the following
modes:
(a) Dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice-sheets
and ice-floes carried by streamfiow, wind, or currents.
(b) Static ice pressure due to thermal movements of
3.18.2.1 DIV ISIONIDESIGN
29
continuous stationary ice-sheets on large bodies of
water.
(c) Static pressure resulting from ice-jams.
(d) Static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adher-
ing ice in waters of fluctuating level.
3.18 .2.2 Dynamic Ice Force
3.18.2.2.1 Horizontal forces resulting from the pres-
sure of moving ice shall be calculated by the formula:
F = C,p t w
where,
initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or where
large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers.
(d) In the order of 400 psi where breakup or major ice
movement may occur with ice temperatures signifi-
cantly below the melting point.
3.18.2.2.4 The preceding values for effective ice
strength are intended for use withpiers of substantial mass
and dimensions. The values shall be modified as neces-
sary for variations in pier width or pile diameter, and de-
sign ice thickness by multiplying by the appropriate coef-
(35) ficient obtained from the following table:
b/t Coefficient
F = horizontal ice force on pier in pounds;
C. =coefficient for nose inclination from table;
p =effective ice strength in pounds per square inch;
= thickness of ice in contact with pier in inches;
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at
the level of ice action in inches.
Inclination of Nose to vertical
00 to 150
150 to 300
300 to 450
C
0
1.00
0.75
0.50
3.18.2.2.2 The effective ice strength p shall normally
be taken inthe range of 100 to400 pounds per square inch
on the assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice
takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall
be basedon an assessment of the probable condition of the
ice at time of movement, on previous local experience,
and on assessment of existing structure performance. Rel-
evant ice conditions include the expected temperature of
the ice at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and
floes, and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall
be given to the probability of extreme rather than average
conditions at the site in questton.
3./8.2.2.3 The following values of effective ice
strength appropriate to various situations may be used as
a guide.
(a) In the order of 100 psi where breakup occurs
at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small cakes and is substantially disintegrated in its
structure.
(b) In the order of 200 psi where breakup occurs at
melting temperatures, but the ice moves inlarge pieces
and is internally sound.
(c) In the order of 300 psi where at breakup there ts an
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0 or greater
1.8
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
where,
b = width of pier or diameter of pile;
t = design ice thickness.
3.18.2.2.5 Piers should be placed with their longitu-
dinal axis parallel to the principal direction of ice action.
The force calculated by the formula shall then be taken to
act along the direction of the longitudinal axis. A force
transverse to the longitudinal axis and amounting to not
less than 15 percent of the longitudinal force shall be con-
sidered to act simultaneously.
3.18.2.2.6 Where the longitudinal axis of a pier can-
not be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice ac-
tion, or where the direction of ice action may shift, the
total force on the pier shall be computed by the formula
and resolved into vector components. In such conditions,
forces transverse to the longitudinal axis shall in no case
be taken as less than 20 percent of the total force.
3.18.2.2.7 In the case of slender and flexible piers,
consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of
dynamic ice forces and to the possibility of high momen-
tary pressures and structural resonance.
3.18 .2.3 Static Ice Pressure
Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large
bodies of water shall receive special consideration where
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 3.22.lA Table of Coefficients -y and 3
C
CoI.No. 1 2 3 3A 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
~ FA C T O R S
GR O U P y D (L4i).~ L+I )~lC F T W Wi T i ~ j~ i~i
F i~ T 1 0 T ~~T T W~T 0
I A 1.0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I I 1.0 1 0 1 1 1
3E 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
111.0 1 000 1 1110000 0
~ 1 1 01 1 1 ~31100 0
~ I V 1.0 1 1 0 1 ~E 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
V 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 110010 0
~ V I 1.011 0 1 ~E 1 1 0.311 10 0
~V I 1 1.0 1000 1 1 1 000 0 1 0
V I I I 1.0 1 1 01 1 1 1 0 0 000 1
i.o 1 0 00 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
X 1.0 1 1 0 0 ~3E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F iT ~T ~ ~ 0
~ 0 0 0
~ lB 1.3~0110I 3E 1 1000 0 00

~ ll1.3~ 0 0 0 PE 1 1100 0 0 0
~ I I I 1.3 ~D 10 1 PE 1 1 0.311 0 0 0
~-iw
o 1.3 7I ~T 10 1 ~E 1 10 0 0 1 00
~ V 1.2 5~ 0 0 0 ~E 11100 1 00
.~ V I 1.2 5~10 1 0~ 1 1 0.311 1 0 0

~ ~ oW~ ~
~ V I I I 1.3 ~D 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
j I X 1.2 0 PD O O 0 ~E 1 11 0 0 0 0 1
X1.30 11.670 0 13E 00000 0 0 0
~
100
150
CC
125
1 2 5
125
140
1 4 0
1 3 3
1 4 0
1 5 0
1 00
0
0
0
0
(L + I),, - Live load plus impact for AASHTO Highway H or [IS loading
(L + I)~ - Live load plus impact consistent with the overload criteria of the operation
agency.
* 1.25 may be used for design of outside roadway beam when com-
bination of sidewalk live load as well as traffic live load plus impact
governs the design, but the capacity of the section should not be less
than required for highway traffic live load only using a beta factor of
1.67. 1.00 may be used for design of deck slab with combination of
loads as described in Article 3.24.2.2.
** Percentage Maximum Unit Stress (Operating Rating) ~ 100
Allowable Basic Unit Stress
For Service Load Design
% (Column 14) Percentage of Basic Unit Stress
No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members
or connections carrying wind loads only.
For culvert loading specifications, see Article 6.2.
PE 1.0 and 0.5 for lateral loads on rigid frames (check both load-
ings to see which one governs). See Article 3.20.
For Load Factor Design
= 1.3 for lateral earth pressure for retaining walls and rigid
frames excluding rigid culverts. For lateral at-rest earth
pressures, ~E 1 . 1 5
= 0.5 for lateral earth pressure when checking positive
moments in rigid frames. This complies with Article 3.20.
l3E 1 .0 for vertical earth pressure
P D = 0.75 when checking member for minimum axial load and
maximum moment or maximum eccentricity For
3 1 ) = 1.0 when checking member for maximum axial Column
load and minimum moment Design
3 0 = 1.0 for flexural and tension members
l3~ = 1.0 for Rigid Culverts
I3E = 1.5 for Flexible Culverts
For Group Xloading (culverts) the l3E factor shall be applied to verti-
cal and horizontal loads.
30
3.18.2.3
Culvert
Culvert
PE = 1.00 for vertical and lateral loads on all other structures.
3.18.2.3
DIV ISION IDESIGN
31
there is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to
significant thermal movements relative to the piers.
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.l9 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the de-
sign of either substructure, including piling, or the super-
structure.
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE
3.20.1 Structures which retain tills shall be proportioned
to withstandpressure as given by Rankines formula or by
other expressions given in Section 5, Retaining Walls;
provided, however, that no structure shall be designed for
less than an equivalent fluid weight (mass) of 30 pounds
per cubic foot.
3.20.2 For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the
moment caused by earth pressure (lateral) may be used to
reduce the positive moment in the beams, in the top slab,
or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be.
3.20.3 When highway traffic can come within a hori-
zontal distance from the top of the structure equal to one-
half its height, the pressure shall have added to it a live
load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of
earth.
3.20.4 Where an adequately designed reinforced con-
crete approach slab supported at one end by the bridge is
provided, no live load surcharge need be considered.
3.20.5 All designs shall provide for the thorough
drainage of the back-filling material by means of weep
holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or gravel drains, or by
perforated drains.
3.21 EARTHQUAKES
In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated,
structures shall be designed to resist earthquake motions
by consideringthe relationship of the site to active faults,
the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dy
1
namic response characteristics of the total structure in ac-
cordance with Division I-ASeismic Design.
3.22.1 The following Groups represent various combi-
nations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foun-
dation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to with-
stand safely all group combinations of these forces that
are applicable to the particular site or type. Group loading
combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor
Design are given by:
Group (N) =y[
13rv D + 13t (L I) + 13cCF 13EE
~ 13tsB ~ 13sSF + I3~W +13wt WL
+13t.LF+~R(R+SI-T)
+ r3FQEQ + I3c~lCE]
where,
N = group number;
y = load factor, see Table 3.22.1 A;
13 =coefficient, see Table 3.22.1 A;
D =dead load;
L =live load;
I =live load impact;
E =earth pressure;
B =buoyancy;
W =wind load on structure;
WL = wind load on live loadl00 pounds per linear
foot;
LF =longitudinal force from live load;
CF =centrifugal force;
R = rib shortening;
S =shrinkage;
T =temperature;
EQ =earthquake;
SF = stream flow pressure;
ICE = ice pressure.
3.22.2 For service load design, the percentage of the
basic unit stress for the various groups is given in Table
3.22. IA.
The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as ap-
propriate from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum section
required shall be used.
3.22.3 For load factor design, the gamma and beta fac-
tors given in Table 3.22.IA shall be used for designing
structural members and foundations by the load factor
concept.
(3-10)
Part B
C OM BIN ATION S OF LOADS
32
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.22.3
Bridge Designed
Bridge Designed f or f or Two or more
Kind of Floor One Traffic Lane Traf f ic Lanes
Ti m b er : ~
Plank
5
Na i l l a m i n a t ed
4 thick or multiple
layer floors over 5
thick
Nail laminated
6 or more thick
Glued laminated
Panels on glued
laminated stringers
4 thick
6 or more thick
On steel stringers
4 thick
6 or more thick
Concrete:
On steel I-Beam
s t r i n ger s 5 a n d
prestressed
c o n c r et e gi r d er s
On concrete
T-Beams
On timber
s t r i n ger s
Co n c r et e b o x
gi r d er s 5
On steel box girders
On prestressed eon-
c r et e s p r ea d b o x
Beams
S t eel gr i d :
(Less than 4 thick)
(4 o r m o r e)
S t eel b r i d ee
Corrugated plank
1 2 m m . d ep t h)
S/4.0
S/4.5
S/3.75
S /4 . 0
S /5 . 0
If S exceeds 5
use footnote f.
S/4.5
S/6.(Il
If S ex c eed s 6
u s e f o o t n o t e f .
S/4.5
5/5.25
If S ex c eed s 5 . 5
S/7.0
IfS exceeds 10
use footnote f.
S/6.5
If S exceeds 6
S /6 . 0
If S exceeds 6
use footnote f.
S /8 . 0
If S ex c eed s 1 2
use footnote f.
S ee Ar t i c l e 1 0. 3 9 . 2 .
S/4.25
If S ex c eed s 6.5
S/4.0
S /5 . 0
If S exceeds 7.5
use footnote f.
5/4.0
S/4.5
If S exceeds 7
S/5.5
IfS exceeds 14
S /6 . 0
IfS exceeds 10
use footnote f.
S /5 . 0
IfS exceeds 1 0
S /7 . 0
IfS exceeds 16
use footnote f.
S ee Ar t i c l e 3 . 2 8 .
S/4.5
S /6 . 0
If S ex c eed s 6
use footnote f.
S/5.5
5 /4 ( 1
S /5 . 0
IfS exceeds 10.5
S/4.5
S =average stringcr spacing in feet.
~Timber dimensions shown src br nominal thickness.
Plank floors consist ol ptcccs of lumber laid edge to edge with the
wide faces bearing on thy supports (see Article 20.17 Division II).
Nail laminated floors consist of pieces of lumber laid face to face
with the narrow edges bc irtng on the supports, each piece being nailed
to the preceding piect (sec Article ~0.l8 Division II).
Multiple layer floors consist 01 two or more layers of planks. each
layer beistg laid at an anglc to thc other ISee Article 20.1 7Division 11).
Glued laminated pancl floors consist of vertically glued laminated
m em b er s wi t h t he n a r r o w ed ges o f t he l a m i n a t i o n s b ea r i n g o n t he s u p -
p o r t s ( s ee Ar t i c l e 2 0. 1 . 1 Di v i s i o n II) .
9 n t hi s c a s e t he l o a d o n ea c h s t r i n ger s ha l l b e t he r ea et i o n o f t he
wheel l o a d s , a s s u m i n g t he f l o o r i n g b et ween t he s t r i n ger s t o a c t a s a s i m -
pIe beam.
e Des i gn o f 1 -B ea m B r i d ges b y N. M. Newm a r kPr o c eed i n gs ,
ASCE, March 1948.
5 The s i d ewa l k l i v e l o a d ( s ee Ar t i c l e 3 . 1 5 ) s ha l l b e o m i t t ed f o r i n t e-
nor and exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel load
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t ed her ei n .
Distribution factors for Steel Bridge Corrugated Plank set forth
above are based substantially on the following reference:
Journal of Washington Acade,nv of Sciences, V o l . 6 7 , No . 2 . 1 9 7 7
wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge Plank. by Conrad P. Hems.
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland.
These distribution factors were developed based on studies using
6 X 2 s t eel c o r r u ga t ed plank. The faetors should yield safe results for
o t her c o r r u ga t ed configurations provided primary bending stiffness is
the same as or greater than the 6 X 2 corrugated plank used in the stud-
ies.
3.22.4 Whenlong span structures are being designedby
load factor design, the gamma and beta factors specified
for Load Factor Design represent general conditions and
should be increased if, in the Engineers judgment,
expected loads, service conditions, or materials of
construction are different from those anticipated by the
specifications.
3.22.5 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that
ts selected by the operating agency. Size and configuration
of the overload, loading combinations, and load distribu-
tion will be consistent with procedures defined in permit
policy of that agency. The load shall be applied in Group
lB as defined in Table 3.22.lA. For all loadings less than
H 20, Group IA loading combination shall be used (see
Article 3.5).
Part C
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO
STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS,
AND FLOOR BEAMS*
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear
3.23.1.1 In calculating end shears and end reactions
in transverse floor beams and longitudinal beams and
stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel load
shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the
transverse floor beam or the end of the longitudinal beam
or stringer at which the stress is being determined.
3.23.1.2 Lateral distribution of the wheel loads at
ends of the beams or stringers shall be that produced by
TABLE 3 . 2 3 . 1 Dist ribu t ion of Wheel Loads in
Longit u dinal Beams
5Provisions in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck bridges.
3.23. 1.2
DIVISION IDESIGN 33
assuming the flooring to act as a simple span between
stringers or beams. For wheels or axles in other positions
on the span, the distribution for shear shall be determined
by the method prescribed for moment, except that the cal-
culations of horizontal shear in rectangular timber beams
shall be in accordance with Article 13.3.
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and
Longitudinal Beams**
3.23.2.3.1.4 In no case shall an exterior stringer have
less carrying capacity than an interior stringer.
3.23.2.3.1.5 In the case of a span with concrete floor
supported by 4 or more steel stringers, the fraction of the
wheel load shall not be less than:
S
5.5
3.23.2.1 General
In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams
or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution shall be
determined as follows.
where, S =6 feet or less and is the distance in feet be-
tween outside and adjacent interior stringers, and
S
4.0 +0.25S
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior
stringer shall be determinedby applying to the stringer the
fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined
in Table 3.23.1.
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Bea,ns
3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by the outside
roadway stringer or beam shall be that portion of the floor
slab carried by the stringer or beam. Curbs, railings, and
wearing surface, if placed after the slab has cured, may be
distributed equally to all roadway stringers or beams.
3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending moment for out-
side roadway stringers or beams shall be determined by
applying to the stringer or beam the reaction of the wheel
load obtained by assuming the flooring to act as a simple
span between stringers or beams.
3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway beam or
stringer supports the sidewalk live load as well as traffic
live load and impact and the structure is tobe designed by
the service load method, the allowable stress in the beam
or stringer may be increased by 25 percent for the combi-
nation of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic live load,
and impact, providing the beam is of no less carrying ca-
pacity than would be required if there were no sidewalks.
When the combination of sidewalk live load and traffic
live load plus impact governs the design and the structure
ts to be designed by the load factor method, 1.25 may be
used as the beta factor in place of 1.67.
~ In viewof the complexity ofthe theoretical analysis involved in the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wheel l o a d s t o s t r i n ger s , t he em p i r i c a l m et ho d her ei n d e-
s c r i b ed i s a u t ho r i z ed f o r t he design ofnormal highway bridges.
where, S is more than 6 feet and less than 14 feet. When
S is 14 feet or more, use footnote f, Table 3.23.1.
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete BOX Girders
3.23.2.3.2.1 The dead load supported by the exterior
girder shall be determined inthe same manner as for steel,
timber, or concrete T-beams, as given in Article
3.23.2.3.1.
3.23.2.3.2.2 The factor for the wheel load distribu-
tion to the exterior girder shall be Wj7, where W~ is the
width of exterior girder which shall be taken as the top
slab width, measured from the midpoint between girders
to the outside edge of the slab. The cantilever dimension
of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder shall
preferably not exceed half the girder spacing.
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers andBeams
The combined design load capacity of all the beams
and stringers in a span shall not be less than required to
support the total live and dead load in the span.
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams
(Transverse)
3 . 2 3 . 3 . 1 In calculating bending moments in floor
beams, no transverse distribution of the wheel loads shall
be assumed.
3.23.3.2 If longitudinal stringers are omitted and the
floor is supported directly on floor beams, the beams shall
be designed for loads determined in accordance with
Table 3 . 2 3 . 3 . 1 .
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads
in Transverse Beams
Kind of Floor
Fract ion of
Wheel Load t o
Each Floor
Beam
Planka. b s
Nail laminatedc or glued laminatede,
4 inches in thickness, or multiple layer
floors more than 5 inches thick
4
4.5
Nail laminated~ or glued laminatede,
6 inches or more in thickness
Sr
5
Concrete
Steel grid (less than 4 inches thick) 4
4.5
Steel grid (4 inches or more)
Steel bridge corrugated plank (2 inches
minimum depth)
5
5.5
Note:
S = spacing of floor beams in feet.
a~eFor footnotes a throughe, see Table 3.23.1.
f
1 f S exceeds denominator, the load on the beam shall be the
reaction ofthe wheels loads assuming the flooring between beams to
act as a simple beam.
3.23.4.3 The live load bending moment for each sec-
tion shall be determined by applying to the beam the frac-
tion of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined by
the following equation:
S
Load Fraction =
D
(3-Il)
where,
S =width of precast member;
D =(5.75 O.SNL) +O.
7NL(l 0.2C)2
when C =5
D =(5.75 O.SNL) when C >S
NL =number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
C =K(W/L)
(3-12 )
(3-13)
(3-14)
where,
W =overall width of bridge measured perpendicular
to the longitudinal girders in feet;
L =span length measured parallel to longitudinal
girders in feet; for girders withcast-in-place end
diaphragms, use the length between end dia-
phragms;
K = ((1 +
1.t)IIJ}
2
If the value of I/I exceeds 5.0, the live load distrib-
ution should be determined usinga more precise method,
such as the Articulated Plate Theory or Grillage Analysis.
where,
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used
in Multi-Beam Decks
3.23.4.1 A multi-beam bridge is constructed with
precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are
placed side by side on the supports. The interaction be-
tween the beams is developed by continuous longitudinal
shear keys used in combination with transverse tie as-
semblies which may, or may not, be prestressed, such as
bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, or other mechanical
means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to en-
sure proper load distribution for channel, single- and
multi-stemmed tee beams.
3.23.4.2 In calculating bending moments in multi-
beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or pre-
stressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall
be assumed.
I =moment of inertia;
J =Saint-V enant torsion constant;
p =Poissons ratio for girders.
In lieu of more exact methods, 1, may be estimated using
the following equations:
For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee
Beams:
J =~{(l/3)bt3(l 0. 6 3 0t 1 b ) }
where,
b =the length of each rectangular component within
the section,
=the thickness of each rectangular component
within the section.
34
3.23.3.2
DIVISION IDESIGN
The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are
considered as separate rectangular components whose
values are summed togetherto calculate J. Note that for
Rectangular Beams withCircular V oids the value of J,
can usually be approximated by using the equation above
for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.
For Box-Section Beams:
2 2
2 2
bt+dtft tf
where
b = the overall width of the box,
d = the overall depth of the box,
=the thickness of either web,
=the thickness of either flange.
The formula assumes that both flanges are the same thick-
ness and uses the thickness of only one flange. The same
is true of the webs.
For preliminary design, the following values of K may
be used:
Bridge l~~pe Beam I~tpe K
Multi-beam Non-voided rectangular beams 0.7
Rectangular beams with circular voids 0.8
Box section beams 1.0
Channel, single- and multi-stemmed tee beams 2.2
3 . 2 4 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AN D DESIGN
OF CONCRETE SLABS*
3.24.1.2 The following effective span lengths shall
be used in calculating the distribution of loads and bend-
ing moments for slabs continuous over more than two
supports:
(a) Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs monolithic
with walls without haunches and rigid top flange pre-
stressed beams with top flange width to minimum
thickness ratio less than 4.0. 5 shall be the clear span.
(b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs sup-
ported on thin top flange prestressed beams with top
flange width to minimum thickness ratio equal to or
greater than 4.0. 5 shall be the distance between
edges of top flange plus one-half of stringer top flange
width.
(c) Slabs supported on timber stringers. S shall be the
clear span plus one-half thickness of stringer.
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads
3.24.2.1 In designing slabs, the center line of the
wheel load shall be 1 foot from the face of the curb. If
curbs or sidewalks are not used, the wheel load shall be I
foot from the face of the rail.
3.24.2.2 In designing sidewalks, slabs and support-
ing members, a wheel load located on the sidewalk shall
be 1 foot from the face of the rail. In service load design,
the combined dead, live, and impact stresses for this load-
ing shall be not greater than 150 percent of the allowable
stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta
factor in place of 1.67 for the design of deck slabs. Wheel
loads shall not be applied on sidewalks protected by a
traffic barrier.
3.24.1 Span Lengths (See Article 8 .8 )
3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the
distance center to center of supports but need not exceed
clear span plus thickness of slab.
~ slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially on the
Westergaard theory. The following references are furnished coneem-
ing the subject of slab design.
Public Roads, March 1930. Computation of Stresses in Bridge Stabs
Du e t o Wheel L o a d s . b y H. M. Wes t er ga a r d .
University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 303, Solutions for Certain Rec-
tangular Slabs Continuous over Flexible Supports. by V emon P. Jensen:
Bulletin 304. A Distribution Procedure for the Analysis of Slabs Con-
tinuous over Flexible Beams. by Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315,
Moments in Simple Span Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges. by V er-
non P. Jensen; and Bulletin 346, Highway Slab Bridges with Curbs;
Laboratory Tests and Proposed Design Method.
The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be
calculated according to methods given under Cases A and
B, unless more exact methods are used considering tire
contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact meth-
ods is given in Article 3.30.
In Cases A and B:
S =effective span length, in feet, as defined under
Span Lengths Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8;
E =width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is
distributed;
P =load on one rear wheel of truck (P
15 or P2);
= 12,000 pounds for H 15 loading;
P2 0 = 16,000 pounds for H 20 loading.
3.23.4.3
35
36
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.24.3.1
3.24.3.1 Case AMain Reinforcement
Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24
Feet Inclu sive)
The live load moment for simple spans shall be deter-
mined by the following formulas (impact not included):
[IS 20 Loading:
(S+2 ~ p
20 =Moment in foot pounds (3- 15)
~ per footwidth of slab
[IS 15 L o a d i n g:
(5+2 N~~15 =Moment in footpounds (3-16)
per foot width of slab
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a conti-
nuity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas
for both positive and negative moment.
3.24.3.2 C ase BMain Reinforcement Parallel
to Traffic
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, shall be
(4 + 0.06S) but shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loads are
distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinally reinforced
slabs shall be designed for the appropriate [IS loading.
For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per
foot width of slab, without impact, is closely approxi-
mated by the following formulas:
HS 20 Loading:
Spans up to and including 50 feet: LLM =900S
foot-pounds
Spans 50 feet to 100 feet: LLM = 1,000
(l.30S-20.0)
foot-pounds
HS 15 Loading:
Use 3/4 of the values obtained from the formulas for
HS 20 loading
Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by
suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane
loading.
3 . 2 4 . 4 Shear and Bond
Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance
with Article 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in
bond and shear.
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads
on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the load
independently of the effects of any edge support along the
end of the cantilever. The distribution given includes the
effect of wheels on parallel elements.
3.24.5.1.1 Case AReinforcement
Perpendicularto Traffic
Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic
shall be distributed over a width according to the follow-
ing formula:
E =0.8 X + 3.75
(3-17)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
pounds, in which X is the distance in feet from load to
point of support.
3.24.5.1.2 Case BReinforcement
Parallel to Traffic
The distribution width for each wheel load on the ele-
ment parallel to traffic shall be as follows:
E =0.35X +3.2, but shall not exceed 7.0 feet (3-18)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
pounds.
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads
Railing loads shall be applied inaccordance with Arti-
cle 2.7. The effective length of slab resisting post loadings
shall be equal to E =0.8 X +3.75 feet where no parapet
is used and equal to E =0.8 X +5.0 feet where a parapet
ts used, where X is the distance in feet from the center of
the post to the point under investigation. Railing and
wheel loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
3.24.6.1 For slabs supported along four edges and re-
inforced in both directions, the proportion of the load car-
riedby the short span of the slab shall be given by the fol-
lowing equations:
For uniformly distributed load, p = ~ ~ (3- 19)
For conncentrated load at center, p = ~ (3 - 20)
3.24.6.1
DIVISION IDESIGN
37
where,
p =proportion of load carried by short span;
a = length of short span of slab;
b =length of long span of slab.
3.24.6.2 Where the length of the slab exceeds 1/2
times its width, the entire load shall be carried by the
transverse reinforcement.
3.24.6.3 The distribution width, E, for the load taken
by either span shall be determined as provided for other
slabs. The moments obtained shall be used in designing
the center halfof the short and long slabs. The reinforce-
ment steel in the outer quarters of both short and long
spans may be reduced by 50 percent. In the design of the
supporting beams, consideration shall be given tothe fact
that the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not
uniformly distributed along the beams.
Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so
placed as toproduce maximum stresses. Combined dead,
live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150 per-
cent of the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be
designed without overstress.
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams
3.24.8.1 Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs
having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam
may consist of a slab section additionally reinforced, a
beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral
reinforced section of slab and curb.
3.24.8.2 The edge beam of a simple span shall be de-
signed to resist a live load moment of 0.10 PS, where,
P =wheel load in pounds P
15 or P2~~;
S = span length in feet.
3.24.8.3 For continuous spans, the moment may be
reduced by 20 percent unless a greater reduction results
from a more exact analysis.
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges
The design assutnptions of this article do not provide
for the effect of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore,
at the ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where
the continuity of the slab is broken, the edges shall be sup-
ported by diaphragms or other suitable means. The di-
aphragms shall be designed to resist the full moment and
shear produced by the wheel loads which can come on
them.
3 . 2 4 . 1 0 Dist ribu t ion Reinf orcement
3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the
concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be placed
transverse to the main steel reinforcement in the bottoms
of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where the depth
of fill over the slab exceeds 2 feet.
3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel
required for positive moment as given by the following
f o r m u l a s :
100
Percentage = Maximum 50%
S
(3-21)
For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,
220
Percentage = Maximum 67%
S
(3-22)
where, S =the effective span length in feet.
3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular to
traffic, the specified amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be used in the middle half of the slab span, and not
less than 50 percent of the specified amount shall be used
in the outer quarters of the slab span.
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON
TIMBER FLOORING
For the calculation of bending moments in timber
flooring each wheel load shall be distributed as follows.
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring
3.25.1.1 In the direction of flooring span, the wheel
load shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in
Article 3.30.
Normal to the direction of flooring span. the wheel load
shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor: the width of plank.
3.24.7 Median Slabs
For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
38
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.25.1.1
Non~interconnected* nail laminated panel floor: 15
inches, but not to exceed panel width.
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor: 15
inches plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and interconnected
nail laminated panel floor, with adequate shear transfer
between panels**: 15 inches plus thickness of floor, but
not to exceed panel width.
Interconnected* glued laminated panel floor, with ad-
equate shear transfer between panels**, not less than 6
inches thick: 15 inches plus twice thickness of floor, but
not to exceed panel width.
3.25.1.2 For transverse flooring the span shall be
taken as the clear distance between stringers plus one-half
the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the clear
span plus the floor thickness.
x =denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal
stringers;
P =design wheel load in pounds;
s = effective deck span in inches;
=deck thickness, in inches, based on moment or
shear, whichever controls;
K =design constant depending on design load as
follows:
HlS K=0.47
H20 K=0.5l
F
5 =allowable bending stress, in pounds per square
inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations(see Tables 1 3.2.2A and B);
F5 =allowable shear stress., inpounds per square inch,
basedon load applied parallel to the wide face of
the laminations (see Tables I 3.2.2A and B).
3.25.1.3 One design method for interconnected
glued laminated panel floors is as follows: For glued lam-
inated panel decks using vertically laminated lumber with
the panel placed in a transverse direction to the stringers
and withpanels interconnected using steel dowels, the de-
termination of the deck thickness shall be basedon the fol-
lowing equations for maximumunit primary moment and
shear.t The maximum shear is for a wheel position as-
sumed to be 15 inches or less from the center line of the
support. The maximummoment is for a wheel position as-
sumed to be centered between the supports.
=P(.51 log11~ s K)
=. 034P
6M
Fb
Thus,
or,
3RX whichever is greater
t =
2F5
(3- 23)
(3-24)
(3-25)
(3- 26)
3.25.1.4 The determination of the mtntmum stze and
spacing required of the steel dowels required to transfer
the load between panels shall be based on the following
equation:
1,000 k Ki~
]
XI ~+
Gp [ L RD MDJ
(3-27)
where,
n =number of steel dowels required for the given
spans;
0PL =proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain
(for Douglas Fir or Southern pine, use 1,000 psi);
=total secondary shear transferred, in pounds, de-
termined by the relationship:
R~ =6Ps/l,O00fors=S0inches (3-28)
or,
P
R~ =y (s20)fors>50 inches (3- 29)
where,
=primary bending moment in inch-pounds per
inch;
K =primary shear in pounds per inch;
*The t er m s i n t er c o n n ec t ed a n d n o n -i n t er c o n n ec t ed r ef er t o t he j o i n t s
between the individual nail laminated or glued laminated panels.
~*~~j
5 shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasten-
cr5. splines. or dowels along the panel joint or other suitable means.
tThe equations are developed for deck panel spans equal to or greater
than the width of the tire (as specified in Article 3.3t)). but not greater
than 20(1 inches.
= total secondary moment transferred, in inch-
pound, determined by the relationship,
= ~(sl0) fors=50inches
1,600
Ps(s30)
for s>50 inches
20(sl0)
(3-30)
(3 - 3 1)
R0 and M0 =shear and moment capacities, respec-
tively, as given in the following table:
DIV ISION IDESIGN
Total
Shear Moment Steel Stress Dowel
Diameter Capacity Capacity Coefficients Length
of Dowel RD MD CR CM Required
in. lb. in-lb. I/in.
2 I/in.3 in.
0.5 600 850 36.9 81.5 8.50
.625 800 1,340 22.3 41.7 10.00
.75 1,020 1,960 14.8 24.1 11.50
.875 1,260 2,720 10.5 15.2 13.00
1.0 1,520 3,630 7.75 10.2 14.50
1.125 1,790 4,680 5.94 7.15 15.50
1.25 2,100 5,950 4.69 5.22 1 7 . 00
1.375 2 , 4 2 0 7 , 3 6 0 3 . 7 8 3 . 9 2 1 8 . 00
1.5 2,770 8,990 3.11 3.02 19.50
3.25.1.5 In addition, the dowels shall be checked to
ensure that the allowable stress of the steel is not exceeded
using the following equation:
1 _______
= (CRR~ + CM M~)
n
( 1 =mtnttnum yield point of steel pins in
pounds per square inch (see Table
10.32. IA);
n,R
5, M~ =as previously delined;
C5, C51 = steel stress coefficients as given in pre-
ceding table.
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal
Flooring
3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load
shall be considered a point loading.
3.25.2.2 Normal to the direction of the span the
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor: width of plank;
Non-interconnected nail laminated floor: width of tire
plus thicktiess of floor, but not to exceed panel
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and inter-
connected nail laminated floor, with adequate shear
transfer between panels*, not less than 6 inches
thick: width of tire plus twice thickness of floor.
3.25.2.3 For longitudinal flooring the span shall be
taken as the clear distance between floor beams plus one-
half the width of one beam but shall not exceed the clear
span plus the floor thickness.
~Tltis shear transfer may be accomplished usiitg mechanical fasteners.
splines. or dowels along the panel joint or spreader beams located at in-
t er v a l s a l o n g t he p a n el s o r o t her s u i t a b l e m ea n s .
where,
(3-32)
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber
Decks
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment
In calculating bending moments in glued laminated
timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of
wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined as follows.
The live load bending moment for each panel shall be
determined by applying to the panel the fraction of a
wheel load determined frotn the following equations:
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES
Load Fraction = W~ or W~ , whichever is
L 5.00
3.75 1~
28
greater.
ONE TRAFFIC LANE
Load Fraction = W~ W~ whichever is
L s~o
4.25 +
28
iYreater
where, W~ =Width of Panel; in feet (3 5 ~ W~, =4.5)
L =Length of span for simple span bridges and the
length of the shortest span for continuous bridges in
feet.
3.25.3.2 Shear
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for
each panel, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution of the
wheel load at the supports shall be that determined by the
equation:
Wheel Load Fraction per Panel
but not less than I.
For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
prescribed for moment.
3.25.1.4 39
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.25.3.3 Deflections
The maximum deflection may be calculatedby apply-
ing tothe panel the wheel load fraction determined by the
method prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached
to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either
steel plates, thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminumbrackets. The
stiffener spacing required will depend upon the spacing
needed in order to prevent differential panel movement;
however, a stiffener shall be placed at mid-span with ad-
ditional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 10 feet.
The stiffness factor El of the stiffener shall not be less than
80,000 kip-in
2.
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring
If the flooring is continuous over more than two spans,
the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being
80 percent of that obtained for a simple span.
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND
DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WOOD-
CONCRETE MEMBERS
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for
Bending Moment and Shear
3 . 2 6 . 1 . 1 For freely supported or continuous slab
spans of composite wood-concrete construction, as de-
scribed in Article 20.19.1 Division II, the wheel loads
shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for
bending moment and a width of 4 feet for shear.
3.26.1.2 For composite T-beams of wood and con-
crete, as described in Article 20.19.2Division II, the ef-
fective flange width shall not exceed that given in Article
10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting
both vertical and horizontal movement.
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in
Continuous Spans
3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall
be distributed in accordance with the following table:
Maximum Bending MomentsPercent of Simple
Span Moment
Maximum Uniform Maximum Live
Dead Load Moments Load Moments
Wood C omposire C oncent rat ed Unif orm
Subdeek Slab Load Load
Span Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg. Pos. Neg.
75 55
85 65
8 0 7 5
Interior 50 50 55 45 75 25
End 70 60 70 60 85 30
2-Span 65 70 60 75 85 30
~Continuousbeam of2 equal spans.
3.26.2.2 Impact should be considered in computing
stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for wood.
3.26.3 Design
The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete
members shall be based on assumptions that account for
the different mechanical properties of the components. A
suitable procedure may be based on the elastic properties
of the materials as follows:
= I for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
less than half the overall depth of the compos-
ite section
Ec =2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness ts
at least half the overall depth of the composite
section
= 18.75 (for Douglas fir and Southern pine)
in which,
=modulus of elasticity of concrete;
=modulus of elasticity of wood;
= modulus of elasticity of steel.
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON
STEEL GRID FLOORS*
3.27.1 General
3.27.1.1 The grid floor shall be designed as continu-
ous, but simple span moments may be used and reduced
as provided inArticle 3.24.
*ProvisiOns in this article shall not apply to orthotropic bridge super-
structures.
40
3.25.3.3
3.27.1.2 DIV ISION IDESIGN 41
3.27.1.2 The following rules for distribution of loads
assume that the grid floor is composed of main elements
that span between girders, stringers, or cross beams, and
secondary elements that are capable of transferring load
between the main elements.
3.2 7.1.3 Reinforcement for secondaryelements shall
consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel.
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete
3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall
be as specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The fol-
lowing items specified in that article shall also apply to
concrete filled steel grid floors:
Longitudinal edge beams
Unsupported transverse edges
Span lengths
3.27.2.2 The strength of the composite steel and con-
crete slab shall be determined by means of the ~trans-
formed area method. The allowable stresses shall be as
set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1, and 10.32.
3.27.3 Open Floors
3.27.3.1 A wheel load shall be distributed, normal to
the main elements, over a width equal to lX~ inches per
ton of axle load plus twice the distance center to center of
main elements. The portion of the load assigned to each
m a i n el em en t s ha l l b e a p p l i ed u n i f o r m l y o v er a l en gt h
eq u a l t o t he r ea r t i r e wi d t h ( 2 0 i n c hes f o r H 2 0, 1 5 i n c hes
forH 15).
3.27.3.2 The strength of the section shall be deter-
mined by the moment of inertia method. The allowable
stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32.
3.27.3.3 Edges of open grid steel floors shall be sup-
ported by suitable means as required. These supports may
be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be required
to support all edges properly.
3.27.3.4 When investigating for fatigue, the mtnt-
m u m c yc l es o f m a x i m u m s t r es s s ha l l b e u s ed .
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING
MOMENT IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS*
3.28 .1 Interior Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior beam
in a spread box beam superstructure shall be determined
by applying to the beam the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel
load (both front and rear) determined by the following
equation:
2NL S
D.F.= +k
N~ L
(3-33)
where,
N
1 =number of design tralfic lanes (Article 3.6);
= number of beams (4=N5 =10);
S =beam spacing in feet (6.57 =S =11.00);
L =span length in feet;
k =0.07W N~ (0.10N1 0.26) 0.20N5 0.12;
(3-34)
W =numeric value of the roadway width between
curbs expressed in feet (32 =W =66).
3 . 2 8. 2 Ext erior Beams
The live load bending moment in the exterior beams
shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction
of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the flooring to
act as a stmple span (of length 5) between beatns, but shall
not be less than 2N1 IN5.
3 . 2 9 M OM EN TS, SHEARS, AN D REAC TION S
Ma x i m u m m o m en t s , s hea r s , a n d r ea c t i o n s a r e gi v en i n
tables, Appendix A, for [I 15, H 20, HS 15. and [IS 20
loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or the
lane loading applied to a single lane on freely supported
spans. It is indicated in the table whether the standard
truck or the lane loadings produces the maximum stress.
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area shall be assumed as a rectangle
with an area in square inches of 0.0 IP, and a Length in
Direction of Traffic/Width of Tire ratio of 1/2.5, in which
P = wheel load in pounds.
5The provisions ofArticle 3.12. Reduction in Load Intensity, were not
applied in the development of the provisions presented in 3.28.1 and
3.28.2.
Section 4
FOUNDATIONS
Part A
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4 . 2 . 2 . 2 Set t lement
Foundations shall be designed to support all live and
dead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in ac-
cordance withthe general principles specified in this sec-
tion. The design shall be made either with reference to ser-
vice loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERV ICE
LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load
factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH
DESIGN.
The settlement of foundations may be determined
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally accepted methodolo-
gies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters
measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ
and/or laboratory tests.
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability
4 . 2 FOUN DATION TYPE AN D C APAC ITY
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type
Selection of foundation type shall be based on an
assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading,
depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous
flooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining or
scour, swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of
construction.
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity
Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate
structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity
with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall sta-
bility of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable
level of structural deformation is controlled by the type
and span of the superstructure.
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally acceptedtheories. Such
theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured
by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity
may also be determined using load tests.
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of
foundations shall be considered as part of the design of
foundations.
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
the performance of foundations and may require special
consideration during design. To the extent possible, the
presence and influence of such conditions shall be evalu-
ated as part of the subsurface exploration program. A rep-
resentative, but not exclusive, listing of problem condi-
tions requiring special considerationis presented in Table
4.2.3A for general guidance.
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONAND
TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be the responsibility of the designer based
on the specific requirements of the project and his or her
experience with local geologic conditions.
4.3.1 General Requirements
As a m i n i m u m , the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall define the following, where applicable:
Soil strata
Depth, thickness, and variability
4.1 GENERAL
43
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration
Problem
Type Description Comments
Organic soil; highly plastic clay
Sensitive clay
Micaceous soil
Low strength and high compressibility
Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic)
Soil Expansive clay/silt; expansive slag
Liquefiable soil
Collapsible soil
Pyritic soil
Laminated rock
Expansive shale
Pyritic shale
Potentially large expansion upon wetting
Complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake
loading
Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche; Loess)
Potentially large expansion upon oxidation
Low strength when loadedparallel to bedding
Potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily upon
exposure to air/water
Expands upon exposure to air/water
Rock Soluble rock
Cretaceous shale
Weak claystone (Red Beds)
Gneissic and Schistose Rock
Subsidence
Sinkholes/solutioning
Soluble in flowing and standing water (Limestone, Limerock,
Gypsum)
Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Highly distorted with irregular weathering profiles and steep
discontinuities
Typical inareas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock
strata
Condition Negative skin friction!
expansion loading
Corrosive environments
Permafrostlfrost
Capillary water
Additional compressive/uplift load on deep foundations due to
settlementluplift of soil
Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soil/rock types
Typical in northern climates
Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss
Identification and classification
Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear
strength, compressibility, stiffness, permeability,
expansion or collapse potential, and frost suscep-
tibility)
Rock strata
Depth to rock
Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence ofjoint filling, resistance to weathering,
ifexposed, and solutioning)
Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres-
sion, point load index)
Expansion potential
Ground water elevation
Ground surface elevation
Local conditions requiring special consideration
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or
q~), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPT hammer (i.e. safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone pen-
etrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any unusual
subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, boulders
or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the
exploration logs.
4.3.2 Minimum Depth
Where substructure units will be supported on spread
footings, the minimum depth of the subsurface explo-
ration shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a
m i n i m u m o f t wo f o o t i n g wi d t hs f o r i s o l a t ed , i n d i v i d u a l
footings where L =2B, and four footing widths for foot-
ings where L>SB. For intermediate footing lengths, the
m i n i m u m d ep t h of exploration may be estimated by lin-
ear interpolation as a function of L between depths of 2B
and SB belowthe bearing level. Greater depths may be re-
quired where warranted by local conditions.
44
4.3.1
4.3.2 DIVISION IDESIGN 45
Where substructure units will be supported on deep
foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall
extenda minimumof 20 feet below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be
used, the subsurface exploration shall extend at least two
t i m es t he m a x i m u m pile group dimension below the an-
ticipated tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end
bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a mint-
mumof 10 feet of rock core shall be obtained at each ex-
ploration location to insure the exploration has not been
terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported on or ex-
tending into rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core, or a
length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft
diameter for isolated shafts or two times the maximum
shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever ts
greater, shall be obtained to insure the exploration has not
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical
characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation in-
fluence for design.
4.3.3 M inimu m C overage
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
substructure unit. (See Article 7.1.1 for definition of sub-
structure Itnit.) For substructure units over 100 feet in
wtdth, a minimum of two borings shall be required.
4 . 3 . 4 Laborat ory Test ing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to
determine engineering properties including unit weight,
shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility.
In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering proper-
ties may be estimated based on published test results or
local experience.
4.3.5 Scou r
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to
Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance
regarding hydraulic studies and design.
Part B
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.4.1 General
4.4.1.1 Applicability
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of iso-
lated footings, and to combined footings and mats (foot-
ings supporting more than one column, pier, or wall).
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular
Columns or Piers
Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-
shaped concrete columns or piers may be designed as-
suming that the columns or piers act as square members
with the same area for location of critical sections for mo-
ment, shear, and development of reinforcement.
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill
Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing
capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability con-
siderations as footings in natural soil in accordance with
Articles 4.4.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The behavior of both the
fill and underlying natural soil shall be considered.
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of
Embankments
The earth pressure against the back of footings and
columns within the sloped portion of an embankment
shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in accordance
with Article 5.5.2. The resistance due to the passive earth
pressure of the embankment in front of the footing shall
be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of
3 feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action.
and!or trench excavation in front of the footing.
whichever is greater.
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil
and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent
unequal settlement, footings shall be designed to keep the
bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For foot-
ings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacitig be-
tween piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to ensure
nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements as may be
practical.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with
properties of the foundation materials and the structure,
and with the principles of geotechnical engineering.
4 . 4 . 2 N ot at ions
The following notations shall apply for the design of
spread footings on soil and rock:
A = Contact area of footing (ft
2)
A =Effective footing area for computation of
bearing capacity of a footing subjected to
eccentric load (ft2); (See Article 4.4.7.1. 1.1)
46
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.2
b~, b~, b
5 =Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.8)
B =Width of footing (ft); (Minimum plan di-
mension of footing unless otherwise noted)
B =Effective width for load eccentric in direc-
tion of short side, L unchanged (ft)
c =Soil cohesion (ksf)
=Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf)
=R ed u c ed ef f ec t i v e s t r es s s o i l c o hes i o n f o r
punching shear (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
=Adhesion between footing and foundation
soil or rock (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
=Coefficient of consolidation (ft
2/yr); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.3)
=Shear strength of upper cohesive soil
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
=Shear strength of lower cohesive soil
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
C. =Compression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
Ccr =Recompression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C~. =Compression ratio ( d i m ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e
4.4.7.2.3)
C
0 =Uniaxial compressive strength of intact
rock (ksf)
Cr~ =Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C0. =Coefficient of secondary compression de-
fined as change in height per log cycle of
time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
D =Influence depth for water below footing
(ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
=Depth to base of footing (ft)
e =V oid ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
ef =V oid ratio at final vertical effective stress
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= V oid ratio at initial vertical effective stress
ep =V oid ratio at maximum past vertical effec-
tive stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
=Eccentricity of load in the B direction mea-
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See Ar-
tide 4.4.7.1.1.1)
et = Eccentricity of load in the L direction mea-
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
= Modulus of intact rock (ksf)
F,,, = Rock mass modulus (ksf); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2)
F , =S o i l m o d u l u s ( ks f )
F =Total force on footing subjected to an tn-
dined load (k); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
f = Unconfined compressive strength of con-
crete (kst)
FS =Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
overturning or sliding shear failure (dim)
H = Dep t h f r o m f o o t i n g b a s e t o t o p o f s ec o n d
cohesive soil layer for two-layer cohesive
soil profile below footing (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
=Height of compressible soil layer (ft)
Hcri1 =Critical thickness of the upper layer of a
two-layer system beyond which the under-
lying layer will have little effect on the bear-
ingcapacity of footings bearing inthe upper
layer (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
Hd = Height of longest drainage path in com-
pressible soil layer (ft)
H, =Height of slope (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1. 1.4)
Slope angle from horizontal of ground sur-
face below footing (deg)
~, i~, t 5 = Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1. 1.3)
=Influence coefficient to account for rigidity
and dimensions of footing (dim); (See Arti-
cle 4.4.8.2.2)
f =Center-to-center spacing between adjacent
footings (ft)
L =Length of footing (ft)
=Effective footing length for load eccentric
in direction of long side, B unchanged (ft)
=Length (or width) of footing having positive
contact pressure (compression) for footing
loaded eccentrically about one axis (ft)
n Exponential factor relating B/L or L/B ra-
tios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
N =Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
N1 =Standard penetration resistance corrected
for effects of overburden pressure (blows/
ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
N~,N~,N5=Bearing capacity factors based on the value
of internal friction of the foundation soil
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
I,, =Modified bearing capacity factor to account
for layered cohesive soils below footing
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
=Coefficient factor to estimate q0 for rock
N, =Stability number (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.4)
4.4.2 DIV ISION IDESIGN
47
N~, N.~ =Modified bearing capacity factors for ef-
fects of footing on or adjacent sloping
ground (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
P =Tangential component of force on footing
(k)
=Maximum resisting force between footing
base and foundation soil or rock for sliding
failure (k)
q =Effective overburden pressure at base of
footing (ksf)
Q = Normal component of force on footing (k)
=Allowable uniform bearing pressure or con-
tact stress (ksf)
q. = Cone penetration resistance (ksf)
=Maximum footing contact pressure (ksf)
Maximum normal component of load sup-
portedby foundation soil or rock at ultimate
bearing capacity (k)
=Minimum magnitude of footing contact
pressure (ksf)
=V ertical stress at base of loaded area (ksf);
(See Article 4.4.7.2.1)
=Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bear-
ing pressure (ksf)
=Ultimate bearing capacity of footing sup-
ported in the upper layer of a two-layer sys-
tem assuming the upper layer is infinitely
thick (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
q
2 =Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious
footing of the same size and shape as the ac-
tual footing, but supported on surface of the
second (lower) layer of a two-layer system
(ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
R =Resultant of pressure on base of footing (k)
r =Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square
footing (ft); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2)
RQD =Rock Quality Designation (dim)
=Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.2)
=Undrained shear strength of soil (ksf)
S. =Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
=Elastic or immediate settlement (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.2)
S. =Secondary settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.4)
S =Total settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2)
=Time to reach specified average degree
of consolidation (yr); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
=Arbitrary time intervals for determination
of 5, (yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
T =Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
= Depth from footing base down to the high-
est anticipated ground water level (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
a =Angle of inclination of the footing base
from the horizontal (radian)
= Reduction factor (dim); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2)
=Length to width ratio of footing (dim)
=Punching index = BL/[2(B +L)H] (dim);
(See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
=Factor to account for footing shape and
rigidity (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
y =Total unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
= Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
= Moist unit weight of soil (kcf)
= Angle of friction between footing and foun-
dation soil or rock (deg); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
= Differential settlement between adjacent
footings (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.5)
=V ertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
=V ertical strain at final vertical effective
stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
=Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
=V ertical strain at maximum past vertical
effective stress (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
0 =Angle of load eccentricity (deg)
K =Shear strength ratio (c2/c1) for two layered
cohesive soil system below footing (dim);
Pc =Reduction factor to account for three-di-
mensional effects in settlement analysis
p =Poissons ratio (dim)
=Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth
interval below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
=Initial vertical effective stress in soil at
depth interval below footing (ksf); (See Ar-
ticle 4.4.7.2.3)
=Maximum past vertical effective stress in
soil at depth interval below footing (ksf);
=Angle of internal friction (deg)
=Effective stress angle of internal friction
(deg)
* =Reduced effective stress soil friction angle
for punching shear (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1)
48
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.2
The notations for dimension units include the follow-
ing: dim =Dimensionless; deg =degree; ft =foot; k =
kip; k/ft = kip/ft; ksf =kip/ft
2; kef =kip/ft3; lb =pound;
in. = inch; and psi = pound per square inch. The dimen-
sional units provided with each notation are presented for
illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct
combination of units for the footing capacity procedures
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
4.4.3 Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 4.4.3A for terminology used in the de-
sign of spread footing foundations.
4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
required for footing design. Foundation stability and set-
tlement analyses for design shall be conducted using soil
and rock properties based on the results of field and/or
laboratory testing.
4.4.5 Depth
4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width
Footings not otherwise founded on sound, non-dc-
gradeable rock surfaces shall be embedded a sufficient
0MAX
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 3 A Design Terminology f or Spread Foot ing Fou ndat ions
4.4.5.1 DIVISION IDESIGN
49
depth to provide adequate bearing, scour and frost heave
protection, or 2 feet to the bottomof footing, whichever is
greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a minimum
horizontal distance of 4 feet, measured at the top of foot-
ing, shall be provided between the near face of the foot-
ing and the face of the finished slope.
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour countermeasure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting
steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to
embed the footing below the rock surface.
Footings on piles may be located above the lowest an-
ticipated scour level provided the piles are designed for
this condition. Assume that only one-half of the maximum
anticipated scour has occurred when designing for earth-
quake loading. Where footings on piles are subject to
damage by boulders or debris during flood scour, ade-
quate protection shall be provided. Footings shall be con-
structed so as to neither pose an obstacle to water traffic
nor be exposed to view during low flow.
vented by properly designed, graded soil filters or geotex-
tile drainage systems.
4 . 4 . 6 Anchorage
Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces
and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant
material shall be effectively anchored by means of rock
anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching or other suit-
able means. Shallow keying or benching of large footing
areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil
Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support the
design loads with adequate bearing and structural capac-
ity, and with tolerable settlements in conformance with
Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.11. In addition, the capacity of
footings subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, shall
be evaluated in conformance with Articles 4.4.7.3 and
4.4.10.
The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base
of the footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the cen-
Icr of the footing.
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations
Footing excavations belowthe ground water table, par-
ticularly in granular soils having relatively high perme-
ability, shall be made such that the hydraulic gradient in
the excavation bottom is not increasedto a magnitude that
would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften due
to the upward flow of water. Further, footing excavations
shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and material
removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seep-
age forces and gradients may be evaluated by flow net
procedures or other appropriate methods. Dewatering or
cutoff methods to control seepage shall be used where
necessary.
Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered
moisture sensitive rocks shall be protected from weather-
ing immediately after excavation with a lean mix concrete
or other approved materials.
The ultimate bearing capacity (for general shear fail-
ure) may be estimated using the followingrelationship for
continuous footings (i.e., L>SB):
=cN~ +0.5yBN~ +qNq (4.4.7.bi)
The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined
as:
=q~~/FS
(4.4.7.1-2)
Refer to Table 4.4.7. lA for values of N~, N~, and N~
If local or punching shear failure is possible, the value
of q,tt may be estimated using reduced shear strength pa-
rameters c* and ~ * in 4.4.7.1-I as follows:
=0.67c
=tan
t (O.67tan (I))
(4.4.7.1-3)
(4.4.7.1-4)
4.4.5.4 Piping
Piping failures of fine materials through rip-rap or
through drainage backfills behind abutments shall be pre-
Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear
strength parameters shall be used to determine bearing
capacity factors for drained loading conditions inall soils.
Additionally, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils shall
50
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.7.1
TABLE4.4.7.1A
BearingCapacity Factors
26 22.25
27 23.94
28 25.80
29 27.8 6
3 0 3 0. 1 4
31 32.67
32 35.49
3 3 3 8. 6 4
3 4 4 2 . 1 6
35 46.12
3 6 5 0. 5 9
37 55.63
38 6 1 . 3 5
3 9 6 7 . 87
40 75.31
41 8 3.8 6
42 93.71
4 3 1 05 . 1 1
44 118 .37
45 133.8 8
46 152.10
47 173.64
48 199.26
4 9 2 2 9. 93
50 266.8 9
be checked for undrained loading conditions using bear-
ing capacity factors based on undrained shear strength
parameters.
calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing. The re-
duced footing dimensions shall be determined as follows:
B =B
2eB
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
A modified form of the general bearing capacity equa-
tion may be used to account for the effects of footing
shape, ground surface slope, base inclination, andinclined
loading as follows:
quti =cN~s~b~i. +O.5yBN~s.~b~i~ +qNqsqbqiq
Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account
for the effects of eccentric loading.
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the foot-
ing, reduced footing dimensions (B and L) shall be used
to determine bearing capacity factors and modifiers (i.e.,
slope, footing shape, and load inclination factors), and to
L 2eL
(4.4.7.1.1.1-2)
The effective footing area shall be determined as
follows:
A =BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1 A for loading definitions and
footing dimensions.
The value of q,~obtained using the reduced footing di-
mensions represents an equivalent uniform bearing pres-
sure and not the actual contact pressure distribution be-
neath the footing. This equivalent pressure may be
multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimate
load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bear-
ing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e.,
trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a rigid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1 4
15
1 6
17
18
1 9
20
21
22
23
24
25
5 . 1 4
5.38
5.63
5.90
6 . 1 9
6 . 4 9
6 . 81
7.16
7.53
7.92
8 .35
8 .8 0
9.28
9.8 1
1 0. 3 7
1 0. 98
1 1 . 6 3
12.34
13.10
13.93
1 4 . 83
15.8 2
16.8 8
1 8. 05
19.32
20.72
Nq
1.00
1.09
1 . 2 0
1 . 3 1
1.43
1.57
1.72
1.8 8
2.06
2.25
2.47
2.71
2.97
3.26
3.59
3.94
4.34
4.77
5.26
5 . 80
6.40
7.07
7.82
8 .66
9.60
10.66
N.
1
0.00
0.07
0. 1 5
0. 2 4
0.34
0.45
0.57
0.71
0.8 6
1.03
1.22
1.44
1.69
1.97
2.29
2.65
3 . 06
3.53
4.07
4.68
5.39
6 . 2 0
7.13
8 .20
9.44
1 0. 88
Nq
1 1 . 85
13.20
14.72
16.44
18 .40
20.63
23.18
26.09
29.44
3 3 . 3 0
37.75
42.92
48 .93
5 5 . 96
6 4 . 2 0
73.90
8 5.38
99.02
115.31
134.8 8
158 .51
1 87 . 2 1
222.31
265.51
319.07
N.1
12.54
14.47
16.72
19.34
22.40
25.99
30.22
3 5 . 1 9
4 1 . 06
48 .03
56.31
66.19
78 .03
92.25
109.41
130.22
155.55
1 86 . 5 4
224.64
271.76
330.35
403.67
496.01
6 1 3 . 1 6
762.8 9
4.4.7.1. 1.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 51
footing and a positive pressure along each footing edge)
shall be used for structural design of the footing.
The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid
footing with eccentric loading about one axis is shown
in Figure 4.4.7.l.l.lB. For an eccentricity (eL) in the L
direction, the actual maximum and minimum contact
pressures may be determined as follows:
for eL < L/6:
i~, =1 (nPIBLcN~) (for 4) =0)
= [1 P/(Q +BLc cot4))P
=[1 P/(Q +BLccot4))]tn+
t)
n =[(2 +UB)/(l +UB)]cos26
+[(2 +B/L)I(l + B/L)]sin2O
(4.4.7.1.1.3-2)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-3)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-4)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-5)
qmax =Q[ l +(6eL/L)]/BL
= Q [l (6eL/L)]/BL
(4.4.7.1.1.1-4)
(4.4.7.1.1.1-5)
for L/6 < e~ < L/2:
=2Q/(3B[L/2) eL] )
(4.4.7.1.1.1-6)
Refer toFigure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and
footing dimensions. For cases inwhich the loading is ec-
centric, the terms LandB shall be replaced by L and B,
respectively, in the above equations.
Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing
the tangential component offorce on the footing (P) to the
maximum resisting force (Pmax) by the following:
(4.4.7.1.1.1-7)
P max =Qt an~ +BLCa (4.4.7.1.1.3-6)
3[(L/2) eLI (4.4.7.1.1.1-8)
FS=P /p:a.
ma, 1.5
(4.4.7.1.1.3-7)
For an eccentricity (en) in the B direction, the maxi-
mum and minimum contact pressures may be determined
usingEquations 4.4.7.1.1.1-4 through 4.4.7.1.1. 1-8 by re-
placing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled B by L.
Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccen-
tricity of loading is less than 1/6 of the footing dimension
in any direction.
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape
For footingshapes other than continuous footings (i.e.,
L < SB), the following shape factors shall be applied to
Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
Sc = 1 +(B/L) (Nq/Nc) (4.4.7.1.1.2~i)
Sq =1 +(B/L) tan 4) (4.4.7.1.1.2-2)
= 1 0.4 (B/L) (4.4.7.1.1.2-3)
For circular footings, B equals L. For cases in which
the loading is eccentric, the terms L and B shall be re-
placed by L and B, respectively, in the above equations.
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading
For inclined loads, the following inclination factors
shall be applied in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-I:
=i~ [(1 iq)/Nc tan 4)] (for 4) > 0)
In determining ~,,,a,, the effect of passive resistance
provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL
shall represent the actual footing area in compression as
shown in Figure 4.4.7.l.l.lB or Figure 4.4.7.l.l.IC.
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope
For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope
crest, quL may be determined using the following revised
version of Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
=cN~s,~bt. +05yBN.
5qSybyiy (4.4.7.1.I.41)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1 .4Afor values of N~ and N.~
for footings on slopes and Figures 4.4.7.1.1 .4B for values
of N~ and Nyq for footings at the top of slopes. For foot-
ings inor above cohesive soil slopes, the stability number
in the figures, N,, is defined as follows:
N, =yH,/c (4.4.7.1.1.4-2)
Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or
adjacent to sloping ground surfaces as described in Arti-
cle 4.4.9.
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth
The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is
neglected in determining quti using Equation 4.4.7.1.L~I.
If ot her procedu res are u sed, t he ef f ect of embedment
shall be consistent with the requirements of the procedure
followed.
=0
(4.4.7.1.1.3-1)
52
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.1.1.5
I eL
B
I T
q max
I 7-tRESULTANT
CONTACT P RESSURE
6 12
Q
FIGURE4.4.7.l.l.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings
Su bject ed t o Eccent ric or Inclined Loads
M odif ied af t er EPRI ( 1 983 )
q mi
max
CONTACT P RESSURE
(a) FOR e
1 ~ L
U
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . l. lB C ont act Pressu re f or Footing Loaded Eccentrically About One Axis
DIV ISION IDESIGN
~~j;{1.0 ~> >~
0
0
LO N GI T U D I N A L E C C E N T R I C I T Y / LE N GT h O F FO O T I N G eL/L
SOLID CURVES G IVE VALUES OF K.
MAXIMUM P RESSURE q,~ K x R /B L
4.4.7.1.1.5
53
02
6)
II
C ,
z
0
0
C
0
I -
z
LjJ
C . . ,
L&4
C,
z
5
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . I. I. IC C ont act Pressu re f or Foot ing Loaded Eccent rically Abou t Two Axes
Modified after AREA (198 0)
54 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.1.1.5
N
1zO (FOR BcH,)
= VHI(FO
~ RB~H,)
Distance of faundalimi V ram edg e of slop e
WB(lo, N 5 ; O) or b/H(for t4-O1
enterp adolion
Urn inl. rmedaof e dept hs I
IEf J ecIive
1 I
An*l. of int ernal
friction ,
Distance of I oundotion f rom edge of slop e b/B
(a) G EOMETRY (b) COHESIVE SOIL Cc) COHESIONLESS SOIL
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . l. l. 4 A M odif ied Bearing C apacit y Fact ors f or Foot ing on Sloping Grou nd
Modifiedafter Meyerhof (1957)
N
5zO (FOR OcH,)
Distance of I oemdafaan from edg e of slop e
b/B(I .., N , ~ OJ or UN t ies %.O)
Distance of foundaU oe from edg e of slop . b/B
(a) G EOMETRY (b) COHESIVE SOIL Cc) COHESIONLESS SOIL
FIGURE4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . I. 4 B M odif ied Bearing C apacit y Fact ors for Footing Adjacent Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
4 . 4 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 6 DIV ISION IDESIGN
55
4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
the highest anticipated ground water level at the footing
location. The effect of ground water level on the ultimate
bearing capacity shall be considered by using a weighted
average soil unit weight in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-I. If 4) <
370 the followingequations may be used todetermine the
weighted average unit weight:
= (2D zj(z,cyn,/D
2) + (-y/D2)(D
(4.4.7.1.1.6-4)
D =O. SBt an( 4 5 0 +4)/2)
(4.4.7.1.1.6-5)
4.4.7.1.1.7 Loyered Soils
for z~ =B: use y =Y m (no effect) (4.4.7.1.1.6-I)
for z,. < B: use y =y +(zw/B)(~ym y)
Ifthe soil profile is layered, the general bearing capac-
ity equation shall be modified to account for differences
in failure modes between the layered case and the homo-
geneous soil case assumed in Equation 4.4.7.1 .1 - I.
(4.4.7.1.1.6-2)
UndrainedLoading
forz_ ~O:useyy _ (4.4.7.1.1.6-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.l.l.6A for definition of terms
used in these equations. If 4) =370 the following equa-
tions may be used to determine the weighted average unit
weight:
For undrained loading of a footing supported on the
upper layer of a two-layer cohesive soil system, q,
1, may
be determined by the following:
=c1N,,, +q
(4.4.7.l.l.7-l)
$
V
in,
z
w
W.T.
FIGURE 4.4.7.l.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence ofGrou nd Wat er Table on Bearing C apacit y
56
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.7.1.1.7
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1 .7A for the definition ofc
1. For
undrained loading, c1 equals the undrained soil shear
strength s,,i, and 4) =0.
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies
a stiffer cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1 .7B to de-
termine Nut. If the bearing stratum overlies a softer layer,
punching shear should be assumed and N,,, may be calcu-
lated by the following:
Nm =(l/~3,,, +Ks,,N~) =s,,N. (4.4.7.1.1.7-2)
Drained Loading
For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong
layer overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, q~
may be determined using the following:
quit = [q2 t (l/K)c1
tcot4)
1] exp + {2[l
+ (B/L)]Ktan4)1(I-IIB)} (l/K)c1 cot4)t
(4.4.7.1.1.7-3)
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upper and lower
layers, respectively. K = (I sin
24)t)/(l + sin2 4 )
1
t )
and q
2 equals q,~1, of a fictitious footing of the same size and
shape as the actual footing but supported on the
second(or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength values shall
be used to detennine q2 in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1.
If the upper layer is a cohesionless soil and 4) equals
25~ to 50~, Equation 4.4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to:
= q2exp{0.67[l + (B/L)]HIB} (4.4.7.1.1.7-4)
The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the
bearing capacity will generally be unaffected by the pres-
ence of the lower layer is given by the following:
Hc,,t =l3Bln(q1/q2)]/112(l +Bit)] (4.4.7.1.1.7-5)
In the equation, q, equals the bearing capacity of the
upper layer assuming the upper layer is of infinite extent.
Stiff le~w c1, ~
U
z
C
U
a
U
a
a.
a
a
C
a
U
U
S
U
0
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . l. 1 . 7 B M odif ied Bearing C apacit y Fact or f or
Two-Layer Cohesive Soil wit h Sof t er Soil Overlying
St if f er Soil EPRI ( 1 983 )
( bI
Undrained sirenq t h rat iO5 c2 / e1
FIGURE4.4.7.l.1.7A
Typical Two-Layer Soil Prof iles
4.4.7.1.1.8 DIV ISION IDESIGN 57
4.4.7.1.1.8 InclinedBase
F o o t i n gs with i n c l i n ed bases are generally not recom-
mended. Where footings with inclined bases are neces-
sary, the following factors shall be applied in Equation
4.4.7.1. 1-1:
bq =b~ = (1 a t a n 4 ) )
2 (4.4.7.1.1.8-1)
b~=b~ (1 by)/(N~tan4)) (for 4) >0)
(4.4.7.1.1.8-2)
= I [2cy./QTT+2)] (for 4) =0)
(4.4.7.1.1.8-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1 .8A for definition sketch.
Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces,
refer toArticle 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements.
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety
S p r ea d f o o t i n gs on soil shall be designed for Group 1
l o a d i n gs u s i n g a m i n i m u m f a c t o r o f s a f et y (FS) of 3.0
a ga i n s t a b ea r i n g c a p a c i t y f a i l u r e.
4.4.7.2 Set t lement
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation,
and secondary components and may be determined using
the following:
S~ =Sc +Sc + 5,.
(4.4.7.2-I)
Elastic settlement shall be determined using the unfac-
tored dead load, plus the unfactored component of live
and impact loads assumed to extend to the footing level.
Consolidation and secondary settlement may be deter-
mined using the full unfactored dead load only.
Other factors which can affect settlement (e.g., em-
bankment loading, lateral andlor eccentric loading, and
f o r f o o t i n gs o n gr a n u l a r soils, vibration loading from dy-
namic live loads or earthquake loads) should also be con-
sidered, where appropriate. Refer toGifford, et al., (1987)
for general guidance regarding static loading conditions
and Lam and Martin (1986) f o r gu i d a n c e r ega r d i n g d y-
n a m i c /s ei s m i c l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution
Figure 4.4.7.2. lA may be used to estimate the distri-
bution of vertical stress increase below circular (or
square) and long rectangular footings (i.e., where L >
SB). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and
Davis (1974).
Some methods used for estimating settlement of foot-
ings on sand include an integral method to account for the
effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to Gif-
ford, et al., (1987) for guidance regarding application of
these procedures.
G ROUND
a
2
FIGURE 4.4.7.l.1.8 A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination
58
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.7.2.2
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement
The elastic settlement of footings on cohesionless
soils and stiff cohesive soils may be estimated using the
following:
(q
0(l v2)\/X]/E43, (4.4.7.2.2-1)
Refer toTable 4.4.7.2.2A for approximate values of E,
and vfor various soil types, and Table 4.4.7.2.2B for val-
ues of ~ for various shapes of flexible and rigid footings.
Unless E,. varies significantly with depth, E, shouldbe de-
U
termined at a depth of about /2 to 2/~ of B below the foot-
ing. If the soil modulus varies significantly with depth, a
weighted average value of E~ may be used.
Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987) for general guidance re-
garding the estimation of elastic settlement of footings on
sand.
4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement
The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated
or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using
U
hSI
Inf imIely Lang Faundatsmn Square FoundatiOn
(es)
(I sJ
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.lA Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings
M odif ied af t er Sowers ( 1 97 9)
DIV ISION IDESIGN
TABLE 4 . 4 . 7 . 2 . 2 A Elast ic C onst ant s of V ariou s Soils
M odif ied af t er U. S. Depart ment of the Navy ( 1 982 ) and Bowles ( 1 982 )
Typical Range of V alues Estimating E~ From N
tt~
You ng s M odu lu s, E,.
(ksf)
Clay:
Soft sensitive
Medium stiff
t o stiff
V ery stiff
L o es s
Silt
50-300
300-1,000
1,000-2,000
300-1,200
40-400
0.4-0.5
(undrained)
0.1-0.3
0.3-0.35
Silts, sandy silts, slightly
cohesive mixtures
C lean f ine t o mediu m sands
and slightly silty sands
C oarse sands and sands with
little gravel
Sandy gravel and gravels
Fine sand:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
Sand:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
Gravel:
Loose
Medium dense
Dense
160-240
240-400
400-600
200-600
600-1,000
1,000-1,600
600-1,600
1,600-2,000
2,000-4,000
0.25
0.2-0. 35
0.3-0.4
0.2-0.35
Soft sensitive clay 400s~- 1 .OOOs,,
M ediu m st if f t o st if f clay I ,500s,,-2,4.00s~
V ery stiff clay 3,000s~-4,000s~
Estimating E, Fromq~(*)
Sandy soils
0.3-0.4
( t i N Standard Penetration Test (SPT) resistance.
SPT corrected for depth.
t3t~ Undrained shear strength (ksf).
141q. Cone penetrationresistance (ksf).
TABLE4.4.7.2.2B Elast ic Shape and Rigidit y
Fact ors EPRI ( 1 983 )
P u
UB Flexible ( average) Rigid
Circular 1.04 1.13
1 1.06 1.08
2 1.09 1.10
3 1.13 1.15
5 1.22 1.24
10 1.41 1.41
4.4.7.2.3
Soil Type
59
Poissons
Ratio, v
(dim) Soil Type (ksf)
8N
1 ( 2 )
I 4N1
20N~
24N1
Estimating E~ From ~
4q
60 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.2.3
the followingwhen laboratory test results are expressed in
terms of void ratio (e):
e For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., Cry, > o o ) :
5,, = [H,,/(l + e,,)][(C,,,, log{o~/o,,}
+C,, log{ur/u~})]
(4.4.7.2.3-I)
For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., a~ =
a,,):
= [H,,/(l +e,,)I[C,,log(o~/o~)] (4.4.7.2.3-2)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of ver-
tical strain (ej, consolidationsettlement may be estimated
using the following:
e For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., o~, > (J,,):
5,, =H,,[C,,~log(o~/a,,) + C,,,, log(of/o~)]
(4.4.7.2.3-3)
e For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., o,~, =
a,,):
= H, , C , , , , log( u f / o ~ )
(4.4.7.2.3-4)
Refer to Figures 4.4.7.2.3A and 4.4.7.2.3B for the de-
finition of terms used in the equations.
To account for the decreasing stress with increased
depth below a footing, and variations in soil compress-
ibility with depth, the compressible layer should be di-
vided into vertical increments (i.e., typically 5 to 10 feet
for most normal width footings for highway applications),
and the consolidation settlement of each increment ana-
lyzed separately. The total value of 5,, is the summation of
5,, for each increment.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness
of the compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional
(3-D) loading may be considered using the following:
5cI3~D) P,SCI I-Dj
(4.4.7.2.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3C for values of p<
The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total
estimated l-D consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
t =TH,?/c,
U
0
a
0
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . 2 . 3 A Typical C onsolidat ion
C ompression C u rve f or Overconsolidat ed Soil
Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress
EPRI (198 3)
U
=
0
U
0
FIGURE 4 . 4 . 7 . 2 . 3 B Typical C onsolidat ion
C ompression C u rve f or Overconsolidat ed Soil
V oid St rain V ersu s V ert ical Ef f ect ive St ress
O ver consolidation r atio, a- /a
p o
I .0
a
0
U
0
0.5
0
U
~0
S
(4.4.7.2.3-6)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant
and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See
Winterkorn and Fang (1975) for values of T for other ex-
5
Vertical effecttve stress, a- (log scale)
Vertical effective streSs, a- ( log scale)
10 15
FIGURE4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for
Ef f ect s of Three-Dimensional C onsolidat ion Set t lement
EPRI ( 1 983 )
4.4.7.2.3 DIV ISION IDESIGN 61
cess pressure distributions. V alues of c,, may be estimated
from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements
usingdevices such as a piezoprobe or piezocone.
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may
be estimated using the following:
S. =C,,,,H,,log(t4t
1) (4.4.7.2.4-I)
t1 is the time when secondary settlement begins (typi-
cally at a time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of
consolidation), and t2 is an arbitrary time which could rep-
resent the service life of the structure. V alues of C,~,, may
be estimated from the results of consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory.
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement
Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal)
for footings shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, anticipated service life, and
consequences of unacceptable movements on structure
performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foun-
dation soils. Displacement analyses should be conducted
to determine the relationship between estimated settle-
ment and footing bearing pressure tooptimize foottng stzc
with respect to supported loads.
Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement
shall be developed considering the angular distortion
rime factor, T
C
0
C
0
5~
C
0
U
C
4
U
(&/f) between adjacent footings. 5/fC shall be limited to
0.005 for simple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous
span bridges (Moulton, et al., 1985). These 5/fClimits are
not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall
be designed for anticipated differential settlements based
on the results of special analysis.
Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations
displacement shall be developed consideringthe potential
effects of combined vertical and horizontal movement.
Where combined horizontal and vertical displacements
are possible, horizontal movements should be limited to I
inch or less. Where vertical displacements are small, hor-
izontal displacements should be limited to I /2 inch or less
(Moulton, et al. 1985). If estimated or actual movements
exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measitres to
limit movements should be considered.
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability
Refer to Division I-ASeismic Design and Lam and
Martin (1986a; 1986b) for guidance regarding the devel-
opment of ground and seismic parameters and methods
used for evaluation of dynamic ground stability.
4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock
Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed to
support the design loads with adequate bearing and stritc-
tural capacity and with tolerable settlements in confor-
mance with Articles 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. In addition, the re-
sponse of footings subjected to seismic and dynamic
loading shall be evaluated in conformance with Article
4.4.10. For footings on rock, the location of the resultant
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time Factor, T
EPRI (198 3)
62
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.8
of pressure (R) on the base of footings shall be maintained
within B/4 of the center of the footing.
The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on
rock is influenced by the presence, orientation and condi-
tion of discontinuities, weathering profiles, and other sim-
ilar features. The methods used for design of footings on
rock should consider these factors as they apply at a par-
ticular site, and the degree to which they should be incor-
porated in the design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock is
defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are tight
or open not wider than Y R inch. For footings on less com-
petent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses
should be used to account for the effects of weathering,
the presence and condition of discontinuities, and other
geologic factors.
4.4.8 .1 Bearing Capacity
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock
The allowable contact stress for footings supported on
level surfaces in competent rock may be determined using
5200
1
0
I-
U
a
C
0
U
6
.0
a
3
0
4
100-
50
30-
20-
It.
0 2 0 40
Figure 4.4.8.l.lA (Peck, et al. 1974). In no instance shall
the maximum allowable contact stress exceed the allow-
able bearing stress in the concrete. The RQD used in Fig-
ure 4.4.8.1.1 A shall be the average RQD for the rock
within a depth of B below the base of the footing, where
the RQD values are relatively uniform within that inter-
val. If rock within a depth of 0.5B below the base of the
footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the poorer rock
shall be used to determine q
0
4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must
account for the condition and spacing of joints and other
discontinuities. The ultimate bearing capacity of footings
on broken or jointed rock may be estimated using the fol-
lowing relationship:
quit=N C
(4.4.8.1.2-1)
Refer to Table 4.4.8.1 .2Afor values of Nm,.. V alues of
C0 should preferably be determined from the results of
laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 2B of the
base of the footing. Where rockstrata within this interval
are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity
60 8 0
100
ROD (%)
N ote.
q~1 shall not exceed the unconfined compressive streng th
of the rock or 0.595 fc of the concrete.
FIGURE 4.4.8 .I.lA Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight Discontinuities
Peck, et al. ( 1 97 4 )
I I I I
-Upper limit curve
If ROD is fairly uniform,
use overag e ROD within d ~ B
If ROD within d ~ 5/4 is lower,
use lower ROD
I I t~ I I
DIV ISION IDESIGN
should be used to determine quit Alternatively, Table
4.4.8.l.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C
0. For
rocks definedby verypoor quality, the value of q01, should
be determined as the value of quit for an equivalent soil
mass.
mass characteristics must be made. For rock masses which
have time-dependent settlement characteristics, the proce-
dure inArticle 4.4.7.2.3 may be followed to determine the
time-dependent component of settlement.
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group 1
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
against a bearing capacity failure.
4.4.8 .2 Settlement
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements will
generally be less than Y 2 inch when footings are designed
in accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When elastic settle-
ments of this magnitude are unacceptable or when the rock
is not competent, an analysis of settlement based on rock
Where the criteria for competent rock are not met, the
influence of rock type, conditionof discontinuities and de-
gree of weathering shall be considered in the settlement
analysis.
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed
rock may be determined using the following:
e For circular (or square) footings;
p =q0 (1 v
2)rIiIEm, with I~ = (V ~i~)/I3,
(4.4.8.2.2-1)
e For rectangular footings;
TABLE 4 . 4 . 8. l. 2 A V alu es of C oef f icient Nm. f or Est imat ion of t he Ult imat e Bearing C apacit y of Foot ings on
Broken or Jointed Rock (Modified after Hoek, (198 3))
Rock Mass
Quality General Descript ion
RMR~~
Rating
NGIt2~
Rating
RQDt3~
(%)
Nmst4)
A B C D E
Excellent Intactrockwithjointsspaced
>10 feet apart
100 500 95-100 3.8 4.3 5.0 5.2 6.1
V ery good Tightly interlocking, undis-
turbed rock with rough
unweathered joints spaced 3 to
10 feet apart
85 100 90-95 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.3
Good Fresh to slightly weathered
rock, slightly disturbed with
joints spaced3 to 10 feet apart
65 10 75-90 0.28 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.46
Fair Rock wit h several set s of mod- 4 4 1 50-75 0.049 0.056 0.066 0.069 0.08 1
erat ely weat hered joint s spaced
I t o 3 f eet apart
Poor Rock wit h nu merou s weat hered 23 0.1 25-50 0.015 0.016 0.019 0.020 0.024
joints spaced 1 to 20 inches
apart with some gouge
V ery poor Rock wit h nu merou s highly
weat hered joint s spaced < 2
inches apart
3 0.01 <25 Use quit for an equivalent soil mass
1 9 8 8 . ~1GeomechanicsRock Mass Rating (RMOJ SystemBiemawski,
~21NorwegianGeotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass Classification System, Barton, et al., 1974.
~31Rangeof RQD values provided for general guidance only; aclual determination of rock mass quality should be based on RMR or NUI rating
systems.
41V alue of N~ as a function of rock lype; refer to Table 4.4.8.1 .2B for typical range ofvalues of Cu for different rock type in each category.
4.4.8 .1.2 63
64 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.8 .2.2
TABLE 4.4.8 .I.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (Cu) as a Function of
Rock Category and Rock Type
Rock
C at egory General Description Rock Type (ksD (psi)
A Carbonate rocks with well- Dolostone 700- 6,500 4,800-45,000
developed crystal cleavage Limestone 500- 6,000 3,500-42,000
Carbonatite 800- 1,500 5,500-10,000
Marble 800- 5,000 5,500-35,000
Tactite-Skarn 2,700- 7,000 19,00049,000
B Lithified argillaceous rock Argillite 600- 3,000 4,200-21,000
Claystone 30- 170 200- 1,200
Marlstone 1,000- 4,000 7,600-28,000
Phyllite 500- 5,000 3,500-35,000
Siltstone 200- 2,500 1,400-17,000
Shale
t2~ 150- 740 1,000- 5,100
Slate 3,000- 4,400 21,000-30,000
C Arenaceous rocks with strong Conglomerate 700- 4,600 4,8 00-32,000
crystals and poor cleavage Sandstone 1,400- 3,600 9,700-25,000
Quartzite 1,300- 8 ,000 9,000-55,000
D Fine-grained igneous Andesite 2,100- 3,800 14,000-26,000
crystalline rock Diabase 450-12,000 3,100-83,000
E Coarse-grained igneous and Amphibolite 2,500- 5,800 17,000-40,000
metamorphic crystalline rock Gabbro 2,600- 6,500 18,000-45,000
Gneiss 500- 6,500 3,500-45,000
Granite 300- 7,000 2,100-49,000
Quartzdiorite 200- 2,100 1,400-14,000
Quartzmonzonite 2,700- 3,300 19,000-23,000
Schist 200- 3,000 1,400-21,000
Syenite 3,800- 9,000 26,000-62,000
1Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength values reported by various investigations.
~Not including oil shale.
p =q,, (I v2)B1
1/E,,, with I~, =(L/B)
112/13.
(4.4.8.2.2-2)
V alues of I~ may be computed using the ~ values pre-
sented in Table 4.4.7.2.2B from Article 4.4.7.2.2 for rigid
footings. V alues of Poissons ratio (u) for typical rock
types are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of
the rock mass modulus (Em) should be based on the results
of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of E,,,
may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock modulus
(E,,) obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a reduc-
tion factor (csE) which accounts for frequency of disconti-
nuities by the rock quality designation (RQD), using the
following relationships (Gardner, 1987):
tI XE =0.0231(RQD) 1.32 =0.15 (4.4.8.2.2-4)
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data can-
not be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of E,,
(such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure
4.4.8.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
final design when in-situ test results are not available, a
value of txE =0.15 should be used to estimate Em.
Refer toArticle 4.4.7.2.3.
4.4.9 Overall Stability
The overall stability of footings, slopes, and founda-
tion soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on
E,,=~EE,
(4.4.8.2.2-3)
DIV ISION IDESIGN
TABLE 4.4.8 .2.2A Summary of Poissons Ratio for Intact Rock
Modified after Kulhawy (1978 )
Rock Type
No. of
V alues
No. of
Rock
I~pes
Poissons Ratio, ~ Standard
Deviation Maximum Minimum Mean
Granite 22 22 0.39 0.09 0.20 0.08
Gabbro 3 3 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.02
Diabase 6 6 0.38 0.20 0.29 0.06
Basalt II 11 0.32 0.16 0.23 0.05
Qu art zit e 6 6 0.22 0.08 0.14 0.05
Marble 5 5 0.40 0.17 0.28 0.08
Gneiss 11 11 0.40 0.09 0.22 0.09
Schist 12 11 0.31 0.02 0.12 0.08
Sandstone 12 9 0.46 0.08 0.20 0.11
Siltstone 3 3 0.23 0.09 0.18 0.06
Shale 3 3 0.18 0.03 0.09 0.06
Limestone 19 19 0.33 0.12 0.23 0.06
Dolost one 5 5 0.35 0.14 0.29 0.08
TABLE4.4.8 .2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock
Modified after Kulhawy(1978 )
Rock Type
No. of
V alues
No. of
Rock
Wpes
Elastic Modulus, E
0
(psi l~) Standard
Deviation Maximum Minimum Mean
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro
Diabase
Basalt
Quartzite
Marble
Gneiss
Slate
Schist
Phyllite
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Limestone
Dolostone
26
3
3
7
12
7
14
13
11
13
3
27
5
30
30
17
26
3
3
7
12
7
13
13
2
12
3
19
5
14
30
16
14.5
16.2
12.2
15.1
12.2
12.8
10.7
11.9
3.79
10.0
2.51
5.68
4.76
5.60
13.0
11.4
0.93
2.48
9.80
10.0
4.20
5.29
0.58
4.13
0.35
0.86
1.25
0.09
0.38
0.001
0.65
0.83
7.64
7.45
11.0
12.8
8.14
9.59
6.18
8.86
1.39
4.97
1.71
2.13
2.39
1.42
5.70
4.22
3.55
6.19
0.97
1.78
2.60
2.32
2.49
2.31
0.96
3.18
0.57
1.19
1.65
1.45
3.73
3.44
x lO~ psi =1.44 x io~ ksf.
4.4.9
65
66 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.9
0
U
0
LaB
U ,
-j
a
0
2
U
U,
4
-J
LaJ
FIGURE 4.4.8 .2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock
Modified after Deere (1968 )
or near a slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analy-
sis which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu,
Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope sta-
bility analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and
ground water levels are based on in-situ andlor laboratory
tests, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5
where abutments are supported above a slope). Otherwise,
the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8 where
abutments are supported above a retaining wall).
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-ASeismic Design and Lam and
Martin (1986a; 1986b) for guidance regarding the design
of footings subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4 . 4 . 1 1 St ru ct u ral Design
4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions
4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions
Footings shall be considered as under the action of
downward forces, due to the superimposedloads, resisted
by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation materi-
als and distributed over the area of the footings as deter-
mined by the eccentricityof the resultant of the downward
forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series
of concentrated loads applied at the pile centers, each pile
being assumed to carry the computed portion of the total
footing load.
UNIAXIAL COMP RESSIVE STRENG TH C
0- psi x 0
4.4.11.1.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
67
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions
When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier
or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the actual con-
ditions of continuity and restraint.
porting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting
a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical
section shall be measured from the location defined in
Article 4.4.11.2.
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts
Shear on the critical section shall be inaccordance with
4.4.11.2 Moments the following:
4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section
External moment on any section of a footing shall be
determined by passing a vertical plane through the foot-
ing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over
the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical
plane. The critical section for bending shall be taken at the
face of the column, pier, or wall. In the case of columns
that are not square or rectangular, the section shall be
taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent
area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical sec-
tion shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge
of the wall. For footings under metallic column bases, the
critical section shall be taken halfway between the column
face and the edge of the metallic base.
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement
R ei n f o r c em en t o f o n e-wa y a n d t wo -wa y s q u a r e f o o t -
ings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing.
Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall
be distributed uniformly across the entire widthof footing
in the long direction. In the short direction, the portion of
the total reinforcement given by Equation 4.4.11.2.2-1
shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered
on center line of column or pier) equal to the length of the
short side of the footing. The remainder of reinforcement
required in the short direction shall be distributed uni-
formly outside the center band width of footing.
Reinforcement in band width 2
Total reinforcement in short direction (f3 +I)
(4.4.11.2.2-1)
3 is the ratio of the footing length to width.
4.4.11.3 Shear
Computation of shear in footings, and location of crit-
ical section, shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6
or 8.16.6.6. Location of critical section shall be measured
from the face of column, pier or wall, for footings sup-
Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose
center is located d~/2 or more outside the critical
section shall be considered as producing shear on
that section.
Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center
is located 4/2 or more inside the critical section
shall be considered as producing no shear on that
section.
e For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft
centers, the portion of the pile or shaft reaction tobe
considered as producing shear on the critical section
shall be based on linear interpolation between full
value at 4/2 outside the section and zero value at
d~/2 inside the section.
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length
Computation of development of reinforcement in
footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24
through 8.32.
Critical sections for development of reinforcement
shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in Arti-
cle 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes where changes
in section or reinforcement occur. See also Article
8.24.1.5.
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force
All forces and moments applied at base of column or
pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concrete and by reinforcement.
4.4.11.5.2 Loreral Forces
Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting foot-
ing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Arti-
des 8.15.5.4 or 8.16.6.4.
68 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.11.5.3
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing
B ea r i n g o n c o n c r et e a t c o n t a c t s u r f a c e b et ween s u p -
p o r t i n g a n d s u p p o r t ed m em b er shall not exceed concrete
bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles
8.15.2 or 8.16.7.
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be provided across interface be-
tween supporting and supported member either by ex-
tending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or
by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be suffi-
cient to satisfy all of the following:
Reinforcement shall be providedto transfer all force
that exceeds concrete bearing strength in supporting
or supported member.
If required loading conditions include uplift, total
tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement.
e Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005
times gross area of supported member, with a mini-
mum of four bars.
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size
Diameter of dowels, if used, shall not exceed diameter
of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0.15 inch.
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length
For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of
reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall
be in accordance withArticles 8.24 through 8.32.
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing
At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal rein-
forcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with
footing dowels to provide the required area, but not less
than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not
be larger than No. 11 and shall extend into the column a
distance of not less than the development length of the No.
l4or 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels, whichever
is greater; and into the footing a distance of not less than
the development length of the dowels.
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals
shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution.
For footings and pedestals cast against soil, effective
thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the
overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme fiber stress tn
tension shall not exceed that specified in Article
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless pro-
jection of footing from face to support member exceeds
footing thickness.
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral
dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3.
4.5 DRIVEN PILES
4.5.1 General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or ex-
tending through soil to rock.
4.5.1.1 Application
Piling may be considered when footings cannot be
founded on rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive soils
within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil condi-
tions would normally permit the use of spread footings but
the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as a pro-
tection against scour. Piles may also be used where an un-
acceptable amount of settlement of spread footings may
occur.
4.5.1.2 Materials
Pi l es m a y b e s t r u c t u r a l s t eel s ec t i o n s , s t eel p i p e, p r e-
cast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed con-
crete, timber, or a combination of materials. In every case,
materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provi-
sions of this Article.
4.5.1.3 Penetration
Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical
and lateral load capacities of both the pile and subsurface
materials. In general, the design penetration for any pile
shall be not less than 10 feet into hard cohesive or dense
granular material nor less than 20 feet into soft cohesive
or loose granular material. Where the depth to dense ma-
terial or rock is less than 10 feet, spread footings should
be considered. Piles for trestle or pile bents shall meet the
above requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is en-
c o u n t er ed , s ha l l p en et r a t e n o t l es s t ha n /~ the unsupported
length of the pile.
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose
upper stratum overlying ahard or firm stratum unless the
piles penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a sufficient dis-
tance to fix the ends against lateral movement of the pile
tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to accom-
plish this penetration.
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths
Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be
shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful eval-
uation of available subsurface information, static and lat-
eral capacity calculations, andlor past experience.
4.5.1.6 Estimated and MinimumTip Elevation
E s t i m a t ed a n d m i n i m u m p i l e t i p el ev a t i o n s for each
substructure should be shown on the contract plans. Esti-
mated pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation where
the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained. Min-
imum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration re-
quired to support lateral pile loads (including scour con-
siderations where appropriate) andlor penetration of
overlying, unsuitable soil strata.
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill
Piles to be driven through embankments shall pene-
trate a minimum of 10 feet through original ground unless
refusal on bedrock or competent bearing strata occurs at a
lesser penetration. Fill used for embankment construction
shall be a select material which shall not obstruct pile pen-
etration to the required depth. The maximum size of any
rock particles in the fill shall not exceed 6 inches. Pre-
drilling or spudding pile locations may be required, par-
ticularly for displacement piles.
4.5.1.8 Test Piles
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure unit
(See Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit) to de-
termine pile installation characteristics, evaluate pile ca-
pacity with depth and to establish contractor pile order
lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading, dynamic
testing, conducting driveability studies, or a combination
thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface condi-
tions. The number of test piles required may be increased
in non-uniform subsurface conditions. Test piles may not
be required where previous experience exists with the
same pile type and ultimate pile capacity in similar sub-
surface conditions.
4.5.2 Pile Types
Piles shall be classified as friction or end bearing
or a combination of both according to the manner in
which load transfer is developed.
4 . 5 . 2 . 1 Frict ion Piles
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the
major portion of support capacity is derived from soil re-
sistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles
A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if
the major portion of support capacity is derived from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
rests.
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing
Piles
Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile ma-
terials, the bearing capacity of a pile may be considered as
the sum of the resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft
and that developed at the pile tip, even though the forces
that are mobilized simJtaneously are not necessarily
maximum values.
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles
When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the
piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity
of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be
used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction loads
are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an alter-
nate method of providing lateral restraint should be used.
4.5.3 N ot at ions
driven pile foundations:
A, =Area of pile circumference (ft
2)
A =Area of pile tip (ft2)
B =Pile diameter or width (ft)
f. =Concrete compression strength (ksi)
=Concrete compression stress due to prestressing
after all losses (ksi)
FS =Factor of safety (dim)
= Yield strength of steel (ksi)
L =Pile length (ft)
=Design capacity (k)
=Ultimate shaft resistance ( k)
QT =Ultimate tip resistance (k)
Ultimate pile capacity (k)
r,. =Unit side resistance (ksi)
R,. = Side resistance (k)
=Unit tip resistance (ksi)
R,= Tip resistance (k)
p =Percentage of reinforcement (dim)
a, = Allowable stress (ksi)
ing: dim =Dimensionless; ft = foot; square feet = ft
2;
k = kip; ksi = kip/in.2; and in. = inch. The dimensional
units provided with each notation are presented for illus-
tration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct com-
bination of units for the footing capacity procedures pre-
sented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
Refer to Figure 4.5.4A for terminology used in the de-
sign of driven pile foundations.
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are
required for driven pile design. Refer to Article 4.3 for
guidelines for subsurface exploration to obtain soil and
rock properties.
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
The design pile capacity is the maximum load the
pile shall support with tolerable movement. In determin-
ing the design pile capacity, the following items shall be
considered:
Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and
Structural capacity of the pile section.
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be de-
termined from:
The allowable design axial capacity shall be deter-
mined from:
Q =Q,,
11/FS
(4.5.6.1-2)
4.5.6.1.1 FactorsAffecting Axial Capacity
In determining the design axial capacity, consideration
shall be given to:
The difference between the supporting capacity of a
single pile and that of a group of piles;
The capacity of an underlying strata to support the
load of the pile group;
The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or
slopes;
The possibility of scour and its effect on axial and
lateral capacity;
The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag
loads from consolidating soil and the effects of up-
lift loads from expansive or swelling soils;
The influence of construction techniques such as
augering or jetting on capacity; and
The influence of fluctuations in the elevation of the
ground water table on capacity.
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils
may be calculated using a total stress method (e.g., Tom-
linson, 1957) for undrained loading conditions, or an ef-
fective stress method (e.g., Meyerhof, 1976) for drained
loading conditions. The axial capacity may also be calcu-
lated from in-situ testing methods such as the cone pene-
tration (e.g., Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests
(e.g., Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless
soils may be calculated using an empirical effective stress
method (e.g., Nordlund, 1963) or from in-situ testing
methods and analysis such as the cone penetration (e.g.,
Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock
For piles driven to competent rock, the structural ca-
pacity in Article 4.5.7 will generally govern the design
axial capacity. For piles driven to weak rock such as shale
and mudstone or poor quality weathered rock, a static load
test is recommended. Pile relaxation should be considered
(4.5.6.1 - I) in certain kinds of rock when performing load tests. Q~11 =Q5 +QT
4.5.6.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
71
B
rK)
SHA FT .~
i
Q
~ HE.AO
I
I
I
>R
5
I
I
I
I
R =SHA FT R E SI ST A N C E
R r =T lP R E SI ST A N C E
L =PI LE LE N GT H
D = E M B E D M E N T D E PT H
B =PI LE D I A M E T E R
= C I R C U M FE R E N T I A L A R E A
A t ~ C R O SS SE C T I O N A L A R E A
~ A ~ r9
R T = A t rt
FIGURE 4 . 5 . 4 A Design Tenninology for Driven Pile Foundations
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection
The selection of the factor of safety to be applied to
the ultimate axial geotechnical capacity shall consider
the reliability of the ultimate soil capacity determination
and pile installation control. Recommended values for
the factor of safety depending upon the degree of con-
struction control specified on the plans are presented in
Table 4.5.6.2A. All factors of safety are based on full-
time observation of pile installation. The design pile ca-
pacity shall be specified on the plans so the factor of
safety can be adjusted if the specified construction con-
trol is altered.
4.5.6.3 Settlement
The settlement of axially loaded piles and pile groups
at the allowable loads shall be estimated. Elastic analysis,
load transfer andlor finite element techniques (e.g., V esic,
1977 or Poulos and Davis, 1980) may be used. The set-
tlement of the pile or pile group shall not exceed the tol-
erable movement limits of the structure.
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading
Group pile capacity shouldbe determined as the prod-
uct of the group efficiency, number of piles in the group,
L
9
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 4 . 5 . 6 . 2 A Recommended Fact or of Saf et y on
Ult imat e Geot echnical C apacit y Based on Specif ied
C onst ru ct ion C ont rol
Increasing C onst ru ct ion
S u b s u r f a c c ex p l o r a t i o n X
C ont rol
X X X X
Static calculation X X X X X
Dynamic formula X
Wa v e eq u a t i o n X X X X
Dynamic measurement X X
and analysis
Static load tcst X X
Factorof safety 3.50 2.75 2.25 22.00 1.90
Construction Control Specified on Contract Plans.
2~For any combination of construction control that includes an
approved static load test a factor of safety of 2.0 may be used.
and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group effi-
ciency value of 1.0 should be used except for friction piles
in cohesive soils. The efficiency factor for friction piles in
cohesive soils with a center-to-center pile spacing less
than 3.OB should be 0.7. Center-to-center pile spacings
less than 2.5B are not recommended.
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles
The design of laterally loadedpiles is usually governed
by lateral movement criteria. The design of laterally
loaded piles shall account for the effects of soil/rock-
structure interaction between the pile and ground (e.g.,
Reese, 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded piles (e.g.,
Broms, I 964a and I 964b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used
for preliminary design only as a means to evaluate appro-
priate pile sections.
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles
The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile
groups shall be determined in accordance with Articles
4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2, respectively. Proper provision
shall be made for anchorage of the pile into the pile cap.
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile
The uplift design capacity for a single pile shall not ex-
ceed one-third of the ultimate frictional capacity deter-
mined by a static analysis method. Alternatively, the uplift
capacity of a single pile can be determined by uplift load
tests in conformance with ASTM D-3689 (ASTM, 1988).
If determined by load tests, the allowable uplift design ca-
pacity shall not exceed50 percent of the failure uplift load.
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group
The uplift design capacity for a pile group shall be the
lesser of: (I) The single pile uplift design capacity multi-
plied by the number of piles in the group, or (2) two-thirds
of the effective weight of the pile group and the soils con-
tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
group and the embedded length of the piles, or (3) one-
half the effective weight of the pile group and the soil con-
tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
group and the embedded pile length plus one-halfthe total
soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.
4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement
The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical
ground movements shall be considered as part of the de-
sign. V ertical ground movements may result in negative
skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of com-
pressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to heave of
expansive soils. For design purposes, the full magnitude
of maximum vertical ground movement shall be assumed.
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative
skin frictionldowndrag due to settlement of compressible
soil shall be considered as a part of the design. Evaluation
of negative skin friction shall include a load-transfer
method of analysis to determine the neutral point (i.e.,
point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution
along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and ONeill,
1988). Due to the possible time dependence associated
with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall con-
sider the effect of time on load transfer between the
ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for
the time period relating to the maximum axial load trans-
fer to the pile. If necessary, negative skin friction loads
that cause excessive settlement may be reduced by appli-
cation of bitumenor other viscous coatings tothe pile sur-
faces before installation.
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to up-
lift forces in the zone of seasonal moisture change. Piles
shall extend a sufficient distance into moisturestable
soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling uplift
forces. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided
between the ground surface and the underside of pile caps
or grade beams to preclude the application of uplift loads
at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reducedby application
of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile surface in
the swelling zone.
72
4.5.6.4
4 . 5 . 6 . 8
DIV ISION IDESIGN
73
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design
TABLE 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working St ress f or
Round Timber Piles
Refer toDivision I-Afor guidance regarding the design
of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements
Piles shall be designed as structural members capable
of safely supporting all loads imposed on them by the
structure or surrounding soil.
4.5.7.2 Piles ExtendingAbove Ground Surface
For portions of piles in air or water, or in soil not ca-
pable of providing adequate lateral support throughoutthe
pile length to prevent buckling, the structural design pro-
visions for compression members of Sections 8,9,10, and
13 shall apply except: timber piles shall be designed in ac-
cordance with Article 13.5 using the allowable unit
stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in Table
4.5.7.3A.
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stresses in Piles
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not ex-
ceed the following limits in severe subsurface conditions.
Where pile damage or deterioration is possible, it may be
prudent to use a lower stress level than the maximum al-
lowable stress.
For steel H-piles, the maximum allowable stress
shall not exceed 0.2SF over the crosssectional area
of the pile, not including the area of any tip rein-
forcement. The maximum allowable stress may be
increased to0.33F
5 in conditions where pile damage
is unlikely. Static and/or dynamic load test and eval-
uation confirming satisfactory results should be per-
formed when using 0.33F~.
For unfilled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed 0.2SF~ over the minimum
cross-sectional area of the pile. The maximum al-
lowable stress may be increased to 0.33F) in condi-
tions where pile damage is unlikely. Static and/or
dynamic load test and evaluation confirming salis-
factory results should be performed when using
0.33F~.
For concrete filled steel pipe piles, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.2SF~ + 0.40f~.
applied over the cross-sectional area of the steel
pipe and on the cross-sectional area of the concrete,
respectively.
Species
Ash, white
Beech
Birch
Chestnut
Cypress, Southern
Cypress. Tidewater red
Douglas Fir, coast type
Douglas Fir, inland
Elm, rock
Elm, soft
Gum, black and red
Hemlock, Eastern
Hemlock, West Coast
Hickory
Larch
Maple, hard
Oak, red and white
Pecan
Pine, Lodgepole
Pine, Norway
Pine, Southern
Pine, Southern, dense
Poplar, yellow
Redwood
Spruce, Eastern
Tu p el o
Allowable Unit Working
Stress Compression
Parallel to Grain for
Nortnal Duration of
Loading o, (psi)
1,200
1,300
1,300
900
1,200
1 , 2 00
1,200
1.100
1 , 3 00
850
850
800
1,000
1,650
1 , 2 00
1,300
1,100
1,650
800
850
l,2t)0
1,400
800
1,100
850
850
For precast concrete piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed 0.33f~ on the gross cross-sec-
tional area of the concrete.
For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in
soils providing lateral support, the maximum allow-
able stress shall not exceed 0.33E 0.27f1,~ on the
gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.
For round timber piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed the values in Table 4.S.7.3A
for the pile tip area. For sawn timber piles, the val-
ues applicable to~~wet condition for allowable com-
pression parallel to grain shall be used in accordance
with Article 13.2.
4 . 5 . 7 . 4 C ross-Sect ion Adju st ment f or C orrosion
For concrete-filled pipe piles where corrosion may be
expected, Y inch shall be deducted from the shell thick-
74
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.5.7.4
ness to allow for reduction in section due to corrosion.
Area of shell shall be included in determining percentage
of reinforcement, p.
Steel piles
Concrete piles
4.5.7.5 Scour
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies as described
in Article 4.3.5. If heavy scour is expected, consideration
shall be given to designing the portion of the pile that
would be exposed as a column. In all cases, the pile length
shall be determined such that the design structural load
may be safely supported entirely belowthe probable scour
depth. The pile shall be of adequate cross-section to with-
stand the driving necessary to penetrate through the an-
ticipated scour depth to the design embedment.
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete en-
casement or other corrosion protection shall be used on
steel piles and steel shells. Exposed steel piles or steel
shells shall not be used in salt or brackish water, and only
with caution infresh water. Where the piling is exposedto
the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the sec-
tion shall be increased in thickness or positive protection
shall be provided.
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis
The constructability of the pile foundation design
shouldbe evaluated using a wave equation computer pro-
gram. The wave equation should be used to confirm that
the design pile section can be installed to the desired
depth, ultimate capacity, and within the allowable driving
stress levels specified in Article 4.5.11 using an appropri-
ately sized driving system.
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring
Dynamic monitoring may be specified for piles in-
stalled indifficult subsurface conditions such as soils with
obstructions and boulders, or a steeply sloping bedrock
surface to evaluate compliance with structural pile capac-
ity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for ge-
otechnical capacity verification where the size of the proj-
ect or other limitations deter static load testing.
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material
for top driven piles shall not exceed the following limits:
Prestressed concrete piles
Normal environments
Severe corrosive
environments
Timber piles
0.90Ff (Compression)
0.90F~ (Tension)
0.8Sf~ (Compression)
0. 70F
5 of Steel Reinforcement
(Tension)
0.85ff f5. (Compression)
3 f~ + f~ (Tension)
(fe and f~. must be in psi.
The resulting max stress
is also in psi.)
f~. (Tension)
3a~ (Compression)
30a (Tension)
Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave
equation analyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and
acceleration at the pile head during pile driving.
4 . 5 . 1 2 Tolerable M ovement
Tolerable axial and lateraldisplacement criteria for driv-
en pile foundations shall be developed by the structural
engineer consistent with the function and type of struc-
ture, fixity of bearings, anticipated service life, and con-
sequences of unacceptable displacements on the structural
performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load deformation behavior of the founda-
tion materials. Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.S for additional
guidance regarding tolerable vertical and horizontal
movement criteria.
4 . 5 . 1 3 Bu oyancy
The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered
in the design as provided inArticle 3.19.
4 . 5 . 1 4 Prot ect ion Against Det eriorat ion
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles
A steel pile foundation design shall consider that steel
p i l es m a y b e s u b j ec t t o c o r r o s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n fill soils,
low ph soils (acidic) and marine environments. A field
electric resistivity survey, or resistivity testing and ph test-
ing of soil and ground water samples should be used to
evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting
steel piling in corrosive environments include use of pro-
tective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased pile
steel area.
4.5. 14.2
DIVISION IDESIGN
75
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider that
deterioration of concrete piles can occur due to sulfates in
soil, ground water, or sea water; chlorides in soils and
chemical wastes; acidic ground water and organic acids.
Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterio-
ration potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and
ground water samples is recommended when chemical
wastes are suspected. Methods of protecting concrete pil-
ing can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate re-
ststing portland cement, minimum cover requirements for
reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins, or other pro-
tective coatings.
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles
A timber pile foundation design shall consider that de-
terioration of timber piles can occur due to decay from
wetting and drying cycles or from insects or marine bor-
ers. Methods of protecting timber piling include pressure
treating with creosote or other wood preservers.
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing
Pile footings shall be proportioned such that the mini-
mum center-to-center pile spacing shall exceed the greater
of 2 feet 6 inches or 2.5 pile diameters/widths. The dis-
tance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the
pile footing shall not be less than 9 inches.
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap
The tops of piles shall project not less than 12 inches
into concrete after all damaged pile material has been re-
moved, but in special cases, it may be reduced to 6
i n c hes .
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps
Where a reinforced concrete beam is cast-in-place
and used as a bent cap supported by piles, the concrete
cover at the sides of the piles shall be a minimum of 6
inches. The piles shall project at least 6 inches and
preferably 9 inches into the cap, although concrete piles
may project a lesser distance into the cap if the projec-
tion of the pile reinforcement is sufficient to provide ad-
equate bond.
4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape
Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and
shape but may be either of uniform section or tapered. In
general, tapered piling shall not be used for trestle con-
struction except for the portion of the pile which lies
below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in
any location where the piles are to act as columns.
4.5.16.2 Minimum Area
In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional
area, measured above the taper, of not less than 98 square
inches. In saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of
140 square inches shall be used. Ifa square section is em-
ployed, the corners shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles
The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point
shall be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter
shall be considered as the least dimension through the
center.
4.5.16.4 Driving Points
Piles preferably shall be cast with a driving point and,
for hard driving, preferably shall be shod with a metal
shoe of approved pattern.
4 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 V ert ical Reinf orcement
V ertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than
four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the
pile, except that if more than four bars are used, the num-
ber may be reduced tofour in the bottom 4 feet of the pile.
The amount of reinforcement shall be at least I Y ~ percent
of the total section measured above the taper.
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement
The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with
spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral rein-
forcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of 3
inches and gage of not less than No. 5 (U.S. Steel Wire
Gage). In addition, the top 6 inches of the pile shall have
five turns of spiral winding at I-inch pitch. For the re-
mainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a
No. 5 gage spiral with not more than 6-inch pitch, or
inch round hoops spaced on not more than 6-inch centers.
76
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.5.16.7
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance
from the face of the pile of not less than 2 inches and,
when piles are used in saltwater or alkali soils, this clear
distance shall not be less than 3 inches.
4.5.16.8 Splices
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops
the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on
the contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing that
provides equal results may be considered for approval.
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads
shall be increased by 50 percent as an allowance for im-
pact and shock.
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
4.5.17.1 Materials
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, ingeneral, cast in
metal shells that shall remain permanently inplace. How-
ever, other types of cast-in-place piles, plain or reinforced,
cased or uncased, may be used if the soil conditions per-
mit their use and if their design and method of placing are
satisfactory.
4.5.17.2 Shape
Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform cross-
section or may be tapered over any portion.
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area
The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 100
inches and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile
shall be 8 inches. Above the butt or taper, the minimum
size shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements
Cast-in-place piles.,carrying axial loads only where the
possibility of lateral forces being applied tothe piles is in-
significant, need not be reinforced where the soil provides
adequate lateral support. Those portions of cast-in-place
concrete piles that are not supported laterally shall be de-
signed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with
Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and the reinforcing steel shall
extend 10 feet below the plane where the soil provides ad-
equate lateral restraint. Where the shell is smooth pipe and
more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may be considered as
load carrying inthe absence of corrosion. Where the shell
is corrugated and is at least 0.075 inch in thickness, it may
be considered as providing confinement in the absence of
corroston.
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junc-
tion of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into the
cap shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements
The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength
so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven and
the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The plans
shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell must be
approved by the Engineer before any driving is done.
4.5.17.7 Splices
Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the
full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing pro-
viding equal results may be considered for approval.
4.5.17.8 Reinf orcement C over
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
not less than 2 inches from the cased or uncased sides.
When piles are in corrosive or marine environments, or
when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displace-
ment methods, the clear distance shall not be less than
3 inches for uncased piles and piles with shells not suffi-
ciently corrosion reststant.
4.5.18 St eel H-Piles
4.5.18 .1 Metal Thickness
S t eel p i l es s ha l l ha v e a m i n i m u m t hi c kn es s o f web o f
0.400 inch. Splice plates shall not be less than > ~ in. thick.
4.5.18 .2 Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.
The flanges and web shall be either spliced by butt weld-
ing or with plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans. Prefabri-
4.5.18 .2 DIV ISION IDESIGN 77
cated splicers may be used if the splice can develop the
net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear, and
bending.
4.5.18 .3 Caps
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embed-
ded in concrete.
4.5.18 .4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers
These devices may be used to increase the bearing ca-
pacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of
structural shapeswelded, riveted, or boltedof plates
welded between the flanges, or of timber or concrete
blocks securely fastened.
4.5.18 .5 Point Attachments
If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris fill
or obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be reinforced
with structural shapes or with prefabricated cast steel
points. Cast steel points shall meet the requirements of
ASTM A27.
4.5.19 Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than in-
dicated in the following table:
a portion of the pile, the pile will be investigated for col-
umn action. The provisions of Article 4.5.8 shall apply to
unfilled tubular steel piles.
4.5.20 Prestressed ConcretePiles
4.5.20.1 Size and Shape
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal,
square or circular shall be of approved size and shape. Air
entrained concrete shall be used inpiles that are subject to
freezing and thawing or wetting and drying. Concrete in
prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive
strength, f, of 5,000 psi at 28 days. Prestressed concrete
piles may be solid or hollow. For hollow piles, precau-
tionary measures should be taken toprevent breakage due
to internal water pressure during driving, ice pressure tn
trestle piles, and gas pressure due to decomposition of ma-
terial used to form the void.
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement
Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as
to provide a compressive stress on the pile after losses f
general not less than 700 psi to prevent cracking during
handling and installation. Piles shall be designed to resist
stresses developed during handling as well as under ser-
vice load conditions. Bending stresses shall be investi-
gated for all conditions of handling, taking into account
the weight of the pile plus 50-percent allowance for im-
pact, with tensile stresses limited to 5 f>
Outside Diameter Less than 14 inches
14 inches and over
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement
Wall Thickness 0.25 inch 0.375 inch
4.5.19.2 Splices
Piles shall be spliced todevelop the full section of the
pile. The piles shall be spliced either by butt welding or
by the use of welded sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on
the contract plans.
4.5.19.3 Driving
Tubular steel piles may be driven either closed or open
ended. Closure plates should not extend beyond the
perimeter of the pile.
4.5.19.4 Column Action
Where the piles are to be used as part of a bent struc-
ture or where heavy scour is anticipatedthat would expose
The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be en-
closed within spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 24
inches in diameter, spiral wire shall be No. S (U.S. Steel
Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these piles
shall have a pitch of 3 inches for approximately 16 turns.
In addition, the top 6 inches of pile shall have five turns of
spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the remainder of the
pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral rein-
forcement with not more than 6-inch pitch. For piles hav-
ing diameters greater than 24 inches, spiral wire shall be
No. 4 (U.S. Steel Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the
end of these piles shall have a pitch of 2 inches for ap-
proximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 6 inches of pile
shall have four turns of spiral winding at I Y 2 inches. For
the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall be en-
closed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 4-
inch pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
distance from the face of the prestressed pile of not less
than 2 inches.
78
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.5.20.4
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles
Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of ap-
proved size and shape. The wall thickness for cylinder
piles shall not be less than 5 inches. The grouting of post-
tensioning tendons shall be in accordance with Article
4.33.9Division II.
4.5.20.5 Splices
Whenprestressed concrete piles are spliced, the splice
shall be capable of developing the full section of the pile.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
4.5.21 Timber Piles
4.5.21.1 Materials
Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the
Specifications for Wood Products, AASHTOM 168. Tim-
ber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on the
contract plans. Preservative treatment shall conformto the
requirements of Section 16, Preservative Treatments for
Lumber.
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber
Pile Use
Untreated timber piles may be used for temporary con-
struction, revetments, fenders, and similar work, and in
permanent construction under the following conditions:
For foundation piling when the cutoff is below per-
manent ground water level.
For trestle construction when it is economical to do
so, although treated piles are preferable.
They shall not be used where they will, or may, be
exposed to marine borers.
They shall not be used where seismic design con-
siderations are critical.
4.5.21.3 Limitations on TreatedTimber Pile Use
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic
design considerations are critical.
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS
4.6.1 General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
of axially and laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or ex-
tending through soil to or into rock.
4.6.1.1 Application
Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings
cannot be founded on suitable soil or rock strata within a
reasonable depth and when piles are not economically vi-
able due to high loads or obstructions to driving. Drilled
shafts may be used in lieu of spread footings as a protec-
tion against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered
to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation tol-
erances are small.
4.6.1.2 Materials
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include
deformed bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections,
and/or permanent steel casing as required by design. In
every case, materials shall be supplied inaccordance with
the provisions of this Standard.
4.6.1.3 Construction
Drilled shafts may be constructed usingthe dry, casing,
or wet method of construction, or a combination of meth-
ods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement,
and all other aspects of shaft construction shall be
performed in conformance with the provisions of this
Standard.
4.6.1.4 Embedment
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on verti-
cal and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and sub-
surface materials
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter
For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through
the overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at
least 6 inches less than the inside diameter of the casing
to facilitate drill tool insertion and removal through the
casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring casing
through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be
equal to the shaft diameter through the soil.
4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts
The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capac-
ity of foundations is not recommended due to their diffi-
culty of construction and high cost. Instead, consideration
should first be given toincreasing the shaft diameter to ob-
tain the required lateral capacity.
79
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill
Shafts extending through embankments shall extend a
minimum of 10 feet into original ground unless bedrock
or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration.
Fill used for embankment construction shall be random
fill material having adequate capacity which shall not ob-
struct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative
skin friction loads due to settlement and consolidation of
embankment or underlying soils shall be evaluated for
shafts in embankments. (See Article 4.6.5.2.5.)
4 . 6 . 2 N ot at ions
drilled shaft foundations in soil and rock:
a =Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
A =Area of shaft (ft
2)
A, =Area of shaft tip (ft2)
b = Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
B =Shaft diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
Bb =Diameter of enlarged base (ft); (See Article
4.6.3)
B
1 = L ea s t wi d t h o f s ha f t gr o u p (ft); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
B, = Diameter of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
B, =Tip diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
Cm = Uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass
(ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
C,, =Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock
(ksf)
D =Shaft length (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
=Length of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
=Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced
shaft (ksf)
=Elastic modulus of intact rock (ksf)
Em =Elastic modulus of rock mass (ksf)
FS =Factor of safety (dim)
=Ultimate load transfer along shaft (ksf); (See Ar-
ticles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
H =Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer
(ft); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
=Depth interval (dim); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and
4.6.5.1.2)
=Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed
shafts loaded in compression (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.5.2)
1p u = Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed
shafts loaded in uplift (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.5.2)
N =Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
N =Standard penetration test blow count corrected
for effects of overburden (blows/ft)
=Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.1.3)
N, =Number of depth intervals into which shaft is di-
vided for determination of side resistance (dim);
(See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
P =Lateral load on shaft (k)
Q =Total axial compression load applied to shaft butt
( k)
=Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent shaft
for a group of shafts supported in strong layer
overlying weaker layer (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
=Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in weaker underlying soil layer (ksf);
=Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (k)
qup =Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in stronger upper soil layer (ksf); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
=Ultimate side resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
qsR = Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft!rock
interface (psi); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Q SR =Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.1)
=Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (ksf); (See
Articles 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
qIR =Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced for
size effects (ksf); (See Equations 4.6.5.1.3-3 and
4.6.5.1.4-2)
=Ultimate tip resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
QTR = Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.2)
=Ultimate axial load capacity (k); (See Article
4.6.5.1)
RQD = Rock Quality Designation (dim)
5,, = Incremental undrained shear strength as a func-
tion over ith depth interval (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.1.1)
5,,, = Undrained shear strength within 2B below shaft
tip (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
W = Weight of shaft (k)
= Depth to midpoint of ith interval (ft); (See Arti-
cle 4.6.5.1.2)
=Adhesion factor (dim)
a, =Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth in-
terval (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1)
=Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus
and uniaxial strength from the modulus and
80
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.6.2
uniaxial strength of intact rock (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.3.1)
3, =Load transfer factor inthe ith interval (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.2)
= Effective soil unit weight in ith interval (kcf);
Az, =ith increment of shaft length (ft)
=Factor to account for reduced individual capac-
ity of closely spaced shafts in group (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.1)
=Elastic shortening of shaft (ft); (See Articles
4.6.5.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.5.1.2)
p. =Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft
with rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2)
=Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with
rock socket (ft); (See Equation 4.6.5.5.2)
=3.1415 (dim)
= Poissons ratio (dim)
a. =Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass
or concrete, whichever is weaker (psi); (See Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.3.1)
a,., =Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth
interval (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2)
ing: dim = Dimensionless; deg =degree; ft =foot; k =
kip; k/ft =kip/ft; ksf =kip/ft
2; and kef =kip/ft3. The di-
mensional units providedwith each notation are presented
for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally cor-
rect combination of units for the shaft capacity and settle-
ment procedures presented below. If other units are used,
the dimensional correctness of the equations should be
confirmed.
R ef er t o F i gu r e 4.6.3A for terminology used in design
of drilled shafts.
4 . 6 . 4 Select ion of Soil and Rock Properties
Soil and rock propertiesdefining the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
required for drilled shaft design.
4 . 6 . 4 . 1 Presu mpt ive V alu es
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
soil and rock may be used only for guidance, preliminary
design or design of temporary structures. The use of pre-
sumptive values shall be based on the results of subsur-
face exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All
values used for design shall be confirmed by field and/or
laboratory testing.
4.6.4.2 Measured Values
Foundation stability and settlement analyses for final
design shall be performed using soil and rock properties
based on the results of field and/or laboratory testing.
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design
Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design
loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and
with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles
4.6.5 and 4.6.6. In addition, the response of drilled shafts
subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, materials and
s ha f t s ha l l b e ev a l u a t ed i n c o n f o r m a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l es
4.4.7.3 (dynamic ground stability) and 4.6.5.7, respec-
tively.
Shaft design shall be based on working stress princi-
ples using maximum unfactored loads derived from cal-
culations of deadand live loads from superstructures, sub-
structures, earth (i.e., sloping ground), wind and traffic.
Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined by
separate methods of analysis.
The design methods presented herein for determining
axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross-
section, with vertical alignment, concentric axial loading,
and a relatively horizontal ground surface. The effects of
an enlarged base, group action, and sloping ground are
treated separately.
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil
The ultimate axial capacity (Q ~s) of drilled shafts shall
be determined in accordance with the following for com-
pression and uplift loading, respectively:
Q UI, = Q
5 +Q T W
Q uii =O.
7Qs + W
(4.6.5.1-1)
(4.6.5.1-2)
The allowable or working axial load shall be deter-
m i n ed a s :
=Q,,
5/FS
(4.6.5.1-3)
S ha f t s i n c o hes i v e s o i l s m a y b e d es i gn ed b y t o t a l a n d
effective stress methods of analysis, for undrained and
drained loading conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohe-
sionless soils shall be designed by effective stress ineth-
ods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
4.6.5.1.1
DIVISION IDESIGN
81
ULIIM AlE AX IAL LOAD
C APA~ TY ( Q. ~ )
iF RESISTANtI (0,)
a. SHAFT IN SOIL
sOcKET DIAUEiER (a)
b. SHAFT IN SOIL ~ThROCK SOCKET
FIGURE 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained
loading conditions, the ultimate side resistance may be es-
timated usingthe following:
from a consolidating clay), effective stress methods (Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to compute Q~ in the zone
where such changes may occur.
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
N
=it B ~ ct S, ,
1 Az~ (4.6.5.1.1 - I)
i =t
The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any
depth f,, is equal to the product of a, and s,,~ Referto Table
4.6.5.1.1 A for guidance regarding selection of a, and lim-
iting values of f, for shafts excavated dry inopen orcased
holes. Environmental, long-term loading or construction
factors may dictate that a depth greater than 5 feet should
be ignored in estimating Q5. Refer to Figure 4.6.5.l.IA
for identification of portions of drilled shaft not consid-
ered in contributing to the computed value of Q5. For
s ha f t s i n c o hes i v e s o i l u n d er d r a i n ed l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,
Qs may be determined using the procedure in Article
4.6.5.1.2.
Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength
may occur (e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag
For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress
analysis of shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading
conditions, the ultimate side resistance of axially loaded
drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
N
The value of 13, may be determined using the follow-
ing:
(4.6.5.1.2 2)
The value of y~ should be determined from measure-
ments from undisturbed samples along the length of the
shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other in-
situ test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer in side
SUiT
0
0.~t
LAIERAL LOAD ( P)
REJNVW~~NG
SlEEL ( F REQ UItED)
513E RE3STAN4ZE (Q 1)
I BELL USED AS NECESSARY~
3 1 1 VARIES - N O LARDER
ThAN 38
1 BELL INAIAEJER (Be)
Orn
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 4 . 6 . 5 . l. IA Recommended V alu es of a and f ~
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in
Cohesive Soil Reese and ONeill (198 8 )
Limiting
Value of Load
V alu e
Locat ion Along Drilled Shaf t of a
Transf er, ~
( ksf )
From grou nd su rf ace t o dept h 0
al~ rng drilled shaf t of 5 f t *
Bot t om 1 diamet er of t he 0
drilled shaf t or I st em diame
t er above t he t op of t he bell ( if
skin f ricion is being u sed)
All other points along the 0.55
sides of the drilled shaft
5.5
* The dept h of 5 f t may need adju st ment if t he drilled shaft is installed
in expansive clay, or if there is substantial groundline deflection
fromlateral loading.
T op Five Feet
~ N oncontnbU tlng
Bottom On. Diameter
N ancontnbuting
-4--
resistance at any depth, f,,, is equal tothe product of 13, and
a,~. The limiting value of f,, for shafts in cohesionless soil
is 4 ksf.
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to
undrained loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance
of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
Q T =q TA, =N~s,,,A,
(4.6.5. 1.3-1)
V alues of the bearing capacity factor N~ may be deter-
mined using the following:
N,, =6.011 + 0. 2 ( D/B , ) ] ; N _ 9
(4.6.5.1.3-2)
The limiting value of unit end bearing (qT =N~s,,,) is
80 ksf.
The value of s,,, should be determined from the results
of in-situ and/or laboratory testingof undisturbed samples
Bottom One Diameter*
of Stem
N oncontnbU ting
Penphery of Bell
N oncontnbuting
Straight Shaft
Belied Shaft
Two Diameters in StIff Fissured Clay.
FIGURE4.6.5.1.lA Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of
Drilled Shaf t Side Resist ance in C ohesive Soil
Reese and O N eill ( 1 988)
82
4.6.5.1.2
4.6.5.1.3 DIV ISION IDESIGN
83
obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the
v a l u e o f N~ s ho u l d b e r ed u c ed b y o n e-t hi r d .
IfB, >6.25 feet (75 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of q.~. shouldbe reduced to qTR
as follows:
qTR = FrqT =(2.5/[aB,/12 + 2 . 5 b ] ) q T
a =0.0071 + 0. 002 1 ( D/B , ) ; a =0. 01 5
b =0. 4 5 ( s, , , Y
5 ; 0. 5 =b =1.5
(4.6.5.1.3-3)
( 4 . 6 . 5 . 1 . 3 -4 )
(4.6.5.1.3-5)
TABLE 4.6.5.l.4A Recommended Values of qT*
f or Est imat ion of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in
C ohesionless Soil af t er Reese and O N eill ( 1 988)
Standard
Penetration Resistance
N
(Blows/Foot)
(uncorrected)
Value of qT
(ksf)
l.20N 0to75
Above 75 90
~Ultimatevalue or value at settlement of 5 p er c en t o f b a s e d i a m et er .
The limiting value of qTR is 80 ksf.
For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading con-
ditions, QT may be estimated using the procedure de-
scribed in Article 4.6.5.1.4.
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils
or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled
shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip resistance may be
estimated using the following:
Q T =qTAI
(4.6.5.1.4-1)
The value of qT may be determined from the results of
standard penetration testing usinguncorrected blow count
readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
Refer to Table 4.6.5.1 .4Afor recommended values of q.r.
If B,>4.2 feet (50 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of q~ should be reduced toqTR
as follows:
qTR =(50/12B,)qT
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength
with Depth
The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil de-
posits having variable strength with depth requires evalu-
ation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective
layers ordepths. Q~ in such soil deposits may be estimated
by dividing the shaft into layers according to soil type and
properties, determining Q
5 for each layer, and summing
values for each layer to obtain the total Qs. If the soil
below the shaft tip is of variable consistency, QT may be
estimated using the predominant soil strata within 2B
below the shaft tip.
For shafts extending through soft compressible layers
to tip bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be
given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article
4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils sur-
rounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on a
thin firm soil layer underlainby a softer soil unit, the shaft
shall be extended through the softer soil unit to eliminate
the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer
deposit.
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
design.
4.6.5.2.3 EnlargedBases
An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used at
the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip bear-
ing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, or to
provide additional resistance to uplift loads.
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be deter-
mined assuming that the entire base area ts effective in
transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the
(4.6.5.1.4-2) enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of
the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be ac-
ceptably completed before concrete placement.
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects
of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible.
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil
shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the
ground, Q,,5 may be computed as the lesser of (I) the sum
of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or
(2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the
perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, the
8 4
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.6.5.2 .4.1
shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor
(e.g., a
1) to determine the Q~ component of Q,,1,, the total
base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine
the Q T component of Q,,,, and the additional capacity of
the cap shall be ignored.
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if
the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual ca-
pacity of each shaft shouldbe reducedto ~ times Q T for an
isolated shaft, where ~ = 0.67 for a center-to-center
( C TC ) spacing of 3 B and ~ = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
6B. For intermediate spacings, the value of ~may be de-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
then be computed as the lesser of (I) the sum of the mod-
ified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or (2)
the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft should be reducedto ~times Q T for
an isolated shaft, where ~ = 0.67 for a center-to-center
( C TC ) spacing of 3 B and ~ = 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
8B. For intermediate spacings, the value of ~may be de-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
be computed as the lesser of (I) the sum of the modified
individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the
capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group,
including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying
Weaker Soil
If a group of shafts is embedded in a strong soil deposit
which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohe-
sive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for
a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. For
this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft (q~)
may be determined using the following:
qE =qLo + (HIl0B,)(q51~ q~0) =q,~ (4.6.5.2.4.3-1)
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil
strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential
for large settlements in the weaker layer.
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical GroundMovement
The pot ent ial f or ext ernal loading on a shaf t by verti-
cal ground movement (i.e., negative skin friction/down-
drag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift due
toheave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a part of
design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed that the
full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground
movement occurs.
Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a
load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral
point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load
distribution along shaft (e.g., Reese and ONeill, 1988).
Due to the possible time dependence associated with ver-
tical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the ef-
fed of time on load transfer between the ground and shaft
and the analysis shall be performed for the time period re-
lating to the maximum axial load transfer to the shaft.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extendto a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils
to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift movement.
In addition, sufficient clearance shall be providedbetween
the ground surface and underside of caps or beams con-
necting shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at
the shaft/cap connection from swellingground conditions.
Uplift capacity shall rely only on side resistance in con-
formance with Article 4.6.5.1. If the shaft has an enlarged
base, Q5 shall be determined in conformance withArticle
4.6.5.2 .3.
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction
The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled
shafts can be greatly affected by the quality and method(s)
of construction. The effects of construction methods are
incorporatedin design by application of a factor of safety
consistent with the expected construction method(s) and
level of field quality control measures (Article 4.6.5.4).
Where the spacing between shafts in a group is re-
stricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft con-
struction operations on recently constructed shafts.
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock
Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial dis-
placements, increase load capacity and/or provide fixity
for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the axial
capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side resis-
tance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
Typically, axial compression load is carried solely by
the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a
total shaft settlement (ps) on the order of 0.4 inches oc-
curs. At this displacement, the ultimate side resistance,
QSR, is mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete
and rock. As a result of this slip, any additional load is
transferred to the tip.
The design procedures assume the socket is con-
structed in reasonably sound rock that is little affected by
4.6.5.3
DIVISION IDESIGN
85
construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excava-
tion and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned
prior to concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and other de-
bris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
duced socket capacities should be considered.
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (Q T R ) for rock-
socketed drilled shafts shall consider the influence of rock
discontinuities. Q T R for rock-socketed drilled shafts may
be determined using the following:
Q TR = Nm~CoAi
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance
(4.6.5.3.2-I)
The ultimate side resistance (Q SR ) for shafts socketed
into rock may be determined using the following:
Q SR = T T B r D r (0.l44qsR ) (4.6.5.3.1-I )
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1 A for values of q,,~. For uplift
loading Q,,, of a rock socket shall be limited to O .
7 Q S R .
The design of rock sockets shall be based on the un-
confined compressive strength of the rock mass (C,,,) or
concrete, whichever is weaker (a~). C,,, may be estimated
using the following relationship:
Cm =aECO (4.6.5.3.1-2)
Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to deter-
mine uF as a function of RQD.
Preferably, values of C
0 should be determined from the
results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within
2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata within this
interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
capacity should be used to determine Q TR. Alternatively,
Table 4.4.8.l.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C,,.
For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of Q TR
cannot be less than the value of Q T for an equivalent soil
mass.
4.6.5.3.3 FactorsAffecting Axial Capacity in Rock
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification
Rock stratification shall be considered in the design of
rock sockets as follows:
in
0.
0
ILl
C,
z
4
I
in
bJ
ci:
w
a
i~i
I
z
I
La
V
0
in
0
0
r 20
200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000 20.000
UNCONFINED COMP RESSIVE STRENG Th OF ROCK OR CONCRETE. WHICHEVER IS WEAKER.G c(psi)
FIGURE 4 . 6 . 5 . 3 . IA Procedu re f or Est imat ing Average Unit Shear f or Smoot h Wall Rock-Socket ed Shaf t s
Horvat h, et al. ( 1 983 )
86
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.6.5.3.3.1
Sockets embedded in alternatinglayers of weak and
strong rock shall be designed using the strength of
the weaker rock.
The side resistance provided by soft or weathered
rock should be neglected indetermining the required
socket length where a socket extends into more com-
petent underlying rock. Rock is definedas soft when
the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker rock
is less than 20 percent of that of the stronger rock, or
weathered when the RQD is less than 20 percent.
Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid rock
strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be
extended into or through the weaker unit (depending
on load capacity or deformation requirements) to
eliminate the potential for failure due to flexural ten-
sion or punching failure of the thin rigid stratum.
Shafts designed to bear on strata in which the rock
surface is inclined should extend to a sufficient depth
toensure that the shaft tip is fully bearingon the rock.
Shafts designed to bear on rock strata in which bed-
ding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft axis
shall extend a minimum depth of 2B into the dipping
strata to minimize the potential for shear failure
along natural bedding planes and other slippage sur-
faces associated with stratification.
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities
The strength and compressibility of rock will be af-
fected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and frac-
tures). The influence of discontinuities on shaft behavior
will be dependent on their attitude, frequency and condi-
tion, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as nec-
essary.
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction
The effect of the method of construction on the engi-
neering properties of the rockand the contact between the
rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design
process.
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be de-
signed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bear-
ing capacity failure (end bearing, side resistance or com-
bined) when the design is basedon the results of a load test
conducted at the site. Otherwise, shafts shall be designed
for a minimum factor of safety 2.5. The minimum recom-
mended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal
level of field quality control during shaft construction. If a
normal level of f ield q u alit y cont rol cannot be assu red,
higher minimum factors of safety shall be used.
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts
The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or
allowable loads shall be estimated using elastic or load
transfer analysis methods. For most cases, elastic analysis
will be applicable for design provided the stress levels in
the shaft are moderate relative to Q,,,,. Where stress levels
are high, consideration shouldbe given to methods of load
transfer analysis.
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil
Settlements should be estimated for the design or
working load.
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil
may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.l.IA and
4.6.5.5.1.1 B. The curves presented indicate the propor-
tions of the ultimate side resistance (Qs) and ultimate tip
resistance (Q T) mobilized at various magnitudes of settle-
ment. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
sum of the mobilized side resistance (Qs) and mobilized
tip resistance (Q,).
The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1 A incorporates the
effects of elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft
is of typical length (i.e., D <1 00 f t ) . F o r l o n ger s ha f t s , t he
effects of elastic shortening may be estimated using the
following:
p. =PD/ AEC (4.6.5.5.1. 1-1)
For a shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the
diameter of the shaft at the base (Bb) should be used in
Figure 4.6.5.5.I.lB to estimate shaft settlement at the tip.
Refer toArticle 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures to estimate the
consolidation settlement component for shafts extending
into cohesive soil deposits.
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesion-
less soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.l.2A
and 4.6.5.5.l.2B. The curves presented indicate the
proportions of the ultimate side resistance (Q~) and
ultimate tip resistance (Q T) mobilized at various magni-
tudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q)
is equal to the sum of the mobilized side resistance (Qs)
and mobilized t ip resist ance (Q,). Elastic shortening
of the shaft shall be estimated using the following rela-
tionship:
Pe = PD/AE~ (4.6.5.5.1.2~~I)
4.6.5.5.1.2 DIVISION IDESIGN
87
U
C
(U
I-
~1
S
in
C
U
I-
0
S
U,
E
5
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Settlement
Diameter of Shaft
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.l.lA Load Transfer in
Side Resist ance V ersu s Settlement Drilled Shafts in
C ohesive Soil
Af t er Reese and O N eill ( 1 988)
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile
The short-termsettlement of shafts in a mixed soil pro-
file may be estimated by summing the proportional settle-
ment components from layers of cohesive and cohesion-
less soil comprising the subsurface profile.
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled
shafts, the resistance to deformation provided by overly-
ing soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load
transfer to soil as a function of displacement may be esti-
mated inaccordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1.
The butt settlement (pj of drilled shafts fully sock-
eted into rock may be determined using the following
which is modified to include elastic shortening of the
shaft:
=Q [(I p ,,/B r E m) + (Dr/AEc)] (4.6.5.5.21)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2A to determine ~
The uplift displacement (p,,) at the butt of drilled shafts
fully socketed into rock may be determined using the fol-
lowing which is modified to include elastic shortening of
the shaft:
0
C
C.
C
w a
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.l.lB Load Transfer in
Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts in
C ohesive Soil
=Q ,,[(I p ,,/B r E ,,,) + ( D/ AEJ ] (4.6.5.5.2 2 )
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine I,,,.
The rock mass modu lu s ( E, , , ) shou ld be deter-
mined based on the results of in-situ testing (e.g.,
pressure-meter) or estimated from the results of labora-
tory tests in which E,, is the modulus of intact rock spec-
imens, and (E,,) is estimated in accordance with Article
4.4.8.2.2.
For preliminary design or when site-specific test
data cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating
values of E,,, such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses
or for final design when in-situ test results are not
available, a value of av = 0.15 should be used to esti-
mate E,,,.
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be based on the
results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize
1.2
0.I
Rang e at Raulta
Trnd Ufie
Rang . of Remits
Trend Un
0 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 1 0
Set t lement of Base
Diameter of Base
88
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.6.5.5.3
I
A
A
S
0
S
(U
S
C
w
FIGURE 4 . 6 . S. S. I. 2 A Load Transf er in
Side Resist ance V ersu s Set t lement Drilled Shaf t s in
C ohesionless Soil
the load-deformationbehavior of the foundation materials.
Refer toArticle 4.4.7.2.5 for additional guidance regarding
tolerable vertical and horizontal movement criteria.
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall ac-
count for the effects of soillrock-structure interaction be-
tween the shaft and ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden and
Gabr, 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded shafts (e.g.,
Broms, I 964a,b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used for pre-
liminary design only as a means todetermine approximate
shaft dimensions.
4.6.5.6.1 FactorsAffecting Laterally Loaded Shafts
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered
soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters
characteristic of the respective layers.
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
design.
I0
S
(U
U
0
C
w
U
(U
2 . 0
FIGURE 4 . 6 . 5 . 5 . l. 2 B Load Transf er in
Tip Bearing V ersu s Set t lement Drilled Shaf t s in
C ohesionless Soil
After Reese and ONeill (198 8 )
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour
The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour
shall be considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2
and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hy-
draulic studies and design. If heavy scour is expected,
consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,
the shaft length shall be determined such that the design
structural load can be safely supported entirely below the
probable scour depth.
4.6.5.6.1.4 GroupAction
There is no reliable rational method for evaluating
the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded
shafts. Therefore, as a general guide, drilled shafts
in a group may be considered to act individually when
the center-to-center (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.SB
tn the direction normal to loading, and CTC > 8 B in
the direction parallel to loading. For shaft layouts
not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft inter-
action shall be considered in the design. As a general
guide, the effects of group action for in-line CTC < 8 B
may be considered using the ratios (CGS, 1985) appear-
ing on page 89.
t 2 ~
to I
0.2
1.8
1.6
Rang e of Remits for
OeflecIonSofts~ng Response
Rang e of Reajis for
Oeflecuonf4ardeftng Response
Trend Line
0.0
0.0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Set t lement
Diameter of Shaft
Rang e of Remu s
Trend Line
10 11 12
12345678
Settlement of Base
Diameter of Base
4.6.5.6.1.4
DIVISION IDESIGN 89
pa
FIGURE4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for
Elast ic Set t lement of Rock. Socket ed Drilled Shaf t s
M odif ied af t er Pells and Tu rner ( 1 97 9)
CTC Shaft Spacing
for In-line Loading
8B
6B
4B
3B
10
09
08
07
0~ 6
0S
03
02
0l
cog
006
007
0 06
Ratio of Lateral
Resistance of Shaft in
Group to Single Shaft
1.00
0. 7 0
0.40
0.2 5
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic
cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of later-
ally loaded drilled shafts shall be considered during de-
sign. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic load-
ing may be considered in the C0M624 analysis (Reese,
1984).
4.6.5.6.1.6 CombinedAxial and Lateral Loading
The effects of lateral loading incombination with axial
loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis of
drilled shafts subjected to combined loading may be con-
sidered in the C0M624 analysis (Reese, 1984).
0 I 2 3 4 ~ 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2B Influence Coefficient for
Elast ic Uplif t Displacement of Rock-Socket ed
Drilled Shaf t s
Modified after Pells and Turner ( 1 97 9)
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground
For drilled shaf t s which ext end t hrou gh or below
sloping ground, the potential for additional lateral
loading shall be considered in the design. The
general method of analysis developed by Borden
and Gabr (1987) may be used for the analysis of shafts
in stable slopes. For shafts in marginally stable slopes,
additional consideration should be given for low
factors of safety against slope failure or slopes showing
ground creep, or when shafts extend through fills over-
lying soft foundation soils and bear into more competent
underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable ground,
detailed explorations, testing and analysis are required to
evaluate potential additional lateral loads due to slope
movements.
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements
Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
bearings, anticipatedservice life, and consequences of un-
acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
Drilled shaft lateral displacement analysis shall be based
on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to char-
acterize the load-deformation behavior of the foundation
materials.
I I I I I I I
~0rcc
G ap
Ec
0 2
(
-/
l
-1
05
cc
Em 10
2
III I I I
0r8 r
90 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.6.5.6.7
4 . 6 . 5 . 7 Dynamic/ Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-ASeismic Design and Lam
and Martin (I 986a; I 986b) for guidance regarding the de-
sign of drilled shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic
loads.
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft
Dimensions
4.6.6.1 General
Drilled shafts shall be designed to insure that the shaft
will not collapse or suffer loss of serviceability due to ex-
cesstve stress and/or deformation. Shafts shall be de-
signed to resist failure following applicable procedures
presented in Section 8.
All shafts should be sized in 6-inch increments with a
minimum shaft diameter of 18 inches. The diameter of
shafts with rock sockets should be sized a minimum of 6
inches larger than the diameter of the socket. The diame-
ter of columns supported by shafts shall be less than or
equal to B.
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement
Where the potential for lateral loading is insignificant,
drilled shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only.
Those portions of drilled shafts that are not supported
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete
columns in accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4,
and the reinforcing steel shall extend a minimum of 10
feet below the plane where the soil provides adequate
lateral restraint.
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell
is smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it
may be considered as load carrying in the absence of
corrosion.
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement
shall be in conformance with the requirements of Articles
8.18.1 and 8.18.2.2, respectively. Development of de-
formed reinforcement shall be in conformance with the
requirements of Articles 8.24, 8.26, and 8.27.
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing
The minimum clear distance between longitudinal
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the bar diam-
eter nor 3 times the maximum aggregate size. If bars are
bundled in forming the reinforcing cage, the minimum
clear distance between longitudinal reinforcement shall
not be less than 3 times the diameter of the bundled bars.
Where heavy reinforcement is required, consideration
may be given to an inner and outer reinforcing cage.
4.6.6.2.2 Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in ten-
sion and compression. The location of splices shall be
staggered around the perimeter of the reinforcing cage so
as not to occur at the same horizontal plane. Splices may
be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved
connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the re-
quirements of Article 8.32.
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist
stresses caused by fresh concrete flowing from inside the
cage to the side of the excavated hole. Transverse rein-
forcement may be constructed of hoops or spiral steel.
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses
Reinforcement cages shall be designed to resist han-
dling and placement stresses.
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
not less than 2 inches from the permanently cased or 3
inches from the uncased sides. When shafts are con-
structed in corrosive or marine environments, or when
concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 4 inches
for uncased shafts and shafts with permanent casings not
sufficiently corrosion resistant.
The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole
using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall
be epoxy coated.
4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the
junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a
suitable connection. The embedment of the reinforcement
into the cap shall be in conformance with Articles 8.24
and 8.25.
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases
Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain
concrete is not overstressed. The enlarged base shall slope
at a side angle not less than 30 degrees from the vertical
and have a bottom diameter not greater than 3 times the
4.6.6.3
diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the bottom edge of
the enlarged base shall not be less than 6 inches.
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing
The center-to-center spacing ofdrilled shafts should be
3B or greater to avoid interference between adjacent
shafts during const ru ct ion. If closer spacing is required,
the sequence of construction shall be specified and the in-
teraction effects between adjacent shafts shall be evalu-
ated by the designer.
4.6.7 Load Testing
4.6.7.1 General
Where necessary, a full scale load test (or tests) should
be conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to confirm
response to load. Loadtests shall be conducted usinga test
shaft(s) constructed in a manner and of dimensions and
materials identical to those planned for the production
shafts into the materials planned for support. Loadtesting
should be conducted whenever special site conditions or
combinations of load are encountered, or when structures
of special design or sensitivity (e.g., large bridges) are to
be supported on drilled shaft foundations.
4 . 6 . 7 . 2 Load Test ing Procedu res
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
written procedures which have been developed from ac-
cepted standards (e.g., ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988) and
modified, as appropriate, for the conditions at the site.
Standard pile load testing procedures developed by the
American Society for Testing and Materials which may be
modified for testing drilled shafts include:
ASTM D 1143, Standard Method of Testing Piles
Under Static Axial Compressive Load;
ASTM D 3689, Standard Method of Testing Indi-
vidual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and
ASTM D 3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles
Under Lateral Loads.
A simplified procedure for testing drilled shafts per-
mitting determination of the relative contribution of side
resistance and tip resistance to overall shaft capacity is
also available (Osterberg, 1984).
As a minimum, the written test procedures should in-
clude the following:
Apparatus for applying loads includingreaction sys-
tem and loading system.
Apparatus for measuring movements.
Apparatus for measuring loads.
Procedures for loading including rates of load appli-
cation, load cycling and maximum load.
Procedures for measuring movements.
Safety requirements.
Data presentation requirements and methods of data
analysis.
Drawings showing the procedures and materials to
be used to construct the load test apparatus.
As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall pro-
vide the load-deformation response at the butt of the shaft.
When appropriate, information concerning ultimate load
capacity, load transfer, lateral load-displacement with
depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the degree of
fixity provided by caps and footings, and other data perti-
nent to the anticipated loading conditions on the produc-
tion shafts shall be obtained.
4 . 6 . 7 . 3 Load Test M et hod Select ion
Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be
based on an evaluation of the anticipated types and dura-
tion of loads during service, and shall include considera-
tion of the following:
The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof
load the foundation and verify design capacity).
The loads expected to act on the production founda-
tion (compressive and/or uplift, dead and/or live),
and the soil conditions predominant in the region of
concern.
The local practice or traditional method used insim-
ilar soil/rock deposits.
Time and budget constraints.
Part C
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTORDESIGN
N ot e t o User: Article Number 4.7 has been omitted in-
tentionally.
4.8 SCOPE
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design
of spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft
foundations.
92
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.9
4.9 DEFINITIONS
Batter PileA pile driven at an angle inclined to the
vertical to provide higher resistance to lateral loads.
Combination End-Bearing and Friction PilePile that
derives its capacity from the contributions of both end
bearing developed at the pile tip and resistance mobilized
along the embedded shaft.
Deep FoundationA foundation which derives its
support by transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth
below the structure by end bearing, by adhesion or fric-
tion or both.
Design LoadAll applicable loads and forces or their
related internal moments and forces used to proportion a
foundation. In load factor design, design load refers to
nominal loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design StrengthThe maximum load-carrying capac-
ity of the foundation, as defined by a particular limit state.
In load factor design, design strength is computed as the
product of the nominal resistance and the appropriate per-
formance factor.
Drilled ShaftA deep foundation unit, wholly or
parlly embedded in the ground, constructed by placing
fresh concrete in a drilled hole with or without steel rein-
forcement. Drilled shafts derive their capacities from the
surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata below
their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to as
caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or drilled piers.
End-Bearing PileA pile whose support capacity is
derived principally from the resistance of the foundation
material on which the pile tip rests.
Factored LoadLoad, multiplied by appropriate load
factors, used to proportion a foundation in load factor
design.
Friction PileA pile whose support capacity is de-
rived principally from soil resistance mobilized along the
side of the embedded pile.
Limit StateA limiting condition in which the foun-
dation and/or the structure it supports are deemed to be
unsafe (i.e., slrength limit state), or to be no longer fully
useful for their intended function (i.e., serviceability limit
state).
Load EffectThe force in a foundation system (e.g.,
axial force, sliding force, bending moment, etc.) due tothe
applied loads.
Load FactorA factor used to modify a nominal load
effect, which accounts for the uncertainties associated
with the determination and variability of the load effect.
LoadFactor DesignA design method in which safety
provisions are incorporated by separately accounting for
uncertainties relative to load and resistance.
Nominal LoadA typical value or a code-specified
value for a load.
Nominal ResistanceThe analytically estimated load-
carrying capacity of a foundation calculated using nomi-
nal dimensions and material properties, and established
soil mechanics principles.
Performance FactorAfactor used to modify a nom-
inal resistance, which accounts for the uncertainties asso-
ciated with the determination of the nominal resistance
and the variability of the actual capacity.
PileA relatively slender deep foundation unit.
wholly or partly embedded inthe ground, installedby driv-
ing, drilling. augering,jetting, or otherwise. and which de-
rives its capacity from the surrounding soil and/or from
the soil or rock strata below its tip.
PipingProgressive erosion of soil by seeping water,
producing an open pipe through the soil, through which
water flows in an uncontrolled and dangerous manner.
Shallow FoundationA foundation which derives its
support by transferring load directly to the soil or rock at
shallow depth. If a single slab covers the supporting stra-
tumbeneath the entire area of the superstructure. the foun-
dation is known as a combined footing. If various parts of
the structure are supported individually, the individual
supports are known as spread footings, and the foundation
is called a footing foundation.
4 . 1 0 LIM IT STATES, LOAD FAC TORS, AN D
RESISTAN C E FAC TORS
4.10.1 General
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the de-
sign to ensure an adequate degree of satety and service-
ability.
4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States
Service limit states for foundation design shall include:
settlements, and
lateral displacements.
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
movements shall be compared tothe cost of designingthe
superstructure sothat it can tolerate larger movements, or
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetinte cost. More
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
4.10.3 Strength Limit St.ates
Strength limit states for foundation design shall
include:
4.10.3 DIV ISION IDESIGN 93
bearing resistance failure,
excessive loss of contact,
sliding at the base of footing,
loss of overall stability, and
structural capacity.
Foundations shall be proportioned such that the fac-
tored resistance is not less than the effects of factored
loads specified in Section 3.
4.10.4 Strength Requirement
Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods
specified in Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design
strengths are at least equal to the required strengths.
The required strength is the combined effect of the fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, R,,,
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, 4). Methods for calculating nominal resistance are
provided in Articles 4. II through 4.13, and values of per-
formance factors are given in Article 4.10.6.
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors
Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely
all load combinations stipulated inArticle 3.22 which are
applicable to the particular site or foundation type. With
the exception of the portions of concrete or steel piles that
are above the ground line and are rigidly connected to the
superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous structures,
impact forces shall not be considered in foundation design.
(See Article 3.8.1.)
V alues of ~yand 13 coefficients for load factor design, as
given in Table 3.22.1 A. shall apply to strength limit state
considerations: while those for service load design (also
given in Table 3.22.IA) shall apply to serviceability con-
siderations.
4.10.6 Performance Factors
V alues of performance factors for different types of
foundation systems at strength limit states shall be as
specified inTables 4.10.6-1,4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3, unless
regionally specific values are available.
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-I.
4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capac-
ity, the performance factors chosen shall provide the same
reliability as those given in these tables.
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.11.1 General Considerations
4.11.1.1 General
Provisions of this Article shall apply to design of iso-
lated footings, and where applicable, to combined foot-
ings. Special attention shall be given to footings on fill.
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure
as nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil
pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil
and the structure, and with established principles of soil
mechanics.
4.11.1.2 Depth
The depth of footings shall be determined with respect
to the character of the foundation materials and the possi-
bility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall
be founded at depth below the maximum anticipated
depth of scour as specified in Article 4.11.1.3.
Footings not exposed to the action of stream current
shall be founded on a firm foundation and below frost
level.
Consideration shall be given to the use of either a
geotextile or graded granular filter layer to reduce sus-
ceptibility to piping in rip rap or abutment backfill.
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour counter-measure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel
dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting toembed
the footing below the rock surface.
4.11.1.4 Frost Action
In regions where freezing of the ground occurs during
the winter months, footings shall be founded below the
maximum depth of frost penetration in order to prevent
damage from frost heave.
4.11.1.5 Anchorage
Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid
rock surfaces and which are not restrained by an overbur-
den of resistant material shall be effectively anchored by
94 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4. 11.1.5
TABLE 4 . 1 0. 6 -1 Perf ormance Fact ors f or Strength Limit States for Shallow Foundations
Performance
Fact or (~)
T~,pe of Limit State
1 . Bearing capacit y
a. Sand
Semi-empirical procedu re u sing SPT dat a
Semi-empirical procedure u sing C PT dat a
Rational method
u sing 4~ est imat ed f rom SPT dat a
u sing ~f est imat ed f rom C PT dat a
b. C lay
Semi-empirical procedu re u sing CPT data
Rat ional met hod
u sing shear st rengt h measu red in lab t est s
u sing shear st rengt h measu red in f ield vane t est s
u sing shear st rengt h est imat ed f rom CPT data
c. Rock
Semi-empirical procedure (Carter and Kulbawy)
2. Sliding
Sliding on clay is cont rolled by t he st rengt h of t he clay when t he clay shear
st rengt h is less t han 0.5 t imes t he normal st ress, and is cont rolled by t he normal
st ress when t he clay shear st rengt h is great er t han 0. 5 t imes t he normal st ress.
a. Precast concret e placed on sand
u sing ~ est imat ed f rom SPT dat a
u sing
4~t est imat ed f rom CPT data
b. Concrete cast in place on sand
u sing ~t est imat ed f rom SPT dat a
u sing ~ est imat ed f rom CPT data
c. C lay ( where shear st rengt h is less t han 0. 5 t imes normal pressu re)
u sing shear st rengt h measu red in lab t est s
u sing shear st rengt h measu red in f ield t est s
u sing shear st rengt h est imat ed f rom CPT data
d. C lay ( where t he st rengt h is great er t han 0.5 t imes normal pressu re)
where 4~ =f rict ional angle of sand,
SPT =St andard Penet rat ion Test ,
CPT =Cone Penetration Test.
means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other
suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
4.11.1.6 Groundwater
Footings shall be designed for the highest anticipated
position of the groundwater table.
The influence of the groundwater table on bearing
capacity of soils or rocks, and settlements of the struc-
ture shall be considered. In cases where seepage
forces are present, they should also be included in the
analyses.
4.11.1.7 Uplift
Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces,
they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.11.1.8 Deterioration
Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by
sulfate, chloride, and acid attack should be investi-
gated. Laboratory testing of soil and groundwater
samples for sulfates, chloride and pH should be sufli-
cient to assess deterioration potential. When chemical
wastes are suspected, a more thorough chemical anal-
0.45
0.55
0.35
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.60
0.50
0.60
0.90
0.90
0.8 0
0.8 0
0.8 5
0.8 5
0.8 0
0.8 5
4.11.1.8 DIVISION IDESIGN 95
TABLE 4 . 1 0. 6 -2 Perf onnance Fact ors f or Geot echnical St rengt h Limit St at es in Axially Loaded Piles
Performance
Method/SoillCondition Factor
Ult imat e bearing capacit y Skin f rict ion a-met hod 0. 7 0
of single piles 1 3 -met hod 0. 5 0
X -met hod 0. 5 5
End bearing C lay ( Skempt on, 1 95 1 ) 0. 7 0
Sand ( Ku lhawy, 1 983 )
4 ) f f rom C PT 0. 4 5
( ~ ) ~ f rom SF1 0. 3 5
Rock ( C anadian 0. 5 0
Geot ech. Societ y,
1 985 )
Skin f rict ion and end bearing SPT-met hod 0. 4 5
C P I -met hod 0. 5 5
Load t est 0. 80
Pile driving analyzer 0. 7 0
Block failure Clay 0.65
Uplift capacity a-method 0.60
of single piles 13-method 0.40
X-method 0.45
SPT-method 0.35
CPI-method 0.45
Load Test 0.8 0
Grou p u plif t capacit y Sand 0. 5 5
C lay 0. 5 5
ysis of soil and groundwater samples should be con-
sidered.
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 9 N earby St ru ct u res
In cases where foundations are placed adjacent to ex-
isting structures, the influence of the existing structures on
the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foun-
dation on the existing structures, shall be investigated.
= footing width (in length units)
= reduced effective footing width (see
Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
= soil cohesion (in units of force/length2)
= correction factors for groundwater effect
(dimensionless)
= depth to footing base (in length units)
=depth to groundwater table (in length
units)
=elastic modulus of rock masses (in units
of force/length2)
N
Nm, N~m, Nqm
R
RQD
5
5,,
13
-y
y
=type of load
= reduced effective length (see Article
4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
=load type
=average value of standard penetration
test blow count (dimensionless)
=modified bearing capacity factors used in
analytic theory (dimensionless)
=cone resistance (in units of force/length2)
=ultimate bearing capacity (in units of
force/length2)
=reduction factor due to the effect of load
inclination (dimensionless)
=nominal resistance
=rock quality designation
= span length (in length units)
=undrained shear strength of soil (in units
of force/length2)
=load factor coefficient for load type i (see
Article C 4.10.4)
=load factor (see Article C4.10.4)
=total (moist) unit weight of soil (see Arti-
cle C 4.11.4.1.1)
4 . 1 1 . 2 N ot at ions
B
B
c
C~, Cm2
Em
TABLE 4 . 1 0. 6 -3 Perf ormance Fact ors f or Geot echnical St rengt h Limit St at es
in Axially Loaded Drilled Shaf t s
M et hod/ SoillC ondit ion
Perf ormance
Fact or
Ult imat e bearing capacit y Side resist ance in clay a-met hod ( Reese &
of single drilled shaf t s O N eill)
0.65
Base resist ance in clay Tot al St ress
( Reese &O N eill)
0. 5 5
Side resist ance in sand 1 ) Tou ma & Reese
2 ) M eyerhof
3 ) Qu iros &Reese
4 ) Reese & Wright
5 ) Reese &O N eill
See
discussion
in article
4.13.3.3.3
Base resist ance in sand 1 ) Tou ma & Reese
2 ) M eyerhof
3 ) Qu iros & Reese
4 ) Reese &Wright
5 ) Reese &O N eill
See
discu ssion
in art icle
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 3 . 3
Side resist ance in rock C art er &Ku lhawy
Horvat h and Kenney
0.55
0.65
Base resist ance in rock C anadian Geot echnical
Societ y
Pressu remet er M et hod
( C anadian Geot ech
nical Societ y)
0.50
0.50
Side resist ance and end bearing Load t est 0. 80
Block f ailu re C lay 0.65
Uplif t capacit y of C lay a-met hod ( Reese &
single drilled shaf t s O N eill)
Belled Shaf t s
( Reese &O N eill)
0. 5 5
0. 5 0
Sand 1 ) Tou ma &Reese
2 ) M eyerhof
3 ) Qu iros &Reese
4 ) Reese & Wright
5 ) Reese & O N eill
See
discu ssion
in
sect ion
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 3 . 3
Rock Carter & Kulhawy
Horvath & Kenney
0.45
0.55
Load test 0.8 0
Grou p u plif t capacit y Sand
C lay
0. 5 5
0. 5 5
4.11.2 DIV ISION IDESIGN
97
=differential settlement between adjacent
footings
= performance factor
= friction angle of soil
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit States
4.11.3.1 General
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement
and lateral displacement directions shall be investigated at
service limit states.
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated
when:
horizontal or inclined loads are present,
the foundation is placed on an embankment slope,
possibility of loss of foundation support through
erosion or scour exists, or
bearing strata are significantly inclined.
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses
Foundation settlements shall be estimated using de-
formation analyses based on the results of laboratory or
in situ testing. The soil parameters used in the analyses
shall be chosen to reflect the loading history of the
ground, the construction sequence and the effect of soil
layering.
Both total and differential settlements, including time
effects, shall be considered.
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on
Cohesionless Soils
Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall
make allowance for the fact that settlements in these soils
can be highly erratic.
No method should be considered capable of predicting
settlements of footings on sand with precision.
Settlements of footings on cohesionless soils may be
estimated using empirical procedures or elastic theory.
4.11.3.2 Loads 4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils
Immediate settlement shall be determined using the
service load combinations given inTable 3.22.IA. Time-
dependent settlement shall be determined using only the
permanent loads.
Settlement and horizontal movements caused by em-
bankment loadings behind bridge abutments should be in-
vestigated.
In seismically active areas, consideration shall be
given to the potential settlement of footings on sand re-
sulting from ground motions induced by earthquake load-
ings. For guidance in design, refer to Division I-A, Seis-
mic Design, of these Specifications.
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria
V ertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings
shall be developed consistent with the function and type
of structure, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements on structure performance. The
tolerable movement criteria shall be established by em-
pirical procedures or structural analyses.
The maximum angular distortion (B/s) between
adjacent foundations shall be limited to 0.008 for sim-
pIe span bridges and 0.004 for continuous span bridges.
These ~/s limits shall not be applicable to rigid frame
structures. Rigid frames shall be designed for anticipated
differential settlements based on the results of special
analyses.
For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate and
consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If the
footing width is small relative to the thickness of a com-
pressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional loading
shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic clay,
secondary settlements are significant and shall be in-
cluded in the analysis.
4.11.3.4.3 Settlements ofFootings on Rock
The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settle-
ments in rock masses containing soft seams shall be esti-
mated by applying procedures discussed in Article
4.11.3.4.2.
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils
Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate
bearing capacity of foundation soils. The calculated value
of ultimate bearing capacity shall be multiplied by an ap-
propriate performance factor, as given inArticle 4.10.6, to
determine the factored bearing capacity.
Footings are considered to be adequate against soil
failure if the factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect
of design loads.
5
4)
4)
98
4.11.4.1.1
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation
The bearing capacity should be estimated using ac-
cepted soil mechanics theories based on measured soil pa-
rameters. The soil parameter used in the analysis shall be
representative of the soil shear strength under the consid-
ered loading and subsurface conditions.
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be esti-
mated from the results of in situ tests or by observing
foundations on similar soils. The use of a particular in situ
test and the interpretation of the results shall take local ex-
perience into consideration. The following in situ tests
may be used:
Standard penetration test (SPT),
Cone penetration test (CPT), and
Pressuremeter test.
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests pro-
viding that adequate subsurface explorations have been
made to determine the soil profile below the foundation.
The bearing capacity determined from a load test may
be extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface
profile is similar.
Plat e load t est shall be perf ormed in accordance wit h
the procedures specified inASTM Standard D 1194-87 or
AASHTO Standard T 235-74.
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
soil and rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-I, shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
The values given in Table 4.11 .4.1.4-1 are applicable
directly for working stress procedures. When these values
are used for preliminary design, all load factors shall be
taken as unity.
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Laad Eccentricity
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a re-
duced effective footing area (B X L) shall be used inde-
sign. The reduced effective area is always concentrically
loaded, sothat the design bearing pressure on the reduced
effective area is always uniform.
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designedto en-
sure that: (1) the product of the bearing capacity and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of ver-
tical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of loading, evalu-
ated based on factored loads, is less than 1/4 of the foot-
ing dimension in any direction for footings on soils.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foun-
dation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distri-
bution based on factored loads shall be used.
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Gmundwater Table
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based
on the highest anticipated position of groundwater level
at the footing location. In cases where the groundwater
table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the footing width
below the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing
capacity, as a result of submergence effects, shall be
considered.
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of
Foundations on Rock
The bearing capacit y of f oot ings on rock shall consider
the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities,
weathering profiles and other similar profiles as they
apply at a particular site, and the degree to which they
shall be incorporat ed in t he design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent
rock shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities
that are tight or open not wider than one-eighth inch. For
footings on less competent rock, more detailed investiga-
tions and analyses shall be performed to account for the
effects of weathering, and the presence and condition of
discontinuities.
Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate
against bearing capacity failure if the product of the ulti-
mate bearing capacity determined using procedures de-
scribed in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through 4.11.4.2.3 and
an appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
design loads.
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures
Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be deter-
mined usingempirical correlation with RQD, or other sys-
tems for evaluating rock mass quality, such as the Geo-
mechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, or
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
Classification System. The use of these semi-empirical
procedures shall take local experience into consideration.
4.11.4.2.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 99
TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread FootingFoundations
( M odif ied af t er U. S. Depart ment of t he N avy, 1 982 )
Allowable Bearing Pressu re ( t sf )
Recommended Value
Type of Bearing M at erial C onsist ency in Place Ordinary Range f or Use
6 0t o1 00 80 Massive crystalline igneous and
metamorphic rock: graphite,
diorit e, basalt , gneiss,
t horou ghly cement ed
conglomerate (sound
condit ion allows minor
cracks)
Foliat ed met amorphic rock:
slat e, schist ( sou nd condit ion
allows minor cracks)
Sediment ary rock: hard cement ed
shales, siltstone, sandstone,
limestone without cavities
Weat hered or broken bedrock of
any kind except highly
argillacou s rock ( shale)
Compaction shale or other highly
argillacous rock in sound
condition
Well-graded mixt u re of f ine- and
coarse-grained soil: glacial t ill,
hardpan, bou lder clay
(GW-GC, GC, SC)
Gravel, gravel-sand mixt u res,
boulder-gravel mixtures
(GW, GP, SW, SP)
C oarse t o mediu m sand, sand
wit h lit t le gravel (SW, SP)
Fine t o mediu m sand, silt y or
clayey mediu m t o coarse sand
(SW, SM, SC)
Find sand, silt y or clayey mediu m
t o f ine sand ( SP, SM , SC )
Homogeneou s inorganic clay,
sandy or silt y clay ( C L, C H)
Inorganic silt , sandy or clayey silt ,
varved silt -clay-f ine sand
(ML, MH)
V ery hard, sou nd rock
Hard sou nd rock
Hard sou nd rock
M ediu m hard rock
Medium hard rock
V ery dense
Very dense
M ediu m dense t o dense
Loose
V ery dense
Loose
Very dense
Medium dense to dense
Loose
V ery dense
Loose
V ery st if f t o hard
M ediu m st if f t o st if f
Soft
Very stiff to hard
M ediu m st if f t o st if f
Soft
3 0 t o 4 0
15 to 25
35
20
8 t o 1 2
10
8 t o 1 2
1 0
8 t o 1 2
10
6 to 10
4 t o 7
2 t o 6
4 t o 6
2 t o 4
1 t o 3
3 t o 5
2 t o 4
1 t o 2
3 to 5
2 to 4
1 t o 2
3 to 6
1 t o 3
0.5 to 1
2 to 4
1 to 3
0.5 t o 1
7
5
3
4
3
1.5
3
2.5
1.5
3
2.5
1.5
4
2
0.5
3
1.5
0.5
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method
The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock
shall be determined using established rock mechanics
principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall
also be considered.
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test
Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to de-
termine the bearing capacity of foundations on rock.
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values
For simple structures on t=oodquality rock masses, val-
ues of presumptive bearing pressure given in Table
4.11.4.2.4-I may be used for preliminary design. The use
of presumptive values shall be based on the results of sub-
surface exploration to identify rock conditions. All values
used in design shall be confirmed by field and/or labora-
tory testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.4-I are di-
reetly applicable to working stress procedure, i.e., all the
load factors shall be taken as unity.
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than
Y
6 of the footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure
shall be used in evaluating the bearing capacity. If the ec-
centricity is between Y . and /4 of the footing width, a
triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The maximum
bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the ulti-
mate bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable perfor-
mance factor. The eccentricity of loading evaluated using
factored loads shall not exceed 3/8 (37.5%) of the footing
dimensions in any direction.
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that
support inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes.
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a
shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall be
considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the
shear resistance required for resisting sliding, considera-
tion shall also be given to possible future removal of the
soil in front of the foundation.
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation
soil or rock, shall be evaluated for footings located on or
near a slope using applicable factored load combinations
in Article 3.22 and a performance factor of 0.75.
4.11.5 Structural Capacity
The structural design of footings shall comply to the
provisions given inArticle 4.4.11 and Article 8.16.
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for
ShallowFoundations
4.11.6.1 General
The ground conditions should be monitored closely
during construction to determine whether or not the
ground conditions are as foreseen and to enable piompt
intervention, if necessary. The control investigation
should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
qualified engineers. Records of the control investigations
should be kept as part of the final project data, among
other things, to permit a later assessment of the founda-
tion in connection with rehabilitation, change of neigh-
boring structures. etc.
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring
Prior to concreting footings or placing backfill, an ex-
cavation shall be free of debris and excessive water.
Monitoring by an experienced and trained person
should always include a thorough examination of the sides
and bottom of the excavation, withthe possible additionof
pits or borings to evaluate the geological conditions.
The assumptions made during the design of the foun-
dations regarding strength, density, and groundwater con-
ditions should be verified during construction, by visual
inspection.
4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring
Compaction shall be carried out in a manner sothat the
fill material within the section under inspection is as close
as practicable to uniform. The layering and compaction of
the fill material should be systematic everywhere, withthe
same thickness of layer and number of passes with the
compaction equipment used as for the inspected fill. The
control measurements should be undertaken inthe form of
random samples.
4.12 DRIVEN PILES
4.12.1 General
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.5.1
through 4.5.21 with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall
apply to strength design (load factor design) of driven
piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress design of
TABLE 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on Rock (After Putnam, 198 1)
Sou nd Sou nd
Foliat ed Sediment ary Sof t Sof t Broken
C ode Year
t Bedrock2 Rock Rock Rock3 Shale Shale
Balt imore 1 96 2 1 00 3 5 . . . 1 0 . . . (4)
BOCA 1970 100 40 25 10 4 1.5
Bost on 1 97 0 1 00 5 0 1 0 1 0 . . . (4)
C hicago 1 97 0 1 00 1 00 . . .
C leveland 1 95 1 / 1 96 9 . . . . . . 2 5
Dallas 1 96 8 . 2 q ~ 5 . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~
Det roit 1 95 6 1 00 1 00 9, 6 00 1 2 1 2
Indiana 1 96 7 . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~
Kansas C it y 1 96 1 / 1 96 9 . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ .2q~
LosAngeles 1 97 0 1 0 4 3 1 1 1
N ewYorkC it y 1 97 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 8
N ew York St at e . . . 1 00 4 0 1 5
Ohio 1970 100 40 15 10 4
Philadelphia 1 96 9 5 0 1 5 1 01 5 8
Pit t sbu rgh 1 95 9/ 1 96 9 2 5 2 5 2 5 8 8
Richmond 1 96 8 1 00 4 0 2 5 1 0 4 1.5
St . Lou is 1 96 0/ 1 97 0 1 00 4 0 2 5 1 0 1 . 5 1.5
San Francisco 1969 35 35 35
Unif orm Bu ilding 1 97 0 . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~ . 2 q ~
Code
NBC Canada 1970 ... ... 100
NewSouth Wales, 1974 ... ... 33 13 4.5
Au st ralia
N ot e: 1 Year of code or original year and dat e of revision.
2Massive crystalline bedrock.
3 Sof t and broken rock, not inclu ding shale.
4 Allowable bearing pressu re t o be det ermined by appropriat e city official.
=u nconf ined compressive st rengt h.
piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section
for load factor design of driven piles, unless otherwise
stated.
4 . 1 2 . 2 N ot at ions
a, =pile perimeter
=area of pile tip
A, =surface area of shaft of pile
C PT = cone penetration test
d =dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip ca-
pacity of piles in rock
D =pile width or diameter
=effective depth of pile group
Dh =depth of embedment of pile into a bearing stratum
=diameter of socket
=eccentricity of load in the x-direction
=eccentricity of load in the y-direction
E~ =Youngs modulus of a pile
=soil modulus
=sleeve friction measured from a CPT at point con-
sidered
H =distance between pile tip and a weaker underly-
ing soil layer
H, =depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
I =influence factor for the effective group embed-
ment
= moment of inertia of a pile
K =coefficient of lateral earth pressure
=correction factor for sleeve friction in clay
K, =correction factor for sleeve friction in sand
= dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
=depth to point considered when measuring sleeve
friction
nh = rate of increase of soil modulus with depth
N =Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count
N =average uncorrected SPT blow count along pile
shaft
1 02
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.12.2
average SPT-N value corrected for effect of
overburden
N p i~e = number of piles ina pile group
OC R =overconsolidation ratio
PD =unfactored dead load
Pg = factored total axial load acting on a pile group
=factoredaxial load acting on a pile ina pile group;
the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with respect to the
centroidal origin in the pile group
P1 = plasticity index
q =net foundation pressure
=static cone resistance
q
1 =limiting tip resistance
q0 =limiting tip resistance in lower stratum
=ultimate unit tip resistance
=ultimate unit side resistance
=average uniaxial compressive strength of rock
cores
=ultimate bearing capacity
=ultimate load carried by tip of pile
=ultimate load carried by shaft of pile
Qug =ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a
group of drilled shafts
R = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sive soils
=spacing of discontinuities
S =average spacing of piles
5 , , =undrained shear strength
SPT =Standard Penetration Test
S. =average undrained shear strength along pile shaft
td = width of discontinuities
T = characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sionless soils
Wg = weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
x =distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen-
troid of the pile cap in the x-direction
X =width of smallest dimension of pile group
y =distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen-
troid of the pile cap in the y-direction
Y = length of pile group or group of drilled shafts
Z = total embedded pile length
a adhesion factor applied to 5,,
13 =coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
and the unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft
=effective unit weight of soil
5 =angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile
X =empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral
earth pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile
=pile group efficiency factor
p =settlement
=tolerable settlement
=horizontal effective stress
a,, =vertical effective stress
Uav = average shear stress along side of pile
=performance factor
=performance factor for the bearing capacity of a
pile group failing as a unit consisting of the piles
and the block of soil contained within the piles
=performance factor for the total ultimate bearing
capacity of a pile
=performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity
of a pile
0qp =performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of
a pile
0,, =Performance factor for the uplift capacity of a sin-
gle pile
Our =performance factor for the uplift capacity of pile
groups
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and
structural capacity, under tolerable settlements and toler-
able lateral displacements.
The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined by
static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction.
Capacity may be verified with pile load test results, use of
wave equation analysis, use of the dynamic pile analyzer
or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas.
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
See Article 4.5.6.1.1. The following sub-articles shall
supplement Article 4.5.6.1.1.
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration
Piling used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum
overlying a hard or firm stratum, shall penetrate the hard
or firm stratum by a sufficient distance to limit lateral and
vertical movement of the piles, as well as to attain suffi-
cient vertical bearing capacity.
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Tableand Buoyancy
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
the groundwater level consistent with that used to calcu-
late load effects. For drained loading, the effect of hydro-
static pressure shall be considered in the design.
4.12.3.1.3 Effect OfSettling Ground and
Downdrag Forces
Possible development of downdrag loads on piles shall
be considered where sites are underlain by compressible
clays, silts or peats, especially where fill has recently been
4.12.3.1.3
103
DIVISION IDESIGN
placed on the earlier surface, or where the groundwater is
substantially lowered. Downdrag loads shall be consid-
ered as a load when the bearing capacity and settlement of
pile foundations are investigated. Downdrag loads shall
not be combined with transient loads.
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specified in
Article 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction
forces reversed. The factored downdrag loads shall be
added to the factored vertical dead load applied to the
deep foundation in the assessment of bearing capacity.
The ef f ect of redu ced overbu rden pressu re cau sed by t he
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing
capacity of the foundation.
The downdrag loads shall be addedto the vertical dead
load applied to the deep foundation in the assessment of
settlement at service limit states.
4.12.3.1.4 Uphft
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should
be checked bot h f or resist ance t o pu llou t and f or st ru ct u ral
capacity to carry tensile stresses. Uplift forces can be
caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effects, and expansive
soils.
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit St at e
4.12.3.2.1 General
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile
groups, loads shall be assumed to act on an equivalent
footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment
of the piles into the layer which provide support as shown
inFigure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Service loads for evaluating foundation settlement
shall include both the unfactored dead and live loads for
piles in cohesionless soils and only the unfactored dead
load for piles in cohesive soils.
Service loads for evaluating lateral displacement of
foundations shall include all lateral loads in each of the
load combinations as given inArticle 3.22.
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile
foundations shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated
service life and consequences of unacceptable displace-
ments on performance of the structure.
Tolerable settlement criteria for foundations shall be
developed considering the maximum angular distortion
according to Article 4.11.3.3.
Tolerable horizontal displacement criteria shall be de-
velopedconsidering the potential effects of combined ver-
tical and horizontal movement. Where combined hori-
zontal and vertical displacements are possible, horizontal
movement shall be limited to 1.0 in. or less. Where verti-
cal displacements are small, horizontal displacements
shall be limited to 2.0 in. or less ( M ou lt on et al. , 1 985 ) . If
estimated or actual movements exceed these levels, spe-
cial analysis and/or measures shall be considered.
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement
The set t lement of a pile f ou ndat ion shall not exceed t he
tolerable settlement, as selected according to Article
4.12.3.2.2.
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil
Procedures used for shallow foundations shall be used
to estimate the settlement of a pile group, using the equiv-
alent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4. 12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil
The settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils can
be est imat ed u sing resu lt s of in sit u t est s, and t he eq u iva-
lent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not
exceed the tolerable lateral displacement, as selected ac-
cording toArticle 4.12.3.2.2.
The lat eral displacement of pile grou ps shall be est i-
mated using procedures that consider soil-structure inter-
action.
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 Resist ance at St rengt h Limit St at es
The strength limit states that shall be considered in-
dude:
bearing capacity of piles,
uplift capacity of piles,
punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer,
and
structural capacity of the piles.
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles
Preference shall be given to a design process based
upon static analyses incombination with either field mon-
itoring during driving or load tests. Load test results may
be extrapolated to adjacent substructures withsimilar sub-
surface conditions. The ultimate bearing capacity of piles
may be estimated using analytic methods or in situ test
methods.
104 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.12.3.3.2
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity
Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate
bearing capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless
soils. Both total and effective stress methods may be used
providedthe appropriate soil strength parameters are eval-
uated. The performance factors for skin friction and tip re-
sistance, estimated using three analytic methods, shall be
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. If another analytic method
is used, application of performance factors presented in
Table 4.10.6-2 may not be appropriate.
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based
on in Situ Tests
In situ test methods may be used to estimate the ulti-
mate axial capacity of piles. The performance factors for
the ultimate skin friction and ultimate tip resistance, esti-
mated using insitu methods, shall be as provided inTable
4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock
For piles driven to weak rock such as shales and mud-
stones or poor quality weathered rock, the ultimate tip
capacity shall be estimated using semi-empirical meth-
ods. The performance factor for the ultimate tip resistance
of piles bearing on rock shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test
The load test method specified in ASTM D 1143-81
may be used to verify the pile capacity. Tensile load test-
ing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM D
3689-83 Lateral load testing of piles shall be done in ac-
cordance with ASIM D 3966-81 . The performance factor
for the axial compressive capacity. axial uplift capacity
and lateral capacity obtained from pile load tests shall be
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures
given inTable 4. 11.4. 1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
4.12.3.3.7 Upliift
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects cal-
culated based on the appropriate strength limit state load
combinations are tensile.
When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be in-
vestigated for both resistance to pullout and structural
ability to resist tension.
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a single pile shall be es-
timated ina manner similar to that for estimating the skin
friction resistance of piles in compression in Article
4.12 .3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and 4.12.3.3.3 for
piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors for the up-
lift capacity of single piles shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be es-
timated as the lesser of the sum of the individual pile up-
lift capacities, or the uplift capacity of the pile group con-
sidered as a block. The block mechanismfor cohesionless
soil shall be taken as providedin Figure C4. 12.3.7.2-1 and
for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4. 12.3.7.2-2. Buoy-
ant unit weights shall be used for soil below the ground-
water level.
The performance factor for the group uplift capacity
calculatedas the sumof the individual pile capacities shall
be the same as those for the uplift capacity of single piles
as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance factor for the
uplift capacity of the pile group considered as a block
shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in
clay and in sand.
4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load
For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall
be fixed into the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids cre-
ated from the driving of the piles shall be replaced with
compacted granular material.
The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interac-
tion between the piles and ground, including the number
and spacing of the piles in the group. shall be accounted
for in the design of laterally loaded piles.
4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile
The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter
piles may be estimated by treating the batter piles as ver-
tical piles.
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity
4.12.3.3. lOa Cohesive Soil
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if
the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of
4. 12.3.3. bA DIVISION IDESIGN 105
each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor q,
where q = 0.7 for a center-to-center spacing of three di-
ameters and q = 1 .0 for a center-to-center spacing of six
diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of q may
be determined by linear interpolation.
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground and
if the soil is stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be
required.
If the cap is in firm contact with the ground, then no re-
duction in efficiency shall be required.
The group capacity shall be the lesser of:
the sumof the modified individual capacities of each
pile in the group, or
the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the
piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by
the piles.
For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil
shall be used to determine the skin friction resistance, the
total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to de-
termine the end bearing resistance, and the additional ca-
pacity of the cap shall be ignored.
The performance factor for the capacity of an equiva-
lent pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2. The performance factors for the group capacity
calculated using the sum of the individual pile capacities,
are the same as those for the single pile capacity as given
in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.1% Cohesionless Soil
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohe-
sionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the
piles in the group. The efficiency factor, q, shall be 1.0
where the pile cap is, or is not, in contact with the ground.
rhe performance factor is the same as those for single pile
capacities as given in Table 4.10.6-2.
4. 12.3.3. lOc Pile Group in .Strong Soil
Overlying a Weak or
Compressible Soil
If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit over-
lying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given to the
potential for a punching failure of the pile tips into the
weaker soil stratum. If the underlying soil stratum consists
of a weaker compressible soil, consideration shall be given
to the potential for large settlements in that weaker layer.
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-A, Seismic Design, of these speci-
fications and Lam and Martin (1986a, 1986b) for guid-
ance regarding the design of driven piles subjected to dy-
namic and seismic loads.
4 . 1 2 . 4 St ru ct u ral Design
The stiuctural design of driven piles shall be in accor-
dance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was de-
veloped for allowable stress design procedures. To use
load factor design procedures for the structural design of
driven piles, the load factor design procedures for rein-
forcedconcrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections
8,9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place of the al-
lowable stress design procedures.
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles
Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles ex-
tend through water or air for a portion of their lengths.
4.12.5 Construction Considerations
Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from con-
struction considerations. Factors such as pile driving, pile
splicing, and pile inspection shall be done in accordance
with the provisions of this specification and Division II.
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS
4.13.1 General
The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1
through 4.6.7 with the exception of Article 4.6.5. shall
apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled
shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of
drilled shafts, and shall be replaced by the articles in this
section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless oth-
erwise stated.
The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply tothe design
of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with con-
tinuous flight augers that are concreted as the aueer is
being extracted.
4 . 1 3 . 2 N ot at ions
a
A,
A,
A
A,,
b
C PT
d
=parameter used for calculating Fr
= area of base of drilled shaft
=surface area of a drilled pier
=cross-sectional area of socket
=annular space between bell and shaft
=perimeter used for calculating Fr
=cone penetration test
=dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip
capacity of drilled shafts in rock
106 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.13.2
D = diameter of drilled shaft
Db =embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro-
vides support
=diameter of base of a drilled shaft
=diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock
=Youngs modulus of concrete
=intact rock modulus
=Youngs modulus of a drilled shaft
= modulus of the in situ rock mass
= soil modulus
Fr = reduction factor for tip resistance of large
diameter drilled shaft
H, =depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed
into rock
=moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
= influence coefficient (see Figure
C4. 13.3.3.4-1)
I,, = influence coefficient for settlement of drilled
shafts socketed in rock
k =factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts
with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so
as to limit the shaft settlement to 1 inch
K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure or load
transfer factor
Kb = dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for
drilled shafts socketed in rock using pres-
suremeter results
KE = modulus modification ratio
= dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
(see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4)
LL =liquid limit of soil
N =uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
blow count
=bearing capacity factor
Nc,,rr =corrected SPT-N value
N,, =uplift bearing capacity factor
p1 =limit pressure determined from pressuremeter
tests within 2D above and below base of shaft
P
0 =at rest horizontal stress measured at the base
of drilled shaft
PD =unfactoreddead load
PL =plastic limit of soil
=ultimate unit tip resistance
=reduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled
shafts
=ultimate unit side resistance
q, bell = unit uplift capacity of a belIed drilled shaft
q. = unmaxial compressive strength of rock core
= ultimate bearing capacity
= ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft
= ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft
QSR =ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts sock-
eted in rock
TI
Pba,e
Pe
Ptoi
ox,
ci.
(1)
4) or
4)q
Quit total ultimate bearing capacity
R =characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
tem in cohesive soils
RQD =Rock Quality Designation
=spacing of discontinuities
SPT =Standard Penetration Test
=undrained shear strength
td =width of discontinuities
T =characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
tem in cohesionless soils
z =depth below ground surface
Z = total embedded length of drilled shaft
Greek
cx =adhesion factor applied to 5,
13 =coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
and the unit skin friction of a drilled shaft
y =effective unit weight of soil
=angle of shearing resistance between soil and
drilled shaft
=drilled shaft group efficiency factor
= settlement of the base of the drilled shaft
=elastic shortening of drilled shaft
=tolerable settlement
=vertical effective stress
=total vertical stress
=working load at top of socket
=performance factor
=angle of internal friction of soil
=performance factor for the total ultimate bear-
ing capacity of a drilled shaft
= performance factor for the ultimate shaft ca-
pacity of a drilled shaft
4)qr = performance factor for the ultimate tip capac-
ity of a drilled shaft
4.13.3 Geotechnical Design
Drilled shafts shall be designedto have adequate bear-
ing and structural capacities under tolerable settlements
and tolerable lateral movements.
The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated by static analysis methods (analytical methods
based on soil-structure interaction). Capacity may be ver-
ified with load test results.
The method of construction may affect the drilled shaft
capacity and shall be considered as part of the design
process. Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry,
casing or wet method of construction, or a combination of
methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete place-
ment, and all other aspects shall be performed in con-
formance with the provisions of this specification and
Division II.
4.13.3.1 Fact ors Af f ect ing Axial C apacit y
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Arti-
cle 4.6.5.3.3 for drilled shafts in rock. The follow-
ing sub-articles shall supplement Articles 4.6.5.2 and
4.6.5.3.3.
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads
Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate,
as indicated in Article 4.12.3.1.3.
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as ap-
plicable.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Suffi-
cient clearance shall be provided between the ground sur-
face and underside of caps or beams connecting shafts to
preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap
connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift ca-
pacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely only on
side resistance in conformance withArticle 4.13.3.3.2 for
drilled shafts in cohesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for
drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. Ifthe shaft has an en-
larged base, Q, shall be determined in conformance with
Article 4.13.3.3.6.
4 . 1 3 . 3 . 2 M ovement Under Serviceabilit y
Limit St at e
4.13.3.2.1 General
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as
applicable.
In estimating settlements of drilled shafts inclay, only
unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However
unfactored live loads must be added to the permanent
loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular
soil.
applicable.
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement
The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving
either single drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall
not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according
to Article 4.13.3.2.2
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated considering short-term settlement, consolidation
settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial
compression of the drilled shaft.
4. 13.3.2.3b Group Settlement
The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated using the same procedures as described for pile
groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
Cohesive Soil, See Article 4. 12.3.2.3a
Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.1 2.3.2.3b
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
applicable.
4 J . 3 . 3 . 3 Resist ance at St rengt h Limit St at es
The strength limit states that must be considered in-
clude: (I) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift ca-
pacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled shafts
bearing in strong soil into a weaker layer below.
4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts
applicable.
4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft
Capacity in Cohesive Soils
Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate
the ultimate bearingcapacity of drilled shafts in cohesive
soils. The performance factors for side resistance and tip
resistance for three analytic methods shall be as provided
in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is used, ap-
plication of the performance factors inTable 4.10.6-3 may
not be appropriate.
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in
Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in co-
hesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable meth-
ods, and the factored capacity selected using judgment,
and any available experience with similar conditions.
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock
In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with
rock sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil de-
posits shall be ignored.
108
4.13.3.3.4
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
If the rock is degradable, consideration of special con-
struction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
duced socket capacities shall be considered.
The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in
rock shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test
Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be
conducted on a drilled shaft or shafts to confirm response
to load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts con-
structed in a manner and of dimensions and materials
identical to those planned for the production shafts.
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
written prc)cedures which have been developed from ac-
cepted standards and modified, as appropriate, for the
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing proce-
dures developed by the American Society for Testing and
Materials as specified in Article 4.12.3.3.5 may be modi-
fied for testing drilled shafts.
The performance factor for axial compressive capac-
ity, axial uplift capacity, and lateral capacity obtained
from load tests shall be as provided inTable 4.10.6-3.
4. 13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity
Uplift shall be considered when (il upward loads act on
the drilled shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils act
on the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift
forces shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single
Drilled Shaft
The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided drilled
shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts
in compression (Articles 4.13.3.3.2, 4.13.3.3.3, and
4.13.3.3.4).
The uplift capacity of a belIed shaft shall be estimated
neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assuni-
ing that the bell behaves as an anchor.
The perf ormance f act or f or t he u plif t capacity of
drilled shafts shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4. 13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity
See Article 4.12.3.3.7b. The performance factors for
uplift capacity of groups of drilled shafts shall be the same
as those for pile groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually
governed by lateral movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2)
or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design of lat-
erally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects of
interaction between the shaft and ground. including the
number of piers in the group.
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall
be considered.
4. 13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3. lOa shall apply. The
performance factor for the group capacity of an equivalent
pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-
2 for bothcases of the cap being incontact, and not in con-
tact with the ground. The performance factors for the
group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual
drilled shaft capacities are the same as those for the single
drilled shaft capacities.
4. 13.3.3.8b Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor TI for
an isolated shaft, where q =0.67 for a center-to-center
(CIC) spacing of three diameters and TI = 1.0 for a cen-
ter-to-center spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate
spacings, the value of rI may be determined by linear
interpc)lation.
See Article 4.13.3.3.3 for a discussion on the selection
of performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in co-
hesionless soils.
4. 13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying
Weaker Comp~essible Soil
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.lOc shall apply as
applicable.
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-A, Seismic Design for guidance
regarding the design of drilled shafts subjected to dy-
namic and seismic loads.
4.13.4 Structural Design
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Article 4.6.6,
which was developed for allowable stress design proce-
DIVISION IDESIGN
dures. In order to use load factor design procedures for
the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor
design procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete
shall be used in place of the allowable stress design
procedures.
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts
Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the
shafts extend through water or air for a portion of their
length.
4.13.4
109
Section 5
RETAINING WALLS
Part A
5.1 GENERAL
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral
earth and water pressures, including any live and dead
load surcharge, the self weight of the wall, temperature
and shrinkage effects, andearthquake loads in accordance
with the general principles specified in this section.
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects
of corrosion, seepage, stray currents and other potentially
deleterious environmental factors on each of the material
components comprising the wall. For most applications,
permanent retaining walls should be designed for a mini-
mum service life of 75 to 100 years. The quality of in-
service performance shall be an important consideration
in the design of permanent retaining walls. Permanent
walls shall be designed to retain an aesthetically pleasing
appearance, and be essentially maintenance free through-
out their design service life. Retaining walls for temporary
applications are typically designed for a service life of 36
months or less.
5.2 WALL TYPE AND CAPACITY
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type
Selection of wall type shall be based on an assessment
of the magnitude and direction of loading, depth to
suitable foundation support, potential for earthquake load-
ing, presence of deleterious environmental factors, prox-
imity of physical constraints, tolerable and differential
settlement, facing appearance, and ease and cost of
construction.
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls
Gravity and semi-gravity walls derive their capacity
through combinations of dead weight and structural resis-
tance. Gravity walls may be constructed of stone masonry
and/or unreinforced concrete. Semi-gravity cantilever,
counterfort, and buttress walls are constructed of rein-
forced concrete. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining
walls may be reinforced concrete. Rigid gravity and semi-
gravity retaining walls may be used for bridge substruc-
tures or grade separations. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity
walls are generally used for permanent wall applications.
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls
Nongravity cantilevered walls derive lateral resistance
through embedment of vertical wall elements and support
retained soil with facing elements. V ertical wall elements
may consist of discrete vertical elements (e.g., piles, cais-
sons, drilled shafts or auger cast piles) spanned by a struc-
t u ral f acing ( e. g. , wood or reinf orced concret e lagging,
precast or cast-in-place concrete panels, wire or fiber re-
inforced shotcrete, or metal elements such as sheet piles).
The discrete vertical elements typically extenddeeper into
the ground than the facing to provide vertical and lateral
support. Alternately, the vertical wall elements and facing
are continuous and, therefore, also form the structural fac-
ing. Typical continuous vertical wall elements include
piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall
panels, tangent piles, and tangent caissons.
Permanent nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
structed of reinforced concrete and/or metals. Temporary
nongravity cantilevered walls may be constructed of rein-
forcedconcrete, metal and/or timber. Suitable metals gen-
erallyinclude steel for components such as piles, brackets
and plates, lagging and concrete reinforcement. Nongrav-
ity cantilevered walls may be used for the same applica-
tions as rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, as well as
temporary or permanent support of earth slopes, excava-
tions, or unstable soil and rock masses. Nongravity can-
tilevered walls are generally limited to a maximumheight
of approximately 15 feet, unless they are provided with
additional support by means of anchors.
Ill
112
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.2.1.3
TABLE 5 . 2 . l. 4 A Relat ionship Bet ween J oint Widt h and
Limit ing Dif f erent ial Set t lement f or M SE Walls
Limit ing
J oint Widt h Dif f erent ial Set t lement
3 1 4 inch 1 / 1 00
1/2 inch 1 / 2 00
1 / 4 inch 1 / 3 00
5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls
Anchored walls are typically composed of the same el-
ements as nongravity cantilevered walls (Article 5.2.1.2),
but derive additional lateral resistance from one or more
tiers of anchors. Anchors may be prestressed or deadman
type elements composed of strand tendons or bars (with
corrosion protection as necessary) extending from the
wall face to a grouted zone or mechanical anchorage lo-
cated beyond the zone of soil applying load to the wall.
Bearingelements on the vertical support elements or fac-
ingof the wall transfer wall loads to the anchors. In some
cases, a spread footing is used at the base of the anchored
wall facing in lieu of vertical element embedment to pro-
vide vertical support. Due to their flexibility and method
of support, the distribution of lateral pressure on anchored
walls is influenced by the method and sequence of wall
construction and anchor prestressing.
Anchored walls are applicable for temporary and per-
manent support of stable and unstable soil and rock
masses. Anchors are usually required for support of both
temporary and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls
higher than about 15 feet, depending on soil conditions.
Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situa-
tions, in which construction occurs from the top down to
the base of the wall. Anchored walls have been success-
fully used to support fills; however, certain difficulties
arising in fill wall applications require special considera-
tion during design. In particular, there is a potential for an-
chor damage due to settlement of backfill and underlying
soils or due to improperly controlled backfilling proce-
dures. Also, there is a potential for undesirable wall de-
flection, if anchors are too highly stressed when the back-
fill is only partially complete and provides limited passive
resistance.
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) systems, whose
elements may be proprietary, employ either metallic
(strip- or grid-type) or polymeric (sheet-, strip-, or grid-
type) tensile reinforcements inthe soil mass, and a facing
element which is vertical or near vertical.
MSE walls may be used where conventional gravity,
cantilever, or counterforted concrete retaining walls are
considered, and are particularly well suited where sub-
stantial total and differential settlements are anticipated.
The allowable settlement of MSE walls is limited by the
longitudinal deformability of the facing and the ultimate
purpose of the structure. Limiting tolerable differential
settlement for systems with panels less than 30 square feet
in size and a minimum joint width of 3/4 inch are pre-
sented in Table 5.2.1 .4A.
Where foundation conditions indicate large differential
settlements over a short horizontal distance, a vertical full-
height slip joint shall be provided.
MSE walls should not be used under the following
conditions:
When utilities other than highway drainage must be
constructed within the reinforced zone.
With galvanized metallic reinforcements exposed to
surface or ground water contaminated by acid mine
drainage or other industrial pollutants as indicated
by low pH and high chlorides and sulfates.
When floodplain erosion may undermine the rein-
forced fill zone, or where the depth of scour cannot
be reliably determined.
MSE walls may be considered for use under the fol-
lowing special conditions:
When t wo int ersect ing walls form an enclosed angle
of 70~ or less, the affected portion of the wall shall
be designed as an internally tied bin structure with
at -rest eart h pressu re coef f icient s.
Where metallic reinforcements are used in areas of
anticipated stray currents within 200 feet of the
structure, a corrosion expert should evaluate the po-
tential need for corrosion control requirements.
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls
Prefabricated modular wall systems, whose elements
may be proprietary, generally employ interlocking soil-
filled reinforced concrete or steel modules or bins, which
resist earth pressures by acting as gravity retaining walls.
Prefabricated modular systems may be used where con-
ventional gravity, cantilever or counterfort concrete re-
taining walls are considered.
Prefabricated modular systems shall not be used under
the following conditions:
On cu rves wit h a radius of less than 800 feet, unless
the curve can be substituted by a series of chords.
113
When calculated longitudinal differential settle-
ments along the face of the wall are greater than
1 / 2 00.
Steel modular systems shall not be used where the
ground water or surface runoffis acid contaminated
or where deicing spray is anticipated.
5.2.2 Wall C apacit y
Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate
structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate
foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements,
and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to walls.
The tolerable level of structural deformation is controlled
by the type and location of wall structure and surrounding
facilities.
The bearing capacit y of wall f ou ndat ion su pport sys-
tems may be estimated using procedures described in Ar-
ticles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted theories.
Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mea-
sured by in-situ and/or laboratory tests.
5 . 2 . 2 . 2 Set t lement
The settlement of wall foundation support systems
may be estimated using procedures described in Articles
4.4,4.5, or 4 . 6 , or ot her generally accept ed met hods. Su ch
methods are based on soil and rock parameters measured
directly or inferred from the results of in-situ and/or lab-
oratory test.
5.2.2.3 Overall Stability
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
shall be considered as part of the design of retaining walls.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained
slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for
all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis
which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or
Spenser methods of analysis. A minimumfactor of safety
of 1.3 shall be used for walls designedfor static loads, ex-
cept the factor of safety shall be 1.5 for walls that support
bridge abutments, buildings or critical utilities, or for
other installations with a low tolerance for failure. A min-
imum factor of safetyof 1.1 shall be used for all walls de-
signed for seismic loads. In all cases, the subsurface con-
ditions and soil/rock properties of the wall site shall be
adequately characterized through insitu exploration and
testing and/or laboratory testing as described in Article
5.3. It must be noted that, even if overall stability is satis-
factory, special exploration, testing and analyses may be
required for bridge abutments or retaining walls con-
structed over soft subsoils where consolidation and/or lat-
eral flow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable long-
term settlements or horizontal movements.
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Movements
Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall
be developed based on the function and type of wall, an-
ticipated service life, and consequences of unacceptable
movements. Where a wall is used to support a structure,
tolerable movement criteria shall be established in accor-
dance with Articles 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. Where a wall sup-
ports soil on which an adjacent structure is founded, the
effects of wall movements and associated backfill settle-
ment on the adjacent structure should be evaluated.
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
the performance of retaining walls and their foundations,
and may require special consideration during design. To
the extent possible, the presence and influence of such
conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface ex-
ploration program. A representative, but not exclusive,
listing of problem conditions requiring special considera-
tion is presented in Table 4.2.3A for general guidance.
5 . 3 SUBSURFAC E EX PLORATION AN D
TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be the responsibility ofthe Designer based
on the specific requirements of the project and his or her
experience with local geological conditions.
5 . 3 . 1 General Req u irement s
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall define the following, where applicable:
Soil strata:
Depth, thickness, and variability
Relevant engineering characteristics (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear strength,
compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expansion
or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility)
Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resistivity,
and sulfide content
Rock strata:
Depth to rock
114
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.3.1
Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence ofjoint filling, resistance toweathering,
if exposed, and solutioning)
Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres-
sion, point load index)
Expansion potential
Ground water elevation, chemical composition and
pH (especially important for anchored, nongravity
cantilevered, modular, and MSE walls for which
corrosion potential is an important consideration)
Ground surface topography
Local conditions requiring special consideration
(e.g., presence of stray electrical currents).
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or
~ and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any un-
usual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted
on the exploration logs.
5.3.2 Minimum Depth
Refer to Article 4.3.2 regarding the selection of mini-
mum depths of exploration for retaining walls supported
on various types of foundations.
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
retaining wall. For retaining walls over 100 feet in length,
the spacing between borings shouldbe no greater than 100
feet. In planning the exploration program, consideration
should be given to placing borings inboard and outboard
of the wall line to define conditions in the scour zone at
t he t o e o f t he wa l l a n d i n t he z o n e b ehi n d t he wa l l t o es t i -
mate lateral loads and anchorage capacities.
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to
determine engineering characteristics including unit
weight, natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear
strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the
absence of laboratory testing, engineering characteristics
may be estimated based on published test results or local
experience.
5.3.5 Scour
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer toAr-
tide 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance re-
garding hydraulic studies and design.
5.4 NOTATIONS
The following notations shall apply for design of re-
taming walls:
A =Acceleration coefficient (dim); (See Article 3.2,
Division I-A)
=Surface area of transverse reinforcement inbear-
ing (diameter times length) (Ct
2); (See Article
5.8.5)
=Maximum wall acceleration coefficient at the
centroid (dim); (See Article 5.8.10.1)
A, =Total surface area of reinforcement beyond fail-
u r e p l a n e ( f t 2 ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5.8.5)
b =Width of bin module or width of discrete ver-
tical wall element (ft); (See Articles 5.6.2 and
5.9.4)
=Reinforcement width for layer i (ft); (See Article
5.8 .10.2)
B =Width of retaining wall foundation (ft)
Be =Width of excavation perpendicular to wall (ft);
(See Article 5.7.5)
c =Cohesion of soil (kst)
C =Co m b i n ed r es p o n s e c o ef f i c i en t a t gr o u n d l ev el
( d i m ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l es 3 . 2 1 . 2 . 1 o r 3 . 2 1 . 2 . 2 )
= Adhesion between cohesive soil and concrete (ksf)
C, , U n i a x i a l c o m p r es s i v e s t r en gt h o f i n t a c t r o c k
(ksf)
D =Design embedment depth of vertical wall ele-
ment (ft)
=E m b ed m en t o f c o n t i n u o u s v er t i c a l wa l l el em en t
required for equilibrium of overturning and re-
sisting moments (ft); (See Article 5.6.2)
=Thickness of metal reinforcement at end of ser-
vice life (mil); (See Article 5.8.6.1)
=Nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at con-
struction (mil); (See Article 5.8.6.1)
= Sacrificed thickness of metal expected to be lost
by uniform corrosion during service life of struc-
t u r e ( m i l ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 8 . 6 . 1 )
f = Coefficient of friction between wall and soil or
rock (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
F =Sum of forces resisting sliding (k/ft); (See Article
5.5.5)
=Apparent coefficient of friction at each reinforce-
m en t l ev el ( d i m ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5.8.5)
115
DIVISION IDESIGN
FC =Factor of safety for polymeric reinforcements
with respect to construction damage (dim); (See
Article 5.8.7.2)
fd =Coefficient of resistance to direct sliding of rein-
f o r c em en t ( d i m ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 8 . 5 )
FD =F a c t o r of safety for polymeric reinforcements
wi t h r es p ec t t o en v i r o n m en t a l a n d a gi n g l o s s es
( d i m ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 8 . 7 . 2 )
F S =F a c t o r o f s a f et y ( d i m )
h =Equivalent height of soil representing surcharge
pressure or effective total height of soil at back of
reinforced soil mass (ft); (See Article 5.8.2)
H =Design wall height (ft)
H
1 =Equivalent wall height (ft); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
H2 =Effective wall height (ft); (See Article 5.8.10.1)
H, =S u r c ha r ge hei ght ( f t o f s o i l ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 5 . 2 )
H,, =Height of water in backfill above base of wall (ft)
K =Earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article
5.5.2)
K,, =Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
ticle 5.5.2)
K,, =At-rest earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
ticle 5.5.2)
=Passive earth pressure coefficient for curved fail-
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
=Passive earth pressure coefficient for planar fail-
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
=Length of mat beyond failure plane (ft); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.5)
L = L en gt h o f s o i l r ei n f o r c i n g el em en t s ( f t ) ; ( S ee Ar-
ticle 5.8.2)
e =Center-to-center spacing of discrete vertical wall
elements (ft); (See Article 5.6.2)
=Effective reinforcement length for layer i (ft);
(See Article 5.8.10.2)
m = Ratio of horizontal distance between surcharge
load and wall to vertical wall height (dim); (See
Article 5.5.2)
m =Reduction factor for active earth pressure on
walls with more than one row of anchors (dim);
(See Article 5.7.2)
Mm,,, =Maximum bending moment in vertical wall ele-
ment or facing (k-ft/ft)
n =Ratio of depth below top of wall to total vertical
wall height (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
n =Number of transverse bearing members behind
failure plane (dim); (See Article 5.8.5)
N =Stability number (dim); (See Article 5.6.2)
=Passive resistance factor; (See Article 5.8.5)
=Design lateral pressure at any depth (ksf)
=Resultant of active earth pressure (k/ft)
Pb =Net unbalanced horizontal force below base of
the exposed wall resulting from an unstable ex-
cavation base acting inwardly at the mid-height
o f t he em b ed d ed l en gt h o f wa l l ( k/f t ) ; ( S ee Ar t i -
cle 5.7.5)
Ptg =Pullout capacity developed by passive resistance
per grid (k); (See Article 5.8.5)
=Pullout capacity per strip (k); (See Article 5.8.5)
PH =Resultant of lateral pressure due to line surcharge
load (k/ft); (See Article 5.5.2)
P H = Horizontal component of earth pressure resultant
(k/ft); (See Article 5.5.2)
P, =Pressure inside bin module (ksf); (See Article
5.9.4)
PN =Resultant of lateral pressure due to point sur-
charge load (k); (See Article 5.5.2)
P N =Normal component of earth pressure resultant
P,, =Resultant of at-rest earth pressure (k/Ct); (See Ar-
tide 5.5.2)
=Resultant of passive earth pressure (k/ft); (See
Article 5.5.2)
=Resultant of uniform pressure distribution on
wa l l d u e t o u n i f o r m s u r c ha r ge l o a d i n g ( k) ; ( S ee
Ar t i c l e 5 . 5 . 2 )
PT =Tangential component of earthpressure resultant
Pv =V ertical component of earth pressure resultant
=Resultant of hydrostatic pressure due to water in
backfill (k/ft); (See Article 5.5.3)
q =S u r c ha r ge p r es s u r e ( ks f ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 8 . 2 )
Q L =L i n e s u r c ha r ge l o a d ( k) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 5 . 2 )
=Po i n t s u r c ha r ge l o a d ( k) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5.5.2)
=Unconfined compressive strength of soil (ksf)
R =R es u l t a n t o f f o u n d a t i o n b ea r i n g p r es s u r e ( k o r k/f t )
=Distance above wall base to resultant of lateral
pressure due to surcharge (ft); (See Article 5.5.2)
RF =Reduction factor applied to Coulomb passive
earthpressure coefficient to account for effects of
wall friction and failure surface curvature (dim);
(See Article 5.5.2)
s = S hea r s t r en gt h o f r o c k ( ks f )
5Hi = Horizontal reinforcement spacing for layer i (ft);
=Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil (ksf)
T =Period of reinforced soil structure subjected to
seismic loading (see); (See Article 5.8.10.1)
=Allowable long-term reinforcement tension load
f o r l i m i t s t a t e ( k) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5 . 8 . 7 . 2 )
=Allowable long-term reinforcement tension load
for serviceability state (k); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
=Limit state reinforcement tension (k); (See Arti-
dc 5.8.6.2)
Tmd =Incremental dynamic inertia force at level i (k/ft
o f s t r u c t u r e) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 5.8.10.2)
5.4
116 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.4
=Serviceability state reinforcement tension (k);
V
1 =Weight of reinforced soil mass (k/Ct); (See Article
5.8.2)
V 2 =Weight of sloping soil surcharge on top of rein-
forced soil mass (k/ft); (See Article 5.8.2)
w =Width of mat (ft); (See Article 5.8.5)
Z = Depth below effective top of wall or to reinforce-
ment (ft); (See Article 5.8.5)
13 =Inclination of ground slope behind wall measured
counterclockwise from horizontal plane (deg);
(See Article 5.5.2)
13 =Inclination of ground slope in front of wall mea-
sured counterclockwise from horizontal plane
(deg); (See Article 5.6.2)
y =Soil unit weight (kef)
y = Effective unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
=Unit weight of water (kef)
5 =Friction angle between two dissimilar materials
(deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
A =Maximum horizontal wall deflection (ft)
P = Soil reinforcement angle of friction (deg); (See
Article 5.8.5)
o =Inclination of back of wall measured clockwise
from horizontal plane (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
4) =Friction angle of soil
4) =Effective stress friction angle of internal friction
(deg)
a,, =Active earth pressure (ksf); (See Article 5.5.2)
=Magnitude of lateral pressure due to surcharge
(ksf); (See Article 5.5.2)
=Passive earth pressure (ksf); (See Article 5.5.2)
The n o t a t i o n s f o r d i m en s i o n u n i t s i n c l u d e t he f o l l o wi n g:
deg =degree; dim =dimensionless; ft =foot; k =kip; k/ft
= kip/ft; ksf = kip/ft
2; kcf = kip/ft3; in. = inch; lb =
p o u n d ; m i l = 0.001 in.; and psi =pounds per square inch.
The dimensional units provided with each notation are pre-
sented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally
correct combination of units for the wall design procedures
correctness of the equations shouldbe confirmed.
Part B
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY
WALL DESIGN
5.5.1 DesignTerminology
R ef er t o F i gu r e 5 . 5 . 1 A f o r t er m i n o l o gy u s ed i n t he d e-
sign of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls.
5 . 5 . 2 Eart h Pressu re and Su rcharge Loadings
Earth pressure loading on rigid gravity and semi-grav-
ity walls is a function of the type and condition of soil
backfill, the slope of the ground surface behind the wall,
the friction between the wall and soil, and the ability of
the wall to translate or rotate in response to loading. Yield-
ing walls are free to translate or rotate about their base.
Restrained walls are fixed or partially restrained against
translation and/or rotation.
For yielding walls, lateral earth pressures shall be com-
puted assuming active stress conditions and wedge theory
usinga planar surface of sliding definedby Coulomb The-
ory. Development of an active state of stress in the soil be-
hind a rigid wall requires an outward rotation of the wall
about its toe. The magnitude of rotation required to de-
velop active pressure is a function of the soil type and con-
ditions behind the wall, as defined inTable 5.5.2A. Refer
to Figure 5.5.2B for procedures to determine the magni-
tude and location of the earth pressure resultant for grav-
ity and semi-gravity retaining walls subjected to active
earth pressures.
For restrained or yielding walls for which the tilting or
deflection required to develop active earth pressure is not
tolerable (i.e., yielding walls located adjacent to structures
sensitive to settlement), lateral earthpressures shall be com-
puted assuming at-rest conditions usingthe relationships:
P,, =(yH2/2)(K,,)
K,, = I sin4)
(5.5.2-I)
(5.5.2-2)
When traffic can come within a horizontal distance
from the top of the wall equal to one-half the wall height,
the lateral earth pressure for design shall be increased by
a mmnimum surcharge acting on the backslope equivalent
to that applied by 2 feet of soil as described in Article
3.20.3. The surcharge will result in the application of an
additional uniform pressure on the back of the wall hav-
ing a resultant magnitude:
P,= (H3yK (5.5.2-3)
acting at the mid-height of the wall where K is equal to K,
or K,, depending on wall restraint. If the surcharge is
greater than that applied by 2 feet of soil, the design earth
pressures shall be increased by the actual amount of the
surcharge. Unless actual data regarding the magnitude of
anticipated surcharge loads is available, assume a mini-
mum soil unit weight of 0.125 kcf in determining the sur-
charge load.
The effects of permanent point or line surcharge loads
(other than normal traffic live loads) on backslopes shall
DIVISION IDESIGN
TABLE 5.5.2A Relationshipbetween Soil Backfill Type
and Wall Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth
Pressures Behind Rigid Retaining Walls
S o i l Typ e a n d Wa l l R o t a t i o n , AIH
Co n d i t i o n Ac t i v e Pa s s i v e
Den s e Co hes i o n l es s 0. 001 0. 02 0
L o o s e Co hes i o n l es s 0. 004 0. 06 0
S t i f f Co hes i v e 0. 01 0 0. 02 0
S o f t Co hes i v e 0. 02 0 0. 04 0
5.5.2
117
I
BUTTRESS-...~
I
I
STRUCTU~A L
KEY BETWEEN
C O N C R E T E PO U R S~
I
I
STRUCTURAL KE~I
I
I
BASE, BASE SLAB OR FOOTING
FIGURE 5.5.lA Terms Used in Design of Rigid Retaining Walls
1 1 8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5 . 5 . 2
TABLE 5.5.2B Ultimate Friction Factors, Friction Angles and Adhesion for Dissimilar Materials
After U.S. Department of the Navy (198 2)
F r i c t i o n
Fact or, f Frict ion( i)
tan ~ Angle, ~
In t er f a c e Ma t er i a l s ( DIM) ( Degr ees )
Ma s s c o n c r et e o n t he f o l l o wi n g f o u n d a t i o n m a t er i a l s :
Cl ea n s o u n d r o c k 0. 7 0 35
Cl ea n gr a v el , gr a v el -s a n d m i x t u r es , c o a r s e s a n d 0.55 t o 0. 6 0 2 9 t o 3 1
Cl ea n f i n e t o m ed i u m s a n d , s i l t y m ed i u m t o c o a r s e s a n d , s i l t y o r 0. 4 5 t o 0. 5 5 2 4 t o 2 9
clayey gravel
Cl ea n f i n e s a n d , s i l t y o r c l a yey f i n e t o m ed i u m s a n d 0. 3 5 t o 0.45 19 t o 2 4
F i n e s a n d y s i l t , n o n p l a s t i c s i l t 0. 3 0 t o 0. 3 5 1 7 t o 1 9
V er y s t i f f a n d ha r d r es i d u a l o r p r ec o n s o l i d a t ed c l a y 0. 4 0 t o 0. 5 0 2 2 t o 2 6
Med i u m s t i f f a n d s t i f f c l a y a n d s i l t y c l a y 0. 3 0 t o 0. 3 5 1 7 t o 1 9
( Ma s o n r y o n f o u n d a t i o n m a t er i a l s ha s s a m e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s )
S t eel s heet p i l es a ga i n s t t he f o l l o wi n g s o i l s :
Cl ea n gr a v el , gr a v el -s a n d m i x t u r es , wel l -gr a d ed r o c k f i l l wi t h 0. 4 0 2 2
s p a l l s
Cl ea n s a n d , s i l t y s a n d -gr a v el m i x t u r e, s i n gl e-s i z e ha r d r o c k f i l l 0. 3 0 1 7
Silty s a n d , gr a v el o r s a n d m i x ed wi t h s i l t o r c l a y 0. 2 5 1 4
F i n e s a n d y s i l t , n o n p l a s t i c s i l t 0. 2 0 1 1
F o r m ed c o n c r et e o r c o n c r et e s heet p i l i n g a ga i n s t t he f o l l o wi n g s o i l s :
C lean gr a v el , gr a v el -s a n d m i x t u r e, wel l -gr a d ed r o c k f i l l wi t h 0. 4 0 t o 0. 5 0 22 t o 2 6
spalls
C lean sand, silt y sand-gravel mixt u re, single size hard rock f ill 0. 3 0 t o 0. 4 0 1 7 t o 22
S i l t y s a n d , gr a v el o r s a n d m i x ed wi t h s i l t o r c l a y 0. 3 0 1 7
F i n e s a n d y s i l t , n o a p l a s t i c s i l t 0. 2 5 1 4
V a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l m a t er i a l s :
Ma s o n r y o n m a s o n r y, i gn eo u s a n d m et a m o r p hi c r o c ks :
Dr es s ed s o f t r o c k o n d r es s ed s o f t r o c k 0. 7 0 3 5
Dr es s ed ha r d r o c k o n d r es s ed s o f t r o c k 0. 6 5 3 3
Dr es s ed ha r d r o c k o n d r es s ed ha r d r o c k 0. 5 5 2 9
Ma s o n r y on wood (cross grain) 0.50 26
S t eel o n s t eel a t s heet p i l e i n t er l o c ks 0. 3 0 1 7
Int erf ace M at erials
Soil C ohesion, c
( psO
Adhesion, ca
( psO
V er y s o f t c o hes i v e s o i l ( 0- 2 5 0) 0- 2 5 0
S o f t c o hes i v e s o i l ( 2 5 0 - 5 00) 2 5 0 - 5 00
Med i u m s t i f f c o hes i v e s o i l ( 5 00 - 1 , 000) 500 - 750
St if f cohesive soil ( 1 , 000 - 2 , 000) 7 5 0 - 9 5 0
V er y s t i f f c o hes i v e s o i l (2,000 - 4,000) 950 - 1,300
=friction angle between 2 d i s s i m i l a r m a l er i a l s .
5 . 5 . 2 DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN 119
o
\ I
a
~ H
1<
7H P K
a 0 2 a
90 9
Sin
2 (9.44d)
2
sins 9 sin( 9d) [i+J~ ]
(1)~ E ~E CTIV E U NIT WE IGHT
=E F ~F E CTIV E ANGL E O F INTE R NAL R R ICTIO N
6 ANGL E 0F WAL L F R ICTIO N( S E E TAB L E 5 . 5 . 2 6 ]
FIGURE 5.5.2B Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures Coulomb Analysis
also be considered in developing the design earth pres-
sures. See Figure 5.5.2C to estimate the effects of perma-
nent point and line surcharge loads.
The effects of compacting backfill in confined areas
behind retaining walls may result in development of lat-
eral pressures greater than those represented by active or
at-rest conditions. Where use of heavy static and vibratory
compaction equipment within a distance of about OSH
behind the wall is anticipated, the effects of backfill coni-
paction should be considered in estimating the lateral
earth pressure distribution used for design.
In addition to the earth, surcharge and water pressures,
the backwallsof abutments shall be designedtoresist loads
due to design live and impact loads. For design purposes,
it shall be assumed that wheel loads are positioned to gen-
erate the maximum tensile stresses at the back of the back-
wall when combined with stresses caused by the backfill.
The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of
the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends well
below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types
of disturbance (e.g., a utility trench excavation in front of
wall). Where passive earth pressure in front of a wall can
be considered, refer to Figures 5.5.2Dand 5.5.2E for pro-
cedures to determine the magnitude and location of the
passive earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
gravity walls. Development of passive earth pressure in
the soil in front of a rigid wall requires an outward rota-
tion of the wall about its toe or other movement of the
wall into the soil. The magnitude of movement required
to mobilize passive pressure is a function of the soil type
and condition in front of the wall as defined in Table
5.5.2A.
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage
Walls shall be designed to resist the maximum antici-
pated waterpressure. For a horizontal, static ground water
K
a
12 0
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.5.3
21Yv4
-F-,-
*I
N
14
SECTION
LINE LOAD
P OINT LOAD
-S
C
a
U
2
0
LINE LOAD
F IGU R E 5.5.2C Procedu re to Determine L a t er a l Pr es s u r e Du e t o Po i n t a n d Line Loads
Mo d i f i ed a f t er Ter z a ghi ( 1 9 5 4 )
table, the total hydrostatic water pressure shall be deter-
mined using the following relationship:
P,, =y,,H,,
2/2
If the ground water levels differ on opposite sides of a
wall, the effects of seepage forces on wall stability or pip-
ing potential shall be considered. Seepage forces may be
determined by flow net procedures or various analytical
methods. Hydrostatic pressures and seepage shall be con-
trolled by providing free drtining granular backfill and
weep holes through the wall. Weep pipes shall be placed
through the wall at the lowest elevation that will permit
gravity drainage. Portions of walls below the level of
(5.5.3-1) weep pipes shall be designed for full hydrostatic pressure
unless a deeper drainage pipe is provided behind amid at
the base of the wall.
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-ASeismic Desiemi
for guidance regarding the lateral earth pressure on gray-
La. load o~.
Pomni load Op
~emI4
L
N
0~
SECT1ON
P LAN
Value of .M
~tu6 at N2
Op
P OINT LOAD
5.5.4 DIVISION IDESIGN
121
I
E
a
I
U
w
ANG LE OF INTERNAL FRIcTbON,~,DEG REES
FIGURE 5.5.20 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall
with Horizontal Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis) Nlodified alter the U.S. Department of Navy (198 2)
REDUCTION FACTOR(RF)OF K~ K
1
P OE VARIOUS RATlOS OF4/~ KpIRF
~%&~t07I-~i.~5i-O4I.O3i..412I-t1l I ~o
40 45
0 Ia 20 30
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
;~ .
7 -~
.
.m s~
~iT~
1-02 -.0,5
see
~4l 10.0
a
am
s
s~ ~.rn
8 8 6 I 8 54 6.10
IT
8 241117 .752 716
~T~iT ii. i~
Ii~T~ .3yi~
L
La~
95
.8 61 ii.
i
i56 .S~
907
562
~jT7I
678
I~
20
~
~
~
ma mo
.175 .8 11
.~ ~
.733 ~612
716 .8 00
i~
.7~
~ ~3TJ3575 ~
592 2 14.19 JIG 1292
45 .500 464 .3391276 226 .114
122
5.5.4
N~JCT10U ~TOE (RF) OFKp
P OIWaG WNAT10SOF-8 /~ KpZRFEKp
I
.8.
20
I&,z-g
S .~9
40 45
ANG LE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, ~, DEGREES
FIGURE 5.5.2E Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical Wall
with Sloping Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis) Modified after the U.S. Department of Navy (198 2)
ity and semi-gravity retaining walls subjected to seismic
loading. In general, the pseudo-static approachdeveloped
by Mononobe and Okabe may be used to estimate the
equivalent static forces for seismic loads. The estimation
of seismic design forces should account for wall inertia
forces in addition to the equivalent static-forces. Where a
wall supports a bridge structure, the seismic design forces
should also include seismic forces transferred from the
bridge through bearing supports which do not slide freely
(e.g., elastomeric bearings).
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability
Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be dimensioned to
ensure stability against possible failure modes by satisfy-
ing the following factor of safety (FS) criteria:
Sliding - FS =1.5
Overturning -
FS =2.0 for footings on soil
FS =1.5 for footings on rock
Bearing Capacity - for static loading
See Article 4.4.7 for footings on soil
See Article 4.4.8 for footings on rock
The factors of safety against sliding and overturning
failure under seismic loading may be reduced to
75% of the factors of safety listed above.
Bearing capacity for seismic loading
FS =1.5 for footing on soil or rock
Refer to Figure 5.5.SA for computational procedures to
determine the factors of safety for sliding and overturning
failure modes using the Coulomb analysis.
Unfactored dead and live loads shall be used to deter-
mine the FS against sliding and overturning. In determin-
ing the FS, the effect of passive soil pressure resistance in
front of a wall should only be considered when competent
soil or rock exists which will not be removed or eroded
during the structure life. Table 5.5. 2A may be used for gen-
eral guidance in selecting coefficients of sliding friction
between the wall base and foundation soil or rock. For sta-
tic loading the location of the bearing pressure resultant
(R) on the base of the wall foundation shall be within B/6
of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil and
within B/4 of the center of the foundation for foundations
on rock where B is the width of the wall base or footing.
For seismic loading, the location of R shall be within
B/3 of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil
and rock.
See Article 4.4.5 for procedures to determine the re-
quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles
4.4.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6,
respectively, for procedures to design pile and drilled shaft
foundations.
5.5.6 Structure Design
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be
by service load or load factor design methods in confor-
mance with Article 3.22.
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs
The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be de-
signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
materials, unless a more exact method is used. The base
slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
supported by the wall. The base slabs of counterforted and
buttressed walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous
beams of spans equal to the distance between counterforts
or buttresses.
The c r i t i c a l s ec t i o n s f o r b en d i n g m o m en t s in footings
shall be taken at the face and back of the stem. The critical
sections for shear in footings shall be taken at a distance d
(d = effective depth) from the face of the stem for the toe
section and at the back of the stem for the heel section.
5.5.6.2 Wall Stems
The upright stems of cantilever walls shall be designed
as cantilevers supported at the base. The upright stems or
face walls of counterfort and buttress walls shall be de-
signed as fixed or continuous beams. The face walls (or
stems) shall be securely anchored to the supporting coun-
terforts or buttresses by means of adequate reinforcement.
Wall stems shall be designed for combined axial load
(including the weight of the stemn and friction due to back-
fill acting on the stem) and bending due to eccentric ver-
tical loads, surcharge loads and earth pressure.
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
Counterforts shall be designed as T-beamim. Buttresses
shall be designed as rectangular beams. In connection
with the main tension reinforcement of counterforts, there
shall be a system of horizontal and vertical bars or stirrups
to anchor the face walls and base slab to the counterfort.
These stirrups shall be anchored as near to the outside
faces of the lace walls, and as near to the bottom of the
base slab as practicable.
DESIGN FACTORS
w - mos of -~ mas.d dem tee 1w yeeay ma emo~eeay .de~
SI .de s.d led s.Se Seem is. leo cm.t8
s.d cew~tetWI ede~
P = ~ematmt SI .com w eIeet pE05ua0 sos. of ode.
P Vellee cs..ommt of P
p em t9o~ 4 4)
P 14m1mW oomemmt of P ~
P ,, P coetO~* .4)
P P ins. s.d ems.,.. IrUSI of Sm mew Sop
p
F
e
a
Sde, .4 Iwees ~reddS4,emtmee Is a&deoq
S,dMO~ SI Ses. .4 med soUl *U~ IA heOlSeAti.
Ms~e.4 P 1.41w betees. s. mE tei beUls.. P m, T.. s.s.m.
eqiin to Owe 1w Rs.. miWle
I CoeflidmI .1 P 4011w bates. ma Im.4ee~k~A s.d w ode.
S..,, reis s.s.m
CaSed., of f.g ,deIieI g el.
- Slew mPmgmef feomdetI s. ete slow, .,wma sag
- AEI., SOtues. aSms. sited SSW~ frulyl Tde S.5.~
6 fReest. m~e .4 atwoes S1e~.m .~ s.d w r ode.
FS Feetwef sifetp
RfWMi~ m o
4@it*s.i
@
San, memiw s.e.c tea
RedsShoe 1wYImI5
~ Oddsq
- I~o
5 1.5 (1w Sins. res.)
~2.0(1wSm eel)
ft30
UneOsbeg omees. led t ~
F c~(S ~) + .(in) +
Qewsdw sod w eeSIed teems. s.d (C 0)
F (U + P ,,,)lm I +
F (5. P~ )tas I s() P 0
~ P p
F
FS 5 1.5
P
M
Ides. Fw edoeds. s.d. does. heEl ed @04 ,odseeds c to
meet mliod ~
LOCAlION OF R(3LTANT
S... mains. met em
U, P
V
mmee0~ P ~ 0
U
s x s (1w Sm s. eed)
S S
U
A S S (1w Sm m rode)
4
FUZA~ WJ~
Te detauses s.eedse leu,ieP m leedelg e. reIw Is A4iIdee & (SpmE Foetkop).
45 (G eSm ~ee) @04 4A (CoOed SledOs)
0.~A&L STAJTY
CetaUme seed ets.YSE od. SmU. ma lemets. mewds elM
reeeeel Is des. eteeg Sme es dwS~ le MUds 52.2.5
FIGURE5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls
Coulomb Analysis
124
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.5.6.3
I
1
I
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED
WALL DESIGN
Except in gravity walls, not less than 1/8 squaw inch
01 horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be pro-
vided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to
resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks.
The reinforcement in each construction panel (i.e., be-
tween vertical construction joints) of wall with height
varying uniformly from one end to another, shall be de-
signed for the loading comidhiomi acting at one-third of the
panel length from the high end of the panel. If practical,
the thickness of footings shall be maintained consumil in
each panel or in each group of panels. The width of foot-
ings. however, mitay vary according to the height of wall as
required by design.
Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel
shall be provided if requiredduring the construction Stage
prior to wall backfill. The adequacyof reinforcement shall
be checked due to the dead load of the stein and
any other vertical loads applied to the stem prior to
backti I ling.
Reinforcement in wall and abutmemu stetns shall be ex-
tended a minimum distance equal to the effective depth of
the section or 15 bar diameters, whichever is greater. but
not less than I toot beyond the point at which comnputa
tiomis indicate reinforcement is no longer needed to resist
stress.
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not ex-
ceeding 30 feet and expansion joints at intervals not ex-
ceeding 90 feet for gravity or reinforced concrete walls.
All joints shall be filled with approved tilling material to
ensure the function of the joint. Joints in abutments shall
he located approximately midway between the longitudi-
nal members bearing on the abutments.
5.5.7 Backfill
Jhe backlill material behind all retaining walls shall be
free draining. nonexpansive, noncorrosive material and
shall be drained by weep holes with French drains, placed
a suitable intervals and elevations. In counterfort walls,
there shall be at least one drain for each pocket formed by
the counterforts. Silts and clays shall not be used for back-
till unless suitable design procedures are followed and
construction control measured are incorporated in the
construction documents to account for their presence.
5 . 6 . 1 Design Terminology
A nongravity cantilevered wall includes an exposed
design height (H) over which soil is retained by the verti-
cal and facing elements, and a vertical element embed-
ment depth (D) which provides lateral support to the ver-
tical wall elements.
5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
Lateral earth pressures shall be estimnated assumine
wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding (letined by
Coulomb theory.
For determining lateral earth pressures on permanent
walls, effective stress methods of analysis and drained
shear strength parameters for soil shall be used.
For permanent walls and for temporary walls in gran-
ular soils, the simplified earth pressume distributions
shown in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2B. or other suitable
earth pressure distributions, may be used. If walls will
support or are supported by cohesive soils for temporary
applications, walls may be designed based on total stres~
methods of analysis amid undrained shear strength pa-
ramneters. For this latter case, the simplitied earth pressure
distributions shown in Figures 5 6 ~C and 5.6.21). or other
suitable earth pressure distributions. may be used with the
tollowing restrictions:
o The ratio of overburden pressure o undrained shear
strength (i.e., stability number N = -yl-lIc) must be
<3.
o The active earth pressure shall not be less than 0.25
times the effective overburdemi pressure at any depth.
Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for sup-
pt)rt, the width of each vertical element shall be assumed
to equal the width of the flange or diameter of the element
lor driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled
hole for sections encased in concrete.
The magnitude and location of resultant loads and re-
sisting forces for permanent walls with discrete vertical
elements embedded in soil and rock 1or lateral support
may be determined using the earth pressure distributions
presented in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2C. or other earth
pressure distributions developed for use in the desigmi of
such walls. The procedure for determining the resultant
passive resistance of a vertical element embedded in soil
assumes that net passive resistance is mobilized across
a maximum of three times the element width or dia-
meter (reduced, if necessary, to account for soft clay or
5 . 5 . 6 . 4 R ei n f o r c em en t
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
5.6.2
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
N OTE: REFER TO TABLE 5 . 6 2 A FOR
GEN ERAL N OTES AN D LEGEN D
FIGURE 5.6.2A Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
I. DetermlflC the aCtive earth pressure on the
wall due to surcharge loads, t he retained
soil and differential water pressure above
t he dredge line treter to Table S.6.2A (or
determination of K) .
2. Determine the mag nitude at active pressure
at the dredg e line (~) due to surci g e
loads, retained soil and differential water
pressure, using the earth pressure
coefficient K
1 .
3. Determine t he valu e of s P/ttK K )Y~I
f or t he dist ribu t ion of net passit
4 ~
pressu re in f ront of t he wall below t he
dredge line ( ref er t o Table S. 6 . 2 A t ot
det erminat ion of K and K ).
p
4. Su m ~ ment 5 abou t t he point of action of r
t o det ermine t he euiedeent (D ) f or which
t he net passive pressu re is su f f icient t o
provide eq u ilibriu m.
S. Det ermine t he dept h ipoint ol at which t he
shear in t he wall is zero t i. e. , t he point
at which t he aieas of t he driving and
resist ing pressu re diagrams are
eq u ivalent ) .
6 . calcu lat e t he masiajm bending moa.~nt at tIre
point of zero shear.
1. calculate t he design dept h. D 1.2 D to
1 . 4 D f or a saf et y f act or of 1 . 5 t o 2 . O.
b. SIM PLIFIED DESIGN PROC EDURE
( 2 ) rat ccS Sm5~*4 AitE mER InKmzGITAL i~r oF vutricAl. W1.i.
uD~.
FIGURE S.6.2B Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent Flexible
CantileveredWalls with Continuous Vertical Wall Element s M odif ied af t er Teng ( 1 96 2 )
126
Dt y~ H+~ -4 D
)
t2 yH +y~ D)
FIN ISHED GRADE-
-Pp~ I5 Kp
2 y~ 0
2 b
p
02 r1 5 K02 b0t 2 y1 H4 y2 t l)
a. EM BEDM EN T IN SOIL b. EMBEDMENT IN ROCK
a PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
IViES: I 1 ) St~IAN1E AW WATER FRESSIJtES 11.35? BE ADDED tOtilE ABOVE
ERwin P IES9DZS.
discontinuities in the embedded depth of soil or rock) and
that some portion of the embedded depth below finished
grade (usually 2 to3 feet for an element in soil, and 1 foot
for an element in rock) is ineffective in providing passive
lateral support.
In developing the design lateral pressure, the lateral
pressure due to traffic, permanent point andline surcharge
loads, backfill compaction, or other types of surcharge
loads shall be added to the lateral earth pressure in accor-
dance with Articles 3.20.3 and 5.5.2.
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be designed to resist
the maximum anticipated waterpressure. For ahorizontal
static ground water table, the total hydrostatic water pres-
sure shall be determined using Equation 5.5.3-I. For dif-
fering ground water levels on opposite sides of the wall,
the water pressure and seepage forces shall be determined
by flow net procedures or other appropriate methods of
analysis, where necessary. Seepage shall be controlled by
installation of a drainage medium (e.g., preformed
drainage panels, sand or gravel drains or wick drains) be-
hind the facing with outlets at or near the base of the wall.
Drainage panels shall maintain their drainage characteris-
tics under the design earth pressures and surcharge load-
ings, and shall extend from the base of the wall to a level
1 foot below the top of the wall.
Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls, sat-
urated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject to
freezing andexpansion. In such cases, insulation shall be
provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil, or
consideration should be given during wall design to
the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by
frozen soil.
5.6.4 S ei s m i c Pr es s u r e
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-ASeismic Design
for guidance regarding the design of flexible cantilevered
walls subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. In general,
the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and
Okabe may be used to estimate the equivalent static
forces. Forces resulting from wall inertia effects may be
ignored in estimating the seismnic lateral earth pressure.
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be dimensioned to en-
sure stability against passive failure of embedded vertical
elements such that FS = 1.5. Unfactored dead and live
loads shall be used to evaluate the factor of safety against
passive failure of embedded vertical elements.
V ertical elements shall be designed to support the full
design earth, surcharge and water pressures between the
FINISHED
3 bD
( 1 + TANBI(4SUYSHI
NOTE REFER TO TABLE 5.6.2A FOR
G ENERAL NOTES AND LEG END
2
5u CONSIDER P OSSIBLE CONDITIITh.
cF WATER IN TENSION CRACK
C OHESIV E SOIL t)~)
NOTE FOR SLOP ING 8 ACKFILL
USE EFFECTIVE SHEAR STRENG rI
P ARAMETERS I C ~O I A N O
FIG URE 56.2C.o
)~ H2S~~
F INIS HE D
p - 3 bD
2
4 H -4 S. d- y~ H
a EM BEDM EN T 1 1 C OHESIV E SOIL b EM BEDM EN T IN C OHESIV E SOIL
RETAIN IN G GRAN ULAR SOIL RETAIN IN G C OHESIV E SOIL
F1GURE 5.6.2C Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
128
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.6.5
COHESIVE
SOIL 2
b. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL
RETAINING COHESIVE SOIL
4521E5. III F~ 6141.15 12E1004 IS G IW5LSR SOIL, srrro SO rjaji,r 56.25 III S4AoIAIS~r ~,c oisrtS rorsstw.ra e.~sr or A*iorn m Tsr P OwE
SW IZL AS0~t DIAG OAEI im SFTAII~ Coirs lot SOIL 14104 EASOE P 5CSS.@ES.
AM~5 ISIS
41 f~rS sirs.. OAt P 044535 1Z~l7d. IWT or vrnicsi. Wd.i.
121 ours m rIo.mr 562. EG O solP uriro orasa~ ~~m.ot rI.n,wr.
FIGURE 5.6.2D Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements
Modified after Teng (1962)
TABLE S.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions f o r Per m a n en t a n d
Tem p o r a r y F l ex i b l e Ca n t i l ev er ed Wa l l s wi t h Di s c r et e V er t i c a l Wa l l E l em en t s
LEGEND
:
y = Effective unit weight of soil
b V ertical element width
e = Spacing between vertical wall elements (c/c)
= Undrained shear strength of cohesive soil
s = S hea r s t r en gt h o f r o c k m a s s
= Passive resistance per vertical wall element
Pa Active earth pressure per vertical wall element
3 = Ground surface slope behind wall .f + for slope up from wall 1,
13 = Ground surface slope in front of wall for slope down from wall J
Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient; Refer to Figure 5.5.2B
Passive earth pressure coefficient; Refer to Figures 5.5.2D and 5.5.2E
4m = Effective angle of soil friction
N I Z Y T E S
:
( I) F o r t em p o r a r y wa t t s em b ed d ed i n gr a n u t a r s o i l o r r o c k, r ef er 10 Figure 5.6.2A to determine passive resistance and USC diagrams on Figure
5.6.2C t o d em er m i n e a c t i v e ea r t h pressure of retained soil.
(2) Surcharge and water pressures must he added to the indicated earthpressures.
(3) Forces shown are per verticat watt element.
( 4 ) Pr es s u r e distributions below the exposed portion ofthe wall are based on an effective element width of 3b, which is valid for =5b. For <5h,
refer to Figures S.6.2B and 5.62D for continuous watt elements to determine pressure distributions on embedded portions of the watt.
COHESIVE
SOIL I
I )~i, Su
1
14S0 -y5H
a. EMBEDMENT IN COHESIVE SOIL
RETAINING G RANULAR SOIL
129
elements. In determining the depth of embedment to mo-
bilize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to
planes of weakness (e.g., slickensides, bedding planes,
andjoint sets) that could reduce the strength of the soil or
rock determined by field or laboratory tests. Embedment
in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed
rock which should not fail through ajoint surface, should
be based on an allowable shear strength of O.10C
0 to
0.1 SC4, of the intact rock.
Structural design of individual wall elements may be
performed by service load or load factor design methods
in conformance with Article 3.22.
The maximum spacing between vertical supporting el-
ements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical el-
ements and facing, and the type and condition of soil to be
supported. Mmax in a 1-foot height of wall facing at any
level may be determined by the following, or other ac-
ceptable design procedures:
Simple span (no soil arching)
o Simple span (soil arching)
Minax =Pae
2/12
o Continuous (no soil arching)
=p~2/lO
Continuous (soil arching)
=p~/l 2
Equation 5.6.6-I is applicable for simply supported
facing behind which the soil will not arch between verti-
cal supports (e.g., in soft cohesive soils or for rigid con-
crete facing placed tightly against the in-place soil). Equa-
tion 5.6.6-2 is applicable for simply supported facing
behind which the soil will arch between vertical supports
(e.g., in granular or stiff cohesive soils with flexible fac-
mng or rigid facing behind which there is sufficient space
to permit the in-place soil to arch). Equations 5.6.6-3 and
5.6.6-4 are applicable for facing which is continuous over
several vertical supports (e.g., reinforced shotcrete or
concrete).
Timber facings should be constructed of stress-grade
lumber in conformance with Article 13.2.1. If timber is
used where conditions are favorable for the growth of
decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure
treated with a wood preservative unless the heartwood of
a naturally decay-resistant species is available and is con-
sidered adequate with respect to the decay hazardand ex-
pected service life of the structure.
Refer toArticle 5.2.2.3.
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection
R ef er t o Ar t i c l e 5 . 7 . 8 .
5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN
Refer toFigure 5.7.lA for terminology used for the de-
sign of anchored retaining walls.
5.7.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
(S.6.6-1) The development of lateral earth pressures for design
shall consider the method and sequence of construction,
the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the physical char-
acteristics and stability of the ground mass to be sup-
(S.6.6-2) ported, allowable wall deflections, the space between an-
chors, anchor prestress, andthe potential for anchor yield.
For stable ground masses, the final distribution and
magnitude of lateral earth pressure on a completed an-
(S.6.6-3) chored wall with two or more levels of anchors con-
structed from the top down may be computed using the
apparent earth pressure distributions shown in Figure
5.7.2A or any other applicable earth pressure distribution
(5.6.6-4) developed for this purpose. For unstable or marginally sta-
ble ground masses, the design earth pressure may exceed
those shown in Figure 5.7.2A and loads should be esti-
mated using methods of slope stability analysis which in-
corporate the effects of anchors or which consider inter-
slice equilibrium and provide information on imiterslice
forces. In developing the design earth pressure for a par-
ticular wall section, consideration shall be given to wall
displacements that may affect adjacent structures or un-
derground utilities. V ery approximate estimates of settle-
ments adjacent to bracedor anchored flexible walls can be
made using Figure 5.7.2B. If wall deflections estimated
using Figure 5.7.2B are excessive for a particular applica-
tion, a more detailed analysis using beam on elastic foun-
dation, finite element or other methods of analysis which
consider the soil-structure interaction effects of anchored
walls may be warranted.
130
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.7.2
A N C HO R I N C U N A I lO N
A S R E Q U I R E D
Anchored walls with one level of anchors may be de-
signed using a triangular earth pressure distribution in ac-
cordance with Article 5.6.2 or using another suitable earth
pressure distribution consistent withthe expected wall de-
fiection. For the case where excavation has advanced
down to the first anchor level but the first row of anchors
has not yet been installed, the wall shall be treated as a
nongravity cantilevered wall and the earth pressure distri-
bution loading on the wall shall be assumed as triangular
in accordance with Article 5.6.2. Overstressing of the an-
chors should be avoided as excessive anchor loads relative
to the capacity of the retained ground mass to support the
anchor loads can result in undesirable deflections, or pas-
sive failure of the wall into the retained soil.
In developing the design lateral pressure for walls con-
structedfrom the top down, the lateral pressure due to traf-
fic or other surcharge loading, shall be added to the lateral
earth pressure in accordance with Articles 3.23.3 and
5.5.2, using an earth pressure coefficient consistent with
the estimated magnitude of wall deflection.
For the conditions where there is no or one anchor
level, the magnitude and distribution of lateral resisting
forces for embedded vertical elements in soil or rock shall
be determined following procedures described in Article
5.6.2. When two or more levels of anchors have been in-
stalled, the magnitude of lateral resistance provided by
embedded vertical elements will depend on the element
stiffness and deflection under load.
The earth pressures on anchored walls constructed in
fill situations from the bottom up are affected by the
method and sequence of construction. Therefore, the
method and sequence of construction must be considered
when selecting appropriate lateral earth pressures for an-
chored walls in fill situations. As a general guide, the fol-
lowing may be considered:
For walls with a single anchor levelA triangular
distribution defined by K~y per unit length of wall
height plus surcharge loads.
o For walls with multiple anchor levelsA rectangu-
lar pressure distribution derived by increasing the
total force from the triangular pressure distribution
described above by one-third and applying the force
as a uniform pressure distribution.
FIGURE 5.7.lA Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design
Refer to Article 5.6.3.
5.7.3
DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN 131
APPAREN T EARTH
SOIL TYPE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
SAND ~
(OR P ERMANENT
WALLS IN C LAY)
SOFT TO (4)
MEDIUM CLAY
(q~ 20.25 TOIO TSF)
,, 7
I I
.65 K
0 )~H
I,,
It
H
r
( I)
I
-
I I
K0yH
H - FIN AL WALL HEIGHT
K0- AC TIV E EARTH PRESSURE
C O E FFI C I E N T
y- EFFECTIVE SOIL UNITWEIG HT
- TOTAL SOIL UNIT WEIG HT
m- REDUCTION FACTOR
- UN C ON FIN ED C OM PRESSIV E
STRENG TH
N O T E S
0. 2 5 H
(2)
O. 7 5 H
(2)
K0ZTAN
2 (45...~.)
K
0sIm (2q~/yH)B4JTNOT
LESS THAN 0.25
I FOR OVERCONSOLIDATED
C LAYS
m 0.4 FORNORMALLY
C ON SOLIDATED C LAY
STIFF TO (4)
HARD C LAY
(qu > 1.0 TSF)
I ~
(3)
O.4y H
~O.25 H
0. 5 0 H
F
0. 2 5 H
(3) VALUE OF 0.4SHOULD BE USED
FOR LON G-TERM EX C AV ATION S;
VALUES BETWEEN 0.4 AND
0.2 MAY BE USED FOR
SHORT-TERM CONDITIONS.
(4) SURCHARG E AND WATER
P RESSURES MUST BE ADDED
TO THESE EARTH PRESSURE
DIAG RAMS. THE TWO LOWER
D I A GR A M S A R E N O T V A LI D FO R
P ERMANENT WALLS OR WALLS
WHERE WATER LEVEL LIES
ABOVE BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION.
FIGURE 5.7.2A Guidelines f or Est imat ing Eart h Pressure on Walls with Two or More Levels of Anchors
Constructed fromtheTop Down Modified after Terzaghi and Peck (1967)
5.7.4 Seismic Pressure
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-ASeismic Design
for guidance regarding the design of anchored retaining
walls subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. In general,
the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and
O ka b e m a y b e u s ed t o es t i m a t e t he eq u i v a l en t s t a t i c f o r c es
provided the maximumlateral earth pressure be computed
using a seismic coefficient k5=l.SA. Forces resulting
from wall inertia effects may be ignored in estimating the
seismic lateral earth pressure.
The design of anchored walls includes determination
of the following:
o Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of vertical
wall elements and facing;
o Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and cor-
rosion protection of anchors; and
o Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall
foundation, and surrounding soil mass for all inter-
mediate and final stages of construction.
N O T A T I O N
132 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.7.5
0.0
C U R V E I = Sand
CU R V E It = Stiff to very hard clay
CU R V E l i t =
CU R V E ~ =
Soft to medium clay, factor of
Safety against basal heave (m &.lSu ~
Equal to 2 . 0 ~ yH+q /
Soft to medium clay, factor of
Safety a ga i n s t b a s a l hea v e ( S.lSu ~
Equal to 1.2 ~ yH+q/
FIGURE 5.7.2B Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls
Modified after Clough and ORourke (1996)
The bearingcapacity and settlement of vertical wall el-
ements under the vertical component of the anchor forces
and other vertical loads shall be determined in accordance
with Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6.
For walls supported in or through soft clays with 5, <
O.3~yH, continuous vertical elements extending well
below the exposedbase of the wall maybe required to pre-
vent heave in front of the wall. Otherwise, the vertical el-
ements are embedded several feet as required for stability
or end bearing. (Where significant embedment of the wall
is required to prevent bottom heave, the lowest section of
wall below the lowest row of anchors must be designed to
resist the moment induced by the pressure acting between
the lowest row of anchors and the base of the exposed
wall, and the force Pb =O.7(yHB~ I .4c1-l pcB~) act-
ing at the midheight of the embedded depth of the wall.)
The required embedment depth (D or D,) may be de-
terinined in accordance with Article 5.6.2.
Refer to Article 5.7.2 for general guidance regarding
wall deflections.
Depending on the characteristics of the wall, the wall
components shall be designedby service load or load fac-
tor methods in conformance with Article 3.22.
5.7.6.1 General
The procedure for anchored wall design depends on the
number of anchor rows and the construction seqttence.
For a typical wall with two or more rows of anchors
constructed from the top down, the procedure requires
design for the final structure with multiple rows of an-
chors and checking the design for the various stages of
wall construction.
0.0
0.3
0.5
2 .0
I
z
w
w
U)
z
0
F
0
x
w
0
0~
Lii
0
2.0
D I ST A N C E FR O M E XC A V A llO N
D E PT H O F E XC A V A T I O N
5.7.6.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
133
The required horizontal component of each anchor
force shall be computed using the apparent earth pressure
distributions in Figure 5.7.2A, or other applicable earth
pressure distributions, and any other horizontal water
pressure. surcharge or seismic forces acting on the wall.
The total anchor force shall be determined based on the
anchor inclination. The horizontal anchor spacing andan-
chor capacity shall be selected to provide the required
total anchor force.
The vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist
all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure,
anchor and seismic loadings as well as the vertical com-
ponent of the anchor loads and any other vertical loads.
Supports may be assumed at each anchor location and at
the bottom of the wall if the vertical element is extended
below the bottom of the wall.
The stresses in and the design of the wall facing shall
be computed in accordance with the requirements of Ar-
ticle 5.6.6.
All components of the anchored wall system shall be
checked for the various earth pressure distributions and
other loading conditions which will exist during the
course of construction.
5.7.6.2 Anchor Design
Anchor design shall include an evaluation of the feasi-
bility of using anchors, selection of an anchor system, es-
timates of anchor capacity, determination of unbonded
length, and determination of corrosionprotection require-
ments. In determining the feasibility of employing an-
chors at a particular location, consideration shall be given
to the availability or ability to obtain underground ease-
ments, proximity of buried facilities to anchor locations.
and the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions
within the anchor stressing zone.
The required anchor forces shall be determined in ac-
cordance with Article 5.7.6.1. The ultimate anchor capac-
ity per unit length may be preliminarily estimated using
the guidelines presented in Tables 5.7.6.2A and 5.7.6.2B
for soil and rock, respectively. These guidelines are for
preliminary design of straight shaft anchors installed in
small diameter boles using a lowgrout pressure. Other an-
chor types andinstallation procedures could provide other
estitnated ultimate anchor capacities. Final determination
of the anchor capacity and required bond length shall be
the responsibility of the anchored wall specialty contrac
br. The allowable anchor capacity for small diameter an-
chors may be estimated by multiplying the ultimate
anchor capacity per unit length times the bonded (or
stressing) length and dividitig by a FS of 2.5 for anchors
in soil and 3.0 for anchors in rock. Bearing eletnet1ts for
anchors shall be designed to maintain shear stresses in the
vertical wall elements and facing within allowable values.
The capacity of each anchor shall be verified as part of a
stressing and testing program. (See Division II.)
Determination of the tlnbonded anchor length shall
consider the location of the critical failure surface farthest
from the wall, the minimum length required to Insure min-
imal loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground
movements, and the depth to adequate anchoring strata.
As shown in Figure 5.7. IA, the unbonded (or free) anchor
length should not be less than 15 feet and should extend
beyond the critical failttre surface in the soil mass being
retained by the wall. For granular soils or drained cohe-
sive soils, the critical failtlre surface is typically assumed
to be the active failure wedge which is defined by a plane
extending upward from the base of the wall at an angle of
45 + ~I2 from the horizontal. Longer free lengths may
be required for anchors in plastic soils or where critical
failure surfaces are defined by planes or discontintiities
with other orientations.
Selection of an anchor inclination shall consider the lo-
cation of suitable soil or rock strata, the presence of buried
utilities or other geometric constraints, and constructahil-
ity of the anchor drill boles. The component of vertical
load resulting from anchor inclination shall be included in
evaluating the end bearing and settlement of vertical wall
elements.
The minimum horizontal spacing of anchors should be
either three times the diameter of the bonded zone or 4
feet, whichever is larger. tf smaller spacings are required,
consideration can be given to differing anchor inclinations
between alternating anchors.
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
5.7.8 Corrosion Protection
Prestressed anchors and anchor heads shall be pro-
tected against corrosion consistent with the ground and
ground water conditions at the site. The level and extent
of corrosion protection shall be a function of the eround
environment and the potential conseqtlences of an anchor
failure. Corrosion protection shall be applied in accor-
dance with Section 6 of Division IlGround Anchors.
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing
All anchors shall be tested in accordance with Section
6 of Division II Ground Anchors, Article 6.5.5. Testing
and Stressing.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE S.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transferfor Preliminary Design ofAnchors
in Soil Modified after Cheney (198 2)
E s t i m a t ed
S o i l 1 ~ p e
R el a t i v e Den s i t y/
Co n s i s t en c y
t t ~
U l t i m a t e Tr a n s f er L o a d
( ki p s /l i n ea l f o o t )
S a n d a n d Gr a v el L o o s e 1 0
Med i u m d en s e 1 5
Den s e 2 0
S a n d L o o s e 7
Med i u m d en s e 1 0
Dense 13
S a n d a n d S i l t L o o s e 5
Medium dense 7
Den s e 9
S i l t -c l a y Mi x t u r e wi t h Mi n i m u m
L L , P1 , a n d L I R es t r i c t i o n s , o r
F i n e Mi c a c eo u s ~2 ~ S a n d o r S i l t
S t i f f
Ha r d
4
4
Mi x t u r es
(t) V a l u es c o r r ec t ed f o r o v er b u r d en p r es s u r e.
(2) The presence of mica tends to increase the volume and compressibility of sand and soft deposits due to bridging action
a n d s u b s eq u en t f l ex i b i l i t y u n d er i n c r ea s ed p r es s u r es .
TABLE 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load
Transf er f or Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock
Modified after Cheney (198 2)
E s t i m a t ed
Rock Type
U l t i m a t e Tr a n s f er L o a d
( ki p s /l i n ea l f o o t )
Gr a n i t e o r B a s a l t 5 0
Do l o m i t i c L i m es t o n e 40
Sof t Limest one 3 0
Sandstone 30
S l a t es a n d Ha r d S ha l es 2 5
S o f t S ha l es 1 0
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
EARTH WALL DESIGN
5.8 .1 Structure Dimensions
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the
minimum factors of safety required by Article 5.5.5 are
satisfied. The following additional minimum factors of
safety shall be satisfied:
Criterion
Pullout resistance
Ultimate bearing capacity
Factor
of Safety
=1.5
=2 .0
Soil reintorcement length should be as a minimum ap-
proximately 70 percent of the wall height (as measured
from the leveling pad) and not less than 8 feet for both
strip- or grid-type reinforcement. The reinforcement
length should be uniform throughout the entire height of
the wall, unless substantiating evidence is presented to in-
dicate that variation in length is satisfactory. External
loads such as surcharges will increase the minimum rein-
forcement length.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the
reinforced soil mass, which is the same as the top of the
leveling pad, shall be based on bearing capacity, settle-
ment, and stability requirements determined in accor-
dance with Articles 5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.2, 5.2.2.3, 5.5.5, and
pertinent portions of Section 5.8, including the effects of
frost heave, scour, and proximity to slopes
A minimum horizontal bench 4 feet wide shall be pro-
vided in front of walls founded on slopes.
For walls constructed along rivers and streams, foun-
dation depths must be established at a minimum of 2 feet
below potential scour depth as determined in accordance
with Article 5.3.5.
5.8 .2 External Stability
Stability computations shall be made by assuming the
reinforced soil mass to be a rigid body. The coefficient of
active earth pressure, Ka, used to compute the horizontal
force resulting from the random backfill behind the rein-
134
5.7.9
5.8.2
DIVISION IDESIGN
135
forced zone and other loads shall be computed on the
basis of the friction angle of the random backfill. In the
absence of specific data, a maximum friction angle of
30 degrees should be used. The limitation also applies
when determining the coefficient of sliding friction at the
wall base. Passive pressures shall be neglected instability
computations.
The active earth pressure coefficients for randomback-
fill shall be computed as shown in Figure 5.5.2B, with
=13.
Figures 5.8.2A, 5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C illustrate external
stability equations for walls with horizontal backslope and
inclined backslope, respectively.
The equivalent height, H,, of an MSE structure within-
extensible reinforcements supporting a slope shall be
taken as the height measured to the point where the po-
tential failure plane (line of maximum tension) intersects
the ground surface, as shown in Figure 5.8 .4. IA. If a break
in the slope behind the wall facing is located horizontally
within two times the height of the wall (2H), a broken
Horizontal Bocl~slooe WBti Tr~ff:c Sur~horae
ASSUM ED .~ M AX IM UM
j I t I I I SEARIN G STRESS S OV ERALL
STASIUTY.
q FFTTTT ASSUM ED F~ R OV ERTURN IN G
~ SUDIN G & PLLLO U T R E SI ST A N C E
COMPS.
R E I N FO R C Z D
SOIL MASS
VI ~HL
L ~07M
.4-
0-
0-
0-
0-
I-
4-
RAJ~M FILL
F~sqHK
0
F1 14~l~K0
c%J
-S
.1
SAFFIY FACTOR AG AiNST aSIERTURWN G ( M OM EN TS ABOUT POIN T O) ~
Z Moments Resistino ( M r)
lola - B
Z M oments O ver tur ning (M o)
VI (L/Z)
.6
SAFETY FACTOR AG AINST SLIOING :
S. F. C S) ~ Hor~ oat al Resist ing Force( s) ( V I) Ton ~ >IS
L ? *orizont ol Driving Force( s) FI+FZ
a FrIction Mgl. of Baclcf iII or Fou ndat ian~ whlchrnr I. lowest.
R
where: au ec c en t r i c It y
qu troffic surcharg e
R=V 1 If M r=V 1 . ~ . ( dO0d loaE
RuVj4-~L If Ntu(Vl4-~L)~-(dOOdlOG d+
live load surcharge)
H
I.
S.F.
L Mr-Mo L
2, 6
FIGURE 5.8 .2A Horizontal Backslope with Traffic Surcharge
136 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.8.2
d6 6
h
h-H
q q p
SAFETY FACTOR AG AINST OVERTURNING (MOMENTS ABOUT P OINT O)
Z Moments Resisfino (Mi) V1 (L/2)+V2 ~ ~z . o
M otne*it Overturning (Mo~ FH(h/3)
SAFETY FACTOR AG AINST SLIDENG :
~ Haizontal Resistlno Face(s) R T an~
Horuwuol Oriviz~g Force(s) FH
Friction Angle at BackfIll or Fowidataon~ ~icheverI. lowest.
2 R
when: em Eccentricity
e R a V L-2*
Ru Resultant .f vertlwl forces Vj + ~2i~V
FIGURE S.8 .2B Sloping Backfill Case
back slope design (AREA. method) may be used, as il-
lustrated in Figure 5.8.2.C.
The minimum L/II ratio for reinforcement shall be 0.7.
For calculations of mass stability, the continuous traf-
tic surcharge loads shall be deemed to act at the end of the
reinforced ,one.
For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, general
stability analyses should be performed in accordance with
Article 5.2.2.3.
5.8 .3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Allowable bearing capacities for MSE walls shall be
computed using a minimum factor of safety of 2.5 Ior
Group I loading applied to the calculated ultimate bearing
capacity. A lesser F.S.. of 2.0. could be used ifjustitied by
a geotechnical analysis. The width of the footing for ulti-
mate bearing capacity calculations shall be the length of
the reinforcement calculated at the foundation level. The
SLO PI N G
H
L~O.Th
IE~
h Fr = l/
2~h
2 k,a
I
= Fr cos (I)
= Fr sin C I )
FOR INFiNITE SLOP E I =
K
0 FOR RANDOM FiLL
(SEE FIG URE 5.5.2B~
SAFETY FAC TOR AGAIN ST OV ERTURN IN G ( M OM EN TS ABOUT POIN T 0) :
S. F. ( 0) = E M OM EN TS RESISliN G ( M r) _ w~ (L/2) + V 2 ( 2 L/ 3 ) + Fy(L) =2 .0
~ M OM EN TS OV ERTURN IN G ( M o) Fh (h/3)
SAFETY FACTOR AG AINST SUDING :
E HO R I Z O N T A L R E SI ST I N G FO R C E (s) _ R tan
S.F. (5) = E HO R I Z O N T A L D R I V I N G FO R C E (s) Fh =1.5
= FR I C T I O N A N GLE O F B A C KFiLL O R FO U N D A T iO N . WHI C HE V E R I S LO WE R .
L MrMo R
R ~ L2 e
WHE R E : e = ECCENTRICITY; R = R E SU LT A N T O F V E R T I C A L FO R C E SV 1 + V 2 + Fv
FIGURE 5.8.2 C Broken Back Backf ill C ase
2H I
0i
L ~ 0.7H
location of the resultant center of pressure shall be as
stated in Article 5.5.5. Bearing pressures shall be com-
puted using the Meyerhof distribution, which considers a
uniform base pressure distribution over an effective width
of footing B = L 2e.
Overall slope stability factors of safety, of which the
retaining wall may only be part, shall conform to the re-
quirements of Article 5.2.2.3.
5 . 8 . 4 In t er n a l S t a b i l i t y
5.8 .4.1 Inextensible Reinforcements
Internal stability of structures constructed with metal-
lic strip or grid reinforcements shall be analyzed by con-
sidering that the in-situ reinforced zone canbe divided in
two zones, the active and resistant zones. The failure sur-
face shall be assumed to be bilinear as shown in Figure
5.8.4.1A.
The horizontal stress,
5H. at each reinforcement level
shall be computed by multiplying the vertical stress, s~, by
an earth pressure coefficient, K. The vertical stress, S~, at
each level of reinforcement shall consider the local equi-
librium of all forces to that level only, and shall be com-
puted using a uniform base pressure distribution over an
effective width, as specified in Article 5.8.3. Structures
shall be designed using K =K
0 at the top of the structure
and decreasing linearly to K = Ka at 20 feet (Figure
5.8.4.lA). Below a 20-foot depth, K = Ka shall be used.
Assume the earthpressure coefficients of K, and K0 remain
the same regardless of the external loading conditions. The
values of Ka and K0 shall be computed as follows:
T
H1
H/2
I I
K L~0.7H I
tan B x .JH
H1 = E+ (1-.3tanp)
K0 K0
I
FIGURE 5.8 .4.IA. Determination of Failure Plane Location and Earth Pressure Coefficients
f o r In ex t en s i b l e R ei n f o r c em en t s
K, = tan
2(45
Alternately, the horizontal stresses at each reinforcing
level may be computed using structure stiffness concepts
as outlined in FHWA-RD-89-043.
The maximum friction angle used for the computation
of horizontal force within the reinforced soil tnass shall be
340, unless the specific project select backfill is tested for
frictional strength by triaxial or direct shear testing meth-
ods, AASI-ITO T 234-74 and T 236-72. respectively. Live
loads shall be treated as uniform surcharge loads actilig
just beyond the reinforced soil mass for stability calcula-
tions and extending over the reinforced mass for maxi-
mum stress calculations.
(5.8.4.1-1) In the absence of pullout test data for ribbed reinforc-
ing strips in backfill materials conforming to Division II,
(5.8.4.1-2) MSE backfills, a maximum value of the apparent coeffi-
cient of friction, f*, of 2.0 or less shall be used at ground
level, decreasing linearly to a value equal to tan ~. at a
depth of 20 feet, where ~ is the friction angle of the back-
fill within the reinforced volume.
For smooth steel reinforcing strips, the apparent coef-
ficient of friction shall be constant at all (lepths and can be
evaluated by the following relation:
=tanqi ~ 0.4
(5.8.5-2)
For grid steel reinforcing systems with transverse bar
spacings of, or greater than. 6 inches. the generalized re-
lation for ultimate pullout capacity is:
(5.8.5-3)
5.8.4.2 Extensible Reinforcements P,.. =N, yZnAh
Internal stability for structures constructed with poly
ineric reinforcements shall be analyzed using a tie-back
wedge method approach.
It is assumed that the full shear strength of the rein-
forced till is mobilized and active lateral earth pressures
are developed. The assumed failure plane is defined by the
Rankine active earth pressure zone defined by a straight
line passing through the wall toe and oriented at an angle
of 450 r- ~/2 from the horizontal for both horizontal and
sloping backfill conditions.
The tensile force in the reinforcement is a function of
the vertical stress induced by gravity, uniform normal sur-
charge and active thrust mLtltiplied by K,~ Rein forcement
tensions induced by vertical or hon zontal line loads, or by
point loads shall be added by superposition to the tensile
forces induced by the reinforced wall fill soil and the re
ai ned backfill. The met hod of ci m putat ion shall assLi ifl e
an Ltnvieldine ricid wall r()t~~tit~g about its toe.
The value of K, in the reinforced soil mass is assumed
to be independent of all external loads except sloping fi I Is.
The maximum friction angle used for the compittation of
horizontal stress within the reinforced soil mass, coin
posed of select backfill, shall be 340 in the absence of
backfill specific tests. Where site-specific tests are per-
fornied, the soil strength shall be evaluated at residtlal
stress levels.
5.8.5 Pullout l)esign Parameters
The ultimate pullotit capacity of ribbedor smooth steel
reinforcing strips shall be calculated using the following
relationship:
In the absence of pullout data for site specific backfills.
the factor N
1, shall be taken as a function of depth as shown
in Figure 5.8.5A.
For end steel reinforcements with transverse spacine
less than 6 inches. the ultimate pullotIt capacity shall be
calculated using the following expression:
PI. = 2wlyZtan~f.1 (5.8.5-4)
The coefficient of resistance to (lirect sliding. f~. is a
function of the open area of the grid. The xalue of fd varies
from 0.45 for continuous sheets to 0.8 and must be deter-
mined experimentally for each gni(l geometry.
For polymeric reinforcement, equation 5.8.5-4 is ap-
plicable when f~ is developed (or a range of normal
stresses in accordance with GRI-GG-5. The coefficient f,,.
obtained experimentally. may. be I united by the Li in it
State Tensile Load fT1 ) for the product. as defitied in Ar-
ticle 5.8.7.2.
The pullout resistance shall be checked at each level
against pullout failure. Only the eff~ective pullout length
which extends beyond the theoretical foilure surfaces shall
be Lised in this c o m p u t a t i o n .
The minimttm leneth in the resistant zone shall be 3
feet. The reinforcement length at all levels shall be equal.
Minimum total length shall be 8 feet.
5.8.6 Design Life Requirements
5.8.6.1 Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement elements in MSL walls shall be tIe
signed to have a corrosionresistance durability to ensure
a minimum design life of 75 years for permanent strtic
(5.8.5-I) tures. Designated critical structures should be designed
f* y/A
140
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.8.6.1
Np P ASSIVE RESISTANCE FACTOR
10 15 20 30
40
tor a 1(X)-year service life. The allowable reinforcement
tension should be based on maintaining allowable mater-
ial stresses to the end of the 75- or 100-year service life.
The required sacrificial thickness must be provided in ad-
dition to the required structural reinforcement thickness to
compensate for the effects of corrosion.
The structural design of galvanized steel soil rein-
forcements and connections shall be made on the basis of
a thickness, E. defined as follows:
E~ =E,E,
For structural design, sacrificial thicknesses shall be
computed lor each exposed surface as follows:
Galvanization loss = IS pmlyear for first 2 years
=4 pm/year for subsequent years
Carbon steel loss = 12 pm/year after zinc depletion
Corrosion-resistant coatings, if specified, shall be of
the electro-statically applied. resin-bonded epoxy type,
with minimum application thicknesses of 16 mils in con-
formance to the requirements of AASHTO M 284. They
can be considered in lieu of galvanization.
5.8.6.2 Polymeric Reinforcement
The durability of polymeric reinforcements is influ-
enced by time, temperature, mechanical damage, stress
levels, microbiological attack and changes in the molecu-
lar structure by radiation or chemical exposure. The ef-
fects of aging, chemical and biological exposure are
(5.8.6.1 - I) highly dependent on material composition, including
resin type, grade and additives, manufacturing process.
and final product physical structure. Product-specific
studies to determine the effects of these durability factors
shall be carried out prior to use. Studies should include an
evaluation of, but not be limited to, the effects of aging of
the microstructure, chemical attack, microbiological at-
tack, environmental stress cracking, hydrolysis. tempera-
ture effects, plasticization, and any possible synergism be-
tween individual factors. Results from these studies shall
be incorporated into durability reduction factors to the
L.imit State Tensile Load T
1.
tIJ
I
w
~6.
9-
z
LaJ
2
w
4.)
I&J
0
I-
9-
a.
Lbi
0
0
10
50
NOTE Valid for bac)cfill soils with
a minimum (~) ang le of
34 deg rees.
FIGURE 5.8 .5A Mesh Reinforcement Pullout Factors
5.8.6.2
DIVISION IDESIGN
141
The effect of construction damage on the reinforce-
ment shall be determined from the results of full-scale
construction damage tests using fill materials and con-
struction procedures representative of the site conditions.
The effect of construction damage tests shall be incorpo-
rated into an additional construction damage reduction
factor to the Limit State Tensile LoadT
1.
For these evaluations, the specified design life shall be
a minimum of 75 years and the assumed in-ground service
temperature shall be 70
0F. Designated critical structures
shall be designed for a 100-year service life.
5.8 .7 Allowable Stresses
5.8 .7.1 Steel Reinforcements
The allowable tensile stress for steel reinforcements and
connections shall be in accordance with Article 10.32. For
end reinforcing members, the allowable tensile stress shall
be reduced to 0.48F\. Transverse and longitudinal grid
members shall be sized in accordance with ASTM A-185.
The horizontal force used to design the connections to
the panels may be taken as no less than 85 percent of the
maximum calculated force, except for the lower one-half
of the structure where it shall be 100 percent.
5.8.7.2 Polymeric Reinforcements
Polymeric materials exhibit creep (time and tempera-
ture dependent) behavior. I ong-term stress-strain-time
behavior of the reinforcement shall be (letermined from
results of controlled laboratory creep tests condtincted for
a minimum duration of 10.000 hours for a ranm~e of load
levels on samples of the finished product in accordance
with ASIM I) 5%1~9~ Samples shall be tested in the di-
rection in which the load will be applied in use in either a
confined or uneonfined mode. Results shall be extrapo-
lated to the required (lesign life using procedures outlined
in ASTM D 2837 (ASTM. 1989).
From these tests the followine shall be determined:
The hiehest load level at which the log time creep-
strain rate continues to decrease with time within the
required lifetime and no failure either brittle or due
tile can oceLir. This value shall be termed the Limit
State Tensile Load, (lesignated asT
1.
The tension level at which total strain is not expected
to exceed 5 percei~t within the (lesien lifetime. This
value of load shall be desienated T~. the Service-
ability State Tensile Load.
The effects of acme, chemical andbiological exposure.
environmental stress craekin~. stress relaxation. hydroly-
sis and variations in the manufacturing process as well as
the effects of construction damage shall be evaluated and
extrapolated to the required design life.
The allowable reinforcement tension T,, shall be the
lesser of the following two determinations:
Limit state determination:
The allowable long-term reinforcement tension
based on limit state criteria is:
T= T/(FD FC FS)
(5.8.7.2-I)
where FS is an overall factor of safety to account for
uncertainties in structure geometry, fill properties.
reInforcement manufacturing variations and exter-
nally applied loads. The minimum FS shall be taken
as 1.78. FD and FC shall be determined by tests.
Serviceability state determinations:
rhe allowable longterm reinforcement tensioti
based on serviceability state criteria is:
=TJFC El)
(587 ~)~))
5.8 .8 1)rainage
MSF walls in cut areas and side-hill fills with estab-
lished ground water levels shall be constructed with
drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced
zone. Internal drainage measures shall be considered for
all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced back
till or to intercept any surface flows containing aggressive
elements such as deicing chemicals.
For MSE walls supporting roadways which are chem-
ically deiced in the winter, an impervious membrane shall
be placed below the pavement and just above the tirst row
of reinforcements to intercept any flows containine deic-
inc chemicals. The membrane shall be sloped to drain
away from the facing to an intercepting longitudinal drain
outletted beyond the reinforced zone.
5.8 .9 Special Loading Conditions
Concentrated line loads shall be incorporated into the
internal design by using a siinplitied uniforin vertical dis
tribut ion of 2 xertical to I horizontal to determine the ver-
tical component of stress with depth within the reinforced
soil mass.
Traffic loads shall be considered in accordance with
the criteria outlined in Article 3.20.3.
For structures along rIvers and canals. a minimum dif
ferential hydrostatic pressure equal to 3 feet of water shall
be considered for design. This load shall he applied at the
hieh-water level. Effective unit weiehts shall be tised in
142
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.8.9
the calculations for internal and external stability begin-
ning at levels just below the application of the differential
hydrostatic pressure.
Parapets and traffic barriers, constructed over or inline
with the front face of the panels shall be designedto resist
overturning moments by their own mass. Base slabs shall
not have any transverse joints except construction joints.
The upper row of soil reinforcement shall be structurally
sized to resist an additional horizontal load of 2,000
pounds per linear foot of wall. A minimum junction slab
length of 20 feet shall be used, joined to adjacent slabs
with shear dowels. The full reinforcement length shall be
considered effective in resisting the 10 kip impact hori-
zontal load and shall be distributed to the reinforcement
over a 20-foot junction slab length.
Parapet reinforcement shall be in accordance with Ar-
tide 2.7. The anchoring slab shall be strong enough to re-
sist the ultimate strength of the standard parapet.
Flexible post and beam barriers~, when used, shall be
placed at a minimum distance of 3 feet from the wall face,
driven 5 feet below grade, and spaced to miss the rein-
forcements. The upper two rows of reinforcement shall be
designed for an additional horizontal load of 300 pounds
per linear foot of wall.
5.8.10 S ei s m i c Des i gn
5.8.10.1 External Stability
Stability computations shall be made by considering,
in addition to static forces, the horizontal inertial force
(PI R ) acting simultaneously with 50 percent of the dy-
namic horizontal thrust (PAk). The dynamic horizontal
thrust PA m: shall be evaluated using the pseudo-static
Mononabe-Okabe method and shall be applied to the hack
surface of the reinforced fill at a height of 0.6H from the
base and the horizontal inertial force at the mid-height of
the structure. V aluesof P,~ and ~lR for structures with hor-
izontal backfill, may be determined using the following:
A~~= (1.45 A)A
PAF =0.375A,~yH
2
PiR 0.5AmYH2
For structures with sloping backfills, the inertial force
(PR) shall be based on an effective mass having height H
2
and a base width equal to 0.5 H~ determined as follows:
It, =H+ Tan.13x0.SH
- (l0.5Tan.13)
The inertial force (PiR) shall be taken to act simultane-
ously with one-half the dynamic horizontal thrust ~AE,
computed using the pseudo-static Mononabe-Okabe
method, and applied at 0.6 H2 above the base on the back
surface of the effective mass.
Factors of safety against sliding and overturning fail-
ure under combined loading may be reduced to 75 percent
of the factors of safety defined in Article 5.5.5.
5.8.10.2 Internal Stability
Reinforcements shall be designed to withstand hori-
zontal forces generated by the internal inertia force (P) in
addition to the static forces. The total inertial force P, per
unit length of structure shall be considered equal to the
mass of the active zone times the maximum wall acceler-
ation coefficient ~ This inertial force shall be distributed
to the reinforcements proportionally to their resistant
areas as follows:
T md=PI (b~Lei/SHi
)
N
X(b;Lei SHi)
(5.8 .10.2-I)
For seismic loading conditions, values of f*, N~ and ~
may be reduced up to 80 percent of the values used for
static design. Factors of safety under combined static and
seismic loads for pullout and breakage of reinforcement
may be reduced to 75 percent of the factors of safety used
for static loading.
5.8 .11 Structural Requirements
Panels shall be designed to resist the horizontal forces
calculated according to Articles 5.8.4.1 or 5.8.4.2.
Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the average
loading conditions for each panel. As a minimum, tem-
perature and shrinkage steel shall be provided. Epoxy
(5.8.10.1-I) coating for corrosion protection of panel reinforcement
where salt spray is anticipated is recommended.
(5 .8. 10. 1-2)
(5.8.10.1-3) 5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR
WALL DESIGN
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions
Prefabricated modular walls shall be dimensioned
to ensure that the applicable factors of safety outlined in
(5.8.10.1-4) Article 5.5.5 are satisfied.
5.9.1
DIVISION IDESIGN
143
Minimum embedment and scour protection shall sat-
isfy the requirements of Article 5.8.1.
5.9.2 External Stability
fective in resisting sliding motion. The value of ~ of the
foundation soils shall be used in these computations.
F o r s t r u c t u r es l o a d ed wi t h s l o p i n g s u r c ha r ges , r ef er t o
Article 5.2.2.3 regarding overall stability analysis of
slopes.
Stability computations shall be made by assuming that
the system acts as a rigid body.
Lateral pressures shall be computed by wedge theory
using a plane surface of sliding (Coulomb theory). Where
the rear of the prefabricatedmodular systems forms an ir-
regular surface (stepped modules), pressures shall be
computed on an average plane surface drawn from the
lower back heel of the lowest module to the upper rear
heel of the top module, as shown in Figures 5.9.2A and
5.9.2B.
The following wall friction angles, 6. shall be used un-
less more exact coefficients are demonstrated:
Ca s e
(a) Significant vibrations of back-
fill or modules settling more
t ha n b a c kf i l l
( b ) Co n t i n u o u s p r es s u r e s u r f a c e o f
p r ec a s t c o n c r et e ( u n i f o r m
wi d t h m o d u l es )
(c) Averaged pressure surface
( s t ep p ed m o d u l es )
Wa l l F r i c t i o n
An gl e ( 8 )
0
1 /24
3/4~
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Allowable bearing capacities for concrete ITiodular sys-
tems shall be computed using a minimum factor of safety
of 3 for Group I loading applied to the ultimate bearing
capacity or to a bearing capacity obtained in accordance
with Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.8.
Footing loads shall be computed by assuming that dead
loads and earth pressure loads are resisted by point sup-
ports per unit length, at the rear and front of the modules
or at the location of the bottom legs.
For modules supported on integrally cast legs, the re-
actions shall be similarly calculated.
For this computation, a minimum of 80 percent of the
soil weight inside the modules shall be considered effec-
tive. If foundation conditions require a footing tinder the
total area of the module, 100 percent of the soil weight in-
side the modules shall be considered.
The overall slope stability condition, of which the re-
taining wall may only be part, shall be evaluated in accor-
dance with Article 5.2.2.3.
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses
Computations for stability shall be made at every mod-
ule level. At each level, the required factors of safety with
respect to overturning shall be provided. The value of
K~ used to compute the lateral thrust resulting from the
random backfill and other loads shall be computed on
the basis of the friction angle of the backfill behind the
modules.
If sufficient amounts of structural backfill are used be-
hind the prefabricated modules, a value of 340 may be
used for 4. In the absence of specific data, a maximum
friction angle of 300 shall be used. The coefficient of slid-
ing friction at the wall base shall be the lesser of the coef-
ficients of the backfill or the foundation soil. Passive pres-
sures shall be neglected in stability computations.
Computations for overturning stability shall consider
that only 80 percent of the soil-fill unit weight inside the
modules is effective in resisting overturning moments. In
the absence of specific data, a total unit weight of 110
pounds per cubic foot shall be assumed.
Computations for sliding stability may consider that
100 percent of the soil-fill weight inside the modules is ef-
Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for de-
veloped earth pressures behind the wall and from pres-
sures developed inside the modules. Rear face surfaces
shall be designed for the difference of these pressures. Al-
lowable stresses and reinforcement requirements for con-
crete modules shall be in accordance with Section 8.
Inside pressures (bin) shall be the same for each mod-
ule and shall not be less than as follows:
=yb
(5.9.4-I)
Concrete modules shall be designed for bending in
both vertical and horizontal directions between their sup-
ports. Steel reinforcing shall be symmetrical on both faces
unless positive identification of each face can be ensured
to preclude reversal of units. Corners shall be adequately
reinforced.
Allowable stresses for steel module members shall
be in accordance with Article 10.32. The net section used
for design shall be reduced in accordance with Article
5.8.6.1.
144 HIGHWAY B R IDGE S 5.9.5
cog (6. e~
FIGURE 5.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls
Case IContinuous Pressure Surfaces
5.9.5 Drainage
Prefabricated modular units in cut and side-hill fill
areas shall be designed with acontinuous subsurface drain
placed at, or near, the footing grade and out-letted as re-
quired. In cut and side-hill fill areas with established or
potential ground water levels above the footing grade, a
continuous drainage blanket shall be provided and con-
nected to the longitudinal drain system.
For systems with open front faces, a surface drainage
system1~ shall be provided as needed above the top of the
wall to collect and divert surface runoff and prevent cr0-
sion of the front face.
Part C
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE
The provisions of this Part shall apply for the design of
rigid gravity and semi-rigid gravity walls, and non-grav-
ity cantilevered walls.
The probabilistic LFI) basis of these specifications
whichproduces an inter-related combination of load, load
factor, and statistical reliability shall be considered when
selecting procedures for calculating resistance. The pro-
pie.a
S
P . ~KK
0
a
5.10 DIVISION IDESIGN
145
FIGURE 5.9.2B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls
Case IlIrregular Pressure Surfaces
cedures used in developing values of performance factors
contained in this Part are summarized in Appendix A of
the Final Report for NCHRP Project 24-4 (Barker, et al.,
1991). Other methods may be used if the statistical nature
of the factors given above are considered, and are ap-
proved by the owner.
5.11 DEFINITIONS
Only terms relating to retaining walls are provided in
this Section. Definitions for terms relating to foundation
types and LFD design are given in Article 4.8.
Cantilever WallsWalls that resist the forces exerted
on them by flexural strength. These walls consist of a con-
crete wall stem, a concrete slab, and possibly a shear key.
Gravity WallsMassive stone or concrete masonry
walls which dependprimarily on their weights to maintain
stability. Only anominal amount of steel is placed near the
exposed faces of these walls to prevent surface cracking
due to temperature changes.
Retaining WallsStructures that provide lateral sup-
port for a mass of soil and that owe their stability primar-
ily to their own weights and to the weights of any soils lo-
cated directly above its base.
a
Ke 1163 (84~)
146
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.11
Semi-gravity WallsThese walls are somewhat more
slender than gravity walls and require reinforcement con-
sisting of vertical bars along the inner face and dowels
continuing into the footing.
5.12 NOTATIONS
Fr =sliding resistance
H = height of retaining wall
H
1 =factored horizontal load
K =coefficient of earth pressure
K0 =coefficient of earth pressure at rest
N =factored bearing pressure resultant
P =lateral earth pressure
Pa =active earth load
=lateral earth load
P. =vertical earth load
=factored bearing capacity
qmax =maximum bearing pressure calculated using fac-
tored loads
q. =surcharge loading
=reduction factor due to load inclination effect
=nominal resistance
=factored vertical load
y =distance to the point of action for lateral earth
pressure
Greek
y =
yeq =
6 =
load factor coefficient (see Article 5.13.4)
load factor coefficient for earth pressure
load factor (See Article 5.13.4)
equivalent fluid pressure
angle of shearing resistance between wall and soil
wall displacement
performance factor
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design
to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability.
5.13.1 Serviceabilit y Limit St at es
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall consider the following
serviceability limit states:
excessive movements of retaining walls and their
foundations,
excessive vibrations caused by dynamic loadings,
and
deterioration of element(s) of retaining structures.
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
5.13.2 Strength Limit States
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall be checked against the
strength limit states of:
bearing capacity failure,
lateral sliding,
excessive loss of base contact,
overall instability, and
structural failure.
The limit state which governs the design depends on:
type and function of retaining structure,
eaith pressures exerted on the wall by the retained
backfill,
geometry of the ground and the structure,
strength of the ground,
ground deformability,
groundwater, and
swelling pressure in clay backfills.
5.13.3 Strength Requirement
Retaining walls and their foundations shall be propor-
tioned by the methods specified in Article 5.14 so that
their design strength exceeds the required strength.
The required strength is the combined effect of fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, R0,
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, ~. Procedures for calculating nominal resistance
are provided in Article 5.1, and values of performance fac-
tors are given in Article 5.13.5.
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors
Retaining structures and their foundations shall be pro-
portioned to withstand safely all load combinations stipu-
5.13.4
DIVISION IDESIGN
147
lated inArticle 3.22 which are applicable to the particular
site or wall/foundation type. Impact forces shall not be in-
eluded in retaining wall design. (Refer to Article 3.8.)
V alues of y and 13 coefficients for load factor design, as
given inTable 3.22.1 A, shall apply to strength limit state
considerations; while those for service load design (also
given in Table 3.22.IA) shall apply to serviceability con-
siderations.
5.13.5 Performance Factors
V alues of performance factors for geotechnical design
of foundations are given in Tables 4.10.6-I through
4.10.6-3, while those for structural design are provided in
Article 8.16.1.2.2.
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1
through 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the
performance factors chosen shall provide the same relia-
bility as those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3.
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL
DESIGN, AND CANTILEVER
WALL DESIGN
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill
The provisions of Article 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 shall also
apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi-
gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls respec-
tively; with the exception that the loads shall be factored
according to the bottom half of Table 3.22.1 A when
checking wall stability against bearing capacity, sliding
and overturning. V ertical earth pressure due to the dead
load of the backfill shall have an overall load factor, -y13~,
o f l . O y.
Lateral earth pressures on walls backfilled with cohe-
sionless soils shall be designed using effective stresses.
Walls backfilled with cohesive soils shall be designed
using equivalent fluid pressures. The backfill, whether co-
hesionless or cohesive, shall be well drained, so that no
water pressures act on the wall, and no significant pore
pressures act in the backfill. The load factor for lateral
earth pressures calculated using equivalent fluid pressures
shall be the same as those calculated using effective
stresses (y
13m~ = I .3y).
The y and 13~ coefficients specified for earth pressure
inTable 3.22.1 A are applicable directly to active or at rest
earth pressures. The resistance due to passive earth pres-
sure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall
extends well below the depthof frost penetration, scour or
other types of disturbance. Where passive pressure is as-
sumed to provide resistance, the performance factor (~)
shall be taken as 0.6.
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
In the design of retaining walls and abutments where
traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the top
of the wall equal to one-half the wall height, the lateral
earth pressure shall be increased by a live load surcharge
pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of earth (Article
3.20.3). Impact loads shall not be included in the design
of abutments (Article 3.8.1). V ertical earth pressure in-
duced by live load surcharge and dead load surcharge
shall have overall load factors of l.67-y and l.13-y, respec-
tively. Lateral earth pressure induced by live load
and dead load surcharge shall have an overall load factor
of l.3y.
Where heavy static and dynamic compaction equip-
ment is used within a distance of one-half the wall height
behind the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
may be induced by compaction shall be taken into ac-
count. The load factor for compaction-induced earth pres-
sures shall be the same as for lateral earth pressures
The p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l es 5.5.3 and 5.6.3 shall
also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and
semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls,
respectively.
The backfill, whether cohesive or cohesionless, shall
be well drained so that no water pressures act on the wall
a n d n o s i gn i f i c a n t p o r e p r es s u r es a c t in the backfill. If a
thorough drainage system is not provided to dewater the
failure wedge, or if its adequate performance cannot be
guaranteed, walls shall be designed toresist the maximum
anticipated water pressure. For walls backfilled with co-
hesionless soils, the lateral earth pressure shall be calcu-
lated using buoyant unit weights below the groundwater
level and multiplied by the load factor for lateral earth
pressure. The wall shall be designed for these factored lat-
eral earth pressures (y13m~) plus factored hydrostatic water
pressure (l.Oy).
In the case of an undrained analysis of cohesive back-
fills, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated using
equivalent fluid pressure, which inherently includes water
pressure effects. The calculated lateral earth pressure shall
then be multiplied by I .3-y.
If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the
wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the po-
tential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures be-
hind the wall can be determined by flow net procedures or
various analytical methods, and shall be added to the ef-
fective horizontal stresses when calculating total lateral
earth pressures on the wall. The effective lateral earth
148
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
5.14.3
pressure shall be multiplied by Y
13F (obtained from Table
3.22.IA) andthe hydrostatic pressure shall be factored by
l.Oy, when designing the wall.
5.14.4 Seismic Pressu re
The provisions of Article 5.6.4 shall apply to the load
factor design of walls when considering earthquakes
loads.
5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States
The m o v em en t o f wa l l f o u n d a t i o n s u p p o r t s ys t em s
shall be estimated using procedures described in Article
4.11.3, 4.12.3.2.2. o r 4.13.3.2.2, for walls supported on
spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts, respec-
tively. Such methods are based on soil and rock parame-
ters measured directly or inferred from the results of in
situ and/or laboratory tests.
Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall
be developed based on the function and type of wall, an-
ticipated service life, and consequence of unacceptable
movements. Tolerable movement criteria shall be estab-
lished in accordance with Articles 4.11.3.5, 4.12.3.2.3,
and 4.13.3.2.3.
5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure
Gravity and semi-gravity walls, and cantilever walls
shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against bearingca-
pacity failure, overturning, and sliding. Where a wall is
supported by clayey foundation, safety against deep-seated
foundation failure shall also be investigated. Stability cri-
teria for walls with respect to various modes of failure shall
be as shown in Figures 5.14.6-I through 5. 14.6-3.
5. 14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure
The safety against bearing capacity failure shall be
investigated: (I) by using factored soil pressures which
are uniformly distributed over the effective base area, if
the wall is supported by a soil foundation (see Figures
5.14.6-I and 5.14.6-2); or (2) by using factored soil
pressures which vary linearly over the effective base area.
if the wall is supported by a rock foundation (see Figure
5.14.6-3).
Retaining walls and their foundations are considered to
be adequate against bearing capacity failure if the factored
bearing capacity (taking into consideration the effect of
load inclination) exceeds the maximum soil pressure
(q~,~) determined using factored loads. Methods for
E ar li L o e~
P, mid Ph bmed on . zpw4 w~ . .
wW~ dome hr ~
0.494
q timed farbemliig ~
~7qg =
~9~ c~
S~IIy Criteria
FIGURE 5. 14.6.1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteriafor Walls with Clayey Soils
in the Backfill or Foundation (After Duncan et al., 1990)
5. 14.6.1 DIVISION IDESIGN
149
(a) Fmwe on Wel
(b~ Fg m on V ea1 c~ Pimie
11veu~ Heel el WeE
P ~ Ed P hcsddd wIng Coulon Edwe elmpreeewe meary
~erP e eulmelad wing judomnient. wet dowence hr movement
a f hencE relitve te wed.
y. O . 4 9 4
StabilIty CrIteria
q Ueed hr besing cqienydiedc
N
Fed Sewing Cqmnty
= 0R
1 q~,
FIGURE 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfills
andFoundations on Sand or Gravel (After Duncan et al., 1990)
Earth Loads
Ph besd an i-rest pressawe
H P, est imat ed u sing judg ment
y.0.4H
Limed hr eqadit, diedi
Feinted Sewing Cq.dty
N q ~ R1 q ~
FIGURE 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Cr i t er i a f o r Wa l l s wi t h Gr a n u l a r B a c kf i l l s
a n d F o u n d a t i o n s o n R o c k ( Af t er Du n c a n et a l . , 1 9 9 0)
Earth Loads
tN
Stability C.ltula
150
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.14.6.1
calculating factored bearing capacity are provided in Ar-
tide 4.11.4 for walls founded on spread footings, and in
Articles 4.12.3.3 and 4.13.3.3 for walls supported on dri-
ven piles or drilled shafts, respectively.
lactated Ve,*aI t oed
5.14.6.2 Sliding
Hq Fact ored Hat izot ml t oed
Fadoted Sewing Cwediy
. q
1- 0R1q~,
Where the retaining wall is founded on a spread foot-
ing, safety against sliding shall be investigated using the
procedures specified inArticle 4.11.4.3.
5.14.6.3 Overturning
The safetyagainst overturning shall be ensured by lim-
iting the location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
(N) on the wall base. For walls supported by soil founda-
tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
dle half of the base. For walls supported by rock founda-
tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
dle three-quarters of the base.
5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article
5 . 2 . 2 . 3 )
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
shall be considered.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained
slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for
all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis.
The Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spence meth-
ods of analysis may be used. Special exploration, testing
and analyses may be required for bridge abutments or re-
taining walls constructed over soft deposits where con-
solidation and/or lateral flow of the soft soil could result
in unacceptable long-term settlements or horizontal
movements.
5.14.7 SafetyAgainst Structural Failure
The structural design of individual wall elements and
wall foundations shall comply to the requirements given
in Section 8.
In the structural design of a footing on soil and rock at
ultimate limit states, a linear contact pressure distribution
determined using factored loads, as shown in Figure
5.14.7-1, shall be considered. The maximum pressure for
structural design may be greater than the factored bearing
capacity.
H
~j7edHe~rnWi
toed
q ~ exTf ~ ~ LW~
I LJ> Fact ored
- ~
H
9 Fact ored Hodzont ei t oed
V t Fact ored V edical t oed
~max~~ Fact ored Sewing C apacit y
- 0R1 q~
N ot e maximu m t oe ~ eeeu re q may exceed
tie f act ored hewing capacity. q1
FIGURE 5.14.7-1 Co n t a c t Pr es s u r e Di s t r i b u t i o n
for Structural Design of Footings on Soil and Rock
a t S t r en gt h L i m i t S t a t es
5 . 1 4 . 7 . 1 Base of Foot ing Slabs
See Article 5.5.6.1.
5 . 1 4 . 7 . 2 Wall St ems
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
V 9 Fact ored V edici t oed
[7J
S ee Ar t i c l e 5.5.6.5.
DIVISION IDESIGN
5.14.8 Backfill
Where possible, the backfill material behind all
retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive,
noncorrosive and shall be drained by weep-holes and
French drains placed at suitable intervals and eleva-
tions. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one
drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts.
Silts and clays shall, if possible, be avoided for use as
backfill.
5.14.8
151
Section 6
CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND
WATERWAY OPENINGS
Recommendations on culvert location, length, and
waterway openings are given in the AASHTO Guide on
Hydraulic Design of Culvert.v.
6.2 DEAD LOADS
V ertical and horizontal earth pressures on culverts may
be computed by recognized or appropriately documented
analytical techniques based on the principles of soil me-
chanics and soil structure interaction, or design pressures
shall be calculated as being the result of an equivalent
fluid weight as follows.
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on
yielding f ou ndat ion
A. Rigid culverts except reinforced concrete boxes:
(I) For vertical earth pressure 120 pcf
For lateral earth pressure 30 pcf
(2) For vertical earth pressure120 pcf
For lateral earth pressure 120 pef
B. Reinforced concrete boxes:
(I) For vertical earth pressure120 pef
F o r l a t er a l ea r t h p r es s u r e 30 pef
(2) For vertical earth pressure 120 pcf
C. Flexible Culverts:
For vertical earth pressure 120 pcf
When concrete pipe culverts are designed by the Indirect
i)esign Method of Article 17.4.5, the design lateral earth
pressure shall be determined using the procedures given
in Article 17.4.5.2.1 for embanknient installations and in
Article 17.4.5.2.2 for trench installations.
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation
A special analysis is required.
6.3 FOOTINGS
Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation
sufficient to secure a firm foundation, or a heavy rein-
forced floor shall be used to distribute the pressure over
the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any location
subject to erosion, aprons or cutoff walls shall be used at
both ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire
floor area between the wing walls shall be paved. Baffle
walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of a culvert bar-
rel shall not be used where the streambed is subject to ero-
sion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall be
reinforced longitudinally.
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
THROUGH EARTH FILLS
6.4.1 When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more, concen-
trated loads shall be considered as uniformly distributed
over a square with sides equal to 1-3/4 times the depth of
fill.
6.4.2 When such areas from several concentrations over-
lap, the total load shall be uniformly distributed over the
area defined by the outside limits of the individual areas,
but the total width of distribution shall not exceedthe total
width of the supporting slab. For single spans, the effect of
live load may be neglected when the depth of fill is more
than 8 feet and exceeds the span length; for multiple spans
it may be neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the dis-
tance between faces of end supports or abutments. When
the depth of fill is less than 2 feet the wheel load shall be
distributed as in slabs with concentrated loads. When the
calculated live load and impact moment in concrete slabs,
based on the distribution of the wheel load through earth
fills, exceeds the live load and inipact moment calculated
according to Article 3.24, the latter moment shall be used.
6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT
Where the depth of till exceeds 2 feet, reinforccmi~ent to
provide for the lateral distribution of concentrated loads is
not required.
6.6 DESIGN
For culvert design guidelines, see Section 17.
153
Section 7
SUBSTRUCTURES
Part A
7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 Definition
A substructure is any structural, load-supporting com-
ponent generally referred to by the terms abutment, pier,
retaining wall, foundation or other similar terminology.
7.1.2 Loads
Where appropriate, piers and abutments shall be de-
signed to withstand dead load, erection loads, live loads
on the roadway, wind loads on the superstructure, forces
due to stream currents, floating ice and drift, temperature
and shrinkage effects, lateral earth and water pressures,
scour and collision and earthquake loadings.
7.1.3 Settlement
The anticipated settlement of piers and abutments
should be estimated by appropriate analysis, and the ef-
fects of differential settlement shall be accounted for in
the design of the superstructure.
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design
Refer to Section 4 for the design of spread footing,
driven pile and drilled shaft foundations and Section 5 for
the design of retaining walls.
7.2 NOTATIONS
pier and abutnient substructure units:
B =Width of foundation (ft)
e =Eccentricity of load from foundation centroid in
the indicated direction (ft)
H = Height of abutment (ft)
K =Coefficient of earth pressure varying from K,, at
surface to K, at 20 feet (dim); (See Article 7.5.4.)
K, =Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Arti-
cle 7.7.4.)
V
1 =V er t i c a l s o i l s t r es s ( ks f ) ; ( S ee Ar t i c l e 7 . 5 . 4 . )
V2 =V er t i c a l s t r es s d u e t o f o o t i n g l o a d ( ks f ) ; ( S ee Ar t i -
cle 7.5.4.)
oH = Supplementary earth pressure (ksf); (See Article
7.5.4.)
The n o t a t i o n s f o r d i m en s i o n u n i t s i n c l u d e t he f o l l o w-
ing: dim=dimensionless; ft =foot; and ksf =kip/ft
2. The
dimensional units provided with each notation are pre-
sented for illustration only todemonstrate a dimensionally
correct combination of units for the design procedures
correctness of the equations should be confirmed.
Part B
7.3 PIERS
7.3.1 PierTypes
7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers
Solid wall piers are designed as columns for forces and
moments acting about the weak axis and as piers for those
acting about the strong axis. They may be pinned, fixed or
free at the top, and are conventionally fixed at the base.
Short, stubby types are often pinned at the base to elimTii-
nate the high moments whichwould develop due to fixity.
Earlier, more massive designs, were considered gravity
types.
7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers
More recent designs consist of double walls, spaced in
the direction of traffic, to provide support at the continu-
155
156
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.3.1.2
ous soffit of concrete box superstructure sections. These
walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be
designed for the superstructure moments which develop
from live loads and erection conditions.
7.3.1.3 Bent Piers
Bent type piers consist of two or more transversely
spaced columns of various solid cross sections, and these
types are designed for frame action relative to forces act-
ing about the strong axis of the pier. They are usually fixed
at the base of the pier and are either integral with the su-
perstructure or with a pier cap at the top. The columns
may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported footing,
or a solid wall shaft, or they may be extensions of the piles
or shaft above the ground line.
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers
Single-column piers, often referred to as T or Ham-
merhead piers, are usually supported at the base by a
spread- or pile-supported footing, and may be either inte-
gral with, or provide independent support for, the super-
structure. Their cross section can be of various shapes and
the column can be prismatic or flared to form the pier cap
or to blend with the sectional configuration of the super-
structure cross section. This type pier can avoid the com-
plexities of skewed supports if integrally framed into the
superstructure and their appearance reduces the massive-
ness often associated with superstructures.
7.3.2 Pier Protection
7.3.2.1 Collision
Where the possibility of collision exists from highway
or river traffic, an appropriate risk analysis should be
made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be
provided and/or the appropriate protection system.
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls
Collision walls extending 6 feet above top of rail are
required between columns for railroad overpasses, and
similar walls extending 2.35 feet above ground should be
considered for grade separation structures unless other
protection is provided.
7.3.2.3 Scour
The scour potential must be determiiined and the de-
sign must be developed to minimize failure from this
condition.
7 . 3 . 2 . 4 F a c i n g
Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed
to effectively break up or deflect floating ice or drift. In
these situations, pier life can be extended by facing the
nosing with steel plates or angles, and by facing the pier
with granite.
7.4 TUBULAR PIERS
7.4.1 Materials
Tubular piers of hollow core section may be of steel,
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross
section to support the forces and monients acting on the
elements.
7 . 4 . 2 Co n f i gu r a t i o n
The configuration can be as described in Article 7.3.1
and, because of their vulnerability to lateral loadings,
shall be of sufficient wall thickness to sustain the forces
and moments for all loading situations as are appropriate.
Prismatic configurations may be sectionally precast or
prestressed as erected.
7.5 ABUTMENTS
7 . 5 . 1 Ab u t m en t Typ es
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment
Stub abutments are located at or near the top of ap-
proach fills, with a backwall depth sufficient to accoin-
modate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the
bearing seat.
7.5.1.2 Partial-DepthAbutment
Partial-depth abutments are located approximately at
mid-depth of the front slope of the approach embankment.
The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain till mate-
rial, or the embankment slope may continue behind the
backwall. In the latter case, a structural approach slab or
end span design must bridge the space over the fill slope.
and curtain walls are provided to close off the open area.
Inspection access should be provided for this situation.
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment
Full-depth abutments arc located at the approximate
front toe of the approach embankmemit. restricting the
opening under the structure.
157
DIVISION IDESIGN
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment
Integral abutments are rigidly attached to the super-
structure and are supported on aspread or deep foundations
capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements.
7.5.2 Loading
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pres-
sure as specified in Article 5.5 and 5.6, the weight of the
abutment and bridge superstructure. live load on the su-
perstructure or approach fill, wind forces andlongitudinal
forces when the bearings are fixed, and longitudinal forces
dime to friction or shear resistance of bearings. The design
shall be investigated for any combination of these forces
which may produce the most severe condition of loading.
Integral abutments must be designed for forces generated
by thermal movements of the superstructure.
7.5.2.1 Stability
Abutments shall be designed for the loading combina-
tion specified in Article 3.22.
Abutments on spread footings shall be designed to
resist overturning (FS = 2.0) and sliding (FS = 1.5).
Dead and live loads are assumed uniformly distrib-
uted over the length of the abutment between expan-
sion joints.
Allowable foundation pressures and pile capacities
shall be determined in accordance with Articles 4.4
and 4.3.
ihe earth pressures exerted by fill in front of the
abutment shall be neglected.
Earthquake loads shall be considered in accordance
with Article 3.21.
The earth pressures exerted by the fill material shall
be calculated in accordance with Articles 5.5.2 and
5.6.2.
The cross section of stone niasonry or plain concrete
abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the intro-
duction of tensile stress in the material.
7.5.2 .2 Reinforcement forTemperature
Exeept in gravity abutments, not less than 1/8 square inch
of horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be pro-
vided micar exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to re-
sist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks.
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backlilling
The filling material behind abutments shall be free
draining, nonexpansi~~e soil, and shall be drained by weep
holes with French drains placed at suitable intervals and
elevations. Silts and clays shall not be used for backfill.
7.5.3 Integral Abutments
Integral abutments shall be designed to resist the forces
generated by thermal movements of the superstructure
against the pressure of the fill behind the abutment. Integral
abutments should not be constructed on spread footings
founded or keyed into rock. Movement calculations shall
consider temperature. creep. and long-term prestress short-
ening in determining potential movements of abutments.
Maximum span lengths. design considerations, details
should comply with recommendations outlined in FHWA
Technical Advisory T 5140.13 (1980) except where sub-
stantial local experience indicates otherwise.
To avoid water intrusion behind the abutment, the ap-
proach slab should be connected directly to the abutment
(not to wingwalls), and appropriate provisions should be
made to provide for drainage of any entrapped water.
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls
Design of bridge abutment footings and connecting
back wall, shall be based on bridge loading developed by
service load methods and earth pressures on the back wall.
Abutment footings shall be proportioned to meet the over-
turning and sliding criteria specified in Article 5.5.5 and
for maximum uniform bearing pressures using an elfec-
tive width of foundations (B 2e). The maximum allow-
able bearing pressure shall be 4.0 ksf.
The mechanically stabilized earth wall below the abut-
ment footing shall be designed for the additional loads un-
posed by the footing pressure and supplemental earth pres-
sures resulting from horizontal loads applied at the bridge
seat and from the back wall. The footing load is assumed to
be uniformly distributed over the effective width of foun-
dation (B 2e) at the base of the footing and is dispersed
with depth, using a slope of 2 vertical to I horizontal. The
supplemental loads are applied as shears along the bottom
of the footing, uniformly diminishing with depth to a point
on the face of the wall equal to twice the effective width of
the abutment footing (B 2e).
Horizontal stresses in abutment reinforced zones are
caletilated by superposition as follows and as shown in
Figure 7.5.4A.
=(YV
1K + (TV :K~ ~
(7.5.4-I)
The effective length used for calculations of internal sta-
bility under the abutment footing shall always be the length
7.5.1.4
158
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
7.5.4
S O IL L O ADS
F O O TING L O ADS
-o
I
o ~S O l L B 2 e
Where e = eccentricity ( Dvi ~)
z
. ( ~V Q yd x L +q x L )
o f
v er t i c a l bridge
l o a d s
P
o~ B R I D GE
o~BRlDGE = (L2e
Where e = eccentricity ( Dvi @ mis. o f f o o t i n g )
S U PPL E ME NTAL L O ADS
-j
c..J
Li
F
0 H s u p p l em en t a l max. =
L2 e
H max. =
0v (soil loads) K + av ( f o o t i n g l o a d s ) K A + 0H ( s u p p l em en t a l l o a d s )
FIGURE 7.5.4A Abutment Loads
beyond the end of the footing or beyond a distance of
0.3(l-I+d) from the facing, whichever is less.
The minimum distance from the center line of the bear-
ing on the abutment to the outer edge of the facing shall be
3.5 feet. The minimum distance between the back face of
the panel and the footing shall be 6 inches.
The abutment footing should be placed on a bed of com-
pacted coarse aggregate 3 feet thick when significant frost
penetration is anticipated.
Abutments shall not be constructed on mechanically
stabilized embankments if anticipated differential settle-
ments between abutments or between piers and abutments
are greater than one-half the limiting differential settle-
ments as shown in Figure 7.5.4B. This figure should be
12= yd +q ( s u r c ha r ge)
B 2 e 2e
I
7.5.4
DIVISION IDESIGN
159
14.
12.
2.i IC -
-Jw
116.
@2
zw 4
2-
0
8 -
2 00
FIGURE 7.5.4B Limiting Values of Differential Settlement Based on Field Surveys of Simple
and Continuous Span Structures of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, et al. (198 5)
used for general guidance only. Detailed analyses will still
be requiredto address differential settlement problems.
For structures supporting bridge abutments, the maxi-
mtlm horizontal force shall be used for connection design
throughout the height of the structure.
The density, length. and cross section of the soil rein-
forcements designed for support of the abutment wall shall
be carried on the wing walls for a minimum horizontal dis-
tance equal to 50 percent of the height of the abutment wall.
In pile-supported abutments, the horizontal forces
transmitted to the piles shall be resisted by their own lat-
eral capacity or by additional reinforcement in the tipper
portion of the structure. A minimum clear distance of 1 .5
feet shall be providedbetween the facing and piles. Piles
shall be driven prior to wall construction and cased
through the fill if necessary.
7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems
Abutments seats constructed on modular units shall be
designed by considering, in addition to earth pressures, the
supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat
beam andearth pressures on the back wall. The top module
shall be proportioned to be stable, with the required factor
of safety, under the combined actions of normal and sup-
plementary earth pressures. Minimum top module width
shall be 6 feet. The center line of bearing shall be located a
minimum of 2 feet from the outside face of the top precast
tnodule. The abutment beam seat shall be supported and
cast integrally to the top module. The front face thickness
of the top module shall be designed for bending forces de-
veloped by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam-
seat loadings shall be carried to foundation level an(l shall
be considered in the design of footings. Differential settle-
ment restrictions in Article 7.5.4. shall apply.
7.5.6 Wingwalls
7.5.6.1 Length
Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the
roadway embankment to the required extent and to furnish
25 50 75 100 125 ~0 ~S
SPAN LENGTh (Fr)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
protection against erosion. The wingwall lengths shall be
computed using the required roadway slopes.
Reinforcing bars or suitable rolled sections shall be
spaced across the junction between wingwalls and abut-
ments to tie them together. Such bars shall extend into the
masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop
the strength of the bar as specified for bar reinforcement,
and shall vary in length so as to avoid planes of weakness
in the concrete at their ends. If bars are not used, an ex-
pansionjoint shall be provided and the windwall shall be
keyed into the body of the abutment.
Part C
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.6 GENERAL
The provisions of Article 7.1 through 7.5 shall apply to
the load factor design of abutments with the exception
that: (I) Article 7.5.2 on loading shall be replaced by the
articles for loads, earth pressures and water pressures in
Sections 5.13 and 5.14 for retaining walls, and (2) Article
7.5.2.1 shall be replaced by the articles for stability in Sec-
tions~~~.l3 and 5.14. Abutments shall be designed to with-
stand earth pressures., water pressures and other loads sim-
ilar to the design of retaining walls.
160
7.5.6.1
Section 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE*
Part A
8. 1 APPLIC ATION
8.1.1 General
The specifications of this section are intended for de-
sign of reinforced (non-prestressed) concrete bridge
members and structures. Bridge members designed as
prestressed concrete shall conform to Section 9.
8 . 1 . 2 No t a t i o n s
a depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
(Article 8.16.2.7)
ah =depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
for balanced strain conditions, in. (Article
8.16.4.2.3)
a, =shear span, distance between concentrated
load and face of support (Articles 8.15.5.8
and 8.16.6.8)
A =effective tension area, in square inches, of
concrete surrounding the flexural tension re-
inforcement and having the same centroid as
that reinforcement, divided by the number of
bars or wires. When the flexural reinforce-
ment consists of several bar or wire sizes, the
number of bars or wires shall be computed as
the total area of reinforcement divided by the
area of the largest bar or wire used. For cal-
culation purposes, the thickness of clear con-
crete cover used to compute A shall not be
taken greater than 2 in.
Ab =area of an individual bar, sq. in. (Article
8.25.1)
A, =area of core of spirally reinforced compres-
sion member measured to the outside diame-
ter of the spiral, sq. in. (Article 8.18.2.2.2)
A,, =area of concrete section resisting shear trans-
fer. sq. in. (Article 8.16.6.4.5)
=area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-
sisting moment, sq. in. (Articles 8.15.5.8 and
8.16.6.8)
A
5 =gross area of section, sq. in.
A1, =area of shear reinforcement parallel to flex-
ural tension reinforcement, sq. in. (Articles
8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
A, =area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-
sisting tensile force N, (N,,), sq. in. (Articles
8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
=area of tension reinforcement, sq. in.
=area of compression reinforcement, sq. in.
A~f =area of reinforcement to developcompressive
strength of overhanging flanges of I- and
T-sections (Article 8.16.3.3.2)
A,k =area of skin reinforcement per unit height
in one side face, sq. in. per ft. (Article
8. 17.2. 1.3).
=total area of longitudinal reinforcement
(Articles 8.16.4.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.1)
A, = area of shear reinforcement within a dis-
tance s
A,f =area of shear-friction reinforcement, sq. in.
(Article 8.15.5.4.3)
A, =area of an individual wire to be developed or
spliced, sq. in. (Articles 8.30.1.2 and
8.30.2)
A1 =loadedarea (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
=maximum area of the portion of the support-
ing surface that is geometrically similar to
and concentric with the loaded area (Articles
8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
b =width of compression face of member
=perimeter of critical section for slabs and
footings (Articles 8.15.5.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.2)
=width of cross section at contact surface
being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti-
c l e 8 . 1 5 . 5 . 5 . 3 )
5T h c s p ec i t i c a i i o o s o f S ec t i o n 8 a r e p a t t er n ed a f m er a n d a r e i n gen er a t c o n f o r m i t y wi t h t he p r o v i s i o n s o f AC! S t a n d a r d 3 t 8 f o r r ei n f o r c ed c o n c r et e d e-
sign and its commentary. AC! 3 t8 R, pubtished by the Am er i c a n Co n c r em e t n s i i t u i c .
161
=web width, or diameter of circular section
(Article 8.15.5.1.1)
c =distance from extreme compression fiber to
neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7)
=factor relating the actual moment diagram
to an equivalent uniform moment diagram
(Article 8.16.5.2.7)
d =distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement, in. For
computing shear strength of circular sections,
d need not be less than the distance from ex-
treme compression fiber to centroid of ten-
sion reinforcement in opposite half of mem-
her. For computing horizontal shear strength
of composite members, d shall be the dis-
tance from extreme compression fiber to cen-
troid of tension reinforcement for entire com-
posite section.
=distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of compression reinforcement, in.
=distance from centroid of gross section, ne-
glecting the reinforcement, to centroid of ten-
sion reinforcement, in.
=nominal diameter of bar or wire, in.
=distance measured from extreme tension fiber
to center of the closest bar or wire in inches.
For calculation purposes, the thickness of
clear concrete cover used to compute d, shall
not be taken greater than 2 in.
= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article
8.7.1)
El = flexural stiffness of compression member
(Article 8.16.5.2.7)
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi
(Article 8.7.2)
= average bearing stress in concrete on loaded
area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.1)
= extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete
at service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)
= specified compressive strength of concrete,
psi
= square root of specified compressive strength
of concrete, psi
= average splitting tensile strength of light-
weight aggregate concrete, psi
f~ =fatigue stress range in reinforcement, ksi (Ar-
ticle 8.16.8.3)
= algebraic minimum stress level in reinforce-
ment (Article 8.16.8.3)
=modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (Article
8.15.2.1.1)
=tensile stress in reinforcement at service
loads, psi (Article 8.15.2.2)
=stress in compression reinforcement at bal-
anced conditions (Articles 8.16.3.4.3 and
8.16.4.2.3)
=extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at ser-
vice loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)
=specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi
h =overall thickness of member, in.
=compression flange thickness of I- and T-
sections
=moment of inertia of cracked section trans-
formed to concrete (Article 8.13.3)
I,= effective moment of inertia for computation
of deflection (Article 8.13.3)
=moment of inertia of gross concrete section
about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforce-
ment
=moment of inertia of reinforcement about
centroidal axis of member cross section
k =effective length factor for compression mem-
hers (Article 8.16.5.2.3)
=additional embedment length at support or at
point of inflection, in. (Article 8.24.2.3)
=development length, in. (Articles 8.24
through 8.32)
fdh =development length of standard hook in ten-
smon, measured from critical section to out-
side end of hook (straight embedment length
between critical section and start of hook
(point of tangency) plus radius of bend and
one bar diameter), in. (Article 8.29)
edh =ehb X applicable modification factor
~hb = basic development length of standard hook in
tension, in.
= unsupported length of compression member
(Article 8.16.5.2.1)
M = computed moment capacity (Article 8.24.2.3)
M =maximum moment in member at stage for
which deflection is being computed (Article
8.13.3)
Mb = nominal moment strength of a section at bal-
anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
=moment to be used for design of compression
member (Article 8.16.5.2.7)
M,~r = cracking moment (Article 8.13.3)
=nominal moment strength of a section
=nominal moment strength of a section in the
direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
=nominal moment strength of a section in the
direction of they axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= factored moment at section
8.1.2
DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN
163
M~. =factored moment component in the direction
ofthex axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= factored moment component in the direction
of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
= value of smaller end moment on compression
m em b er d u e t o gr a v i t y l o a d s t ha t r es u l t i n n o
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven-
tional elastic frame analysis, positive if mem-
her is bent in single curvature, negative if
bent in double curvature (Article 8.16.5.2.4)
M=b =value of larger end moment on compression
member due to gravity loads that result in no
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven-
tional elastic frame analysis, always positive
(Article 8.16.5.2.4)
M
2~ =value of larger end moment on compression
member due to lateral loads or gravity loads
that result in appreciable sidesway, defined
by a deflection A, greater than fj1500, cal-
culated hy conventional elastic frame analy-
sis, always positive. (Article 8.16.5.2)
n modular ratio of elasticity = E] E, (Article
8.15.3.4)
N =design axial load normal to cross section oc-
cuffing simultaneously withV to be taken as
positive for compression, negative for tension
and to include the effects of tension due to
shrinkage and creep (Articles 8.15.5.2.2 and
8.15.5.2.3)
N, =design tensile force applied at top of bracket
of corbel acting simultaneously withV , to be
taken as positive for tension (Amticle 8.15.5.8)
= factored axial load normal to the cross sec-
tion occurring simultaneously with V , to be
taken as positive for compression, negative
f o r t en s i o n , a n d t o i n c l u d e t he ef f ec t s o f t en -
sion due to shrinkage and creep (Article
8.16.6.2.2)
N~,, =factored tensile force applied at top of
bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with
V~, to be taken as positive for tension (Arti-
dc 8.16.6.8)
Ph =nominal axial load strength of a section at bal-
anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
P. =critical load (Article 8.16.5.2.7)
=nominal axial load strength of a section at
zero eccentricity (Article 8.16.4.2.1)
= nominal axial load strength at given eccen-
tricity
=nominal axial load strength corresponding to
~ with bending considered in the direction
of the x axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
=nominal axial load strength corresponding to
M,,5, with bending considered in the direction
of the y axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
= nominal axial load strength with biaxial load-
ing (Article 8.16.4.3)
=factored axial load at given eccentricity
r =radius of gyration of cross section of a com-
pression member (Article 8.16.5.2.2)
s =spacing of shear reinforcement in direction
parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, in.
s =spacing of wires to be developed or spliced,
in.
S =span length, ft
V =design shear force at section (Article
8.15.5.1.1)
v =design shear stress at section (Article
8.15.5.1.1)
=nominal shear strength provided by concrete
(Article 8.16.6.1)
=permissible shear stress carried by concrete
(Article 8.15.5.2)
vdh =design horizontal shear stress at any cross
section (Article 8.15.5.5.3)
vh =permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
8.15.5.5.3)
= nominal shear strength (Article 8.16.6.1)
V,h = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
8.16.6.5.3)
= nominal shear strength providedby shear re-
inforcement (Article 8.16.6.1)
= factored shear force at section (Article
8.16.6.1)
= weight of concrete, lb per cu ft
=distance from centroidal axis of gross sec-
tion, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme
fiber in tension (Article 8.13.3)
z =quantity limiting distribution of flexural rein-
forcement (Article 8.16.8.4)
c~ (alpha) =angle between inclined shear reinforcement
a n d l o n gi t u d i n a l a x i s o f m em b er
c~f =angle between shear-friction reinforcement
and shear plane (Articles 8.15.5.4 and
8 .16.6.4)
~ (beta) =ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total
area of reinforcement at the section (Article
8.24.1.4.2)
13, =ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
l o a d o r r ea c t i o n a r ea ; f o r a c i r c u l a r c o n c en -
trated load or reaction area, 13, = 1.0 (Articles
8.15.5.6.3 and 8.16.6.6.2)
= absolute value of ratio of maximum dead
load moment to maximum total load mo-
ment, always positive
13~ =ratio of depthof equivalent compression zone
to depth from fiber of maximum compressive
strain to the neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7)
X =correction factor related to unit weight for
concrete (Articles 8.15.5.4 and 8.16.6.4)
p (mu) =coefficient of friction (Article 8.15.5.4.3)
p (rho) = tension reinforcement ratio =A,/b4, A~/bd
p = compression reinforcement ratio = AJbd
Ph = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain
conditions (Article 8.16.3.1.1)
p. = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to
total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of
a spirally reinforced compression member
(Article 8.18.2.2.2)
=reinforcement ratio used in Eqtiation (8-4)
and Equation (8-48)
= moment magmiification factor for members
braced against sidesway to reflect effects of
member curvature between ends of compres-
sion member
=moment magnification factor for members
not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral
drift resulting from lateral and gravity loads
~ (phi) =strength reduction factor (Article 8.16.1.2)
8.1.3 Def init ions
The following terms are defined for general use in
Section 8. Specialized definitions appear in individual
Articles.
Bracket or corbelShort (haunched) cantilever that
projects from the face of a column or wall to support a
concentrated load or beam reaction. See Articles 8.15.5.8
and 8.16.6.8.
Compressive strengrim 0/ concrete (f, )Speci fled
compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square
inch (psi).
Concrete, structural lightweightA concrete contain-
ing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight as
determined by Method of Test for Unit Weight of Struc-
tural Lightweight Concrete (ASTM* C 567), not exceed-
ing 115 pef. In this specification, a lightweight concrete
without natural sand is termed all-lightweight concrete
and one in which all fine aggregate consists of normal
weight sand is termed sand-lightweight concrete.
DeformedreinforcementDeformed reinforcing bars,
deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded
deformed wire fabric.
Design loadAll applicable loads and forces or their
related internal moments and forces used to proportion
members. For design by SERV ICE LOAD DESIGN, de-
sign load refers to loads without load factors. For design
by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD, design load refers
to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design str ength N ominal strength multiplied by a
strength reduction factor, ~.
Development lengthLength of embedded reinforce-
ment required to develop the design strength of the rein-
forcement at a critical section.
Embedment lengthLength of embedded reinforce-
ment provided beyond a critical section.
Factored loadLoad, multiplied by appropriate load
factors, used to proportion members by the STRENGTH
DESIGN METHOD.
Nominal strengthStrength of a member or cross sec-
tion calculated in accordance with provisions and as-
sumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOL) be-
fore application of any strength reduction factors.
Plain reinforcementReinforcement that does not
conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
Required strengthStrength of a member or cross sec-
tion required to resist factored loads or related internal
moments and forces in such combinations as are stipu-
lated in Article 3.22.
Service loadLoads without load factors.
Spiral reinforce~nentContinuously wound reinforce-
ment in the form of a cylindrical helix.
Splitting tensile strength (UTensile strength of con-
crete determined in accordance with Specifications for
Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
AASHTO M 195** (ASTM C 330).
Stirrups or tiesLateral reinforcement fornied of in-
dividual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound
reinforcement. The term stirrups is usually applied tc)
lateral reinforcement in horizontal members and the term
ties to those in vertical members.
Tension tie memberMember having an axial tensile
force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross sec-
tion and having limited concrete cover on all sides. Ex-
amples include: arch ties, hangers carrying load to an
overheadsupporting structure, and main tension elements
in a truss.
Y ield strength or yield poilmt (f
5)Specified minimum
yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in pounds
per square inch.
8 . 2 CONCRETE
The specified compressive strength, f., of the con-
crete for each part of the structure shall be shown on
* *Stcjndc,rd SpeciJlcorion.s for Tn~n.sportation Alaterjals and Methods
ofSampling and Testing.
*An ) er i c a n S o c i et y f o r Tes t i n g a n d Ma i c r i a t s .
8.2 DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN 165
the plans. The requirements for f shall be based on tests of
cylinders made and tested in accordance with Section 4
Division II
8 .3 REINFORCEMENT
8 .3.1 The yield strength or grade of reinforcement shall
be shown on the plans.
8.3.2 Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on
the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be
specified.
8.3.3 Designs shall not use a yield strength, f~, in excess
of 60,000 psi.
8 .3.4 Deformed reinforcement shall be used except that
plain bars or smooth wire may be used for spirals and
ties.
8.3.5 Reinforcement shall conform to the specifica-
tions listed in Division II, Section 5, except that, for
reinforcing bars, the yield strength and tensile strength
shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-sized
bars.
Part B
ANALYSIS
8. 4 GEN ERAL 8. 6 STIFFN ESS
All members of continuous and rigid frame structures
shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads
specilied iii Articles 3.2 through 3.22 as determined by the
theory of elastic analysis.
8 .5 EX PAN SION AN I) C ON TRAC TION
8 . 5 . 1 In general. provisions for temperature changes
shall be made in simple spans when the span length ex-
ceeds 40 feet.
8.5.2 In contincious bridges, the design shall provide for
thermal stresses or for the accommodation of thermal
movement with rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads,
or other mean~.
8.5.3 The coefficient of thermal expansion and contrac-
tion for normal weieht concrete may be taken as 0.000006
per cleg F
8.5.4 The coefficient of shrinkage for normal weight
concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
8 .5.5 Ihermal and shrinkage coefficients for light
weieht concrete shall be determined for the type of light
xveight aggregate used.
8.6.1 Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for
computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of
continuous and rigid frame members. The assumptions
made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
8 . 6 . 2 The effect of haunches shall be considered both in
determining iTloinents and in design of members.
8 .7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND
POISSONS RATIO
8 . 7 . 1 The modulus of elasticity. E,, for concrete may be
taken as w~ 33 \/f in psi for values of w, between 90
and 155 pounds per cubic foot. For normal weight eomv
crete (w, = 145 pet). F. may be considered as 57,000\f.
8.7.2 The modulus of elasticity. E~. for non-prestressecl
steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi.
8 . 7 . 3 Poissons ratio may be assumed as 0.2.
8 .8 SPAN LENGTH
8 .8 .1 The span length of members that are not bLiilt in
tegrally with their supports shall be considered the clear
span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the
distance between centers of supports.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.8.2 In analysis of continuous and rigid frame mem-
bers, distances to the geometric centers of members shall
be used in the determination of moments. Moments at
faces of support may be used for member design. When
fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more withthe axis
of acontinuous or restrained member are built monolithic
wi t h t he m em b er a n d s u p p o r t , t he f a c e o f s u p p o r t s ha l l b e
considered at a section where the combined depth of the
member and fillet is at least one and one-half times the
thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be
considered as adding to the effective depth.
8 .8 .3 The effective span length of slabs shall be as spec-
ified in Article 3.24.1.
TAB L E 8 . 9 . 2 R ec o m m en d ed Minimum Depths for
Constant Depth Members
Superstructure Type
Mi n i m u m Dep t h
i n F eei ~
S i m p l e S p a n s Continuous Spans
Bridge stabs with main
reinforcement parallel
to traffic t.2(S + tO)130 ( S + tO)/30 =0.542
T-Girders O.070S 0.065S
Box-Girders O.060S 0.055S
Pedestrian Structure
Girders O.033S 0.0335
When variable depth members are used, vatues may be adjusted to
account for change in relative smiffness of positive and negative mo-
ment sections.
S =span length as defined in Articte 8.8 in feet.
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
8 .9.1 General
thickness of the slab or one-half the clear distance to the
next web.
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be de-
signed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or
any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or
serviceability of the structure at service load plus impact.
8 .9.2 Su perst ru ct u re Dept h Limit at ions
The minimum depths stipulated in Table 8.9.2 are rec-
ommended unless computation of deflection indicates that
lesser depths may be used without adverse effects.
8 .9.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations
When making deflection computations, the following
criteria are recommended.
8 .9.3.1 Members having simple or continuous spans
preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to
service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1/800 of the
span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part by pedes-
trians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed 1/1000.
8.9.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser-
vice live load plus impact preferably should be limited to
1/300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be 1/375.
8.10 C OM PRESSION FLAN GE WIDTH
8 .10.1 T-Girder
8.10.1.1 The t o t a l wi d t h of slab effective as a T-
girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span
length of the girder. The effective flange width overhang-
ing on each side of the web shall not exceed six times the
8.10.1.2 For girders having aslab on one side only, the
effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed /2 of
the span length of the girder, six times the thickness of the
slab, or one-half the clear distance to the next web.
8 .10.1.3 Isolated T-girders in which the T-shape is
used to provide a flange for additional compression area
shall have a flange thickness not less than one-half the
width of the girder web and an effective flange width not
more than four times the width of the girder web.
8.10.1.4 For integral bent caps, the effective flange
width overhanging each side of the bent cap web shall not
exceed six times the least slab thickness, or /~ the span
length of the bent cap. For cantileveredbent caps, the span
length shall be taken as two times the length of the
cantilever span.
8.10.2 Box Girders
8.10.2.1 The entire slab width shall be assumed
effective for compression.
8.10.2.2 For integral bent caps. see Article 8.10. 1.4.
8 .11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS
8 .11.1 The thickness of deck slabs shall be designed in
accordance with Article 3.24.3 but shall not be less than
specified in Article 8.9.
8.11.2 The thickness of the bottom slab of a box girder
shall be not less than V of the clear span between girder
166
8.8.2
webs or S Y~ inches, except that the thickness need not be
gr ea t er t ha n t he t o p slab unless required by design.
8.11.3 When required by design, changes in girder web
thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12
times the difference in web thickness.
8 .12 DIAPHRAGMS
8.12.1 Di a p hr a gm s s ha l l b e u s ed a t t he en d s o f T-gi r d er
and box girder spans unless other means are provided
to resist lateral forces and to maintain section geometry.
Di a p hr a gm s m a y b e o m i t t ed wher e t es t s o r s t r u c t u r a l
analysis show adequate strength.
8.12.2 In T-girder construction, one intermediate di-
aphragm is recommended at the point of maximum posi-
tive moment for spans in excess of 40 feet.
8.12.3 Straight box girder bridges and curved box girder
bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater do not
require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder
bridges having an inside radius less than 800 feet, inter-
mediate diaphragms are required unless shown otherwise
by tests or structural analysis. For such curved box gird-
ers, a maximum diaphragm spacing of 40 feet is recom-
mended to assist in resisting torsion.
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS
8 .13.1 Computed deflections shall be based on the
cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure sec-
tion excluding railings, curbs, sidewalks, or any element
not placed monolithically with the superstructure section
before falsework removal.
loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all
longitudinal flexural members.
8.13.3 Deflections that occur immediately on applica-
t i o n o f l o a d s ha l l b e c o m p u t ed b y t he u s u a l m et ho d s o r
formulas for elastic deflections. Unless stiffness values
are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, immedi-
ate deflections shall be computed taking the modulus of
elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 8.7 for nor-
mal weight or lightweight concrete and taking the mo-
ment of inertia as either the gross moment of inertia, 1~, or
the effective moment of inertia, I, as follows:
Ie=CMSL
1~ I ~~~M~tKJ jIcr =
1g (81)
where:
f,I
5~y, (8-2)
a n d f , =m o d u l u s o f r u p t u r e o f c o n c r et e s p ec i f i ed i n Ar t i -
c l e 8 . 1 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 .
For continuous members, effective moment of inertia
may be taken as the average of the values obtained from
Equation (8-1) for the critical positive and negative mo-
ment sections. For prismatic members, effective moment
of inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Eq.
(8-I) at midspan for simple or continuous spans, and as
the value at the support for cantilevers.
8.13.4 Unless values are obtained by a more compre-
hensive analysis, the long-time deflection for both normal
weight and lightweight concrete flexural members shall
be the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
considered, computed in accordance with Article 8.13.3,
multiplied by one of the following factors:
8.13.2 L i v e l o a d d ef l ec t i o n m a y b e b a s ed o n t he a s -
sumption that the superstructure flexural members act to-
gether and have equal deflection. The live loading shall
consist of all traffic lanes fully loaded, with reduction in
l o a d i n t en s i t y a l l o wed a s s p ec i f i ed i n Ar t i c l e 3.12. The live
(a) Where the immediate deflection has been basedon
Tg ~ the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
shall be taken as 4.
(b) Where the immediate deflection has been based on
I,, the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
shall he taken as 3 1 .2(A/A~) = 1.6.
Part C
DESIGN
8 .14 GENERAL
8.14.1 Design M et hods
allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DE-
SIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and
strengths as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN.
8 .14.1.1 The design of reinforced concrete members
shall be made either with reference to service loads and
8.14.1.2 All applicable provisions of this specifica-
tion shall apply to both methods of design, except Articles
8.14.1.2
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
3.5 and 3.17 shall not apply for design by STRENGTH
DESIGN.
8 .14.1.3 The strength and serviceability require-
ments of STRENGTH DESIGN may be assumed to be
satisfied for design by SERV ICE LOAD DESIGN if the
service load stresses are limited to the values given in
Article 8.15.2.
8 .14.2 Composite Flexural Members
8.14.2.1 Composite flexural members consist of pre-
cast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in
separate placements but so interconnected that all ele-
ments respond to superimposed loads as a unit. When con-
sidered in design, shoring shall not be removed until the
supported elements have developed the design properties
required to support all loads and limit deflections and
cracking.
8.14.2.2 The entire composite member or portions
thereof may be used in resisting the shear and moment.
The individual elements shall be investigated for all criti-
cal stages of loading and shall be designed to support all
loads introduced prior to the full development of the de-
sign strength of the composite member. Reinforcement
shall be provided as necessary to prevent separation of the
individual elements.
8.14.2.3 If the specified strength, unit weight. or
other properties of the various elements are different, the
properties of the individual elements, or the most critical
values, shall be used in design.
8.14.2.4 In calculating the fiexural strengthofacom-
posite member by strength design, no distinction shall be
made between shored and unshored members.
8.14.2.5 When an entire member is assumed to resist
the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance with
the requirements of Article 8.15.5 or Article 8.16.6 as for
a monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional
shape.
8.14.2.6 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored
intd) the interconnected elements in accordance with Arti-
cle 8.27. Extendedandanchored shear reinforcement may
be included as ties for horizontal shear.
8.14.2.7 The design shall provide for full transfer of
horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of intercon-
nected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Article 8.15.5.5 or
Article 8.16.6.5.
8 .14.3 ConcreteArches
8.14.3.1 The combined flexure and axial load
strength of an arch ring shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5. Slenderness ef-
fects in the vertical plane of an arch ring, other than tied
arches with suspended roadway, may be evaluated by the
approximate procedure of Article 8.16.5.2 with the un-
supported length. fr,, taken as one-half the length of the
arch ring, and the radius of gyration, r, taken about an axms
perpendicular to the plane of the arch at the quarter point
of the arch span. V alues of the effective length factor. k,
given in Table 8.14.3 may be used. In Equation (8-41), C,,
shall be taken as 1.0 and ~ shall be taken as 0.85.
8.14.3.2 Slenderness effects between points of lateral
support and between suspenders in the vertical plane of a
tied arch with suspended roadway. shall be evaluated by a
rational analysis taking into account the requirements of
Article 8.16.5.1.1.
8.14.3.3 The shape of arch rings shall conform, as
nearlyas is practicable. tothe equilibriumpolygon for full
dead load.
8.14.3.4 In arch ribs and barrels, the longitudinal re-
inforcement shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.01, divided equally
between the intrados and the extrados. The longitudinal
reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties in accor-
dance with Article 8.18.2. In arch barrels, upper and lower
levels of transverse reinforcement shall be provided that
are designed for transverse bending due to loads from
columns and spandrel walls and for shrinkage and tem-
perature stresses.
8.14.3.5 If transverse expansion joints are not pro-
vided in the deck slab, the effects of the combined action
c)f the arch rib, columns and deck slab shall be considered.
Expansion joints shall be provided in spandrel walls.
TABLE 8 .14.3 Effective Length Factors, k
Risc-to-Span
Ratio
3-Hinged
Arch
2-Hinged
Arch
Fixed
Arch
0. 1 0. 2 1 . 1 6 t . 04 0. 7 0
0.20.3 t.13 1.10 0.70
0. 3 0. 4 1 . 1 6 t . i 6 0. 7 2
168
8 . 14.3.6 DIV ISION IDESIGN 169
8.14.3.6 Walls exceeding 8 feet in height on filled
spandrel arches shall be laterally supported by transverse
diaphragms or counterforts with a slope greater than 45
degrees with the vertical to reduce transverse stresses in
the arch barrel. The top of the arch barrel and interior
faces of the spandrel walls shall be waterproofed and a
drainage system provided for the fill.
8 .15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN)
8.15.1 ( ; eneral Req u irement s
8.15.1.1 Service load stresses shall not exceed the
values given in Article 8.15.2.
8.15.1.2 Development and splices of reinfomcement
shall be as required in Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
8 .15.2 Allowable Stresses
8.15.2.1 C oncret e
Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
8. 15.2.1.1 Fled-are
Extreme fiber stress in compression, f, 0.40f
Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain
concrete, f, 0.2 If,
Modulus of rupture. f,, from tests, or. if data are not
available:
Normal weight concrete 7.5 fJ
Sand-lightweight concrete 3 f,
All-lightweight concrete 5 5
8.15.2.1.2 Shear
For detailed summary of allowable shear stress v see
Article 8.15.5.2.
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress
The bearing stress, f
5. on loaded area shall not exceed
0.3(1 f,.
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides
than the loaded area, the allowable bearin&stress on the
loaded area may be multiplied by \~ A2/AI. but not by
more than 2.
When the supporting surface is sloped or stepped. A2
may be taken as the area of the lower base of the largest
frustrum of the right pyramid or cone contained wholly
within the support and having for its upper base the loaded
area, and having side slopes of I vertical to 2 horizontal.
When the loaded area is subjected to high-edge stresses
due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable bear-
ing stress on the loaded area, including any increase due
tothe supporting surface being larger than the loaded area,
shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75.
8 .15.2.2 Reinforcement
The tensile stress in the reinforcement. f~. shall not ex-
ceed the following:
Grade 40 reinforcement 20,000 psi
Grade 60 reinforcement 24.000 psi
In straight reinforcement, the range between the max-
imum tensile stress and the minimnum stress caused by live
load plus impact shall not exceed the value given in Arti-
cle 8.16.8.3. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be
avoided in regions of high-stress range.
8 .15.3 Flexure
8 .15.3.1 For the investigation of stresses at service
loads, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flex-
ore shall be used with the following assumptions.
8.15.3.2 The strain in reinforcemnent and concrete is
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
except that for deep flexural members with overall depth
to span ratios greater than 3K~ for continuous spans and
4A
for simple spans. a nonlinear distribution of strain shall be
considered.
8.15.3.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete
resists no tension
8.15.3.4 The modular ratio, n = EYE,. may be taken
as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except
in calculations for deflections, the value of n for light-
weight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for
normal weight concrete of the same strength.
8.15.3.5 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an
effective modular ratio of 2EIE, shall be used to trans-
form the compression reinforcement for stress computa-
tions. The cd)mpressive stress in such reinforcement shall
not be greater than the allowable tensile stress.
8 .15.4 Compression Members
The combined fiexural and axial load capacity of com-
pression members shall be taken as 35 percent d)f that
170
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8 .15.4
c o m p u t ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l e
8 .16.4. S l en d er n es s ef f ec t s s ha l l he i n c l u d ed a c c o r d i n g t o
t he r eq u i r em en t s o f Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 6 . 5 . The t er m P. i n E q u a -
t i o n ( 8 -4 1 ) s ha l l he r ep l a c ed b y 2.5 times the design axial
l o a d . In u s i n g t he p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l es 8 . 1 6 . 4 a n d 8 . 1 6 . 5 ,
j shall be taken as 1.0.
t a ken a s 0. 9 5 V ij. A m o r e d et a i l ed c a l c u l a t i o n o f t he a l -
l o wa b l e s hea r s t r es s c a n he m a d e u s i n g:
(Vd)
v~ =0.9 f.>l,l00p~ <16 f
(8-4)
Note:
8.15.5 Shear
8 . 1 5 . 5 . 1 S hea r S t r es s
8.15.5.1.1 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed
by:
V
b~d
(8 -3)
where V is design shear force at section considered, b
5~ is
the width of web, and d is the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal ten-
sion reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of tor-
sion* shall be included.
8.15.5.1.2 For a circular section, ~ shall be the di-
a m et er a n d d n eed n o t b e l es s t ha n t he d i s t a n c e f r o m t he
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu-
dinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
8.15.5.1.3 F o r t a p er ed web s , b ~ s ha l l b e t he a v er a ge
width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is
smaller.
8.15.5.1.4 When the reaction, in the direction of the
applied shear, introduces compression into the end re-
gions of a member, sections located less than a distance d
from the face of support may be designed for the same
shear, V , as that computed at a distance d. An exception
occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed be-
tween that point and the face of support. In that case sec-
tions closer than d to the support shall be designed for V
at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
(a) M is the design moment occurring simultaneously
wi t h V a t t he s ec t i o n b ei n g c o n s i d er ed .
(b) The q u a n t i t y V d/M shall not be taken greater than
1.0.
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
For members subject to axial compression, the allow-
able shear stress carried by the concrete, v,, may be taken
as 0.95 \/i7. A more detailed calculation can be made
using:
v, =O.9~l+O.OOO6~1~L1 ~ (8-5)
The q u a n t i t y N/Ag s ha l l b e ex p r es s ed i n p o u n d s p er s q u a r e
inch.
8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce-
ment shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
detailed calculation is made using
v, 0.9~l+0.0047~;J f
(8-6)
Note:
(a) N is negative for tension.
(b) The q u a n t i t y N/Ag shall be expressed in pounds
per square inch.
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete
8 .15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete
8.15.5.2.1 Shear i gt Beanms and Otte-Way Slabs and
Footings
For members subject to shear and flexure only, the al-
lowable shear stress carried by the concrete, v,, may be
~T h e design ,r iter id or combined tor sion md sh e~mr gisen in B uilding C ,mde R e-
quir ements for R einfor ced C oncr eteA mer ican C oncr ete institute 315 B ulietin
tfluy be used.
The p r o v i s i o n s f o r s hea r s t r es s , v , , c a r r i ed b y t he c o n -
crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
fications shall apply:
(a) When fa is specified, the shear stress, v,, shall be
modified by substituting f,~/6.7 for f,, but the value
of ~ used shall not exceed f~.
(b) When f,, is not specified, the shear stress, v,, shall be
m u l t i p l i ed b y 0. 7 5 f o r a l l -l i ght wei ght c o n c r et e, a n d
8 .15.5.2.4
DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN
171
0.85 f o r s a n d -l i ght wei ght c o n c r et e. L i n ea r i n t er p o l a -
tion may he used when partial sand replacement is used.
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear
Reinforcement
8.15.5.3.1 Wher e d es i gn shear stress v exceeds shear
stress earned by concrete, v,, shear reinforcement shall
be provided in accordance with this Article. Shear rein-
forcement shall also conform to the general requirements
o f Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 9 .
8.15.5.3.2 When s hea r r ei n f o r c em en t p er p en d i c u l a r
t o t he a x i s o f t he m em b er i s u s ed :
(v yr )b~s
8.15.5.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used:
= (vv~)b~s
f., (sin a + cos a)
8.15.5.3.4 When shear reinforcement consists of a
single bar or a single group of parallel bars all bent up at
the same distance from the support:
A (vv~)b~d
f
5sina
where (vv,) shall not exceed 1.5 f,.
series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-
up bars at different distances from the support, the re-
quired area shall be computed by Equation (8-8).
8.15.5.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in-
clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con-
sidered effective for shear reinforcement.
8.15.5.3.9 The v a l u e o f ( v v~) shall not exceed
4V ~.
8.15.5.3.10 When f l ex u r a l r ei n f o r c em en t l o c a t ed
wi t hi n t he wi d t h o f a m em her u s ed t o c o m p u t e t he s hea r
s t r en gt h i s t er m i n a t ed i n a t en s i o n z o n e, s hea r r ei n f o r c e-
m en t s ha l l he p r o v i d ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l e 8 . 2 4 . 1 . 4 .
8.15.5.4 Shear Friction
8.15.5.4.1 Pr o v i s i o n s f o r s hea r -f r i c t i o n a r e t o t i e a p -
p l i ed wher e i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d er s hea r t r a n s f er
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
c r a c k, a n i n t er f a c e b et ween d i s s i m i l a r m a t er i a l s , o r a n i n -
terface between two concretes cast at different times.
8.15.5.4.2 A c r a c k s ha l l he a s s u m ed t o o c c u r a l o n g
(8-7) the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction
reinforcement Aug across the shear plane may be designed
using either Art. 8.15.5.4.3 or any other shear transfer de-
sign method that results in prediction of strength in sub-
stantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
(8-8) Provisions of paragraph 8.15.5.4.4 through 8.15.5.4.8
shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
8.15.5.4.3 Shear-friction Design Method
(a) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicu-
lar to the shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforce-
ment A5~ shall be computed by:
(8-9)
Avf
V
(8-10)
wher e p i s t he c o ef f i c i en t o f f r i c t i o n i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h
Art. 8.15.5.4.3(c).
(b) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to
the shear plane such that the shear force produces ten-
sion in shear-friction reinforcement, the area of shear-
friction reinforcement A~ shall be computed by:
V
A 5f f5(Ilsinam cosa,) (8-11)
8.15.5.3.7 Where more than one type of shear rein-
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, the required area shall be computed as the sum
of the values computed for the various types separately. In
such computations, v, shall be included only once.
8.15.5.3.8 When (v v,) exceeds 2 f, the maxi-
mum spacings given in Article 8.19 shall be reduced by
one-half.
where d-Sf is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
forcement and the shear plane.
(c) Coefficient of friction p in Eq. (8 -10) and Eq. (8-
II) shall be:
concrete placed monolithically I .4K
concrete placed against hardened concrete with
surface intentionally roughened as specified in
Art.
8.15.5.4.7 1.0K
172
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.15.5.4.3
c o n c r et e p l a c ed a ga i n s t ha r d en ed c o n c r et e n o t
intentionally roughened 0.6K
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel
by hea d ed s t u d s o r b y r ei n f o r c i n g b a r s ( s ee Ar t .
8.15.5.4.8 0.7K
where K = 1 .0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for
sand-lightweight concrete; and 0.75 for all light-
weight concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
when partial sand replacement is used.
8.15.5.4.4 Shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f nor
360 psi.
8.15.5.4.5 Net tension across the shear plane shall be
resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com-
pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A~f., when
calculating required A
5.
8.15.5.4.6 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap-
propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an-
chored to develop the specified yield strength on both
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
8.15.5.4.7 For the purpose of Article 8.15.5.4, when
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete.
the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free of
laitance. If p is assumed equal to 1.0K, the interface shall
be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately V4 in.
8.15.5.4.8 When shear is transferred between steel
beams or girders and concrete using headed studs or
welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of
paint.
8 .15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite
Concrete Flexural Members
8. l5.5.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces
of interconnected elements.
8.15.5.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hon-
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
Paragraph 8.15.5.5.3 or 8.15.5.5.4 or any other shear
transfer design method that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of compre-
hensive tests.
8. 15 ~ i)esign horizontal shear stress v~,,, at any
cross section may be computed by:
V
vdh b5d
(8-I IA)
where V is the design shear force at the section considered
and d is for the entire composite section. Horizontal shear
Vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear v5 in ac-
cordance with the following:
(a) When the contact surface is clean, free of laitanee,
and intentionally roughened, shear stress v5 shall not
exceed 36 psi.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with paragraph 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is
clean and free of laitance, but not intentionally rough-
ened, shear stress vim shall not exceed 36 psi.
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with paragraph 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is
clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to
afull magnitude of approximately /~ in., shear stress ~s
shall not exceed 160 psi.
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
contact surface in excess of the minimum required
by 8.15.5.5.5, permissible v,, may be increased by
72f~/40,000 psi.
8.15.5.5.4 Ho r i z o n t a l s hea r m a y b e i n v es t i ga t ed b y
computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the actual change in compressive or tensile force to
be transferred, amid provisions made to transfer that force
as horizontal shear between interconnected elements.
Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible hori-
zontal shear stress vh in accordance with paragraph
8.15.5.5.3.
8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
(a) When required. a minimum area of tie reinforce-
ment shall be provided between interconnected ele-
ments. Tie area shall not be less than SOb,s/f, and tie
spacing s shall not exceed four times the least web
width of support element nor ~4 in.
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars
or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded
wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be ad-
equately anchored into interconnected elements by
embedment or hooks.
8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
Footings
8.15.5.6.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the
vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov-
erned by the more severe of two conditions:
8.15.5.6.1
DIVISION IDESIGN 173
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical
section extending in a plane across the entire width and
locatedat adistance d from the face of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles
8. 15.5. 1 through 8.15.5.3, except at footings supported
on piles, the shear on the critical section shall be de-
termined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3.
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a crit-
ical section perpendicular to the plane of the member
and located so that its perimeter b, is a minimum, but
not closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles
8.15.5.6.2 and 8.15.5.6.3.
8.15.5.6.2 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed by:
V
b
0d
where V and b,, shall be taken at the critical section defined
in 8.15.5.6.1(b).
v , = f ~
(8-14)
but v, shall not exceed 1.8 f,. For single cell box culverts
only, v, for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken
less than 1.4 f,, and v, for slabs simply supported need
not be taken less than 1.2 f,. The quantity V dIM shall not
be taken greater than 1 .0 where M is the moment occurring
simultaneously with V at the section considered. For slabs
of box culverts under less than 2 feet of fill, applicable pro-
visions of Articles 3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
8 .15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and
Corbels*
8.15.5.8.1 Provisions of paragraph 8.15.5.8 shall
apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth
ratio a~/d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizon-
(8-12) tal tensile force N, not larger than V . Distance d shall be
measured at the face of support.
8.15.5.8.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall
not be less than 0.5d.
8.15.5.6.3 Design shear stress, v, shall not exceed v,
given by Equation (8-13) unless .shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.6.4.
f=l.8 f (8-13)
13~ is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
load or reaction area.
8.15.5.6.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance
with the following provisions:
(a) Shear stresses computed by Equation (8-12) shall
be investigated at the critical section defined in
8.15.5.6.1(b) and at successive sections more distant
from the support.
(b) Shear stress v, at any section shall not exceed 0.9
f, and v shall not exceed 3 f,.
(c) Where v exceeds 0.9 f,f, shear reinforcement
shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.3.
8 .15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box
C u lvert s
For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or more till, shear
stress v, may be computed by:
8.15.5.8.3 The s ec t i o n a t t he f a c e o f s u p p o r t s ha l l b e
designed to resist simultaneously a shear V . a moment
[V a, N, (h d)], a n d a ho r i z o n t a l t en s i l e f o r c e N~. Dis-
tance h shall be measured at the face of support.
(a) Design of shear-friction reinforcement, A,,, to re-
sist shear, V , shall be in accordance with Article
8.15.5.4. F o r n o r m a l wei ght c o n c r et e, s hea r s t r es s v
shall not exceed 0.09fj n o r 3 6 0 p s i . F o r a l l l i ght -
weight or sand-lightweight concrete, shear stress v
shall not exceed (0.090.03a,/d)f, nor (360I 26a,/d)
psi.
(b) R ei n f o r c em en t A~ t o r es i s t m o m en t [V a .+ Njh
d)] shall be computed in accordance with Articles
8.15.2 and 8.15.3.
(c) Reinforcement A~ to resist tensile force N, shall be
computed by An = N,/f... Tensile force N, shall not be
t a ken l es s than 0.2V tinless special provisions are made
t o a v o i d t en s i l e f o r c es .
(d) Area of primary tension reinforcement, A,, shall be
made equal to the greater of (AA), or (2A,1/3+Aj.
8.15.5.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to A~ with
a total area Ah not less than 0.5(A,~An). shall be uni-
*Thes e p r o v i s i o n s d o n o i a p p t y t o b ea m t ed ges . The PCA p u b t i c a t i o n .
~No i es o n ACt 3 t 8 8 3 . c o n t a i n s a n ex a m p t e d es i gn o f b ea m t ed ges -
Part 16. example t 6 -3 .
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth
adjacent to A,.
8.15.5.8.5 R a t i o p = Aibd shall not be taken less
t ha n 0.04(f, If
5).
8.15.5.8.6 At the front face of a bracket or corbel,
primary tension reinforcement, A,, shall be anchored by
o n e o f t he f o l l o wi n g:
( a ) a s t r u c t u r a l wel d t o a t r a n s v er s e b a r o f a t l ea s t
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified
yield strength f, of A, bars;
(b) bending primary tension bars A, back to form a
horizontal loop; or
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
8.15.5.8.7 Bearing area of load on a bracket or cor-
b el s ha l l n o t p r o j ec t b eyo n d t he s t r a i ght p o r t i o n o f p r i m a r y
tension bars A,, nor project beyond the interior face of a
transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
the structure in the combinations stipulated in Article
3.22. All sections of structures and structural members
shall have design strengths at least equal to the required
strength.
8 .16.1.2 Design Strength
8.16.1.2.1 The d es i gn s t r en gt h p r o v i d ed b y a m em -
her o r c r o s s s ec t i o n i n t er m s o f l o a d , m o m en t , s hea r , o r
stress shall be the nominal strength calculated in accor-
dance with the requirements and assumptions of the
strength-design method, multiplied by a strength-reduc-
tion factor 4)*
8.16.1.2.2 The strength-reduction factors, 4), shall be
as follows:
(a) Flexure 4) =0.90
(h) Shear 4) =0.85
(c) Axial compression with
Spirals 4) =0.75
Ties 4) 0.70
(d) Bearing on concrete 4) = 0.70
The v a l u e o f 4) may be increased linearly from the
value for compression members to the value for flexure as
the design axial load strength, 4)P~, decreases from 0. lOf,
Ag o r 4 ) P5 , whi c hev er i s s m a l l er , t o z er o .
8.16.1.2.3 The development and splice lengths of re-
inforcement specified inArticles 8.24 through 8.32 do not
require a strength-reduction factor.
8 .16.2 Design Assumptions
8 .16.2.1 The strength design of members for flexure
and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in
t hi s Ar t i c l e, a n d o n t he s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t he a p p l i c a b l e c o n -
ditions of equilibrium of internal stresses and compatibil-
ity of strains.
8.16.2 .2 The s t r a i n i n r ei n f o r c em en t a n d c o n c r et e i s
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
8.16.2.3 The m a x i m u m u s a b l e s t r a i n a t t he ex t r em e
concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003.
*The coefficient ~ provides for the possibility that smatt adverse van-
ations in materiat strengths, workmanship, and dimensions, white mdi-
viduatty within acceptahte toterances and timits of good practice. may
combine to resuti in understrength.
FIGURE 8 .15.5.8
8 .16 STRENGTH DESIGNMETHOD
(LOAD FACTOR DESIGN)
8 .16.1 Strength Requirements
8 .16.1.1 Required Strength
The r eq u i r ed s t r en gt h o f a s ec t i o n i s t he s t r en gt h n ec -
essary to resist the factored loads and forces applied to
8 . 1 6 . 2 . 4 DIVISION IDESIGN 175
8.16.2.4 The s t r es s i n r ei n f o r c em en t b el o w i t s s p ec i -
fled yield strength, f
5, shall he E, times the steel strain. For
strains greater than that corresponding to f~, the stress in
the reinforcement shall be considered independent of
strain and equal to f~.
~PMn ~Asfyd~l~0.6~+jJj
iii ~ (d
8.16.2.5 The tensile strength of the concrete is ne-
glected in flexural calculations.
8.16.2.6 The c o n c r et e c o m p r es s i v e s t r es s /s t r a i n d i s -
t r i b u t i o n m a y b e a s s u m ed t o b e a r ec t a n gl e, t r a p ez o i d ,
p a r a b o l a , o r a n y o t her s ha p e t ha t r es u l t s i n p r ed i c t i o n o f
strength in substantial agreement with the results of com-
prehensive tests.
8.16.2.7 A compressive stress/strain distribution,
whi c h a s s u m es a c o n c r et e s t r es s o f 0. 8 5 f ~ u n i f o r m l y d i s -
tributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by
t he ed ges o f t he c r o s s s ec t i o n a n d a l i n e p a r a l l el t o t he n eu -
tral axis at a distance a =13c from the fiber of maximum
compressive strain, may be considered to satisfy the re-
quirements of Article 8.16.2.6. The distance c from the
fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be mea-
sured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor
13, shall be taken as 0.85 f o r c o n c r et e s t r en gt hs , f , , u p t o
and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, 13,
shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each
1,000 psi of strength inexcess of 4,000 psi but 13, shall not
be taken less than 0.65.
8 .16.3 Flexure
8 .16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural
Members
8 .16.3.1.1 The ratio of reinforcement p provided
shall not exceed 0.75 o f t he r a t i o p,, that would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section. The portion of
Ph balanced by compression reinforcement need not be re-
duced by the 0.75 factor.
where,
Af
sy
0.85 fb
8.16.3.2 .2
given by:
(8-17)
The balanced reinforcement ratio, p5. is
Pb =0. 85I?~~f ~87,O00+ f~1
(8-18)
8 .16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension
Reinforcement Only
8 .16.3.3.1 When t he c o m p r es s i o n f l a n ge t hi c kn es s i s
equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rec-
tangular stress block, a, the design moment strength, 4)M,,,
maybe computed by Equations (8-15) and (8-16).
8.16.3.3.2 When the compression flange thickness is
less than a, the design moment strength may be computed
by:
4)Mn =4)[(A~A~,)f5(d/2)
+ A~ff, (d0.Sh)] (8-19)
where,
0.85f (bb~5)h1
0. 85f,bw
(8-20)
(8-21)
8.16.3.1.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross
section when the tension reinforcement reaches the strain
corresponding to its specified yield strength, f5,just as the
concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate
strain of 0.003.
8 .16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension
Reinforcement Only
8.16.3.2 . / The design moment strength, 4)M5, may
be computed by:
8.16.3.3.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, p~. is
given by:
87,000
Pb (.~{(0.85fP~ ,it~ 87 000-bfj +Pfj (8-22)
where,
(8-15)
(8-16)
(8-23)
Pt b~d
176
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8.16.3.3.4
8.16.3.3.4 For T-girder and box-girder construction,
the width of the compression face, b, shall be equal to the
effective slab width as defined in Article 8.10.
8 .16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression
Reinforcement
8.16.3.4.1 The d es i gn m o m en t s t r en gt h, 4 ) M~, m a y
be computed as follows:
If A
5A~ ~ (f.d )( 87,000
bd 0.8513k ~ fyd )L~ 87,000fr)
then,
4)Mn =4)[(A, ADf5(d a12) A~f5 (d d)]
where,
(A,A~)f~
0.85 f:b
8.16.3.4.2 When the value of (A, A~)/bd is less
than the value required by Equation (8-24), SO that the
stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the
yield strength, f5, or when effects of compression rein-
forcement is less than the yield strength, f5, or when ef-
fects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the de-
sign moment strength may be computed by the equations
in Article 8.16.3.2. Alternatively, a general analysis may
be made based on stress and strain compatibility usingthe
assumptions given in Article 8.16.2.
8.16.3.4.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio p~ for
rectangular sections with compression reinforcement is
given by:
Pb L0.85
13ifi87~00o ~j+p{L.j~ (8-27)
where,
1< =87,000[l~~~~C 87,000 Y j~j<f (8-28)
stress and strain compatibility using assumptions given in
Article 8.16.2. The requirements of Article 8.16.3.1 shall
also be satisfied.
8 .16.4 Compression Members
8 .16.4.1 General Requirements
8.16.4.1.1 The design of members subject to axial
load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based
on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions
given in Article 8.16.2. Slenderness effects shall be in-
(8-24) eluded according to the requirements of Article 8.16.5.
8.16.4.1.2 Members subject to compressive axial
load combined with bending shall be designed for the
maximum moment that can accompany the axial load.
(8-25) The factoredaxial load, P,, at a given eccentricity shall not
exceed the design axial load strength 4)Pn(m.ms) where:
(a) For members with spiral reinforcement conform-
ing toArticle 8.18.2.2
Putman) =0.85[0.85 fi (AgA,t)+f
5A,t] (8-29)
4) =0.75
(b) For members withtie reinforcement conforming to
Article 8.18.2.3
(8-30)
(8-26)
Pn(r naxl 0.80[0.85 f~ (Ag A,1) f5A,i]
4) =0.70
The maximum factored moment, Mu, shall be magnitied
for slenderness effects in accordance with Article 8.16.5.
8 .16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths
The following provisions may be used as a guide to de-
fine the range of the load-moment interaction relationship
for members subjected to combined flexure and axial
load.
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression
The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity. 4)P,,.
may be computed by:
4)P0 = 4)[0.85f,~ (Ag A,,) + A,f~]
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections
For other cross sections the design moment strength,
4)Mmi, shall be computed by a general analysis based on
For design, pure compressive strength is a hypothetical
condition since Article 8.16.4.1.2 limits the axial load
strength of compression members to 85 and 80 percent of
the axial load at zero eccentricity.
(8-31)
8.16.4.2.2
8. 16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure
The a s s u m p t i o n s gi v en i n Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 6 . 2 o r t he a p p l i c -
a b l e eq u a t i o n s f o r f l ex u r e gi v en i n Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 6 . 3 m a y b e
used to compute the design moment strength, 4)Mu, in
pure flexure.
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions
Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are de-
fined in Article 8.16.3.1.2. For a rectangular section with
reinforcement in one face, or located in two faces at ap-
proximately the same distance from the axis of bending,
the balanced load strength,
4)Ph , and balanced moment
strength, 4)M
5, may be computed by:
4)Pb = 4)[0.8 5f bab +A~f~ A5f5] (8-32)
when the factored axial load,
P >~0lfAg
or,
___ + M uy =1
~Mns ~
when the factored axial load,
Pu<0.l fJA5
8 .16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression
Members
8 .16.5.1 General Requirements
and,
4)M,, = 4)[0.85fbab(d din aJ2)
-- A~f~(d d d) Aj5d]
where,
ab t87,00Of~I13i
8.16.5. 1.1 The design of compression members shall
be based on forces and moments determined from an
analysis of the structure. Such an analysis shall include
(8-33) the influence of axial loads and variable moment of iner-
tia on member stiffness and fixed-end moments, the effect
of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effect
of the duration of the loads.
(8-34)
and.
F(dV
8 7,00O
=
87,OOO[l~ ~ Y =f~ (8-35)
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load
The s t r en gt h o f a c r o s s s eet t o n i s c o n t r o l l ed b y t en s i o n
when the nominal axial load strength, P,, is less than the
balanced load strength, P b, and is controlled by compres-
sion when Pu is greater than Ph.
The nominal values of axial load strength, P,,, and mo-
ment strength, Mu, must be multiplied by the strength re-
duction factor, 4), for axial compression as given in Arti-
c l e 8.16.1.2.
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and
strain compatibility, the design strength of noncircular
members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed
by the following approximate expressions:
I I I I
~uxy ~us ~uy Pu
8.16.5.1.2 In lieu of the procedure described in Arti-
cle 8.16.5.1.1, slenderness effects of compression mem-
bers may be evaluated in accordance withthe approximate
procedure inArticle 8.16.5.2.
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluationof Slenderness
Effects
8.16.5.2.1 The unsupported length, (n, of a compres-
sion member shall be the clear distance between slabs,
girders, or other members capable of providing lateral
support for the compression member. Where haunches are
present. the unsupported length shall be measured to the
lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
8.16.5.2.2 The radius of gyration, r, may be assumed
equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction
in which stability is being considered for rectangular com-
pression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circu-
l a r c o m p r es s i o n m em b er s . F o r o t her s ha p es , r m a y b e
computed for the gross concrete section.
8.16.5.2.3 For compression members braced against
sidesway, the effective length factor, k, shall he taken as 1.0,
(8- 36) unless an analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For
compression members not braced against sidesway, k shall
(8-37)
(8-38)
(8-39)
178
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8 . 16.5.2.3
be determined with due consideration of cracking and rein-
forcement on relative stiffness and shall be greater than 1.0.
8.16.5.2.4 For compression members braced against
sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
when k~~/r is less than 34(l2Mii,/Msh).
8.16.5.2.5 F o r c o m p r es s i o n m em her s n o t b r a c ed
against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be ne-
glected when ken/r is less than 22.
8.16.5.2.6 For all compression members where kf,/r
is greater than 100. an analysis as defined in Article
8.16.5.1 shall be made.
8.16.5.2.7 Compression members shall be designed
using the factored axial load Pn, derived from a conven-
tional elastic analysis and a magnified factored moment,
M,, defined by:
wher e,
= ~bM 2 b + 5
5M2,
Cm
>10
I
I
=1.0
I u
4) ~
and,
= jt
2EI
2
(k(~)
F o r m em b er s b r a c ed a ga i n s t s i d es wa y, ~. shall be taken as
1.0. For members not braced against sidesway, ~ shall be
evaluated as for a braced member and 5., for an unbraced
m em b er .
In l i eu o f a m o r e p r ec i s e c a l c u l a t i o n , El may be taken
either as,
E,lg
El-
I ~13d
(8-40)
(8 -41)
wher e 13d is the ratio of maximum dead load moment to
maximum total load moment and is always positive. For
members braced against sidesway and without transverse
loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
Cm 0.6 0.4 (MtiJM
2b) (8-45)
but not less than 0.4.
F o r a l l o t her c a s es , Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
8.16.5.2.8 If computations show that there is no mo-
m en t a t ei t her en d o f a c o m p r es s i o n m em b er b r a c ed o r u n -
b r a c ed a ga i n s t s i d es wa y o r t ha t c o m p u t ed en d ec c en t r i c i -
ties are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches, M25 and M2, in
Equation (8-40) shall he based on a minimum eccentric-
ity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches about each principal axis sep-
arately. The ratio MtdM2b in Equation (8-45) shall be de-
termined by either of the following:
(a) Whenthe computed end eccentricities are less than
(0.6 + 0.03h) inches, the computed end moments may
b e u s ed t o ev a l u a t e Mi d M2 b i n E q u a t i o n ( 8 -4 5 ) .
(b) If computations show that there is essentially no
moment at either end of the member, the ratio M,dM2b
shall be equal to one.
8.16.5.2.9 In s t r u c t u r es t ha t a r e n o t b r a c ed a ga i n s t
(841 A) sidesway, the flexural memhers framing into the com-
pression member shall he designedfor the total magnified
end moments of the compression member at the joint.
8.16.5.2.10 When c o m p r es s i o n m em b er s a r e s u b j ec t
t o b en d i n g a b o u t b o t h p r i n c i p a l a x es , t he m o m en t a b o u t
(8 42) each axis shall be magnified by ~,computed from the car-
responding conditions of restraint about that axis.
8.16.5.2.11 When a gr o u p o f c o m p r es s i o n m em b er s
on one level comprise a bent, or when they are connected
integrally to the same superstructure, and collectively re-
sist the sidesway of the structure, the value of 5. shall be
computed for the member group with ~IPn and XP, equal
t o t he s u m m a t i o n s f o r a l l c o l u m n s i n t he gr o u p .
(8-43) 8.16.6 Shear
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength
or conservatively as,
8.16.6.1.1
shall be based on:
(8-44)
Design of cross sections subject to shear
EcIg
El 2.5
1 ~
13d
Vn = 4)V ~ (8-46)
8 .16.6.1.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 179
where V , is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered and V , is the nominal shear strength computed by,
Zn V , + V~ (8-47)
where V , is the nominal shear strength provided by the
concrete in accordance withArticle 8.16.6.2, and V ~ is the
nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforce-
ment in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. Whenever ap-
plicable, effects of torsion* shall be included.
8.16.6.1.2 When the reaction, in the direction of ap-
plied shear, introduces compression into the end regions
of a member, sections located less than a distance d from
t he f a c e o f s u p p o r t m a y b e d es i gn ed f o r t he s a m e s hea r ,
as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs
when major concentrated loads are imposed between that
point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer
t ha n d t o t he s u p p o r t s ha l l he d es i gn ed f o r V a t a d i s t a n c e
d plus the major concentrated loads.
(b) The quantity V A I M . shall not he greater than 1 .0
wher e M, i s t he f a c t o r ed m o m en t o c c u r r i n g s i m u l t a n e-
ously with V , at the section being considered.
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
For members subject to axial compression, V , may be
computed by:
V ~=2~l
2,OOOAJ f.j(bwd) (8-50)
or,
= 2 V i7bmd (8-51)
Note:
The q u a n t i t y NU/Ag shall be expressed in pounds per
square inch.
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
8 .16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete
8.16.6.2.! Shear in Beams and One-WaySlabs and
Footings
Formembers subject to shear andflexure only, V ~ shall
be computed by,
V~ =~l.9 f +2,S00p~ V ttdj~bwd (8-48)
or,
= 2 V i7bmd (8-49)
where b,,. is the width of web and d is the distance from the
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu-
dinal tension reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects
of torsionshall be included. For a circular section, b~, shall
be t he d i a m et er a n d d n eed n o t b e l es s t ha n t he d i s t a n c e
from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the
member. For tapered webs, bm shall be the average width
or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
Note:
(a) V , shall not exceed 3.5 \/i7 bind when using more
detailed calculations.
The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in Buitd-
ing Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete ACT 3!8 may be tmse&
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce-
ment shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
d et a i l ed c a l c u l a t i o n i s m a d e u s i n g:
v~ =2~l+S~~dj f (b~d)
(8-52)
Note:
(a) N, is negative for tension.
(b) The q u a n t i t y Nn/Ag shall he expressed in pounds
per square inch.
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete
The provisions for shear stress, v,, carried by the con-
crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
fications shall apply:
(a) When f, is specified, the shear strength, V ,, shall
be m o d i f i ed b y s u b s t i t u t i n g f,~/6.7 for V i7, but the
value of f,,/6.7 used shall not exceed VT
1.
(b) When f , , i s n o t s p ec i f i ed , V , s ha l l b e m u l t i p l i ed b y
0.75 for all lightweight concrete, and 0.85 for sand-
lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation may be
used when partial sand replacement is used.
8 .16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear
Reinforcement
8.16.6.3.! Where factored shear force V , exceeds
shear strength 4)V ,, shear reinforcement shall be provided
18 0
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8.16.6.3.1
to satisfy Equations (8-46) and (8-47), but not less than
that required by Article 8.19. Shear strength V , shall be
computed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.3.2 through
8.16.6.3.10.
8.16.6.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular
to the axis of the member is used:
A~ f
5 d
5
where A, is the area of shear reinforcement within a
distance s.
8.16.6.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used:
A5f~(sinci.+coscQd
5
8.16.6.3.4 When a single bar or a single group of par-
allel bars all bent up at the same distance from the support
is used:
8 .16.6.4 Shear Friction
8.16.6.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be ap-
plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an in-
terface between two concretes cast at different times.
8.16.6.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to shear
(8 53) transfer as described in Article 8.16.6.4.1 shall be based
on Equation (8-46), where shear strength V ~ is calculated
in accordance with provisions of Article 8.16.6.4.3 or
8.16.6.4.4.
8 .16.6.4.3 A crack shall be assumed to occur along
the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction
reinforcement A5, across the shear plane may be designed
using either Article 8.16.6.4.4 or any other shear transfer
(8 - 54) design methods that result in prediction of strength in sub-
stantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
Provisions of Article 8.16.6.4.5 through 8.16.6.4.9 shall
apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-frictioim Design Method
V , =A~f5sina~ 3 fb_d
(8-55)
serses of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-
up bars at different distances from the support, shear
strength V 5 shall be computed by Equation (8-54).
8 .16.6.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in-
dined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con-
sidered effective for shear reinforcement.
8.16.6.3.7 Where more than one type of shear rein-
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, shear strength V , shall be computed as the sum
of the V , values computed for the various types.
8. 1 6 . 6 . 3 . 8 When shear st rengt h V , exceeds 4 f,
hA, spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed one-
half the maximum spacing given in Article 8.19.3.
8. 1 6 . 6 . 3 . 9 Shear strength V , shall not be taken
greater than 8 f b~d.
8.16.6.3.10 When flexural reinforcement, located
within the width of a member used to compute the shear
strength, is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce-
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article
8.24.1.4.
(a) When the shear-friction reinforcement is perpen-
dicular to the shear plane, shear strength, V n, shall be
computed by:
=A,f5p
(8-56)
where p is the coefficient of friction in accordance with
Article (c).
(b) When the shear-friction reinforcement is inclined
to the shear plane, such that the shear force produces
tension in shear-friction reinforcement, shear strength
V ~ shall be computed by:
=A5,f., (p sin a, cos c~) (8-56A)
where af is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
forcement and the shear plane.
(c) Coefficient of friction p in Eq. (8-56) and Equation
(8-56A) shall be:
Concrete placed monolithically ..............l .4K
Concrete placed against hardened concrete with
surface intentionally roughened as specified in Ar-
tide 8.16.6.4.8 1.0K
Concrete placed against hardened concrete not in-
tentionally roughened 0.6K
Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article
8.16.6.4.9) 0.7K
8.16.6.4.4 DIVISION IDESIGN 18 1
where K = 1.0 f o r n o r m a l wei ght c o n c r et e; 0.85 for
sand lightweight concrete; and 0.75 for all light-
weight concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
8.16.6.4.5 Shear strength V ~ shall not be taken
greater than 0.2f, A,, nor 800 A,, in pounds, where A,, is
the area of the concrete section resisting shear transfer.
8.16.6.4.6 Net tension across the shear plane shall be
resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com-
pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement, A,, f
5,
when calculating required A,,.
8.16.6.4.7 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap-
propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an-
chored to develop the specified yield strength on both
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
8.16.6.4.8 F o r t he p u r p o s e o f Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 6 . 6 . 4 , when
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete,
the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free
of laitance. If p is assumed equal to 1.0K, the interface
shall be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately
1/4 inch.
8.16.6.4.9 When shear is transferred between as-
rolled steel andconcrete using headed studs or welded re-
inforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint.
8 .16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for
Composite Concrete Flexural Members
8.16.6.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces
of interconnected elements.
8.If.6.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori-
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
paragraph 8.16.6.5.3 or 8.16.6.5.4, or any other shear
transfer design method that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of compre-
hensive tests.
8.16.6.5.3 Design of cross sections subject to hori-
zontal shear may be based on:
= (8-57)
cordance with the following, and where d is for the entire
composite section.
(a) Whencontact surface is clean, free of laitance, and
intentionally roughened, shear strength V nh shall not be
taken greater than 80b,d, in pounds.
with paragraph 8.16.6.5.5, and contact surface is clean
a n d f r ee o f l a i t a n c e, b u t n o t i n t en t i o n a l l y r o u ghen ed ,
shear strength V 1h shall not be taken greater than 80
b,d, in pounds.
wi t h p a r a gr a p h 8 . 1 6 . 6 . 5 . 5 , a n d c o n t r a c t s u r f a c e i s
clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to
a full amplitude of approximately V 4 in., shear strength
V f lh shall not be taken greater than 350b,d, in pounds.
contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
8.16.6.5.5, shear strength V nh may be increased by
(160f5/40,000)b,d, in pounds.
8.16.6.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by
computing, inany segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon-
tal shear strength 4)V ~,, in accordance with paragraph
8.16.6.5.3, except that the length of the segment consid-
ered shall be substituted for d.
8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce-
ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50b,s/f~, and tie
spacing, s, shall not exceed four times the least web
width of the support element, nor 24 in.
wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into
interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
8 .16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
Foot ings
8.16.6.6.1 Shear strength of slabs and footings in the
vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gox-
erned by the more severe of two conditions:
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical
section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated
where V ~ is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered. V us is the nominal horizontal shear strength in ac-
182
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8.16.6.6.1
f o o t i n g s ha l l b e d es i gn ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l es
8 . 1 6 . 6 . I t hr o u gh 8 . 1 6 . 6 . 3 ex c ep t a t f o o t i n gs s u p p o r t ed
on piles, the shear on the critical section shall be de-
termined in accordance with Article 4.4. 11.3.
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a
critical section perpendicular to the plane of the mem-
ber and located so that its perimeter b
0 is a minimum,
but need not approach closer than d12 to the perimeter
of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this con-
dition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accor-
dance with Articles 8.16.6.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.3.
8.16.6.6.2 Design of slab or footing for two-way
action shall be based on Equation (8-46), where shear
strength V ~ shall not be taken greater than shear strength
V , given by Equation (8-58), unless shear reinforcement
is provided in accordance withArticle 8.16.6.6.3.
Cb~td=4~fb0d
(8 -58 )
13, is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
load or reaction area, and b,, is the perimeter of the criti-
cal section defined in Article 8. 16.6.6.1(b).
8.16.6.6.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance
with the following provisions:
(a) Shear strength V ~ shall be computed by Equation
(8-47), where shear strength V , shall be in accordance
with paragraph (d) and shear strength V , shall be in ac-
cordance with paragraph (e).
(b) Shear strength shall be investigated at the critical
section defined in 8.16.6.6.1(b), and at successive sec-
tions more distant from the support.
(c) Shear strength V ~ shall not be taken greater than 6
V Y7b0d, where b0 is the perimeter of the critical section
defined in paragraph (b).
(d) Shear strength V , at any section shall not be taken
greater than 2 f,b~,d, where b0 is the perimeter of the
critical section defined in paragraph (b).
(e) Where the factoredshear force V ~ exceeds the shear
strength 4)V , as given inparagraph (d), the required area
A, and shear strength V , of shear reinforcement shall be
calculated in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3.
8 .16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box
Culverts
8.16.6.7.l For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or
more fill, shear strength V , may be computed by:
V ,=~2.l4 f4,600pV ud>d
(8-59)
but V , shall not exceed4 \/i7 bd. For single cell box cul-
verts only, V , for slabs monolithic with walls need not be
taken less than 3 \/7 bd, and V , for slabs simply sup-
ported need not be taken less than 2.5 \/i7 bd. The quan-
tity V ndIMn shall not be taken greater than 1.0 where M,
is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with V n
at the section considered. For slabs of box culverts under
less than 2 feet of fill, applicable provisions of Articles
3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
8 .16.6.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and
Corbels*
8.16.6.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.16.6.8 shall apply
to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio
a5/d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal ten-
sile force N~, not larger than V n. Distance d shall be mea-
sured at the face of support.
8.16.6.8.2 Depth at the outside edge of bearing area
shall not be less than 0.5d.
8.16.6.8.3 The section at the face of the support shall
be designed toresist simultaneously a shear V ~, a moment
(V ~a, N~, (h d)), and a horizontal tensile force Na,.
Distance h shall be measured at the face of support.
( a ) In a l l d es i gn c a l c u l a t i o n s i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i -
c l e 8 . 1 6 . 6 . 8 , t he s t r en gt h r ed u c t i o n f a c t o r 4) shall be
taken equal to 0.85.
(b) Des i gn o f shear-friction reinforcement A,f to resist
shear V , shall be in accordance with Article 8.16.6.4.
For normal weight concrete, shear strength V ~ shall not
be taken greater than 0.2f,b~d nor 800b~d in pounds.
F o r a l l l i ght wei ght o r s a n d -l i ght wei ght c o n c r et e,
shear strength V ~ shall not be taken greater than (0.2
0.07a,/d)fb~d nor (800 280a~/d)b~d in pounds.
(c) Reinforcement A, to resist moment (V ~a. -t-
N~, (h d)) shall be computed in accordance with Ar-
ticles 8.16.2 and 8.16.3.
(d) Reinforcement A~ to resist tensile force Nn, shall
be determined from N~, = 4)A~f~. Tensile force N~,
shall not be taken less than 0.2V u unless special provi-
sions are made to avoid tensile forces. Tensile force N~,
*These provisions do not appty to beam tedges. The PCA pubtication,
Notes on ACt 31 8-83 contains an exatnpte design of beam tedges
Part t6, exampte t6-3.
8.16.6.8.3 DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN 183
s ha l l b e r ega r d ed a s a l i v e l o a d ev en when t en s i o n r e-
s u l t s f r o m c r eep , s hr i n ka ge, o r t em p er a t u r e change.
( e) Ar ea o f p r i m a r y t en s i o n r ei n f o r c em en t A, s ha l l b e
m a d e eq u a l t o t he gr ea t er o f ( A~ An) o r :
+A~.
3
8.16.6.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to A,, with
a total area Ah not less than O.5(A, An), shall be uni-
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth
adjacent toA~.
8.16.6.8.5 Ratio p = A,/bd shall not be less than
0.04(f7f
5).
8.16.6.8.6 At f r o n t f a c e o f b r a c ket o r c o r b el , p r i m a r y
t en s i o n r ei n f o r c em en t A, s ha l l b e a n c ho r ed b y o n e o f t he
following:
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified
yield strength f,, of A, bars,
(b) bending primary tension bars A, back to form a
horizontal loop, or
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
8.16.6.8.7 B ea r i n g a r ea o f load on bracket or corbel
shall not project beyond straight portion of primary ten-
sion bars A,, nor project beyond interior face of transverse
anchor bar (if one is provided).
I
8 .16.7 Bearing Strength
8.16.7.1 The bearing stress, ~b, on concrete shall not
exceed 0.854) f, except as provided in Articles 8.16.7.2,
8 .16.7.3, and 8 . 16.7.4.
8.16.7.2 When t he s u p p o r t i n g s u r f a c e i s wi d er o n a l l
sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on
the loaded area may be multiplied by AlA,, but not by
m o r e t ha n 2 .
8.16.7.3 When the supporting surface is sloped or
stepped, A2 may be taken as the area of the lower base of
the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone contained
wholly within the support and having for its upper base
t he l o a d ed a r ea , a n d ha v i n g s i d e s l o p es o f I v er t i c a l t o 2
horizontal.
8 .16.7.4 When the loaded area is subjected to
high edge stresses due to deflection or eccentric loading,
the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including
any increase due to the supporting surface being larger
than the loaded area, shall be multiplied by a factor
of 0.75.
8 .16.8 Serviceability Requirements
8 .16.8 .1 Application
F o r f l ex u r a l m em b er s d es i gn ed wi t h r ef er en c e t o l o a d
factors and strengths by Strength Design Method, stresses
at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements
f o r f a t i gu e i n Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 6 . 8 . 3 , a n d f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r ei n -
f o r c em en t in Article 8.16.8.4. The requirements for con-
t r o l o f d ef l ec t i o n s i n Ar t i c l e 8 . 9 s ha l l a l s o b e s a t i s f i ed .
8 . 1 6 . 8 . 2 S er v i c e L o a d S t r es s es
For investigation of stresses at service loads to satisfy
the requirements of Articles 8.16.8.3 and 8.16.8.4, the
straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be
used and the assumptions given in Article 8.15.3 shall
apply.
8 .16.8 .3 Fatigue Stress Limits
The r a n ge b et ween a m a x i m u m t en s i l e s t r es s a n d m i n -
imum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
plus impact at service load shall not exceed:
bearIng
plate -\
h d
Fr ambig bar to anchor .i
stIrrups or tIes
A~ (closed
stIrrups or tIes)
FIGURE 8 .16.6.8 f12l 0.33fnnn 8(r/h) (8-60)
184
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8 . 16.8.3
where:
Zn stress range in kips per square inch;
fnnn Zn algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive,
compression negative in kips per square inch;
r/h =ratio of base radius toheight of rolled-on trans-
verse deformations; when the actual value is not
known, use 0.3.
Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in re-
gions of high stress range.
Fatigue stress limits need not be considered for con-
crete deck slabs with primary reinforcement perpendicu-
lar to traffic and designed in accordance with the approx-
imate methods given under Article 3.24.3. Case A.
8 .16.8 .4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement
To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension re-
inforcement shall be well distributed within maximum
flexural zones. When the design yield strength, f,, for ten-
sion reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi, the bar sizes and
spacing at maximum positive and negative moment sec-
tions shall be chosen so that the calculated stress in the re-
inforcement at service load f,, in ksi does not exceed the
value computed by:
z
y fZn (dcA)i/
3 =0.6f
8 .17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL
MEMBERS
where:
A = effective tension area, in square inches, of con-
crete surrounding the flexural tension reinforce-
ment and having the same centroid as that rein-
forcement, divided by the number of bars or
wires. When the flexural reinforcement consists
of several bar or wire sizes, the number of bars or
wires shall be computed as the total area of rein-
forcement divided by the area of the largest bar
or wire used. For calculation purposes, the thick-
ness of clear concrete cover used to compute A
shall not be taken greater than 2 in.
Zn distance measured from extreme tension fiber to
center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For
calculation purposes, the thickness of clear con-
crete cover used to compute d, shall not be taken
gr ea t er t ha n 2 i n c hes .
The quantity z in Equation (8-61) shall not exceed
170 kips per inch for members in moderate exposure
conditions and 130 kips per inch for members in severe
exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments,
such as deicer chemicals, protection should be provided
by increasing the denseness or imperviousness to
water or furnishing other protection such as a waterproof-
(8.61) ing protecting system, in addition to satisfying Equa-
tion (8-61).
Part D
REINFORCEMENT
is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis
based on the loading combinations specified in Article
3.22.
8 .17.1 Minimum Reinforcement
8 .17.1.1 At any section of a flexural member where
tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the rein-
forcement provided shall be adequate to develop a mo-
ment at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on
the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight con-
crete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
4)Mu=1.2 M~r
8 .17.1.2 The requirements of Article 8.17.1.1 may be
waived if the area o f r ei n f o r c em en t p r o v i d ed a t a s ec t i o n
8 .17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement
8 .17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in
Zones of Maximum Tension
8.17.2.1.1 Where flanges of I-girders and box-gird-
ers are in tension, tension reinforcement shall be distrib-
(8 -62) uted over an effective tension flange width equal to V
5
the girder span length or a width as defined in Article
8. 10.1, whichever is smaller. If the actual slab width, cen-
ter-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension
8.17.2.1.1
flange width, and for excess portions of the deck slab
overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement with area
not less than 0.4 percent of the excess slab area shall be
provided in the excess portions of the slab.
8.17.2. 1.2 For integral bent caps of T-girder and box-
girder comistruetion, tension reinforcement shall be placed
within a width not to exceed the web width plus an over-
hanging slab width on each side of the bent cap web equal
to one-fourth the average spacing of the intersecting
girder webs or a width as defined in Article 8.10.1.4 for
integral bent caps, whichever is smaller.
8.17.2.1.3 If the depth of the side face of a member
exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be
uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member
tor a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforce-
ment. The area of skin reinforcement ~ per foot of height
on each side face shall be = 0.012 (d - 30). The maxi-
mum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed the
lesser of d/6 and 12 inches ..Such reinforcement may be
included in strength cotnputations if a strain compatibil-
ity analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual
bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin rein-
forcement in both faces miced not exceed one-half of the
required fiexural tensile reinfomcement.
8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in
T-Girders and Box Girders
At least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse
reinforcement in the deck slab shall extend to the exterior
face of the outside girder web in each group and be an-
chored by a standard 90-degree hook. If the slab extends
beyond the last girder web, such reinforcement shall ex-
tend into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage
beyond the exterior face of the girder web not less thati
that provided by a standard hook.
8 .17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box
Girders
8.17.2.3.1 Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4
percent of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom
slab parallel to the girder span. A single layer of rein-
forcement may be provided. The spacing of such rein-
forcement shall not exceed 18 inches.
8.17.2.3.2 Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.5
percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the
least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab trans-
verse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be dis-
tributed over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18
inches. All transverse reinforcement in the bottom slab shall
extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each
group and be anchored by a standard 90-degree hook.
8 .17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members
8 .17.3.1 Compression reinforcement used to in-
crease the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed
by ties or stirrups whieb shall be at least No.3 in size for
longitudinal bars that are No. 10 or stnaller, and at least
No. 4 in size for No. 11, No. 14. No. 18. and bundled lon-
gitudinal bars. Welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
be used instead of bars. The spacing of ties shall not ex-
ceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties
shall be provided throughout the distance where the com-
pression reinforcement is required. This paragraph does
not apply to reinforeement located in a compression zone
which has not been considered as compression reinforce-
ment in the design of the member.
8 . 1 7 . 3 . 2 Torsion reinforcement, where required,
shall comisist of closed stirrups, closedties, or spirals, coin-
bined with longitudinal bars. See Article 8.15.5.1.1 or
8.16.6.1.1.
8.17.3.3 Closed stirrups orties may be formed in one
piece by overlapping the standard endhooks of ties or stir-
rups around a longitudinal bar, or may be formed in one
or two pieces by splicing with Class C splices (lap of
1.7 fd).
8.17.3.4 In seismic areas, where an earthquake that
could cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcenient shall be
designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
dnmctility to resist expected seismic movements.
8 .18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
8 .18 .1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal
Reinf orcement
8 .18 .1.1 The area of longitudinal reimiforcement for
compression members shall not exceed 0.08 timi~es the
gross area. A,, of the section.
8 .18 .1.2 The minimum area of longitudimial reimi-
forcement shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross area,
A,, of the section. When the cross section is larger than
that required by consideration of loading, a reduced ef-
18 6
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8 .18 . 1.2
f ec t i v e a r ea m a y b e u s ed . The r ed u c ed ef f ec t i v e a r ea s ha l l
n o t b e l es s t ha n t ha t whi c h wo u l d r eq u i r e I p er c en t o f
l o n gi t u d i n a l r ei n f o r c em en t t o c a r r y t he l o a d i n g. The m i n -
i m u m n u m b er o f l o n gi t u d i n a l r ei n f o r c i n g b a r s s ha l l b e s i x
f o r b a r s i n a c i r c u l a r a r r a n gem en t a n d f o u r f o r b a r s i n a
r ec t a n gu l a r a r r a n gem en t . The m i n i m u m s i z e o f b a r s s ha l l
b e No . 5 .
8 .18 .2 Lateral Reinforcement
8.18.2.1 General
In a c o m p r es s i o n m em b er t ha t ha s a l a r ger c r o s s s ec -
l i o n t ha n t ha t r eq u i r ed b y c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d i n g, t he l a t er a l
r ei n f o r c em en t r eq u i r em en t s m a y b e wa i v ed wher e s t r u c -
t u r a l a n a l ys i s o r t es t s s ho w a d eq u a t e s t r en gt h a n d f ea s i -
b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .
8 . 1 8 . 2 . 2 S p i r a l s
S p i r a l r ei n f o r c em en t f o r c o m p r es s i o n m em b er s s ha l l
conform to the following:
8.18.2.2.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced con-
tinuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of V~ inch.
8. 18.2.2.2 The ratio of spiral reinforcement to total
volume of core, p~, shall not be less than the value given
by:
Zn o.
4S(~k 1>
where f5 is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforce-
ment but not more than 60,000 psi.
8.18.2.2.3 The clear spacing between spirals shall
not exceed 3 inches or be less than 1 inch or 1 V~ times the
maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
8.18.2.2.4 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall
be provided by 1 V2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each
end of a spiral unit.
8.18.2.2.5 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or
other support to the level of the lowest horizontal rein-
forcement in members supported above.
8.18.2.2.6 Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap
splices of 48 bar or wire diameters but not less than 12
inches, or shall be welded.
8.18.2.2.7 S p i r a l s s ha l l he o f s u c h s i z e a n d s o a s -
s em b l ed t o p er m i t ha n d l i n g a n d p l a c i n g wi t ho u t d i s t o r t i o n
f r o m d es i gn ed d i m en s i o n s .
8.18.2.2.8 S p i r a l s s ha l l b e hel d f i r m l y i n p l a c e b y a t -
t a c hm en t t o t he l o n gi t u d i n a l r ei n f o r c em en t a n d t r u e t o l i n e
by vertical spacers.
8 .18 .2.3 Ties
Ti e r ei n f o r c em en t f o r c o m p r es s i o n m em b er s s ha l l c o n -
f o r m t o t he f o l l o wi n g:
8.18.2.3.1 All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties
which shall be at least No. 3 in size for longitudinal bars
that are No. 10 or smaller, and at least No. 4 in size for No.
II, No. 14, No. 18, and bundled longitudinal bars. De-
formedwire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
be used instead of bars.
8.18.2.3.2 The spacing of ties shall not exceed the
least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches.
Whentwo or more bars larger than No. 10 are bundled to-
gether, tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above.
8.18.2.3.3 Ties shall be located not more than half a
t i e s p a c i n g f r o m t he f a c e o f a f o o t i n g o r f r o m t he n ea r es t
longitudinal reinforcement of a cross-framing member.
8.18.2.3.4 No longitudinal bar shall be more than 2
f eet , m ea s u r ed a l o n g t he t i e, f r o m a r es t r a i n ed b a r o n em -
t her s i d e. A r es t r a i n ed b a r i s o n e whi c h ha s l a t er a l s u p p o r t
(8 63) p r o v i d ed b y t he c o r n er o f a t i e ha v i n g a n i n c l u d ed a n gl e
o f n o t m o r e t ha n 1 3 5 d egr ees . Wher e l o n gi t u d i n a l b a r s a r e
l o c a t ed a r o u n d t he p er i m et er o f a c i r c l e, a c o m p l et e c i r -
c u l a r t i e m a y b e u s ed .
8 .18 .2.4 Seismic Requirements
In s ei s m i c a r ea s , wher e a n ea r t hq u a ke whi c h c o u l d
cause major damage to construction has a high probabil-
ity of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers
shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate
strength and ductility to resist expected seismic move-
ments.
8 .19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
8 .19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8 .19.1.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement
shall be providedin all flexural members, except slabs and
footings, where:
8 . 19.1.1
DIVISION IDESIGN 1 8 7
( a ) F o r d es i gn b y S t r en gt h Des i gn , f a c t o r ed s hea r
f o r c e V ~ ex c eed s o n e-ha l f t he s hea r s t r en gt h p r o v i d ed
b y c o n c r et e 4 V ~
( b ) F o r d es i gn b y S er v i c e L o a d Des i gn , d es i gn s hea r
s t r es s v ex c eed s o n e-ha l f t he p er m i s s i b l e s hea r s t r es s
c a r r i ed b y c o n c r et e v , .
8.19.1.2 Wher e s hea r r ei n f o r c em en t i s r eq u i r ed b y
Article 8.19.1 .1, or by analysis, the area provided shall not
be less than:
SOb s
A
5Zn ~ (8-64)
where b~ and s are in inches.
8 .19.1.3 Minimum shear reinforcement require-
ments may be waived if it is shown by test that the re-
q u i r ed u l t i m a t e f l ex u r a l a n d s hea r c a p a c i t y c a n b e d ev el -
o p ed when s hea r r ei n f o r c em en t i s o m i t t ed .
8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement
8.19.2.1 S hea r r ei n f o r c em en t m a y c o n s i s t o f :
(a) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or
making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longi-
tudinal tension reinforcement.
(b) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendic-
ular to the axis of the member.
(c) Longitudinal reinforcement with a bent portion
m a ki n g a n a n gl e o f 3 0 d egr ees o r m o r e wi t h t he l o n gi -
tudinal tension reinforcement.
(d) Co m b i n a t i o n s o f s t i r r u p s a n d b en t l o n gi t u d i n a l r e-
inforcement.
(e) Spirals.
8.19.2.2 Shear reinforcement shall be developed at
both ends in accordance with the requirements of Article
8.27.
8 .19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENT
8.20.1 R ei n f o r c em en t f o r s hr i n ka ge a n d t em p er a t u r e
s t r es s es s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed n ea r ex p o s ed s u r f a c es o f wa l l s
a n d s l a b s n o t o t her wi s e r ei n f o r c ed . The t o t a l a r ea o f r ei n -
f o r c em en t p r o v i d ed s ha l l b e a t l ea s t V u square inch per foot
i n ea c h d i r ec t i o n .
8.20.2 The s p a c i n g o f s hr i n ka ge a n d t em p er a t u r e r ei n -
f o r c em en t s ha l l n o t ex c eed t hr ee t i m es t he wa l l o r s l a b
t hi c kn es s , o r 18 inches.
8 .21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
8.21.1 F o r c a s t -i n -p l a c e c o n c r et e t he c l ea r d i s t a n c e b e-
t ween p a r a l l el b a r s i n a l a yer s ha l l n o t b e l es s t ha n 1 . 5 b a r
d i a m et er s , 1 . 5 t i m es t he m a x i m u m s i z e o f t he c o a r s e a g-
gr ega t e, o r 1 V 2 i n c hes .
8.21.2 F o r p r ec a s t c o n c r et e ( m a n u f a c t u r ed u n d er p l a n t
c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s ) t he c l ea r d i s t a n c e b et ween p a r a l l el
bars in a layer shall be not less than I bar diameter, l/~
t i m es t he m a x i m u m s i z e o f t he c o a r s e a ggr ega t e, o r 1 i n c h.
8.21.3 Where positive or negative reinforcement is
placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall
b e p l a c ed d i r ec t l y a b o v e t ho s e i n t he b o t t o m l a yer wi t h t he
c l ea r d i s t a n c e b et ween l a yer s n o t l es s t ha n 1 i n c h.
8.21.4 The c l ea r d i s t a n c e l i m i t a t i o n b et ween b a r s s ha l l
also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap
splice and adjacent splices or bars.
8.21.5 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in con-
tact to act as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any one bundle.
Bars larger than No. II shall be limited to two in any one
bundle in beams. Bundledbars shall be located within stir-
rups or ties. Individual bars in a bundle cut off within the
span of a member shall terminate at points at least 40-bar
diameters apart. Where spacing limitations are basedon bar
d i a m et er , a u n i t o f b u n d l ed b a r s s ha l l b e t r ea t ed a s a s i n gl e
bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
S p a c i n g o f s hea r r ei n f o r c em en t p l a c ed p er p en d i c u l a r
to the axis of the member shall not exceed d/2 or 24
inches. Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforce-
ment shall be so spaced that every 45-degree line extend-
ing toward the reaction from the mid-depth of the mem-
ber, d/2, tothe longitudinal tension reinforcement shall be
crossed by at least one line of shear reinforcement.
8 .21.6 In walls and slabs the primary flexural reinforce-
ment shall be spaced not farther apart than 1.5 times the
wa l l o r s l a b t hi c kn es s , o r 1 8 i n c hes .
8 .22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION
8 . 2 2 . 1 The f o l l o wi n g m i n i m u m c o n c r et e c o v er s ha l l b e
provided for reinforcement:
188
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.22.1
Minimum
Cover
(inches
)
Co n c r et e c a s t a ga i n s t a n d p er m a n en t l y
exposed to earth 3
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
Primary reinforcement 2
Stirrups, ties, and spirals I V2
Co n c r et e d ec k s l a b s i n m i l d c l i m a t es :
To p r ei n f o r c em en t 2
B o t t o m r ei n f o r c em en t
Co n c r et e d ec k s l a b s whi c h ha v e n o p o s i t i v e
c o r r o s i o n p r o t ec t i o n a n d a r e f r eq u en t l y
ex p o s ed t o d ei c i n g s a l t s :
To p r ei n f o r c em en t
B o t t o m r ei n f o r c em en t
Co n c r et e n o t ex p o s ed t o wea t her o r i n
contact with ground:
Primary reinforcement
Stirrups, ties, and spirals
Co n c r et e p i l es c a s t a ga i n s t a n d l o r
permanently exposed to earth
8 .22.2 For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover
shall be equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but
need not be greater than 2 inches, except for concrete cast
against and permanently exposed to earth in which case
t he m i n i m u m c o v er s ha l l b e 3 i n c hes .
8 . 2 2 . 3 In c o r r o s i v e o r m a r i n e en v i r o n m en t s o r o t her s e-
vere exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protec-
t i o n s ha l l he s u i t a b l y i n c r ea s ed , b y i n c r ea s i n g t he d en s e-
ness and imperviousness to water of the protecting
concrete or other means. Other means of positive corro-
stun protection may consist of, but not be limited to.
epoxy-coated bars, special concrete overlays, and imper-
vious membranes; or a combination of these means.*
8.22.4 Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates in-
tended for bonding with future extensions shall be pro-
tected from corrosion.
8.23 HOOKSAND BENDS
8 .23.1 Standard Hooks
The term standard hook as used herein shall mean
one of the following:
*F o r a d d i t i o n a t i n f o r m a t i o n on corrosion protection methods, refer to
Nationat Cooperative Highway Research Report 297. Evatuation of
Bridge Deck Protective Strategies.
(I) 180-deg bend plus
4db extension, but not less than
2V 2 in. at free end of bar.
(2) 90-deg bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
(3) F o r s t i r r u p a n d t i e ho o ks :
( a ) No . 5 b a r a n d s m a l l er , 9 0-d eg b en d p l u s 6 d , , ex -
tension at free end of bar, or
(hI No. 6, No. 7, and No. 8 bar, 90-deg bend plus
I 2dh extension at free end of bar, or
(c) No. 8 bar and smaller, 135-deg bend plus 6d
5
extension at free end of bar.
8 .23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters
8 .23.2.1 Diameter of bend measured on the inside of
2/2 the bar, other than for stirrups and ties, shall not be less
than the values given in Table 8.23.2.1.
I / 8.23.2.2 The inside diameter of bend for stirrups and
ties shall not be less than 4 bar diameters for sizes No. 5
a n d s m a l l er . F o r b a r s l a r ger t ha n s i z e No . 5 d i a m et er o f
2 bend shall be in accordance with Table 8.23.2.1.
8 . 2 3 . 2 . 3 The i n s i d e d i a m et er o f b en d i n s m o o t h o r d c -
formed welded wire fabric for stirrups and ties shall not be
less than 4-wire diameters for deformed wire larger than D6
and 2-wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside
diameters of less than 8-wire diameters shall not be less
than 4-wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.
8 .24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL
REINFORCEMENT
8 .24.1 General
8 .24.1.1 The calculated tension or compression in
t he r ei n f o r c em en t a t ea c h s ec t i o n s ha l l he d ev el o p ed o n
each side of that section by embedment length. hook or
mechanical device. or a combination thereof. Hooks may
b e u s ed i n d ev el o p i n g b a r s i n t en s i o n o n l y.
8 .24.1.2 Cr i t i c a l s ec t i o n s f o r d ev el o p m en t o f r ei n -
forcement in flexural members are at points of maximum
stress and at points within the span where adjacent rein-
forcemnent terminates or is bent. The provisions of Article
8.24.2.3 must also be satisfied.
TABLE 8 .23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
Bar Size Minimum Diameter
No s . 3 t hr o u gh 8 6 -b a r d i a m et er s
Nos. 9, 10, and 11 8 -bar diameters
Nos. 14 and 18 10-bar diameters
8.24.1.2. DIV IS IO N IDE S IGN 189
8.24.1.2.1 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for
a distance equal to the effective depth of the member, 15
bar diameters, or V
2 of the clear span, whichever is
greater, except at supports of simple spans and at the free
ends of cantilevers.
8.24./.2.2 Continuing reinforcement shall have an
embedment length not less than the development length (d
beyond the point where bent or terminated tension rein-
forcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
8.24.1.3 Tension reinforcement may be developed by
bending across the web in which it lies or by making it
continuous with the reinforcement on the opposite face of
the member.
8.24.1.4 Flexural reinforcement within the portion of
the member used to calculate the shear strength shall not
be terminated in a tension zone unless one of the follow-
ing conditions is satisfied:
8.24.1.4.1 The shear at the cutoff point does not ex-
ceed two-thirds of that permitted, including the shear
strength of shear reinforcement provided.
8.24. 1.4.2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for
shear is provided along each terminated bar over a dis-
tance fromthe termination point equal to three-fourths the
effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area, A~,
shall not be less than 60 bZs/fS. Spacing, s, shall not
exceed dI(8
13h ) where 13,~ is the ratio of the area of rein-
forcement cut off to the total area of tension reinforcement
at the section.
8.24.1.4.3 For No. II bars and smaller, the continu-
ing bars provide double the area required for fiexure at the
cutoff point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths
that permitted.
8.24.1.5 Adequate end anchorage shall be provided
lor tension reimiforcement in fiexural members where re-
inforcement stress is not directly proportional to moment.
such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets;
deep fiexural members; or members in which the tension
reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
8 .24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement
8.24.2.2 When a fiexural member is part of the lateral
load resisting system, the positive moment reinforcement
required to be extended into the support by Article
8.24.2.1 shall be anchored to develop the specified yield
strength, f
5, in tension at the face of the support.
8.24.2.3 At simple supports and at points of inflec-
tion, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be lim-
ited to a diameter such that (., computed for f, by Article
8.25 satisfies Eq. (8-65); except Eq. (8-65) need not be
satisfied for reinforcement terminating beyond center line
of simple supports by a standard hook, or a mechanical
anchorage at least equivalent to a standard hook.
M
d +
V
(8-65)
where M is the computed moment capacity assuming all
positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
fully stressed. V is the maximum shear force at the sec-
tion. t, at a support shall be the embedment length beyond
the center of the support. At a point of inflection, e. shall
be limited to the effective depth of the member or 12 d5,
whichever is greater. The value M/V in the development
length limitation may be increasedby 30 percent when the
ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compressive
reaction.
8 .24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement
8 .24.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement in a con-
tinuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any mem-
ber of a rigid frame, shall be anchored in or through the
supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or me-
chanical anchorage.
8 .24.3.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall have
an embedment length into the span as required by Article
8.24.1.
8.24.3.3 At least one-third of the total tension rein-
forcement provided for negative moment at the suppomt
shall have an embedment length beyond the point of in-
flection not less than the effective depth of the member. 1 2-
bar diameters or s. of the clear span, whichever is greater.
8.24.2.1 At least one-third the positive moment rein-
forcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive
moment reinforcement in continuous members shall ex-
tend along the same face of the member into the support.
In beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the support
at least 6 inches.
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS
AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION
The development length, t~, in inches shall be com-
puted as the product of the basic development length dc-
fined in Article 8.25.1 andthe applicable modification fac-
190 HIGHWAY BRII)GES
8.25
tor or factors defined in Article 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but td
shall be not less than that specified in Article 8.25.4.
8.25.1 The b a s i c d ev el o p m en t l en gt h s ha l l b e:
No. II bars and smaller 0.O4AbfY
f in
C
but not less than 0.0004d
5f5
No. 14 bars 0.08Sf~
f in
C
No. 18 bars 0.1 If~
d ef o r m ed wi r e 0.03d
f in
c
8.25.2 The basic development length shall be multiplied
by the following applicable factor or factors:
8.25.2.1 Top reinforcement so placed
that more than 12 inches of
concrete is cast below the
reinforcement 1.4
8.25.2.2 Lightweight aggregate
concrete when f,, is
6.7 f
specified C
but not less than 1.0
When f,, is not specified
all lightweight concrete ........l .33
sand lightweight concrete 1 .18
L i n ea r i n t er p o l a t i o n m a y b e
applied when partial sand
replacement is used.
8.25.2.3 Bars coated with epoxy with
cover less than 3d,, or clear
spacing between bars
less than 6d,, 1.5
All other cases 1.IS
The p r o d u c t o b t a i n ed when c m m b i n i n g
t he f a c t o r f o r t o p r ei n f o r c em en t
wi t h t he a p p l i c a b l e f a c t o r f o r
ep o x y c o a t ed r ei n f o r c em en t n eed
not be taken greater than 1 .7
8 .25.3 The basic development length, modified by the
appropriate factors of Article 8.2S.2, may be multiplied by
the following factors when:
8.25.3.1 Reinforcement being developed in the
length under consideration is spaced later-
ally at least 6 inches on center with at least
3 inches clear cover measured in the direc-
tion of the spacing 0.8
8.25.3.2 Anchorage or development for reinforce-
ment strength is not specifically required or
reinforcement in flexural members is in ex-
cess of that required by analysis
(A. required)/(A, provided)
8.25.3.3 Reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral of
not less than 1/4 inch in diameter and not
more than 4 inch pitch 0.7S
8 .25.4 The d ev el o p m en t l en gt h, ~d. shall not be less than
12 inches except in the computation of lap splices by
Article 8.32.3 and development of shear reinforcement by
Article 8.27.
8 .26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN
COMPRESSION
The development length, fd, in inches, for deformed
bars in compression shall be computed as the product of
the basic development length of Article 8.26.1 and ap-
plicable modification factors of 8.26.2, but (d shall not be
less than 8 inches.
8.26.1 The basic development length shall be
0.02d,,f,,/ f,
but not less than 0.0003d,,f5,
8.26.2 The basic development length may be multiplied
by applicable factors when:
8.26.2.1 Anchorage or development for reinforce-
ment strength is not specifically required, or
reinforcement is in excess of that required
by analysis (A, required)!
(A. provided)
8.26.2.2 Reinforcement is enclosed in a spiral of not
less than 1/4 inch in diameter and not more
than 4-inch pitch 0.75
8.27
DIVISION IDESIGN
191
8 .27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
8.27.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend at least to the
centroid of the tension reinforcement, and shall be carried
as close to the compression and tension surfaces of the
member as cover requirements and the proximity of other
reinforcement permit. Shear reinforcement shall be an-
chored at both ends for its design yield strength. For com-
posite flexural members, all beam shear reinforcement
shall be extended into the deck slab or otherwise shall be
adequately anchored to assure full beam design shear
capacity.
8.27.2 The ends of single leg, single U, or multiple U-
stirrLlps shall be anchored by one of the following means:
8.27.2.1 A standard hook plus an embedment of the
stirrup leg length of at least 0.5 t~ between the mid-depth
of the member d/2 and the point of tangency of the hook.
8.27.2.2 An embedment length of
td above or below
the mid-depth of the member on the compression side but
not less than 24-bar or wire diameters or, for deformed
bars or deformed wire, 12 inches.
8.27.2.3 Bending around the longitudinal reinforce-
ment through at least 180 degrees. Hooking or bending
stirrups around the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
considered effective anchorage only when the stirrups
make an angle of at least 45 degrees with the longitudinal
reinforcement.
8.27.2.4 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric
forming single U-stirrups, either:
8.27.2.4.1 Two longitudinal wires at 2-inch spacing
along the member at the top of the U.
8.27.2.4.2 One longitudinal wire located not more
than d14 from the compression face and a second wire
closer to the compression face and spaced at least 2 inches
from the first wire. The second wire may be locatedon the
stirrup leg beyond a bend or on a bend with an inside di-
ameter of bend of not less than 8-wire diameters.
8.27.2.5 For each end of a single-leg stirrup of
welded smooth or welded deformed wire fabric, there
shall be two longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of
2 in. and with the inner wire at least the greater of d/4 or
2 in. from mid-depth of member d12. Outer longitudinal
wire at the tension face shall not be farther from the face
than the portion of primary flexural reinforcement closest
to the face.
8.27.3 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a
closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the
laps are 1.7 ed.
8.27.4 Between the anchored ends, each bend in the
continuous portion of a single U- or multiple U-stirrup
shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
8.27.5 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforce-
ment, if extended into a region of tension, shall be con-
tinuous with the longitudinal reinforcement and, if ex-
tended into a region of compression, shall be anchored
beyond the mid-depth, d12, as specified for development
length in Article 8.25 for that part of the stress in the re-
inforcement required to satisfy Equation (8-8) or Equa-
tion (8-54).
8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
The development length of individual bars within a
bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that for the in-
dividual bar, increased by 20 percent for a three-bar bun-
dle, and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle.
8 .29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS
IN TENSION
8 .29.1 Development length fdh in inches, for deformed
bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article
8.23.1) shall be computed as the product of the basic de-
velopment length fh b of Article 8.29.2 and the applicable
modification factor or factors of Article 8.29.3. but tdl,
shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches, whichever is greater.
8.29.2 Basic development length fh b for a hooked
bar with f., equal to 60,000 psi shall be
l.200dJ f:
8.29.3 Basic development length #h b shall be multiplied
by applicable modification factor or factors for:
8 .29.3.1 Bar yield strength:
Bars with f~ other than 60.000 psi
fj60.000
8.29.3.2 Concrete cover:
For No. II bar and smaller, side cover (nor-
mal to plane of hook) not less than ~ in_
192
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8 .29.3.2
and for 90-deghook, cover on bar extension
beyond hook not less than 2 in 0.7
8.29.3.3 Ties or stirrups:
For No. 11 bar and smaller, hook enclosed
vertically or horizontally within ties or stir-
nip-ties spaced along the full development
length (dh not greater than
3dh, where db is
diameter of hooked bar 0.8
8.29.3.4 Excess reinforcement:
Where anchorage or development for f~ is
not specifically required, reinforcement in
excess of that required by analysis (A.
required)/(A. provided)
8.29.3.5 Lightweight aggregate concrete 1.3
8.29.3.6 Epoxy-coated reinforcement hooked bars
with epoxy coating 1.2
8.29.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at
discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and
top (or bottom) cover over hook less than 2/2 in., hooked
bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced along
the full development length tdl,, not greater than 3dh .
# 9, # 1 0 and # 1 1
t ies or st irru ps
req u ired
less
2112
where db is the diameter of the hooked bar. For this case,
the factor of Article 8.29.3.3 shall not apply.
8.29.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in devel-
oping bars in compression.
8 .30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDEDWIRE
FABRIC IN TENSION
8 .30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric
8 .30.1.1 The development length, #d, in inches of
welded deformed wire fabric measured from the point of
critical section to the endof wire shall be computed as the
product of the basic development length of Article
8.30.1.2 or 8.30.1.3 and the applicable modification fac-
t()r or factors of Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3 but (d shall not
be less than 8 inches except in computation of lap splices
by Article 8.32.5 and development of shear reinforcement
by Article 8.27.
8.30.1.2 The basic development length of welded de-
formed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the
development length not less than 2 inches from the point
of critical section, shall be:
O.O3db (f~ 20,000)/V T>
(8-66)
but not less than,
(8-67)
5.w \ c
8.30.1.3 The basic development length of welded
(leformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the de-
velopment length, shall be determined as for deformed
wire in accordance with Article 8.25.
~dh
Sect ion AA
FIGURE 8 .29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements
#3 throug h #8
# 1 4 and # 1 8
FIGURE 8 .29.1 Hooked-Bar I)etails for Development of
Standard Hooks
~T h e2 t),O O O h as units of p ..~i.
DIV ISION IDESIGN
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric
The yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall
be considered developed by embedment of two cross
wires with the closer cross wire not less than 2 inches
from the point of critical section. However, development
length ~ measured from the point of critical section to
outermost cross wire shall not be less than:
A f
0.27 W Y
Jf.
mnodi tied by (A, required)/(A. provided) for reinforcement
mn excess of that required by analysis and by factor of Ar-
ticle 8.25.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete, but t~ shall
not be less than 6 inches except in computation of lap
splices by Article 8.32.6.
8 .31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE
8 .31.1 Any mechanical device shown by tests to be ca-
pable of developing the strength of reinforcemnent without
damage to concrete may be used as anchorage.
8.31.2 Development of reinforcement may consist of a
combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional em-
bedment length of reinforcement between point of maxi-
mum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown
on the design drawings or as specified, or as authorizedby
the Engineer.
8 .32.1 Lap Splices
8.32.1.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger
than No. II, except as provided in Articles 8.32.4.1 and
4.4.11.4.1.
8.32.1.2 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based
on the lap splice length required for individLmal bars within
a bundle. The length of lap, as prescribed in Article 8.32.3
or 8.32.4 shall be increased 20 percent for athree-bar bun-
dle and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle. Individual bar
splices within the bundle shall not overlap.
8.32.1.3 Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in
tiexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther
apart than Y ~ the required length of lapor 6 inches.
193
8 .32.1.4 The length, f,~, shall be the development
length for the specified yield strength, f
5, as given in Arti-
cle 8.25.
8 .32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections
8.32.2.1 Welded splices or other mechanical connec-
tions may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding
shall conform to the latest edition of the American Weld-
ing Society publication, ~~Structural Welding Code Rein-
(8- 68) forcing Steel.
8.32.2.2 A full-welded splice shall have bars butted
and welded to develop in tension at least 125 percent of
the specified yield strength of the bar.
8.32.2.3 A full-mechanical connection shall develop
in tension or compression, as required, at least 125 percent
of the specified yield strength of the bar.
8.32.2.4 Welded splices and mechanical connections
not meeting requirements of Articles 8.32.2.2 and8.32.2.3
may be used in accordance with Article 8.32.3.4.
8 .32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed
Wire in Tension
8 .32.3.1 The minirnuni length of lap for tension lap
splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but
not less than 12 inches.
Class A splice 1.0 (d
Class B splice 1.3 fd
Class C splice 1.7 ~
8.32.3.2 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed
wire in tension shall conform to Table 8.32.3.2.
8 .32.3.3 Welded splices or mechanical connections
used where the area of reinforcement provided is less than
twice that required by analysis shall meet the require-
ments of Article 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
TABLE 8 .32.3.2
(A~ provided)/(A, required)
Equal to orGreater than 2
Less than 2
Tension Lap Splices
Maximum Percenm of A~
Spliced within Required
LapLength
50 75 100
Class A Class A Class B
Class B Class C Class C
8.30.2
Ramio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement
required by analysis at splice location.
194
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8 .32.3.4
8 .32.3.4 Welded splices or mechanical connections
used where the area of reinforcement provided is at least
twice that required by analysis shall meet the following:
8.32.3.4.1 Splices shall be staggered at least 24
inches and in such manner as to develop at every section
at least twice the calculated tensile force at that section but
not less than 20,000 psi for the total area of reinforcement
provided.
8.32.3.4.2 In computing tensile force developed at
each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the
specified splice strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall
be rated at that fraction of f~ defined by the ratio of the
shorter actual development length to f~ required to de-
velop the specified yield strength f~.
8.32.3.5 Splices in tension tie members shall be made
with a full-welded splice or a full-mechanical connection in
accordance withArticle 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3. Splices in ad-
jacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches.
8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression
8 .32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression
The minimumlength of lap for compression lap splices
shall be0.0005f~d
5 in inches, but not less than 12 inches.
When the specified concrete strength, ~ is less than
3,000 psi, the length of lap shall be increased by one-third.
When bars of different size are lap spliced in compres-
sion, splice length shall be the larger of: development
length of the larger bar, or splice length of smaller bar. Bar
sizes No. 14 and No. 18 may be lap spliced to No. 11 and
smaller bars.
In compression members where ties along the splice
have an effective area not less than 0.OOlShs, the
lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but the lap
length shall not be less than 12 inches. The effective area
of the ties shall be the area of the legs perpendicular to
dimension h.
In compression members when spirals are used for lat-
eral restraint along the splice, the lap splice length may be
multiplied by 0.75, but the laplength shall not be less than
12 inches.
8 .32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices
In bars required for compression only, the compressive
stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends
held in concentric contact by a suitable device. Bar ends
shall terminate in flat surfaces within I /2 degrees of a right
angle to the axis of the bars and shall be fitted within 3 de-
grees of full bearing after assembly. End-bearing splices
shall be used only in members containing closed ties,
closed stirrups, or spirals.
8 .32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical
Connections
Welded splices or mechanical connections used in
compression shall meet the requirements of Article
8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
8 .32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in
Tension
8.32.5.1 The minimum length of lap for lap splices
of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the
ends of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.7 fd or
8 inches, and the overlap measured between the outermost
cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
2 inches.
8.32.5.2 Lap splices of weldeddeformed wire fabric,
with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be
determined as for deformed wire in accordance with Arti-
cle 8.32.3.1.
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in
Tension
The minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded
smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the fol-
lowing:
8.32.6.1 When the area of reinforcement provided is
less than twice that required by analysis at the splice lo-
cation, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
one spacing of cross wires plus 2 inches or less than 1 .5
ed, or 6 inches.
8.32.6.2 When the area of reinforcement provided is
at least twice that required by analysis at the splice loca-
tion, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
1.5 fd or 2 inches.
Section 9
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Part A
9.1 APPLICATION
9.1.1 General
The specifications of this section are intended for de-
sign of prestressed concrete bridge members. Members
designed as reinforced concrete, except for a percentage
of tensile steel stressed to improve service behavior, shall
conform to the applicable specifications of Section 8.
Exceptionally long span or unusual structures require
detailed consideration of effects which under this Section
may have been assigned arbitrary values.
9.1.2 Notations
area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement
(Articles 9.7 and 9.19)
= area of compression reinforcement (Article
9.19)
=area of prestressing steel (Article 9.17)
= steel area required to develop the compressive
strength of the overhanging portions of the
flange (Article 9.17)
Asr = steel area required todevelop the compressive
strength of the web of a flanged section (Arti-
cles 9.17-9.19)
A, = area of web reinforcement (Article 9.20)
b = width of flange of flanged member or width of
rectangular member
= width of cross section at the contact surface
being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti-
cle 9.20).
= width of a web of a flanged member
CR. = loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Ar-
ticle 9.16)
CR. = loss of prestress due to relaxation of pre-
stressing steel (Article 9. 16)
D = nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Arti-
cles 9.17 and 9.27)
d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to
centroid of the prestressing force, or to cen-
troid of negative moment reinforcing for pre-
cast girderbridges made continuous
= distance from the extreme compressive fiber
to the centroid of the non-prestressed tension
reinforcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19)
ES loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Ar-
ticle 9.16)
e =base of Naperian logarithms (Article 9.16)
= average concrete compressive stress at the c.g.
of the prestressing steel under full dead load
(Article 9.16)
fc,r average concrete stress at the c.g. of the pre-
stressing steel at time of release (Article 9.16)
= compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
=compressive strength of concrete at time of
initial prestress (Article 9.15)
= average splitting tensile strength of light-
weight aggregate concrete, psi
= stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme
fiber of section where tensile stress is caused
by externally applied loads (Article 9.20)
=compressive stress in concrete (after al-
lowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of
cross section resisting externally applied
loads or at junction of web and flange when
the centroid lies within the flange (In a com-
posite member, f~. is resultant compressive
stress at centroid of composite section, or at
junction of web and flange when the centroid
lies within the flange, due to both prestress
and moments resisted by precast member act-
ing alone.)(Article 9.20)
= compressive stress in concrete due toeffective
prestress forces only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section
where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads (Article 9.20)
195
l96 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 9.1.2
= guaranteed ultimate tensile strength of the
prestressing steel. A~f~
=the tnodulus of rupture of concrete, as defined
in Article 9.15.2.3 (Article 9.18)
=total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article
9.16)
effective steel prestress after losses
= average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate
load
= ultimate stress of prestressing steel (Articles
9.15 and 9.17)
= yield stress ol~ non-prestressed conventional
reinforcement in tension (Articles 9.19 and
9.20)
= yield stress of non-prestressed conven-
tional reinforcement in compression (Article
9.19)
= yield stress of prestressin~ steel (Article 9.15)
= 0.90 f~ for low-relaxation wire or strand
= 0.85 f~ for stress-relieved wire or strand
= 0.85 f~ for Type I (smooth) high strength bar
0.80 f~ for Type II (deformed) high-strength
bar
h = overall depth of member (Article 9.20)
I= moment of inertia about the centroid of the
cross section (Article 9.20)
K = friction wobble coefficient per foot of pre-
stressmng steel (Article 9.16)
L = length of prestressing steel element fromjack
end to point x (Article 9.16)
= moment causing flexural cracking at sec-
tion due to externally applied loads (Article
9.20)
= cracking moment (Article 9.18)
Md,. = co[nposite dead load moment at the section
(Commentary to Article 9. 18)
= non-composite dead load moment at the sec-
tion (Article 9.18)
M,., = maximum factored moment at section due to
externally applied loads (Article 9.20)
= nominal muoment strength of a section
= factored moment at section ~ 4M. (Articles
9.17 and 9.18)
p A~/bd, ratio of non-prestressed tension rein-
forcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19)
p* = A~Ibd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles
9.17 and 9.19)
p = AI/bd, ratio of compression reinforcement
(Article 9. 19)
P. =factored tendon force
Q = statical moment of cross-sectional area, above
or below the level being investigated for shear,
about the centroid (Article 9.20)
SI-I = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage
(Article 9.16)
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement
(Article 9.20)
55 = noncomposite section mnodulus for the ex-
treme fiber of section where the tensile stress
ms caused by externally applied loads (Article
9.18)
5, =composite section modulus for the extreme
fiber of section where the tensile stress ms
caused by externally applied loads (Article
9.18)
= average thickness of the flange of a flanged
member (Articles 9.17 and 9.18)
= steel stress at jacking end (Article 9.16)
= steel stress at any point x (Article 9.16)
v = permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
9.20)
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete
(Article 9.20)
nomninal shear strength provided by concrete
when diagonal cracking results from com-
bined shear and moment (Article 9.20)
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete
when diagonal cracking results from exces-
smve principal tensile stress in web (Article
9.20)
= shear force at section due to unfactored dead
load (Article 9.20)
= factored shear force at section due to exter-
nally applied loads occurring simultaneously
with M,,.,, (Article 9.20)
= nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
9.20)
vertical component of effective prestress force
at section (Article 9.20)
= nominal shear strength provided by shear re-
inforcement (Article 9.20)
= factored shear force at section (Article 9.2t))
= distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
neglecting reinforcement, to extreme tiber in
tension (Article 9.20)
p = friction curvature coefficient (Article 9.16)
= total angular change of prestressing steel pro-
file in radians fromjacking end to point x (Ar-
ticle 9.16)
=factor for concrete strength, as delined in Ar-
ticle 8.16.2.7 (Articles ~. 17-9.19)
y* = factor for type of prestressing steel (Article
9.17)
=0.28 for low-relaxation steel
=0.40 for stress-relieved steel
=0.55 for bars
9.1.3
9.1.3 Definitions
The following terms are defined for general
use. Specialized definitions appear in individual articles.
Anchorage DeviceThe hardware assembly used for
transferring a post-tensioning force from the tendon
wires, strands or bars to the concrete.
Anchorage SeatingDeformation of anchorage
or seating of tendons in anchorage device when pre-
stressing force is transferred from jack to anchorage
device.
Anchorage SpacingCenter-to-center spacing of an-
chorage devices.
Anchorage ZoneThe portion of the structure in
which the concentrated prestressing force is transferred
from the anchorage device into the concrete (Local Zone),
and then distributed more widely into the structure (Gen-
eral Zone) (Article 9.21.1).
Basic Anchorage DeviceAnchorage device
meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate
stiffness requirements of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through
9.21.7.2.4; no acceptance test ms required for Basic
Anchorage Devices.
BondedTendonPrestressing tendon that is bonded to
concrete either directly or through grouting.
CoatingMaterial used to protect prestressing ten-
dons against corrosion, toreduce friction between tendon
and duct, or to debond prestressing tendons.
Couplers (Couplings)Means by which prestressing
force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing
tendon to another.
Crcep of ConcreteTime-dependent deformation of
concrete under sustained load.
Curvature FrictionFriction resulting from bends
or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
Debonding (hlanketing)Wrapping, sheathing, or
coating prestressing strand to prevemit bond between
strand and surrounding concrete.
DiaphragmTransverse stiffener in girders to mamn-
tam section geometry.
DuctHole or void formed in prestressed member to
accommodate tendon for post-tensioning.
Edge DistanceDistance from the center of the
anchorage device to the edge of the concrete
member.
Effective PrestressStress remaining in concrete due
to prestressing after all calculated losses have been de-
ducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and
weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing ten-
dons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of
dead load and superimposed load.
Elastic Shortening of ConcreteShortening of
member caused by application of forces induced by pre-
stress ing.
End AnchorageLength of reinforcement, or me-
chanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof, beyond
point of zero stress mn reinforcement.
End BlockEnlargedend section of member designed
to reduce anchorage stresses.
Friction ~post-tensioning)Surface resistance be-
tween tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
General ZoneRegion within which the concentrated
prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress dis-
tribution over the cross section of the member (Saint
V enant Region) (Article 9.2 1.2.1)
Grout Opening or V entInlet, outlet, vent, or drain in
post-tensioning duct for grout, water, or air
Intermediate AnchorageAnchorage not located at
the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the
form of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs.~, or recess
pockets
Jacking ForceTemporary force exerted by device
that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.
Local ZoneThe volume of concrete surrounding and
immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to
high local bearing stresses (Article 9.21.2.2)
Los.s of Prestres.sReduction in prestressing force
resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete
and steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep
and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, and
for post-tensioned mnembers, friction and anchorage
seating.
Post-TensioningMethod of prestressing in which
tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
Precompressed ZonePortion of flexural member
cross seetmon compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed ConcreteReinforced concrete in
which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce
potential tensile stresses mn concrete resulting from
loads.
PrerensioningMethod of prestressing in which ten-
dons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Relaxation of Tendon StressTime-dependent reduc-
tion of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
ShearLagNonuniform distribution of bending stress
over the cross seetmon.
Shrinkage of ConcreteTime-dependent deformation
of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hy-
dration process).
Special Anchorage DeviceAnchorage device
whose adequacy must be proven experimentally in the
standardized acceptance tests of Division II, Sectiorm
10.3.2.3.
TendonWire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such ele-
ments, used to impart prestress to concrete.
TransferAct of transferring stress in prestressing
tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member.
Transfer LengthLength over which prestressing
force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned
members.
Wobble FrictionFriction caused by unintended devm-
ation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified pro-
file or alignment.
Wrapping or SheathingEnclosure around a pre-
stressing tendon to avoid temporary or permanent
bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete.
9.2 CONCRETE
The specified compressive strength, f~, of the concrete
for each part of the structure shall be shown on the plans.
The requirements for f~ shall be based on tests of cylin-
ders made and tested in accordance with Division II, Sec-
tion 8, ~ConcreteStructures.
9.3 REINFORCEMENT
9.3.1 Prestressing Steel
Wire, strands, or bars shall conform to one of the fol-
lowing specifications.
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Con-
crete, AASHTO M 204.
Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Pre-
stressed Concrete, AASHTO M 203.
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing
Concrete, ASTM A 722.
Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listedin AASHTO
M 204, AASHTO M 203, or ASTM A 722 may be used
provided they conform to the minimum requirements of
these specifications.
9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform tothe re-
quirements in Article 8.3.
Part B
ANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL 9.6 SPAN LENGTH
Members shall be proportioned for adequate strength
usmng these specifications as minimum guidelines. Con-
tinuous beams and other statically indeterminate struc-
tures shall be designedfor adequate strength and satisfac-
tory behavior. Behavior shall be determined by elastmc
analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments.
shear, and axial forces produced by prestressing, the ef-
fects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation,
restraint of attached structural elements, and foundation
settlement.
9.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
9.5.1 In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the
design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall
be provided for movement caused by temperature
changes.
9.5.2 Movements not otherwise provided for, including
shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by
means of hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates~, elas-
tomeric pads, or other devices.
The effective span lengths of simply supported beams
shall not exceed the clear span plus the depth of the beam.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and
beams shall be the clear distance between faces of sup-
port. Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more
with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built
monolithic with the slab and support, the span shall be
measured from the section where the combined depth of
the slab and the fillet is at least one and one-half times the
thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to
be considered as existing at the ends of the span, as above
defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as
adding to the effective depth.
9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS
CONSTRUCTION
9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges
The effect of secondary moments due to prestressing
shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In
calculating ultimate strength moment and shear require-
ments, the secondary moments or shears induced by pre-
stressing (with a load factor of 1.0) shall be added alge-
braically to the moments and shearsdue to factored or ul-
timate dead and live loads.
9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast
Prestressed Girders Made Continuous
9.7.2.1 General
When structural continuity is assumed in calculating
live loads plus impact and composite dead load moments,
the effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered in
the design of bridges incorporating simple span precast,
prestressed girders and deck slabs continuous over two or
more spans.
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers
9.7.2.2.1 Provision shall be made in the design for
the positive moments that may develop in the negative
moment region due to the combined effects of creep and
shrinkage in the girders and deck slab, and due to the ef-
fects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage
and elastic shortening of the pier shall be considered when
significant.
9.7.2.2.2 Non-prestressed positive moment con-
nection reinforcement at piers may be designed at a work-
ing stress of 0.6 times the yield strength but not to exceed
36 ksi.
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments
9.7.2.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement shall be
proportioned by strength design with load factors in ac-
cordance with Article 9.14.
9.7.2.3.2 The ultimate negative resisting moment
shall be calculated using the compressive strength of the
girder concrete regardless of the strength of the diaphragm
concrete.
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders
9.7.3.1 General
9.7.3.1.1 Elastic analysis and beam theory may be
used in the design of segmental box girder structures.
9.7.3.1.2 In the analysis of precast segmental box
girder bridges, no tension shall be permitted across any
joint between segments during any stage of erection or
service loading.
9.7.3.1.3 In addition to the usual substructure design
considerations, unbalanced cantilever moments due to
segment weights and erection loads shall be accommo-
dated in pier design or with auxiliary struts. Erection
equipment which can eliminate these unbalanced mo-
ments may be used.
9.7.3.2 Flexure
The transverse design of segmental box girders for
flexure shall consider the segments as rigid box frames.
Top slabs shall be analyzed as variable depth sections con-
sidering the fillets between top slab and webs. Wheel
loads shall be positioned to provide maximum moments,
and elastic analysis shall be used to determine the effec-
tive longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load
location. (See Article 3.11.) Transverse prestressing of top
slabs is generally recommended.
9.7.3.3 Torsion
In the design of the cross section, consideration shall
be given to the increase in web shear resulting from ec-
centric loading or geometry of structure.
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH
9.8 .1 T-Beams
9.8 .1.1 For composite prestressed construction
where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with
the beam, the effective flange width shall conform to the
provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 8.10. I.
9.8 .1.2 For monolithic prestressed construction, with
normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange
width shall be the distance center-to-center of beams. For
very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessmve, an-
alytical investigations shall be made to determine the an-
ticipated width of flange acting with the beam.
9.8 .1.3 For monolithic prestressed design of isolated
beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times the web
width and shall be adequate for all design loads.
9.8 .2 Box Girders
9.8.2.1 For cast-in-place box girders with normal
slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are consid-
ered an integral part of the girder, the entire slab width
shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
9.8.2.2 For box girders of unusual proportions, in-
cluding segmental box girders, methods of analysis which
consider shear lag shall be used to determine stresses in
the cross section due to longitudinal bending.
9.8 .2.3 Adequate fillets shall be provided at the in-
tersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder,
except at the junction of web and bottom flange where
none are required.
9.8 .3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with
Wide Top Flanges
9.8 .3.1 For composite prestressed concrete where
slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the pre-
cast beam, the effective web width of the precast beam
shall be the lesser of (I) six times the maximum thickness
of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web
plus the web and fillets, and (2) the total width of the top
flange.
9.8.3.2 The effective flange width of the com-
posite section shall be the lesser of (I) one-fourth of
the span length of the girder, (2) six (6) times the
thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web
width as determined by Article 9.8.3. 1 plus the effec-
tive web width, and (3) one-half the clear distance on
each side of the effective web width plus the effective web
width.
9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESSBOX
GIRDERS
9.9.1 Top Flange
The minimum top flange thickness shall be Y~th of the
clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6
inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced for
factory produced precast. pretensioned elements to
5/2 inches.
9.9.2 Bottom Flange
The minimum bottom flange thickness shall be /rh of
the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than
5% inches. except the minimum thickness may be reduced
tor factory produced precast. pretensioned elements to
5 inches.
9.9.3 Web
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for
a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web
thickness.
9.10 DIAPHRAGMS
9.10.1 General
Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Ar-
ticles 9.10.2 and 9.10.3 except that diaphragms may be
omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate
strength.
9.10.2 T-Beams
Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends
to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit lat-
eral forces to the substructure. Intermediate diaphragms
shall be placed between the beams at the points of maxi-
tnum moment for spans over 40 feet.
9.10.3 Box Girders
9.10.3.1 For spread box beams, diaphragms shall
be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends
and at the points of maximum moment for spans over
80 feet.
9.10.3.2 For precast box multi-beam bridges, di-
aphragms are required only if necessary for slab-end
support or to contain or resist transverse tension ties.
9.10.3.3 For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or
other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral
forces and maintain section geometry. Intermediate di-
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
9.10.3.4 For segmental box girders. diaphragms shall
be placed within the box at span ends. Intermediate di-
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
9.10.3.5 For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges
with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet, inter-
mediate diaphragms may be required and the spacing and
strength of diaphragms shall be given special considera-
tion in the design of the structure.
9.11 DEFLECTIONS
9.11.1 General
Deflection calculations shall consider dead load, live
load. prestressing. erection loads, concrete creep and
shrinkage, and steel relaxation.
201
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders
Deflections shall be calculated prior to casting of seg-
ments and they shall be based on the anticipated casting
and erection schedules. Calculated deflections shall be
used as a guide against which actual deflection measure-
ments are checked.
9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations
When making deflection computations, the following
criteria are recommended.
9.11.3.1 Memnbers having simple or continuous
spans preferably should be designed sothat the deflection
due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed /~
of the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part
by pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not
exceed i~.
9.11.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser-
vmce live load plus impact preferably should be limited to
1/300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be
9.12 DECK PANELS
9.12.1 General
9.12.1.1 Precast prestressed deck panels used as per-
manent forms spanning between stringers may be de-
signed compositely with the cast-in-place portion of the
slabs to support additional dead loads and live loads.
9.12.1.2 The panels shall be analyzed assuming they
support their self-weight, any construction loads, and the
weight of the cast-in-place concrete, and shall be analyzed
assumingthey act compositely withthe cast-in-place con-
crete to support moments due to additional dead loads amid
live loads.
9.12.2.1 Live load moments shall be computed in ac-
cordance with Article 3.24.3.
9.12.2.2 In caletmlating stresses in the deck panel due
to negative moment near the stringer, no compression due
to prestressing shall be assumed to extst.
Part C
DESIGN
9.13 GENERAL
9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations
9.13.1.1 Members shall meet the strength require-
ments specified herein.
9.13.2.2 Before cracking. stress is linearly propor-
tional to strain.
9.13.2.3 After cracking, tension inthe concrete ms ne-
glected.
9.13.1.2 Design shall be based on strength (Load
Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions (Al-
lowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be crit-
meal during the life of the structure from the time pre-
stressing is first applied.
9.13.1.3 Stress concentrations due to the prestressing
shall be considered in the design.
9.13.1.4 The effects of temperature and shrinkage
shall be considered.
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions
The following assumptions are made for design pur-
poses for monolithic members.
9.13.2.1 Strains vary linearly over the depth of the
member throughout the entire load range.
9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members
Composite flexural members consisting of precast
andlor cast-in-place concrete elements constn.tcted in sep-
arate placements but so interconnected that all elements
respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall conform to
the provisions of Articles 8.14.2.1 through 8.14.2.4,
8.14.2.6. and the following.
9.13.3.1 Where an entire member is assumed to re-
sist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Articles Q20.1 through 9.20.3.
9.13.3.2 The design shall provide for full transfer
of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of inter-
connected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall
be in accordance with the requirements of Article
9.20.4.
202
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.13.3.3
9.13.3.3 In structures with a cast-in-place slab on
precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause
tensile stresses in the slab and inthe bottom of the beams.
Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended
time period, the effect on the beams is reduced by creep.
Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load
and the beam deflection profile. When these factors are
particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage
should be added to the effect of loads.
9.14 LOAD FACTORS
The computed strength capacity shall not be less than
the largest value from load factor design in Article 3.22.
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones a load
factorof 1.2 shall be applied to the maximumtendon jack-
ing force.
The following strength capacity reductionfactors shall
be used:
For factory produced precast prestressed concrete
members 4) = 1.0
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete members 4)
0.95
For shear 4) =0.90
For anchorage zones 4) 0.85 for normal weight con-
crete and 4) =0.70 for lightweight concrete.
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The design of precast prestressed members ordinarily
shall be based on f,~ = 5,000 psi. An increase to 6,000 psi
is permissible where, in the Engineers judgment,
it is reasonable to expect that this strength will be ob-
tained consistently. Still higher concrete strengths may be
consmdered on an individual area basis. In such cases,
the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the
controls over materials and fabrication procedures will
provide the required strengths. The provisions of this
Section are equally applicable to prestressed concrete
structures and components designed with lower concrete
strengths.
Pretensioned members:
Stress immediately prior to transfer--
Low-relaxation strands 0.75 f~
Stress-relieved strands 0.70 f~
Post-tensioned members:
Stress immediately after seating--
At anchorage 0.70 f~
At the end of the seating loss zone 0.83 f~
Tensioning to 0.90 f~ for short periods of
time prior to seating may be permitted to
offset seating and friction losses provided
the stress at the anchorage does not exceed
the above value.
Stress at service loadt after losses 0.80 f~
9.15.2 Concrete
9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due
to Creep and Shrinkage
Compression:
Pretensioned members 0.60 f~,
Post-tensioned members 0.55 f~,
Tension:
Precompressed tensile zone No temporary
allowable stresses are specified. See Article
9.15.2.2 for allowable stresses after losses.
Other Areas
In tension areas with
no bonded reinforcement 200 psi or 3 f~
Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds
this value, bonded reinforcement shall be
provided to resist the total tension force in
the concrete computed on the assumption
of an uncracked section. The maximum
tensile stress shall not exceed 7.5 f,~,
9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses
Have Occurred
Compression:
(a) The compressive stresses under all load combina-
tions, except as stated in (b) and (c), shall not exceed
0.60f~.
(b) The compressive stresses due to effective prestress
plus permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40f,~.
(c) The compressive stress due to live loads plus one-
half of the sum of compressmve stresses due to prestress
and permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40ff.
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
(a) For members with bonded reinforce-
ment* 6 f~
For severe corrosive exposure conditions,
such as coastal areas 3 f~
includes bonded prestressed sirands.
tScrviee load consists of alt toads contained in Article ~. 2 but does not
include overload provisions.
DIV ISION IDESIGN
(b) For members without bonded reinforce-
ment 0
Tension in other areas is l i m i t ed b y a l l o wa b l e t em p o r a r y
stresses specified in Article 9.15.2.1.
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress*
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available.
For normal weight concrete 7.5 f~
For sand-lightweight concrete 6.3 f~
For all other lightweight concrete 5.5 f~
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load . . .3,000 psi
(but not to exceed 0.9 f.,)
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS
9.16.1 Friction Losses
t i o n s . R i gi d d u c t s s ha l l ha v e s u f f i c i en t s t r en gt h t o m a i n -
tam their correct alignment without visible wobble during
placement of concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated with
either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the
welded seam will not be required.
9.16.2 Prestress Losses
9.16.2.1 General
Loss of prestress due to all causes, excluding friction,
m a y b e d et er m i n ed b y t he f o l l o wi n g m et ho d . * The
method is based on normal weight concrete and one of the
following types of prestressing steel: 250 or flO ksi
seven-wtre. stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand 240
ksi stress-relieved wires; or 145 to 160 ksi smooth or de-
formed bars. Refer to documented tests for data regarding
the properties and the effects of lightweight aggregate
concrete on prestress losses.
TO TAL L O S S
Friction losses inpost-tensioned steel shall be based on
experimentally determined wobble and curvature coeffi-
cients, and shall be verified during stressing operattons.
The values of coefficients assumed for design, and the ac-
ceptable ranges of jacking forces and steel elongations
shall be shown on the plans. These friction losses shall be
calculated as follows:
= T e(KI
(9-I)
When (KL pz) is not greater than 0.3, the following
equation may be used:
= T~ (I +KL +pci)
(9-2)
The following values for K and p may be used when
experimental data for the materials used are not available:
Type of Steel Type of Duct K/ft ~j
Wire or ungalvanized Bright metal sheathing 0.0020 0.30
strand Galvanized metal
sheathing 0.0015 0.25
Greased or asphalt-coated
and wrapped 0.0020 0.30
Galvanized rigid 0.0002 0.25
High-strength bars Bright metal sheathing 0.0003 0.20
Galvanized metal
sheathing 0.0002 0.15
Friction losses occur prior to anchoring but should be
estimated for design and checked during stressing opera-
= SH +ES + CR~ +CR, (9-3)
wher e:
Af, = total loss excluding friction in pounds per
square inch;
SH = loss due to concrete shrinkage in pounds per
square inch;
ES = loss due to elastic shortening in pounds per
square inch;
CR. = loss due to creep of concrete in poitnds per
square inch;
CR, = loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel in
p o u n d s p er s q u a r e i n c h
9.16.2.1.1 Shrinkage
Pretensioned Members:
SH = 17,000 150 RH (9-4)
Post-tensioned Members:
SH = 0.80(17,000 150 RH) (9-5)
~Should more exact prcstress losses hc desired, data represcnting the
materials to bc used, thc methods of coring. thc ambient service condi-
tion and any pertincnt stmctural dctails should he determined for use in
accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses that is sup-
ported by appropriate research data. See also FHWA Report FHWA/Rt)
85/t)45. Criteriafor Designing Lighrweitht Concrete Bridi,es.
9. 15.2.2
203
5RcIer to Article 9.18.
204
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9 . 1 6 . 2 . 1 . 1
where RH = mean annual ambient relative humidity in
percent. (See Figure 9.16.2.1 .1.)
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening
ES = fc,r
F
5
Post-tensioned Members*:
(9-6)
9.16.2.1.3 Creepof Concrete
Pretensioned and post-tensioned members:
CR5 =
12 ~cir ~7~cds (9-9)
where:
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
p r es t r es s i n g s t eel d u e t o a l l d ea d l o a d s ex c ep t
the dead load present at the time the pre-
stressing force is applied.
9.16.2.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel*
E
ES = (9-7)
where:
= modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel
strand, which can be assumed to be 28 X l0~
psi;
= modulus of elasticity of concrete in psi at
transfer of stress, which can be calculated
from:
E
51=33w
312 f.
CI
(9-8 )
in which w is the concrete unit weight in
pounds per cubic foot and f, is in pounds per
square inch;
fnr = concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
prestressingsteel due toprestressing force and
dead load of beam immediately after transfer;
fc,r shall be computed at the section or sections
of maximum moment. (At this stage, the ini-
tial stress in the tendon has been reduced by
elastic shortening of the concrete and tendon
relaxation during placing and curing the con-
crete for pretensioned members, or by elastic
shortening of the concrete and tendon friction
for post-tensioned members. The reductions
to initial tendon stress due to these factors can
be estimated, or the reduced tendon stress can
be taken as 0.63 f~ for stress relieved strand or
0.69 f~ for low relaxation strand in typical pre-
tensioned members.)
250 to 270 ksi Strand
CR, = 20,000 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH +CR)
for stress relieved strand
CR, = 5,000 0.10 ES 0.05 (SH -~ CR.)
for low relaxation strand
(9-10)
(9-bA)
Post-tensioned Members:
250 to 270 ksi Strand
CR, = 20,000 0.3 FR 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH +CR)
for stress relieved strand (9-Il)
CR, = 5,000 0.07 FR 0.1 ES 0.05 (SH ~ CR)
for low relaxation strand (9-Il A)
240 ksi Wire
CR, = 18 ,0000.3 FR 0.4 ES 0.2 (SH + CR)
(9-12)
145- to 160-ksi Bars
CR, = 3,000
where:
FR = friction loss stress reduction in psi below
the level of 0.70 f~ at the point under
consideration, computed according to
Article 9.16.1.
ES, SH, = appropriate values as determined for
andCR. either pre-tensioned or post-tensioned
members.
5The relaxation losses are based on alt initial stress eqoal to the stress
at anchorages allowed by Article 9.15.1.
*Certain tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening losses.
=
5..
5..
C
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses
In lieu of the preceding method, the following
estimates of total losses may be used for prestressed
members or structures of usual design. These loss values
are based on use of normal weight concrete, normal
prestress levels, and average exposure conditions. For
exceptionally long spans, or for unusual designs, the
method in Article 9.16.2.1 or a more exact method shall
be used.
TABLE 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses
Type of Total Loss
Prestressing Steel f~ = 4,000 psi f~ = 5,000 psi
Pretensioning Strand 45,000 psi
Post~Tensioninga
Wire or Strand 32,000 psi 33,000 psi
Bars 22,000 psi 23,000 psi
Losses due to friction are excluded. Friction losses should be com-
puted according to Article 9. t6. 1.
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
9.17.1 General
Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act
a s u n c r a c ked m em b er s s u b j ec t ed t o c o m b i n ed a x i a l a n d
b en d i n g s t r es s es wi t hi n s p ec i f i ed s er v i c e l o a d s . In calcu-
lations of section properties, the transformed area of
bonded reinforcement may be included in pretensioned
members and in post-tensioned members after grouting;
prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the open ducts shall
be deducted.
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections
For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing
steel only, which the depth of the equivalent rectangular
stress block, defined as (A~ f~)I(0.85 f~b), is not greater
than the compression flange thickness t, and which sat-
isfy Eq. (9-20), the design flexural strength shall be as-
sumed as:
c~M~ = A!f,~d~l0.6 Pf% ~ (9-13)
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-
prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (A~f~ + AJ,
5)/(0.85 f~b), is not greater
than the compression flange thickness t, a n d whi c h
satisfy Eq. (9-24), the design flexural strength shall be
assumed as:
tpM5 =1{A~f,*~d[l~0.6jPf~su ~ I JI
+Asfsydt[l~0.6~~ PLI ___
(9-13a)
9.17.3 Flanged Sections
For sections having prestressing steel only, in which
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (A,rf~)/(0.85f~b) is greater than the
compression flange thickness t, and which satisfy
Eq. (9-21), the design flexural strength shall be as-
s u m ed a s :
~M5 ~AIA f*d[1..061< A5~ f.~
sr sU L ~bdfjj
+ 0. 8 5 f ( b b)(t)(d 0. 5 t ) }
( 9 -1 4 )
For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforce-
ment included, in which the depth of the equivalent rec-
tangular stress block, defined as (A.J~)/(0.85 f~b) is
greater than the compression flange thickness t, and
which satisfy Eq. (9-25), the design flexural strength shall
be assumed as:
sr f~
II +A,f,~(d, d)
bdf
+ 0. 8 5 f ~ ( b b ) ( t ) ( d 0. 5 t ) }
(9- 14a)
where:
A Sr =A~, A,~ in Eq. (9-14);
A,, = A~ +(A,f,5/f~~)
in Eq. (9-14a)
A,f = 0.85 f~ (b
( 9 -1 5 )
(9-ISa)
(9-16)
A,, = the steel area required to develop the ultimate
compressive strength of the overhanging por-
t i o n s o f t he f l a n ge.
2 06
9.16.2.2
9.17.4
9.17.4 Steel Stress
9.17.4.1 Unless the value of ft can be more accu-
rately known from detailed analysis, the following values
may be used:
Bonded Members...
with prestressing only (as defined);
f4l c:Y *,r3 Xp* f/f)] ( 9-1 7 )
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included;
f~
Unbonded members ...ft=f,. + 1 5 , 000 ( 9 -1 8 )
(9-17a)
A,,f~,/(bdf,~ for flanged sections) (9-21)
does not exceed 0.36I3~. (See Article 9.19 for rein-
forcement indices of sections with non-prestressed
reinforcement.).
For members with reinforcement indices greater than
0.36r3,, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not
greater than:
For rectangular sections:
4)M, = 4) [(0.36 [3 0.08 [3~)fbd
2 (9-22)
For flanged sections:
4)M. = 4)[(0.36[3 0.08 [3~) f~bd2 +
0.85 f, (b b) t (d 0.5t)]
( 9-2 3 )
provided that:
(I) The stress-strain properties of the prestressing
steel approximate those specified in Division II, Arti-
cle 10.3.1.1.
(2 ) The effective prestress after losses is not less than
0 5 f
9.18 .2 Minimum Steel
9.18.2.1 The total amount of prestressed and non-
prestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an
ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1 .2 times
the cracking moment M~.
9.17.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress mn the pre-
stressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to:
where:
fj~
1
D 3 ~
(9- 19)
but shall not be greater than ft as given by the equations
tnArticle 9.17.4.1. In the above equation:
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches;
= effective stress in prestressing strand after losses
in kips per square inch;
= distance from end of prestressing strand tocenter
of panel in inches.
9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS
9.18 .1 Maximum Prestressing Steel
Prestressedconcrete members shall be designedso that
the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In
general, the reinforcement index shall be such that:
= (fr +f~~) S~ ~ (SJS~ I)
Appropriate values for M~5, and
5b shall be used for any
intermediate composite sections. Where beams are de-
signed to be noncomposite, substitute S~ for S~ in the
above equation for the calculation of My,.
9.18.2.2 The minimum amount of non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-
place portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed
deck panels shall be 0.25 square inch per foot of slab
width.
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as
contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at ultimate
strength in an amount equal to its area times its yield
(9-20) point, provided that:
and,
( p *f t /f f o r r ec t a n gu l a r s ec t i o n s
208
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.19
( 9-2 4 )
For rectangular sections:
~P5Y~di+K~u ]KPY~=036~
For flanged sections:
(A,f,
5)/(bdf,) + (A,r f~)/(b df~)
(A~f)/(bdf~) =0.36f3
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on
Eq. (9-13a) or Eq. (9-14a) if these values are met, and on
Eq. (9-22) or Eq. (9-23) if these values are exceeded.
9.20 SHEAR*
9.20.1 General
9.20.1.1 Prestressed concrete flexural members, ex-
cept solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for shear
and diagonal tension stresses. V oided slabs shall be inves-
tigated for shear, but shear reinforcement may be omitted
if the factored shear force, V ~, is less than half the shear
strength provided by the concrete 4) V~.
9.20.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups
perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded
wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis
of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to a
distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall
be carried as close to the compression and tension sur-
faces of the member as cover requirements and the
proximity of other reinforcement permit. Web rein-
forcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design
yield strength in accordance with the provisions of
Article 8.27.
9.20.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be designed
so that:
sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face
of the support may be designed for the same shear V , as
that computed at a distance h12.
9.20.1.5 Reinforced keys shall be provided in the
webs of precast segmental box girders to transfer erection
shear. Possible reverse shearing stresses in the shear keys
shall be investigated, particularly in segments near a pier.
At time of erection, the shear stress carried by the shear
(9-25) key shall not exceed 2
9.20.2 Shear-Strength Provided by Concrete
9.20.2.1 The shear strength provided by concrete, V ~,
shall be taken as the lesser of the values V , or
9.20.2.2 The shear strength, V,,, s ha l l b e c o m p u t ed
by:
(9-27) V~ =0.6 fbd +V d+ V Mer
Mmax
but need not be less than 1.7 f~ b d and d need not be
taken less than 0.8h.
The moment causing flexural cracking at the section
due toexternally applied loads, Me,, shall be computed by:
I
Mer =(6 f+f
Y c
(9-28)
The maximum factored moment and factored shear at
the section due to externally applied loads, M,,,, and V ,,
shall be computed from the load combination causing
maximum moment at the section.
9.20.2.3 The shear strength, ~ shall be computed
by:
V cw(
3.S<f~+O.3fp~ )bd-i-V ~
(9- 29)
~ 4) (V , +V ,)
(9-26)
where V
5 is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered, V ~ is the nominal shear strength provided by con-
crete andV , is the nominal shear strengthprovided by web
reinforcement.
9.20.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads in-
troduces comnpression into the end regions of the member,
*The method for design of sseh reinforcement presented in the 1979
lnterint AASHTO Suo,dord Sperificolio,rs for Hi~hwov Bridge.s is an
acceptable alternate
but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
9.20.2.4 For a pretensioned member in which
the section at a distance h/2 from the face of support
ms closer to the endof the member than the transfer length
of the prestressing tendons, the reduced prestress shall
be considered when comnputing V 5~. The prestress
force may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
end of the tendon to a maxtmum at a distance from
the end of the tendon equal to the transfer length, as-
sumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100 diameters
for single wire.
9.20.2.5 The provisions for computing the shear
strength provided by concrete, V ~, and V t,,, apply to nor-
mal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate con-
cretes are used (see definition, concrete, structural light-
weight, Article 8.1.3), one of the following modifications
shall apply:
9.20.4.3 or 9.20.4.4, or any other shear transfer design
method that results in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
9.20.4.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
tal shear may be based on:
(a) When f~, is specified, the shear strength, V ~, and
shall be mnodified by substituting fJ6.7 for f,~,
but the value of fJ6.7 used shall not exceed f.
(b) When f~, is not specified, V ,~ and V ,~, shall be mod-
ified by multiplying each term containing f~ by 0.75
for all lightweight concrete, and 0.85 for sand-light-
weight concrete. Linear interpolation may be used
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web
Reinforcement
9.20.3.1 The shear strength provided by web rein-
forcement shall be taken as:
V
5 = A5f,~ d
5
( 9 -3 0)
where A,. is the area of web reinforcement within a dis-
tance s. V , shall not be taken greater than 8 f, b d and
d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
9.20.3.2 The spacing of web reinforcing shall not ex-
ceed 0.75h or 24 inches. WhenV , exceeds 4 fL b d, this
maxmmum spacing shall be reducedby one-half.
9.20.3.3 The minimum area of web reinforcement
shall be
50 bs
where b and s are in inches and f,5 i sin psi.
9.20.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforce-
ment. f,,, shall not exceed 60,000 psi.
V , =4)V flh (9-31a)
where V ~ is factored shear force at section considered, V ,,
ms nommnal horizontal shear strength in accordance with
the following, and where d is for the entire composite see-
tt On.
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and
intentionally roughened, shear strength V ,h shall not be
taken greater than 80b,d, in pounds.
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean and
free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear
strength V flh shall not be taken greater than 80b,d. in
pounds.
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free
of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full am-
plitude of approximately %~ in., shear strength V ,,5 shall
not be taken greater than 350b,.d, in pounds.
contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
Article 9.20.4.5, shear strength V ,h may be increased
by (160f5/40,000)b,d, in pounds.
9.20.4.4 Horizontal shear mnay be investigated by
computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
(9 - 3 1) horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon-
tal shear strength 4)Vflh in accordance with Article
9.20.4.3, except that length of segment considered shall be
substituted for d.
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear DesignComposite
Flexural Members
9.20.4.1 In a composite member, full transfer of hor-
izontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of
interconnected elements.
9.20.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
tal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce-
ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50 b,s/f5, and tie
spacing s shall not exceed four times the least web
width of support element, nor 24 in.
wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into
interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
210
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.21
9.21 POST-TENSIONEDANCHORAGE ZONES
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone
9.21.1.1 The anchorage zone is geometrically de-
fined as the volume of concrete through which the con-
centrated prestressing force at the anchorage device
spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across
the entire cross section.
9.21.1.2 For anchorage zones at the end of a member
or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the
depth and width of the section. The longitudinal extent of
the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead
of the anchorage) shall be taken as not less than the larger
transverse dimension but not more than 1 /2 times that
dimension.
9.21.1.3 For intermediate anchorages in addition to
the length of Article 9.21.1 .2 the anchorage zone shall be
considered to also extemid in the opposite direction for a
distance not less than the larger lransverse dimnension.
9.21.1.4 For multiple slab anchorages, both width
and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal
to the center-to-center spacing between stressed tendons,
but not tnore than the length of the slab in the direction of
the tendon axis. The thickness of the anchorage zone shall
be taken equal to the thickness of the slab.
9.21.1.5 For design purposes, the anchorage zone
shall be considered as coniprised of two regions, the gen-
eral cone as defined in Article 9.21 .2.1 and the local cone
as defined in Article 9.21.2.2.
9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone
9.21.2.1 General Zone
9.21.2.1.1 The geo m et r i c ex t en t o f t he gen er a l z o n e
is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as defined
in Article 9.21.1 and includes the local zone.
9.2 1.2.1.2 Design of general zones shall meet the re-
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.3.
9.21.2.2 Local Zone
9.2 1.2.2.1 The local zone is defined as the rectangu-
lar prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or
oval anchorages) of concrete surrounding and immedi-
ately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral con-
lining reinforcement. The dimensions of the local zone are
defined in Article 9.21.7.
9.2 1.2.2.2 Design of local zones shall meet the re-
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.7 or shall be based
on the results of experimental tests required in Article
9.21.7.3 and described in Article 10.3.2.3 of Division II.
Anchorage devices based on the acceptance test of Divi-
sion II, Article 10.3.2.3, are referred to as special anchor-
age devices.
9.21.2.3 Responsibilities
9.2 1.2.3.1 The engineer of record is responsible for
the overall design and approval of working drawings for
the general zone, including the specific location of the ten-
dons and anchorage devices oeneral zone reinforcement.
and the specific stressing sequence. The engineer of
record is also responsible for the design of local zones
based on Article 9.2 1.7.2 and for the approval of special
anchorage devices used under the provisions of Section
9.21.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be
approved by the engineer of record.
9.21.2.3.2 Anchorage device suppliers are responsi-
ble for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the an-
chor efficiency requirements of Division II. Article 10.3.2.
In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the an-
chorage device supplier is responsible for furnishing an-
chorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test require-
ments of Article 9.21.7.3 and of Division II. Article
10.3.2.3. This acceptance test and the anchor efficiency
test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency
acceptable to the engineer of record. The anchorage de-
vmce supplier shall provide records of the acceptance test
in conformance with Division II, Article 10.3.2.3.12 to the
engineer of record and to the constructor and shall spec-
ify auxiliary and confining reinforcement. minimnum edge
distance, minimum anchor spacing, and tninimum
concrete strength at time of stressing required for proper
performance of the local zone.
9.2 1.2.3.3 The responsibilities of the constructor are
specified in Division II. Article 10.4.
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone
9.21.3.1 Design Methods
The following methods may be used for the design of
general zones:
(I) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie
models) (see Article 9.21.4)
(2) Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or
equivalent) (see Article 9.21.5)
9.2 1.3.1 DIV ISION 1DESIGN
211
(3) Approximate methods for determining the com-
pression and tension forces, where applicable. (See
Article 9.2 1.6.)
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall
conform to the requirements of Article 9.21 .3.4.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimen-
smonal effects shall be considered in the design. When
these three dimensional effects appear significant, they
may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis proce-
dures or may be approximated by considering two or more
planes. However, in these approximations the interactiomi
of the planes models must be considered, and the model
loadings and results must be consistent.
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths
9.21.3.2.1 The nominal tensile strength of bonded re-
mnforcement is limited to f,, for non-prestressed reinforce-
ment andto f, for prestressed reinforcement. The nomninal
tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is
limited to f,~ -r- 15,000 psi.
9_2/ 2 2 The effective nominal compressive
strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of
confined concrete, is limited to 0.7 fj. The tensile strength
of the concrete shall be neglected.
9.2 1.3.2.3 The compressmve strength of concrete at
transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construc-
tion drawings. If not otherwise specified, stress shall not
be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength
of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by
methods identical with the curing of the member, is at
least 4.000 psi.
9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices
Whenever special anchorage devices which do not
meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 are to be used,
reinforcement similar in configuration and at least equiv-
alent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skmn remn-
forcement permitted under the provisions of Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3.4 shall be furnished in the corresponding
regions of the anchorage zone.
9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing
Requirements
Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential
for the satisfactory performnance of anchorage zones.
Sizes and details for anchorage zones should respect the
need for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and place-
ment of reinforcement, the size of aggregate and the need
for placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
9.21.3.4.1 Compressive stresses in the concrete
ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the require-
ments of Article 9.21.7.2.
9.2 1.3.4.2 Compressive stresses in the concrete
ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a
distance measured from the concrete-bearing surface
equal to the smaller of:
(I) The depth to the end of the local confinement re-
inforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage de-
vmce.
These compressive stresses may be determined according
to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article
9.21.5.2, or by the approximate method outlined in Arti-
cle 9.21.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed
0.7 fI
9.2 1.3.4.3 Compressmve stresses shall also be
checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within
or ahead of the anchorage zone may cause stress concen-
tratmons.
9.21.3.4.4 The bursting force is the tensile force in
the anchorage zone acting ahead of the armehorage device
and transverse to the tendon axis. The magnitude of the
bursting force, Tb~,,,, and its corresponding distance from
the loaded surface, d
1,..~,,,, can be determined using the
strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21 .4, from an
elastic stress analysis according to Article 9.21.5.3. or by
the approximate mnethod outlined in Article 9.21.6.3.
Three-dimensional effects shall be considered for the de-
termination of the bursting reinforcement requmrements.
9.21.3.4.5 Resistance to bursting forces, 4)A{,
andlor 4)Apf~, shall be provided by non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement, in the form of spirals., closed
hoops, or well-anchored transverse ties. This reinforce-
ment is to be proportioned to resist the total factored burst-
ing force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting rein-
forcement shall satisfy the following:
(I) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full
width of the mnember andmust be anchored as close to
the outer faces of the member as cover permtts.
(2) Bursting reinforcement s ha l l be distributed ahead
of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon
212
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 9.21.3.4.5
throughout a distance of 2.5 d~,, for the plane consid-
ered, but not to exceed 1 . 5 t i m es the corresponding lat-
eral dimension of the section. The centroid of the burst-
ingreinforcement shall coincide with the distance dh~,,,
used for the design.
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed
neither 24-bar diameters nor 12 inches.
9.21.3.4.6 Edge tension forces are tensile forces
in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to
the transverse edge and longitudinal edges of the mem-
ber. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the
anchors. The tensile force along the transverse edge is
referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the
longitudinal edge is referred to as longitudinal edge
tension force.
9.2 1.3.4.7 Spalling forces are induced in con-
centrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded
anchorage zones, and anchorage zones for mnultiple
anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced
when the resultant of the anchorage forces considered
causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The
edge tension forces can be determined from an
elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models., or in
accordance with the approximate methods of Article
9.21.6.4.
9.2 1.3.4.8 In no case shall the spalling force be
taken as less than 2 percent of the total factored tendon
force.
9.2 1.3.4.9 Resistance to edge tension forces. 4)A,f,
5
and/or 4)A~f~, shall be provided in the form of non-pre-
stressed or prestressed reinforcement located close to the
longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrange-
ment and anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement
shall satisfy the following:
(I) Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Arti-
cle 9.21.3.4.8 shall extend over the full width of the
member.
(2) Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchor-
age devices shall effectively tie these anchorage de-
vices together.
(3) Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and
spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices
s ha l l b e c o n t i n u o u s . The r ei n f o r c em en t s ha l l ex t en d
along the tension face over the full length of the an-
chorage zone and shall extend along the loaded face
from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the ec-
centric anchorage device or group of anchorage devices.
9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages
9.2 1.3.5.1 Intermediate anchorages shall not be used
in regions where significant tension is generated behind
the anchor from other loads. Whenever practical. blisters
shall be located in the corner between flange and webs, or
shall be extended over the full flange width or web height
to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used
on a flange or web, local shear, bending and direct force
effects shall be considered in the design.
9.2 1.3.5.2 Bonded reinforcement shall be provided
to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate anchor-
age unfactored stressing force into the concrete section
behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement
are limited to amaximum of 0.6f,, or 36 ksi. The amount
of tie back reinforcement may be reduced using Equation
(9-32). if permanent compressive stresses are generated
behind the anchor from other loads.
= 0.25P, .f5AC5 (9-32)
where, T,., = the tie back tension force at the interme-
diate anchorage;
P. = the maximum unfactored anchorage
stressing force;
= the compressive stress in the region be-
hind the anchor;
= the area of the continuing cross seetmon
within the extensions of the sides of the
anchor plate or blister. The area of the
blister or rib shall not be taken as part of
the cross section.
9.21.3.5.3 Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article
9.2 1.3.5.2 shall be placed no further than one plate width
fromn the tendon axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the
yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate
width or half the length of the blister or rib ahead of the
anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor.
The centroid of this reinforcement shall coincide with the
tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the re-
mnforcement shall be placed in the section near
that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib
ts projecting.
9.2 1.3.5.4 Reinforcement shall be providedthrough-
out blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel
action, bursting forces, and deviation forces due to tendon
curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties
or U-stirrups which encase the anchorage and tie it effec-
tively into the adjacent web and flange. This reinforce-
9.2 1.3.5.4
DIVISION IDESIGN
213
ment shall extend as far as possible into the flange or web
and be developed by standard hooks bent around trans-
verse bars or equivalent. Spacing shall not exceed the
smallest of blister or rib height at anchor, blister width, or
6 inches.
9.2 1.3.5.5 R ei n f o r c em en t s ha l l be provided to resist
local bending inblisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the
tendon force and to resist lateral bending in ribs due to
tendon deviation forces.
9.21.3.5.6 Reinforcement required by Article
9 . 2 1 . 3 . 4 . 4 t hr o u gh 9 . 2 1 . 3 . 4 . 9 s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed t o r es i s t
tensile forces due to transfer of the anchorage force from
the blister or rib into the overall structure.
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms
9.21.3.6.1 For tendons anchored in diaphragms, con-
crete compressive stresses shall be limited within the di-
aphragm in accordance with Articles 9.2 1.3.4.1 through
9.21.3.4.3. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at
the transition from the diaphragm to webs and flanges of
the member.
9.2 1.3.6.2 Reinforcement shall be provided toensure
full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges
and webs of the girder. The more general methods of Ar-
ticle 9.21.4 or 9.21.5 shall be used to determine this rein-
forcement. Reinforcement shall also be provided to tie
back deviation forces due to tendon curvature.
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages
9.21.3.7.1 Minimum reinforcement meeting the re-
quirements of Articles 9.21.3.7.2 through 9.21.3.7.4 shall
be provided unless a more detailed analysis is made.
9.2 1.3.7.2 Reinforcement shall be provided for the
bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab
and normal to the tendon axis in accordance with Articles
9.21.3.4.4 and 9.21.3.4.5. This reinforcement shall be an-
chored close to the faces of the slab with standard hooks
bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum re-
mnforcement is two #3 bars per anchor locatedat adistance
equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
9.2 1.3.7.3 Reinforcement inthe plane of the slab and
normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge
tension forces, T
1, between anchorages (Equation (9-33))
and bursting forces T~ ahead of the anchorages (Eqttation
(9-34)). Edge tension reinforcement shall be placed im-
mediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie
adjacent anchors together. Bursting reinforcement shall be
distributed over the length of the anchorage zones. (See
Article 9.21.1.4.)
(9- 33)
(9- 34)
where T
T2 =0.2OPu~l.~jJ
= the edge tension force;
= t he b u r s t i n g f o r c e;
= the factored tendon load on an individual
anchor;
a = the anchor plate width;
s = the anchorage spacing.
9.21.3.7.4 For slab anchors with an edge distance
of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness,
the edge tension reinforcement shall be proportioned to
resist 25 percent of the factored tendon load. This rein-
forcement shall preferably be in the form of hairpins and
shall be distributed within one plate width ahead of the
anchor. The legs of the hairpin bars shall extend from the
edge of the slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than
a distance equal to five plate widths plus development
length.
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the
Design of Anchorage Zones
9.21.4.1 General
9.21.4.1.1 The f l o w o f f o r c es i n t he a n c ho r a ge z o n e
may be approximated by a series of straight compression
members (struts) and straight-tension members (ties) that
are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression
forces are carried by concrete compression struts and ten-
sion forces are carrmed by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement.
9.2 1.4. 1.2 The s el ec t ed s t r u t -a n d -t i e m o d el s ha l l f o l -
low a load path from the anchorages to the end of the an-
chorage zone. Other forces acting on the anchorage zone,
such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces, and ap-
plied loads, shall be considered in the selection of the
strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the anchor-
age zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural beam
analysis.
2 1 4
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.21.4.2
9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis
L o c a l z o n es whi c h m eet t he p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l e
9.2 1.7 or Division II, Article 10.3.2.3 are considered as
properly detailed, adequate nodes. The other nodes in the
anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete
stresses in the struts meet the requirements of Article
9.21.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to de-
velop the full-yield strength of the reinforcement.
9.21.4.3 Struts
9.21.4.3.1 The effective concrete compressmve
strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to
0.74) f. In areas where the concrete may be extensively
cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large
plastic rotations are required, the effective compressive
strength shall be limited to 0.64) ft,.
9.2 1.4.3.2 In anchorage zones the critical section for
compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface
withthe local zone node. If special anchorage devices are
used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that
section whose extension intersects the axis of the tendon
at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local
confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension of the
anchorage device.
9.2 1.4.3.3 For thin members with a ratio of member
thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the
dimension of the strut in the direction of the thickness of
t he m em b er c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t ed b y a s s u m i n g t ha t t he
t hi c kn es s o f t he c o m p r es s i o n s t r u t v a r i es l i n ea r l y f r o m t he
transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface
of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at a
depth equal to the thickness of the section.
9.2 1.4.3.4 The compressmon stresses can be assumned
as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly
distributed over its cross section.
9.21.4.4 Ties
9.2 1.4.4.1 Ten s i o n f o r c es i n t he s t r u t -a n d -t i e m o d el
shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-pre-
stressed or prestressed reinforcement. Tensile strength of
the concrete shall be neglected.
9.2 1.4.4.2 Tension ties shall be properly detailed and
shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension
tie force at the node. The reinforcement layout must
closely follow the directions of the ties in the strut-and-tie
model.
9.21.5.1 Analyses basedon assumed elastic material
properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are
acceptable for analysis and design of anchorage zones.
9.21.5.2 If the compressive stresses in the concrete
ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a lin-
ear-elastic stress analysis, local stress maxima may be av-
eraged over an area equal to the bearing area of the an-
chorage device.
9.21.5.3 Location and magnitude of the bursting
force may be obtained by integrationof the corresponding
tensile bursting stresses along the tendon path.
9.2 1.6 Approximate Methods
9.21.6.1 Limitations
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete
compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, loca-
tion andmagnitude of the bursting force, andedge tension
forces may be estimated by Equations (9-35) through
(9-38), provided that:
(I) The member has a rectangular cross section and its
longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest trans-
verse dimension of the cross section.
(2) The member has no discontinuities within or ahead
of the anchorage zone.
(3) The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in
the main plane of the member is at least 1/2 times the
corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the anchorage
d ev i c e.
(4) Only one anchorage device or one group of closely
s p a c ed a n c ho r a ge d ev i c es i s l o c a t ed i n t he a n c ho r a ge
zone. Anchorage devices can be treated as closely
s p a c ed i f t hei r c en t er -t o -c en t er s p a c i n g d o es n o t ex c eed
1/2 times the width of the anchorage devices in the
direction considered.
(5) The angle of inclinationof the tendon with respect
to the center line of the member is not larger than 20
degrees if the anchor force points toward the centroid
of the section and for concentric anchors, and is not
larger than 5 degrees if the anchor force points away
from the centroid of the seetmon.
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses
9.21.6.2.1 No additional check of concrete compres-
smve stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices sat-
i s f yi n g Ar t i c l e 9 . 2 1 . 7 . 2 .
9.21.4.2 Nodes
9.21.6.2.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
2 1 5
9.2 1.6.2.2 The c o n c r et e c o m p r es s i v e s t r es s es a hea d
of special anchorage devicesat the interface between local
zone and general zone shall be approximated by Equa-
tions (9-35) and (9-36).
0.6P~
fca)C Ab ( I
l+~
beff
(9- 35)
(2) If ACOflf controls, the maximum dimension of A~
00f
shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension
of ~ or three times the minimum dimension of ~
If any of these limits is violated the effective-bearing
area, A b, shall be based on A p iaie.
(3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct
in the determination of Ab.
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces
K=l+(~2~(0.3+.j~j~Ifors<2aeff (9-36)
K I
for s =
2aCff
where:
f~. = the concrete compressive stress ahead of the an-
chorage device;
K = a correction factor for closely spaced anchor-
ages;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in Article
9 . 2 1 . 6 . 2 . 3 ;
a,~ =the lateral dimension of the effective bearing
area measured parallel tothe larger dimension of
the cross section or in the direction of closely
spaced anchors;
b~ff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing
area measured parallel to the smaller dimension
of the cross section;
= the longitudinal extent of confining reinforce-
ment for the local zone, but not more than the
larger of 1.15 a~or 1.15 b~~;
P. = the factored tendon load;
= the thickness of the section;
s = the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchor-
a ges ;
n = the number of anchorages in a row.
If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two direc-
tions, the product of the correction factors, K, for each di-
rection is used inEquation (9-36).
9.2 1.6.2.3 Effective bearing area, Ab, in Equation
(9-35) shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing
plate area, ~ or the bearing area of the confined
concrete in the local zone, ~ with the following limi-
tations:
(1) If Apiate controls, A
5~~ shall not be taken larger than
V alues for the magnitude of the bursting force, ~
and for its distance from the loaded surface, d e,~ shall be
estimated by Equations (9-37) and (9-38), respectively. In
the application of Equations (9-37) and (9-38) the speci-
fied stressing sequence shall be considered if more than
one tendon is present.
(a\
Tburst =0.25XPj~,l +0.5P~ s i n et ( 9 -3 7 )
= 0. 5 ( h 2e) +Se sinet
(9-38)
where, ~P, = t he s u m of the total factored tendon
loads for the stressing arrangement
considered;
a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage
device or group of devices inthe direc-
tion considered;
e = the eccentricity (always taken as posi-
tive) of the anchorage device or group
of devices with respect to the centroid
of the cross section;
h = the lateral dimension of the cross sec-
tion in the direction considered;
a the angle of inclination of the resultant
of the tendon forces with respect to the
center line of the member.
9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces
9.21.6.4.1 For multiple anchorages with a center-to-
center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the sec-
tion, the spalling forces shall be given by Article
9.21.3.4.8. For larger spacings, the spallingforces shall be
determined from a more detailed analysis, such as strut-
and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
9.21.6.4.2 If the centroid of all tendons considered is
located outside of the kern of the section both spalling
forces and longitudinal edge tension forces are induced.
The longitudinal edge-tension force shall be determined
from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a section located
at one-half the depth of the section away from the loaded
2 1 6
surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to the
l o n gi t u d i n a l ed ge-t en s i o n force but not less than specified
in Article 9.21.3.4.8.
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone
9.21.7.1.1 When no independently verified manufac-
turers edge-distance recommendations for a particular
anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions
of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the
l a r ger o f :
(I) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice
the minimum concrete cover required for the particu-
lar application and environment.
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining re-
inforcement plus the required concrete cover over the
confining reinforcing steel for the particular applica-
tion and environment.
9.21.7.1.2 When independently verified manufac-
turers recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and
edge distances for a particular anchorage device are avail-
able, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each
direction shall be taken as the smaller of:
(I) Twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage
device supplier.
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the an-
chorage device supplier.
The m a n u f a c t u r er s r ec o m m en d a t i o n s f o r s p a c i n g a n d
edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum
values.
9.21.7.1.3 The l en gt h o f t he l o c a l z o n e a l o n g t he ten-
don axis shall be taken as the greater of:
(I) The maximum width of the local zone.
(2) The length of the anchorage device confining rein-
forcement.
(3) For anchorage devices with multiple bearing sur-
faces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to
the bottom of each bearing surface plus the maximum
dimension of that bearing surface.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as
greater than 1 V a t i m es t he wi d t h o f t he l o c a l z o n e.
9.2 1.7.1.4 For closely spaced anchorages an en-
larged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall
also be considered.
9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength
9.21.7.2.1 An c ho r a ge d ev i c es m a y b e ei t her b a s i c
anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressmve
strength limits of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4 or
special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of
Section 9.2 1.7.3.
9.21.7.2.2 The effective concrete bearing compres-
sive strength fb u s ed f o r d es i gn s ha l l n o t ex c eed t ha t o f
Equations (9-39) or (9-40).
fb=O.
79f:, A/Ag
b u t ,
fb ~ 2.25 4) f~,
( 9 -3 9 )
( 9 -4 0)
where:
= the maximutn factored tendon load, P~, divided
by the effective bearing area Ab;
= t he c o n c r et e c o m p r es s i v e s t r en gt h a t s t r es s i n g;
A = the maximum area of the portion of the support-
ing surface that is geometrically similar to the
l o a d ed a r ea a n d c o n c en t r i c wi t h i t ;
A
5 =the gross area of the bearing plate if the require-
ments of Article 9.21.7.2.3 are met, or is the area
calculated in accordance with Article 9.21.7.2.4:
A,, = the effective net area of the bearing plate calcu-
lated as the area A, minus the area of openings in
the bearing plate.
Equations (9-39) and (9-40) are only valid if general zone
reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21 .3.4 is provided and
if the extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead
of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the
local zone as defined in Article 9.21.7.1.3
9.21.7.2.3 The full bearing plate area may be used
for A5 and the calculation ofA,, if the anchorage devtce is
sufficiently rigid. To be considered sufficiently rigid, the
slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the
value given in Equation (9-41). The plate must also be
checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
n/t =0.08
(941)
where:
n = the largest distance from the outer edge of the
wedge plate to the outer edge of the bearing
plate. For rectangular-bearing plates this dis-
t a n c e m s m ea s u r ed p a r a l l el t o t he edges of the
bearing plate. If the anchorage has no separate
wedge plate, the size of the wed ge p l a t e s ha l l b e
taken as the distance between the extreme wedge
ho l es i n t he c o r r es p o n d i n g d i r ec t i o n .
= the average thickness o f t he b ea r i n g p l a t e.
Eh = the modulus of elasticity of the bearing-plate
material.
9.2 1.7.2.4 For bearing plates that do not meet the
stiffness requirements of Article 9.21.7.2.3, the effective
gross-bearing area, A~, shall be taken as the area geomet-
rmcally similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perime-
ter of the wedge-hole pattern for plates without separate
wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load
spreading at a 45-degree angle. A larger effective-bearing
area may be calculated by assuming an effective area and
checking the new f,, and nit values for conformance with
Articles 9.21.7.2.2 and 9.21.7.2.3.
9.2 1.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices
Special anchorage devices that do not meet the require-
m en t s o f Ar t i c l e 9.21.7.2 as well as other devices that do
meet the requirements ofArticle 9.21.7.2 but which the en-
gineer-of-record requires to have tested may be used pro-
vmded that they have been tested by an independent testing
agency acceptable to the engineer of recordaccording to the
procedures described in Division II, Article 10.3.2 (or
equiva]ent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Di-
vision II, Article 10.3.2.3.10. For a series of similar special
anchorage devices, tests are onlyrequired for representative
samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in
the series are required by the engineer of record.
9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
9.22.1 In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at
a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist at l ea s t 4 percent of the
t o t a l p r es t r es s i n g f o r c e shall be placed within the distance
of d14 of the end of the beam.
9.22.2 For at least the distance d from the end of the
beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose
the prestressing steel in the bottom flange.
9.22.3 For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall
be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the
web of the girder.
9.22.4 Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be
transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of
the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by meth-
ods identical with the curing of the member, is at least
4,000 psi.
9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT
STRESS TRANSFER
Unless otherwise specified. stress shall not be trans-
ferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the
concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000
psi for pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500
psi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
9.24 DECK PANELS
9.24.1 Deck panels shall be prestressed with pre-
tensioned strands. The strands shall be in a direction
transverse to the stringers when the panels are placed on
the supporting stringers. The top surface of the panels shall
be roughened in such a manner as to ensure composite ac-
tion between the precast and cast-in-place concrete.
9.24.2 Reinforcing bars, or equivalent mesh, shall be
placed in the panel transverse to the strands to provide at
least 0.11 square inches per foot of panel.
218
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 9.25
Part D
DETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box
girder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles
8.17.2.2 and 8.17.2.3 except that the minimum reinforce-
ment in bottom flanges shall be 0.3 percent of the flange
seetmon.
9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL
9.26.1 Minimum Cover
The following minimum c o n c r et e c o v er s ha l l b e p r o -
v i d ed f o r p r es t r es s i n g and conventional steel:
9.26.1.1 Pr es t r es s i n g S t eel and Main
Reinforcement 1/2 inch
9.26.1.2 Slab Reinforcement
9.26.1.2.1 Top of Slab 1/2 inch
When deicers are used 2 inch
9.26.1.2.2 Bottomn of Slab 1 inch
9.26.1.3 Stirrups and Ties 1 inch
9.26.1.4 When deicer chemicals are used, drainage
d et a i l s s ha l l d i s p o s e o f d ei c er s o l u t i o n s wi t ho u t c o n s t a n t
contact with the prestressed girders. Where such contact
cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are ex-
posed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical vapor, addi-
tional cover should be provided.
9.26.2 Minimum Spacing
9.26.2.1 The minimum clear spacing of prestressing
steel at the ends of beams shall be as follows:
Pretensioning steel: three timnes the diameter of the
steel or 1% t i m es t he m a x i m u m size of the concrete ag-
gregate, whichever is greater.
Post-tensionint, steel: 1% inches or 1/2 t i m es t he
maximum size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is
greater.
9.26.2.2 Prestressing strands in deck panels shall be
spaced symmnetrically and uniformly across the width of
the panel. They shall not be spaced farther apart than 1 /2
ttmes the total composite slab thickness or more than 18
inches.
9.26.3 Bundling
9.26.3.1 When post-tensioning steel is draped or de-
flected, post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups
of three maximum, provided that the spacing specified in
Article 9.26.2 is maintained in the end 3 feet of the
member.
9.26.3.2 Where pretensioning steel is bundled, all
bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam
length and the deflection points shall be investigated for
secondary stresses.
9.26.4 Size of Ducts
9.26.4.1 For tendons made up of a number of wmres,
bars, or strands, duct area shall be at least twice the net
area of the prestressing steel.
9.26.4.2 For tendons made up of a single wire, bar,
or strand, the duct diameter shall be at least % inch
larger than the nominal diameter of the wire, bar, or
strand.
9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND
COUPLERS
9.27.1 Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded
post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95 per-
cent of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the
prestressing steel, tested in an unbonded state without ex-
ceeding anticipated set. Bond transfer lengths between an-
chorages and the zone where full prestressing force is re-
quired under service and ultimate loads shall normally be
sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate
strength of t he p r es t r es s i n g s t eel . Co u p l er s a n d s p l i c es
shall be placed in areas approved by the Engineer and en-
closed in a housing long enough to permit the necessary
movements. When anchorages or couplers are located at
c r i t i c a l s ec t i o n s u n d er ultimate load, the ultimate strength
required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the ulti-
mate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the an-
chorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
9.27.2 The anchorages of unbonded tendons shall de-
velop at least 95 percent of the minimumn specified ulti-
mate strength of the prestressing steel withotmt exceeding
anticipated set. The total elongation under ultimate load
o f t he t en d o n s ha l l not be less than 2 percent measured in
a minimum gauge length of 10 feet.
9. 2 7 . 3 DIV ISION IDESIGN
21 8A
9.27.3 For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be
performed on a representative specimen and the tendon
shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60
percent to 66 percent of its minimum specified ultimate
strength, and also 50 cycles from 40 percent to 80 percent
of its minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of
each cycle involves the change from the lower stress level
to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The speci-
men used for the seconddynamic test neednot be the same
used for the first dynamic test. Systems utilizing multiple
strands, wires, or bars may be tested utilizing a test tendon
of smaller capacity than the full size tendon. The test ten-
don shall duplicate the behavior of the full size tendon and
generally shall not have less than 10 percent of the capac-
ity of the full size tendon. Dynamic tests are not required
on bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used
in such manner that repeated load applications can be
expected on the anchorage.
9.27.4 Couplings of unbonded tendons shall be used
only at locations specifically indicatedand/or approved by
the Engineer. Couplings shall not be used at points of
sharp tendon curvature. All couplings shall develop at
least 95 percent of the minimum specified ultimate
strength of the prestressing steel without exceeding an-
ticipated set. The coupling of tendons shall not reduce the
elongation at rupture below the requirements of the ten-
don itself. Couplings and/or coupling components shall be
enclosed in housings longenough to permit the necessary
movements. All the coupling components shall be com-
pletely protected with a coating material prior to final
encasement in concrete.
9.27.5 Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed
tendons shall be permanently protected against corrosmon.
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED
STRAND
9.28 .1 Three- or seven-wire pretensioning strand shall
be bonded beyond the critical section for a development
length in inches not less than
( 9-3 2 )
where D is the nominal diameter in inches.~, f~i, and f,~ are
in kips per square inch, and the parenthetical expression
is considered to be without units.
9.28.2 Investigations may be limited to those cross sec-
tions nearest each end of the member which are required
to develop their full ultimate capacity.
9.28.3 Where strand is debonded at the end of a mem-
ber and tension at service load is allowed in the precom-
pressed tensile zone, the development length required
above shall be doubled.
9.29 BEARINGS
Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures
shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.29 and
Section 14.
21 8B HIGHWAY BRIDGES
[THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK]
Section 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Part A
10.1 APPLICATION
10.1.1 Notations
A = area of cross section (Articles 10.37.1.1,
10.34.4, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.!, 10.48.4.2,
1 0. 4 8 . 5 . 3 , a n d 1 0. 5 5 . 1 )
A = bending moment coefficient (Article
10.50. 1. 1.2)
= amplification factor (Articles 10.37.1.1 and
10.55.1)
(AFy)hr = product of area and yi el d point for bottom
f l a n ge o f s t eel s ec t i o n ( Ar t i c l e 1 0. 5 0. 1 . 1 . 1 )
(AFJ. = product of area and yield point of that part of
reinforcing which lies in the compression
zone of the slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
(AF)lf = product of area and yield point for top flange
o f s t eel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
(AF)X. = product of area and yield point for web of
steel section (Article 10.50. I. 1.1)
A = area of flange (Articles 10.39.4.4.2,
10.48.2.1, or 10.53.1.2, and 10.56.3)
A, = area of compression flange (Article
10.48.4.1)
= total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at
the interior support within the effective
f l a n ge wi d t h ( Ar t i c l e 1 0. 3 8 . 5 . 1 . 2 )
= total area of longitudinal slab reinforcement
s t eel f o r ea c h beam over interior support (Ar-
t i c l e 1 0. 3 8 . 5 . 1 . 3 )
A, = area of steel section (Articles 10.38.5.1.2.
10.54.l.l,and 10.54.2.1)
= area of web of beam (Article 10.53.1.2)
a = distance from center of bolt under consider-
ation to edge of plate in inches (Articles
10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
a = spacing of transverse stiffeners (Article
10.39.4.4.2)
a = depth of stress block (Figure l0.50A)
a = ratio of numerically smaller to the larger end
moment (Article 10.54.2.2)
B = constant based on the number of stress cycles
(Article 10.38.5.1.1)
B = constant for stiffeners (Articles 10.34.4.7
and 10.48.5.3)
b = compression flange width (Table l0.32.IA
and Article 10.34.2.1.3)
b = distance from center of bolt under consider-
ation to toe of fillet of connected part, in. (Ar-
ticles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
b = effective width of slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
b = effective flange width (Articles 10.38.3 and
10.38.5.1.2)
b = widest flange width (Article 10.15.2.1)
b = distance from edge of plate or edge of perfo-
ration to the point of support (Article
10.35.2.3)
b = unsupported distance between points of sup-
port (Article 10.35.2.7)
b = flange width between webs (Articles
10.37.3.1, 10.39.4.2, 10.51.5.1, and 10.55.3)
= width of stiffeners (Articles 10.34.5.2,
10.34.6, 10.37.2.4. 10.39.4.5.1, and 10.55.2)
= wi d t h o f a p r o j ec t i n g f l a n ge el em en t , a n gl e.
o r s t i f f en er ( Ar t i c l es 1 0. 3 4 . 2 . 2 , 1 0. 3 7 . 3 . 2 .
10.39.4.5.1, 10.48.1, 10.48.2, 10.48.5.3,
10.50, 10.51.5.5, and 10.55.3)
C = web buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.4.
10.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.50(e))
C = compressive force in the slab (Article
10.50.1.1.1)
C = equivalent moment factor (Article 10.54.2.1)
C = compressive force in top portion of steel sec-
tion (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
Ch = bending coefficient (Table l0.32.IA. Article
10.48.4.1)
C, = column slenderness ratio dividing elastic and
inelastic buckling (Table l0.32.IAJ
C~. = coefficient about X axis (Article 10.36)
C,,, = coefficient about the Y axis (Article 10.36)
c = buckling stress coefficient (Articic
10.51.5.2)
219
220
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.1.1
D = clear distance between flanges, in. (Article
10.15.2)
D = clear unsupported distance between flange
components (Articles 10.34.3, 10.34.4,
10.34.5, 10.37.2, 10.48.1, 10.48.2, 10.48.5,
10.48.6, 10.48.8, 10.49.2, 10.49.3.2, 10.50
(d), 10.50.1.1.2, 10.50.2.1, and 10.55.2)
= distance from the top of the slab to the neu-
tral axis at whicha composite section in pos-
itive bending theoretically reaches its plastic-
moment capacity when the maximum strain
in the slab is at 0.003 (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
= clear distance between the neutral axis and the
compression flange (Articles 10.48.2.1(b),
10.48.4.1, 10.49.2, 10.49.3 and, 10.50(d))
= moments caused by dead load acting on com-
posite girder (Article 10.50.1.2.2)
= depth of the web in compression at the plas-
tic moment (Articles 10.50.1.1.2 and
10.50.2.1)
= distance from the top of the slab to the plas-
tic neutral axis, in. (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
= moments caused by dead load acting on steel
girder (Article 10.50.1.2.2)
d = bolt diameter (Table 10.32.3B)
d = diameter of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1)
d = depth of beam or girder, in. (Article 10.13,
Table l0.32.IA, Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1,
and 10.50.1.1.2)
d = diameter of rocker or roller, in. (Article
10.32.4.2)
= beam depth (Article 10.56.3)
= column depth (Article 10.56.3)
= spacing of intermediate stiffener (Articles
10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.6.3, and
10.48.8)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (Table
l0.32.IAand Articles 10.15.3, 10.36, 10.37,
10.39.4.4.2, 10.54.1, and 10.55.1)
= modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article
10.38.5.1.2)
F = maxmmum induced stress in the bottom
flange (Article 10.20.2.1)
F = maxtmum compressive stress, psi (Article
10.41.4.6)
F, = allowable axial unit stress (Table l0.32.IA
and Articles 10.36, 10.37.1.2, and 10.55.1)
F,, = allowable bending unit stress (Table
l0.32.IA andArticles 10.37.1.2 and 10.55.1)
= buckling stress of the compression flange
plate or column (Articles 10.51.1, 10.51.5,
10.54.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
Fh , = compressive bending stress permitted about
the X axis (Article 10.36)
Fb,, = compressive bending stress permitted about
the Y axis (Article 10.36)
F
0 = maximum horizontal force (Article
10.20.2.2)
= Euler buckling stress (Articles 10.37.1,
10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
= Euler stress divided by a factor of safety (Ar-
ticle 10.36)
= computed bearing stress due to design load
(Table l0.32.3B)
F, = limiting bending stress (Article 10.34.4)
F,r =allowable range of stress (Table l0.3.IA)
= reduced allowable tensile stress on rmvet or
bolt due to the applied shear stress, ksi. (Ar-
tides 10.32.3.3.4 and 10.56.1.3.3.)
= specified minimum yield point of the rein-
forcing steel (Articles 10.38.5.1.2)
F.S. = factor of safety (Table 10.32.1 A and Articles
10.32.1 and 10.36)
F, = specified minimum tensile strength (Tables
l0.32.IA and l0.32.3B, Article 10.18.4)
F, = tensile strength of electrode classification
(Table l0.56A and Article 10.32.2)
F, = allowable shear stress (Tables l0.32.IA,
l0.32.3B and Articles 10.32.2, 10.32.3,
10.34.4, 10.40.2.2)
F, = shear strength of a fastener (Article
10.56.1.3)
= combined tension and shear in bearing-type
connections (Article 10.56.1.3)
= specified minimum yield point of steel (Arti-
des 10.15.2.1, 10.15.3, 10.16.11, 10.32.1,
10.32.4, 10.34, 10.35, 10.37.1.3, 10.38.5,
10.39.4, 10.40.2.2, 10.41.4.6, 10.46, 10.48,
10.49, 10.50, 10.5 1.5, and 10.54)
= specified minimum yield strength of the
f l a n ge ( Ar t i c l e 1 0. 4 8 . 1 . 1 , 1 0. 5 3 . 1 , 1 0. 5 7 . 1 ,
and 10.57.2)
= specified minimum yield strength of the web
(Article 10.53.1)
= computed axial compression stress (Articles
10.35.2.10, 10.36, 10.37, 10.55.2, and
10.55.3)
fh = computed compressive bending stress (Arti-
des 10.34.2, 10.34.3, 10.34.5.2. 10.37,
10.39, and 10.55)
= unit ultimate compressive strength of con-
crete as determined by cylinder tests at age of
28 days, psi (Articles 10.38.1, 10.38.5.1.2,
10.45.3, and l0.50.1.l.l)
top flange compressive stress due to non-
composite dead load (Article 10.34.2.1,
10.34.2 .2 , and 10.50(c))
= range of stress due to live load plus impact,
in the slab reinforcement over the support
(Article 10.38.5.1.3)
= maximum longitudinal bending stress in the
flange of the panels on either side of the
transverse stiffener (Article 10.39.4.4)
=tensilestressduetoappliedloads(Articles
10.32.3.3.3 and 10.56.1.3.2)
= unit shear stress (Articles 10.32.3.2.3 and
10.34.4.4)
= computed compressive bending stress about
the x axis (Article 10.36)
fh,, = computed compressive bending stress about
the y axis (Article 10.36)
g = gage between fasteners, in. (Articles
10.16.14, 10.24.5, and 10.24.6)
H = height of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
h = average flange thickness of the channel
flange, in. (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
I=moment of inertia, in.
4 (Articles 10.34.4,
10.34.5, 10.38.5.1.1, 10.48.5.3, and
10.48.6.3)
I,= moment of inertia of stiffener (Articles
10.37.2, 10.39.4.4.1, and 10.51.5.4)
I,= moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners
(Article 10.39.4.4.2)
=moment of inertia of member about the ver-
tical axis in the plane of the web, in4 (Article
10.48.4.1)
=moment of inertia of compression flange
about the vertical axis in the plane of the
web, in4 (Table 10.32. IA, Article 10.48.4.1)
J = required ratio of rigidity of one transverse
stiffener to that of the web plate (Articles
10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3)
I= in4 (Table 10.32.IA, Article 10.48.4.1) St.
V enant torsional constant
K =effective length factor in plane of buckling
(Table 10.32. IA and Articles 10.37, 10.54.1
and 10.54.2)
k =constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-
strength bolts with thread excluded from
shear plane (Article 10.32.3.3.4)
k =buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.4,
10.39.4.3, 10.48.8, and 10.51.5.4)
k =distance from outer face of flange to toe of
web fillet of member to be stiffened (Article
10.56.3)
=buckling coefficient (Article 10.39.4.4)
K,, = effective length factor in the plane of bend-
ing (Article 10.36)
L = distance between bolts in the direction of the
applied force (Table l0.32.3B)
L = actual unbraced length (Table 10.32. IA and
Articles 10.7.4, 10.15.3, and 10.55.1)
L = 1/2 of the length of the arch rib (Article
1 0. 3 7 . 1 )
L = distance between transverse beams (Article
10.41.4.6)
= unbraced length (Table 10.48.2.1 .A and Arti-
cles 10.36, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, 10.48.4.1,
and 10.53.1.3)
= length of member between points of support,
in (Article 10.54.1.1)
= clear distance between the holes, or between
the hole and the edge of the material inthe di-
rection of the applied bearing force, in (Table
l0.32.3B and Article 10.56.1.3.2)
= limiting unbraced length (Article 10.48.4.1)
= limiting unbraced length (Article 10.48.4.1)
e = member length (Table l0.32.IA and Article
1 0. 3 5 . 1 )
M = maximum bending moment (Articles
10.48.8, 10.54.2.1, and 10.50.1.1.2)
= moments at the ends of a member
M
1 & M2 = moments at two adjacent braced points
(Table l0.32.lA, Articles l0.36A and
10.48.4.1)
= column moment (Article 10.56.3.2)
= full plastic moment of the section (Articles
10.50.1.1.2 and 10.54.2.1)
= lateral torsional buckling moment or yield
moment (Articles 10.48.4.1 and 10.53.1.3)
= elastic pier moment for loading producing
maximum positive moment in adjacent span
(Article 10.50.1.1.2)
= maxmmum bending strength (Articles 10.48,
10.50.1, 10.50.2, 10.51.1, 10.53.1, and
10.54.2.1)
= moment capacity at first yield (Article
10.50. 1.1.2)
N & N, = number of shear connectors (Article
10.38.5.1.2)
= number of additional connectors for each
beam at point of contraflexitre (Article
10.38.5.1.3)
N, = number of slip planes in a slip critical con-
nection (Articles 10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1)
N,, = number of roadway design lanes (Article
10.39.2)
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that
of concrete (Article 10.38.1)
222
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.1.1
n = number of longitudinal stiffeners (Articles
10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and 10.5 1.5.4)
P = allowable compressive axial load on mem-
bers (Article 10.35.1)
P = axial compression on the member (Articles
10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, and 10.54.2.1)
P. P
1, P.,, = force in the slab (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
& P5
P. = allowable slip resistance (Article 10.32.3.2.1)
= maxmmum axial compression capacity (Arti-
cle 10.54.1.1)
p = allowable bearing (Article 10.32.4.2)
Q = prying tension per bolt (Articles 10.32.3.3.2
and 10.56.2)
Q = statical moment about the neutral axis (Arti-
cle 10.38.5.1.1)
R = radius (Article 10.15.2.1)
R = number of design lanes per box girder (Arti-
cle 10.39.2.1)
R = reduction factor for hybrid girders (Articles
10.40.2.1.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.53.1.3)
= bending capacity reduction factor (Articles
10.48.4.1 and 10.53.1.3)
Rev = a range of stress involving both tension and
compression during a stress cycle (Table
10.3. IB)
= vertical force at connections of vertical stiff-
eners to longitudinal stiffeners (Article
10.39.4.4.8)
= vertical web force (Article 10.39.4.4.7)
r = radius of gyration, in (Articles 10.35.1,
10.37.1, 10.41.4.6, 10.48.6.3, 10.54.1.1,
10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
= radius of gyration in plane of bending (Arti-
cle 10.36)
= radius of gyration with respect to the Y-Y
axts (Article 10.48.1.1)
= radius of gyration in inches of the compres-
sion flange about the axis in the plane of the
web (Table l0.32.lA, Article 10.48.4.1)
S = allowable rivet or bolt unit stress in shear
(Article 10.32.3.3.4)
S = section modulus, in
3 (Articles 10.48.2,
10.51.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.53.1.3)
S = pitch of any two successive holes in the chain
(Article 10.16.14.2)
= range of horizontal shear (Article
10.38.5.1.1)
5, = section modulus of transverse stiffener, inn.
(Articles 10.39.4.4 and 10.48.6.3)
5, = section modulus of longitudinal or transverse
stiffener, in3 (Article 10.48.6.3)
S = ultimate strength of the shear connector (Ar-
tide 10.38.5.1.2)
5,, = section modulus with respect to the com-
pression flange, in3 (Table l0.32.IA, Article
10.48.4.1)
s = computed rivet or bolt unit stress in shear
(Article 10.32.3.3.4)
T = range in tensile stress (Table 10.3.1B)
1 = direct tension per bolt due to external load
(Articles 10.32.3 and 10.56.2)
T = arch rib thrust at the quarter point from
dead+live+impact loading (Articles
10.37.1 and 10.55.1)
= thickness of the thinner outside plate or
shape (Article 10.35.2)
= thickness of members in compression (Arti-
cle 10.35.2)
= thickness of thinnest part connected, in (Ar-
ticles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
= computed rivet or bolt unit stress in tenston,
includingany stress due to prying action (Ar-
ticle 10.32.3.3.4)
= thickness of the wearing surface, in (Article
10.4 1.2)
= flange thickness, in (Articles 10.34.2.1,
10.39.4.2, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, 10.50, and
10.5 1.5.1)
= thickness of a flange angle (Article 10.34.2.2)
= thickness of the web of a channel, in (Article
10.38.5.1.2)
= thickness of stiffener (Article 10.48.5.3)
I,,= thickness of flange delivering concentrated
force (Article 10.56.3.2)
IC = thickness of flange of member to be stiffened
(Article 10.56.3.2)
= thickness of the flange (Articles 10.37.3,
10.55.3, and 10.39.4.3)
th = thickness of the concrete haunch above the
beam or girder top flange (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
= thickness of stiffener (Article 10.37.2 and
10.55.2)
= slab thickness (Articles 10.38.5.1.2,
10.50.1.1.1, 10.50.1.I.2)
= web thickness, in (Articles 10.15.2.1,
10.34.3, 10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.37.2, 10.48,
10.49.2, 10.49.3, 10.55.2, and 10.56.3)
=thickness of top flange (Article 10.50. 1.1. I)
= thickness of outstanding stiffener element
(Articles 10.39.4.5.1 and 10.51.5.5)
V =shearing force (Articles 10.35.1, 10.48.5.3,
10.48.8, and 10.5 1.3)
V
1, = shear yielding strength of the web (Articles
10.48.8 and 10.53.1.4)
10.1.1 DIV ISION 1DESIGN
223
V r = range of shear due to live loads and impact,
kips (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
= maximum shear force (Articles 10.34.4,
10.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.53.1.4)
vertical shear (Article 10.39.3. 1)
design shear for a web (Articles 10.39.3.1
and 10.5 1.3)
W = length of a channel shear connector, in (Arti-
cle 10.38.5.1.2)
= roadway width between curbs in feet or bar-
riers if curbs are not used (Article 10.39.2. 1)
= fraction of a wheel load (Article 10.39.2)
w = length of a channel shear connector in inches
measured in a transverse direction on the
flange of a girder (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
w unit weight of concrete, lb per cu ft (Article
10.38.5.1.2)
w = width of flange between longitudinal stiffen-
ers (Articles 10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and
10.51.5.4)
Y = ratio of web plate yield strength to stiffener
plate yield strength (Articles 10.34.4 and
10.48.5.3)
= distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
outer fiber, in(Article 10.15.3)
5; = location of steel sections from neutral axis
(Article l0.50.l.l.l)
Z plastic section modulus (Articles 10.48.1,
l0.53.l.l,and 10.54.2.1)
= allowable range of horizontal shear, in
pounds on an individual connector (Article
10.38.5.1)
ci = constant based on the number of stress cycles
(Article 10.38.5.1.1)
ci = minimum specified yield strength of the web
divided by the minimum specified yield
strength of the tension flange (Articles
10.40.2 and 10.40.4)
[3 = area of the web divided by the area of the ten-
sion flange (Articles 10.40.2 and 10.53.1.2)
p = Fyw/Fyf (Article 10.53.1.2)
0 = angle of inclination of the web plate to the
vertical (Articles 10.39.3.1 and 10.51.3)
= ratio of total cross-sectional area to the cross-
sectional area ofboth flanges (Article 10.15.2)
= distance from the outer edge of the tension
flange tothe neutral axis divided by the depth
of the steel section (Articles 10.40.2 and
10.53.1.2)
A = amount of camber, in (Article 10.15.3)
A
01 = dead load camber in inches at any point (Ar-
ticle 10.15.3)
Am = maximum value of AOL, in (Article 10.15.3)
4) = reduction factor (Articles 10.38.5.1.2,
10.56.1.1, and 10.56.1.3)
4) = longitudinal stiffener coefficient (Articles
10.39.4.3 and 10.5 1.5.4)
p = slip coefficient in a slip-critical joint (Article
1 0. 5 7 . 3 )
10.2 MATERIALS
10.2.1 General
These specifications recognize steels listed in the fol-
lowing subparagraphs. Other steels may be used; how-
ever, their properties, strengths, allowable stresses, and
workability must be established and specified.
10.2.2 Structural Steels
Structural steels shall conform to the material desig-
nated in Table l0.2A. (The stresses in this table are in
pounds per square inch.) The modulus of elasticity of all
grades of structural steel shall be assumed to be
29,000,000 psi and the coefficient of linear expansion
0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit.
10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion
Rockers
Steels for pins, rollers, and expansion rockers may con-
form to one of the designations listed below and in Table
l0.2B, in addition to the designations listed in Table
l0.2A.
Steel Bars, Carbon Cold Finished Standard Quality,
AASHTO M 169 (ASTMA 108) and Steel Forgings, Car-
bon and Alloy, for General Industrial Use, AASHTO M
102 (ASTM A 668).
10.2.4 FastenersRivets and Bolts
Fasteners may be carbon steel bolts (ASTM A 307);
power-driven rivets, AASHTO M 228 Grades I or 2
(ASTM A 502 Grades I or 2); or high-strength bolts,
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253
(ASTMA 490).
10.2.5 Weld Metal
Weld metal shall conform to the current requirements
of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS DI.5 Bridge Welding Code.
TABLE I0.2A
Type
Minimum Material Properties
Structural Steel Quenched
Structural High-Strength and Tempered
Steel Low-Alloy Steel Low-Alloy Steel
High-Yield Strength, Quenched
and Tempered Alloy Steel
AASHTODesignation
8 M 270 M 270 M 270 M 270
Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W Grade 70W
M 270
Grades 100/100W
Equivalent ASTM
Designation A 709 A 709 A709 A 709
Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W Grade 70W
A 709
Grades 100/ l00Wb
ThicknessofPlates Upto4in. Upto4in. Upto4in. Upto4in.
incl.c md. md. md.
Upto2in. Over2 l/2in. to
mcI. 4 in. md.
Shapesd All groupse All groups All groups Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
Minimum Tensile
Strength, F~ 58 ,000 65,000 70,000 90,000 110,000 100,000
Minimum Yield Point
or Minimum Yield
Strength, F~ 36,000 50,000 50,000 70,000 100,000 90,000
Except for the mandatory notch toughness and weldability requirements, the ASTM designations are similar to the AASHTOdesignations. Steels
meeting the AASHTO requirements are prequalified for use in welded bridges.
bQuenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes and seamless mechanical tubing meeting all mechanical and chemical requirements of A709
Grades 100/100W, except that the specified maximumtensile strength may be 140,000 psi for structural shapes and 145,000 psi for seamless mechan-
ical tubing, shall be considered as A709 Grades 100/100W
M 270 Gr. 36 and A 709 Or. 36 are equivalent to M 18 3 and A 36.
M270 Or. 50 and A 709 Or. 50 are equivalent to M 223 Gr. 50 and A 572 Gr. 50.
M270 Gr. 50W andA 709 Or. SOW are equivalent to M222 and A 58 8 .
M270 Gr. 70W and A 709 Gr. 70W are equivalent to A 8 52.
M270 Gr. 100/100W and A709 Gr. 100/100W are equivalent toM 244 and A 514.
8 Groups 1 and 2 include all shapes except those in Groups 3, 4, and 5. Group 3 includes L-shapes over 3/4 inch in thickness. HP shapes over t02
pounds/foot, and the following W shapes:
Designation:
W36 x 230 to 300 mcI.
W33 x 200 to 240 mcI.
W14 x 142 to 211 mcI.
W12 x 120 to 190 mcI.
Group 4 includes the following W shapes: W14 x 219 to 550 mcI.
GroupS includes the following W shapes: W14 x 605 to 730 mcI.
For breakdown of Groups I and 2, see ASTM A 6.
eFor nonstructural applications or bearing assembly components over 4 thick, use AASHTO M270 Or. 36 (ASTM A709 Or. 36).
TABLE 10.2B
Minimum Material Properties
Pins, Rollers, and Rockers
Expansion Rollers Shall be Not less Than 4 Inches in Diameter
AASHTO Designation
with Size Limitations
M 169
4 in. in dia. or
less
M 102
to 20 in. in dia.
M 102
to 20 in. in dia.
M 102
to 10 in. in dia.
M 102
to 20 in. in dia.
ASTM Designation
Grade or Class
A 108
Grades 1016 to
1030 mcI.
A 668
Class C
A 668
Class D
A668
Class F
A 668
Class 0
Minimum Yield Point, psi
F
5 36,0008 33,000 37,500 50,000 50,000
Wor design purpose only. Not a pan ofthe A 108 specifications. Supplementary material requirements should provide guarantee that material will
meet these values.
May substitute rolled material of the tame properties.
10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable
Castings, Cast Iron, and Bronze or Copper
Alloy
10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
Cast steel shall conform to specifications for Steel
Castings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM
A 486); Mild-to-Medium-Strength Carbon-Steel Cast-
mngs for General Application, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM
A 27); and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromsum,
Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel -BasedAlloy Castings
for General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A
743). Ductile iron castings shall conform to ASTM A
536.
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for
Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47, Grade 35018 (min-
imum yield point 35,000 psi).
10.2.6.3 Cast Iron
Cast i r o n c a s t i n gs s ha l l conform to specifications for
Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105, Class 30.
10.2.6.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy
Bronze castings shall conform to AASHTO M 107
(ASTM B 22) Copper Alloys 913 or 911 or, Copper-Alloy
Plates shall conform to AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100).
Part B
DESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING ANDTOUGHNESS
CONSIDERATIONS
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress
Members and fasteners subject to repeated variations or
reversals of stress shall be designed so that the maximum
stress does not exceedthe basic allowable stresses givenin
Article 10.32 and that the actual range of stress does not
exceed the allowable fatigue stress range given in Table
10.3. IA for the appropriate type and location of material
gi v en i n Ta b l e l 0. 3 . IB a n d s ho wn in Figure l0.3.IC.
For unpainted weathering steel, A709, all grades, the
values of allowable fatigue stressrange, Table 10.3.1 A, as
modified by footnote d, are valid only when the design
and details are in accordance with the FHWA Technical
Advisory on Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures,
d a t ed O c t o b er 3, 1989.
Main load carrying components subjected to tensile
stresses that may be considered nonredundant load path
membersthat is, where failure of a single element could
cause collapseshall be designed for the allowable stress
ranges indicated in Table 10.3. IAfor Nonredundant Load
Path Structures. Examples of nonredundant load path
m em b er s a r e f l a n ge a n d web plates in one or two girder
b r i d ges , m a i n o n e-el em en t t r u s s m em b er s , ha n ger p l a t es .
and caps at single or two-column bents.
10.3.2 Load Cycles
10.3.2.1 The number of cycles of maximum stress
range tobe considered in the design shall be selected from
Table l0.3.2A unless t r a f f i c a n d l o a d o m et er s u r v eys o r
other considerations indicate otherwinse.
10.3.2.2 Allowable fatigue stresses shall apply to
t ho s e Gr o u p Loadings that include live load or wind load.
10.3.2.3 The number of cycles of stress range to be
considered for wind loads incombination with dead loads,
ex c ep t f o r s t r u c t u r es wher e o t her c o n s i d er a t i o n s i n d i c a t e
a s u b s t a n t i a l l y different number of cycles, shall be
100,000 cycles.
10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
10.3.3.1 Main load carrying member components
subjected to tensile stress require supplemental impact
properties as described in the Material Speciflcations.**
10.3.3.2 These impact requirements vary depending
on the type of steel, type of construction, welded or me-
chanically fastened, and the average minimum service
temperature to which the structure may be subjected.***
Table l0.3.3A contains the temperature zone designations.
AAS HTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials
and Methods of Sampling and Testings.
***The basis and philosophy used to develop thesc requirements arc
given in a paper entitled The Development of AASHT() Fracture.
Toughness Requirements for Bridge Steels by John M. Barsom, FeW
mary 1975, available from the American Iron and Stect Institute, ~
ington, DC.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE I0.3.IA Allowable Fatigue Stress Range
Redundant Load Path Structures*
Category
(See Table
10.3. IB)
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (ksi)a
For For For For over
100,000 500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000
Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles
B
B
B
C
63 (
49)d 37 (29)d 24 (18)d 24 (16)d
49 29 18 16
39 23 14.5 12
35.5 21 13 10
I 2b
F
F
F
28 16 10 7
22 13 8 4.5
16 9.2 5.8 2.6
15 12 9 8
Nonredundant Load Path Structures
Category
(See Table
l0.3.IB)
Allowable Range of Stress, Fsr (ksi)
8
For For For For over
100,000 500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000
Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles
B
B
B
C
50 (
39)d 29 (23)d 24 (jfi)d 24 (16)d
39 23 16 16
31 18 11 II
28 16 10 9
11
E
EC
F
F
22 13 8 5
17 10 6 2.3
12 7 4 1.3
12 9 7 6
* Structure types with multi-load paths where a single fracture in a
member cannot lead to the collapse. For example, a simply supported
single span multi-beam bridge or a multi-element eye bar truss member
has redundant load paths.
The range of stress is defined as the algebraic difference between
the maximum stress and the minimum stress. Tension stress is
considered to have the opposite algebraic sign from compression
stress.
For transverse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges.
cNciial length welded coverplates shall not be usedon flanges more
than 0.8 inches thick for nonredundant load path structures.
dFor unpainted weathering steel, A 709, all grades, when used in
conformance with the FHWA Technical Advisory on Uncoated
Weathering Steel in Structures, dated October 3, 198 9.
10.3.3.3 Cotnponents requiring mandatory impact
properties s ha l l b e d es i gn a t ed o n t he d r a wi n gs a n d the ap-
propriate zone shall be designated in the contract docu-
ments.
10.3.3.4 M 270 Grades 100/100W steel shall be sup-
plied to Zone 2 requirements as a mmnmmum.
10.3.4 Shear
10.3.4.1 When longitudinal beam or girder members
in bridges designed for Case I roadways are investigated
for over 2 million stress cycles produced by placing a
single truck on the bridge (see footnote c of Table
l 0. 3 . 2 A) , t he t o t a l s hea r f o r c e i n t he b ea m o r gi r d er u n d er
this single-truck loading shall be limited to 0.58 FyDt,,C.
The constant C, the ratio of the buckling shear stress to the
s hea r yi el d s t r es s is defined in Article 10.34.4.2 or Article
10.48.8.1.
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN
For the calculation of stresses, span lengths shall be as-
sumed as the distance between centers of bearings or other
points of support.
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS
10.5.1 F o r b ea m s o r gi r d er s , t he r a t i o o f d ep t h t o l en gt h
of span preferably should not be less than /2~.
10.5.2 For composite girders, the ratio of the overall
depth of girder (concrete slab plus steel girder) to the
length of span preferably should not be less than /~, and
the ratio of depth of steel girder alone to length of span
preferably should not be less than /s.
10.5.3 For trusses the r a t i o of depth to length of span
preferably should not be less than V.
10.5.4 For continuous span depth ratios the span length
s ha l l be considered as the distance between the dead load
points of contraflexure.
10.5.5 The foregoing requirements as they relate to
beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
of the designer.*
10.6 DEFLECTION
10.6.1 The term deflection as used herein shall be
the deflection computed in accordance with the assump-
tion made for loading when computing the stress in the
member.
*For considerations to be taken into account when exceeding these
limitations, reference is made to Bulletin No. 19. Criteria for the De-
flection of Steel Bridges, available from the American Iron and Steel
Institute, Washington, D.C.
226 10.3.1
TABLE l0.3.IB
General Condition Situation
Kind of
Stress
Stress
Category
(See Table
10.3. IA)
Illustrative
Example
(See Figure
10.3. lC)
Plain Member Tor Rev
3 A 1,2
Built-Up Members
Base metal with rolled or cleaned surface. Flame-cut edges
with ANSI smoothness of 1,000 or less.
Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up plates or
shapes (without attachments) connected by continuous full
penetration groove welds (with backing barsremoved) or by
continuous fillet welds parallel to the direction of applied
stress.
T or Rev
Base metal and weld metal in members of built-up plates or
shapes (without attachments) connected by continuous full
penetration groove welds with backing bars not removed, or
by continuous partial penetration groove welds parallel to the
direction of applied stress.
Calculated flexural stress at the toe of transverse stiffener
welds on girder webs or flanges.
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates with
high-strength bolted slip-critical end connections. (See Note f.)
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates
narrower than the flange having square or tapered ends, with
or without welds across the ends, or wider than flange with
welds across the ends:
(a) Flange thickness ~ 0.8 in.
(b) Flange thickness >0.8 in.
Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates wider
than the flange without welds across the ends.
Groove Welded
Connections
Base metal and weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration
groove weld splices of rolled or welded sections having similar
profiles when welds are ground flush with grinding in the
direction of applied stress and weld soundness established by
nondestructive inspection.
groove weld splices with 2 ft radius transitions in width,
when welds are ground flush with grinding in the direction
of applied stress and weld soundness established by
nondestructive inspection.
T or Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
groove weld splices at transitions in width or thickness, with
welds ground to provide slopes no steeper than I to 2, with
grinding in the direction of the applied stress, and weld
soundness established by nondestructive inspection:
Groove Welded
Attachments--
Longitudinally
Loaded5
(a) AASHTO M 270 Grades 100/100W (ASTM A 709)
base metal
(b) Other base metals
gr o o v e wel d s p l i c es , wi t h o r wi t ho u t t r a n s i t i o n s ha v i n g s l o p es
no greater than I to 2 1/2 , when the reinforcement is not
removed and weld soundness is established by nondestructive
inspection.
Base metal adjacent todetails attached by full or partial
penetration groove welds when the detail length, L, in the
direction of stress, is less than 2 in.
Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial
d i r ec t i o n o f s t r es s , i s b et ween 2 i n . a n d 1 2 t i m es t he p l a t e
t hi c kn es s b u t l es s t ha n 4 i n .
Tor Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
T or Rev
B 3,4,5,7
C 6
B 22
E 7
7
E 7
B 8 ,10
B 13
B 11,12
B 11,12
C 8 ,10,11,12
C 6,15
D 15
B 3,4,5,7
2 2 8
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.6.1
TABLE l0.3.IB (Continued)
Stress Illustrative
Category Example
Kind of (See Table (See Figure
General Condition Situation Stress tO.3.lA) 10.3. lC)
direction of stress, is greater than 12 times the plate thickness
or greater than 4 in.:
(a) Detail thickness < 1.0 in.
(b) Detail thickness =1.0 in.
penetration groove welds with a transition radius, R,
regardless of the detail length:
With the end welds ground smooth
(a) Transition radius =24 in.
(b) 24 in. >Transitionradius =6 in.
(c) 6 in. >Transition radius =2 in.
(d) 2 in. > Transition radius =0 in.
For all transition radii without end welds ground smooth.
Detail base metal attached by full penetration groove welds
with a transition radius, R, regardless of the detail length and
with weld soundness transverse to the direction of stress
establishedby nondestructive inspection:
With equal plate thickness and reinforcement removed
(b) 24 in. >Transition radius =6 in.
(c) 6 in. > Transition radius =2 in.
(d) 2 in. >Transitionradius =0 in.
With equal plate thickness and reinforcement not removed
(b) 6 in. >Transitionradius =2 in.
(c) 2 in. >Transitionradius =0 in.
With unequal plate thickness andreinforcement removed
(a) Transitionradius =2 in.
(b) 2 in. >Transition radius =0 in.
For all transition radii with unequal plate thickness and
reinforcement not removed.
Base metal at details connected with transversely loaded
welds, with the welds perpendicular tothe direction of stress:
(a) Detail thickness < 0.5 in.
(b) Detail thickness >0.5 in.
Base metal at intermittent fillet welds.
Shear stress on throat of fillet welds.
Base metal adjacent todetails attached by fillet welds with
length, L, in the directionof stress, is less than 2 in. and
stud-type shear connectors.
B a s e m et a l a d j a c en t t o d et a i l s a t t a c hed b y f i l l et wel d s wi t h
length, L, in the directionof stress, between 2 in. and 12
t i m es t he p l a t e t hi c kn es s but less than 4 in.
T or Rev
T or Rev
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
Shear
T or Rev
T or Rev
B
C
D
E
C
D
E
D
E
16
16
16
F 16
C
See Noted
F
F
14
9
C 15,17,18,20
D 15,17
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds with
length, L, in the direction of stress greater than 12 times the
plate thickness or greater than 4 in.:
(a) Detail thickness K 1.0 in.
(b) Detail thickness =1.0 in.
T or Rev
Tor Rev
E IS
15
Groove welded
Attachments--
Transversely
Loaded~~.c
Tor Rev
Tor Rev
B
C
D
E
E
16
16
Fillet Welded
Connections
Fillet Welded
Attachments--
Longitudinally
Loadedb,c.e
Tor Rev
T or Rev
F 7,9,15,17
7,9,15
TABLE 10.3.1B (Continued)
General Condition Situation
Kind of
Stress
Stress
Category
(See Table
lO.3.IA)
Illustrative
Example
(See Figure
l0.3.IC)
Base metal adjacent to details attached by fillet welds with a
transition radius, R, regardless of the detail length:
(a) Transition radius =2in.
(b) 2 in. > Transition radius =0 in.
T or Rev
E
E
16
For all transition radii without the end welds
ground smooth.
TorRev F 16
Fillet Welded
Attachments
Transversely Loaded
with the Weld in
the Direction of
Principal Stressb.e
Detail base metal attached by fillet welds with a transition
radius, R, regardless of the detail length (shear stress on the
throat of fillet welds governed by Category F):
(b) 2 in. > Transition radius =0 in.
T or Rev
F
F
16
F o r a l l t r a n s i t i o n r a d i i wi t ho u t t he en d wel d s gr o u n d s m o o t h. T o r R ev E 1 6
Mechanically
Fastened
Connections
Base metal at gross section of high-strength bolted slip
resistant connections, except axially loadedjoints which
induce out-of-plane bendingin connecting materials.
T or Rev B 21
Base metal at net section of high-strength bolted
bearing-type connections.
T or Rev B 21
Base metal at net section of riveted connections. T or Rev D 21
Eyebar or Pin Plates Base metal at the net section of eyebar head, or pin
plate
Base metal in the shank of eyebars, or through the gross
section of pin plates with:
(a) rolled or smoothly ground surfaces
(b) flame-cut edges
T
T
T
B
B
B
23, 24
23, 24
23,24
T signifies range in tensile stress only, Revsignifies a range of stress involving both tension and compression during a stress cycle.
Longitudinally Loadedsignifies direction of applied stress is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld. Transversely Loadedsignifies
direction of applied stress is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis ofthe weld.
Transversely loaded partial penetration groove welds are prohibited.
dAtlowable fatigue stress range on throat of fillet welds transversely loaded is a functionofthe effective throat and plate thickness. (See Frank and
Fisher, Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, No. 5T9, Sept. 1979.)
(0.06 +0.79Hlt~~
)
1411
-i--i
I I
-~--1 K~
where S~ is equal to the allowable stress range for Category C given in Table 10.3. IA. This assumes no penetration at the weld root.
rGusset plates attached to girder flange surfaces with only transverse fillet welds are prohibited.
~SeeWattar, Aibrecht and Sahli, Joumal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. III, No. 6, June 198 5, pp. 12351249.
10.6.2 Members having simple or continuous spans
preferably should be designed sothat the deflection due to
service live load plus impact shall not exceed ~ of the
span. except on bridges in urban areas used in part by
pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed
10.6.3 The deflection of cantilever arms due to servince
live load plus impact preferably should be limited to Y
5~
of the cantilever arm except for the case including pedes-
t r i a n u s e, wher e t he r a t i o p r ef er a b l y s ho u l d b e /~.
10.6.4 When spans have cross-bracing or diaphragms
sufficient in d ep t h o r s t r en gt h t o ensure lateral distribu-
tion of loads, the deflection may be computed for the
standard H or HS loading (M or MS) considering all
beams or stringers as acting together and having equal
deflection.
230 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.6.4
12
2 Rad
13
C ~)
C ~)
C
)
10
18
19
(ifl weg~ met al)
~aph
End, Tapered
Flano-
7
8
9
C At End al Weld, Has No Leng th
23
2 4
FIGURE 1O.3.1C Illustrative Examples
DIVISlON 1DESIGN
TABLE l0.3.2A Stress Cycles
Main (Longitudinal) Load Carrying Members
Truck Lane
Type of Road Case ADIT~ Loading Loading
500,000
Freeways. Expressways,
Major Highways, and
Streets
t 2,500or
more
2,000,000
Freeways, Expressways,
Major Highways, and
Streets
It less than
2,500
500,000 100,000
Other Highways and
Streets not includedin
Case I or II
ttl 100,000 100,000
Transverse Members and Details Subjected to Wheel Loads
Type of Road Case ADTT
Truck
Loading
Freeways, Expressways,
Major Highways, and
Streets
1 2,500 or
more
over
2,000,000
Freeways. Expressways,
Major Highways, and
Streets
II less than
2,500
2,000,000
Other Highways and
Streets
Ill 500,000
~AverageDaily Truck Traffic (one direction).
Longitudinal members should also be checked for truck loading.
Members shall also be investigated for over 2 million stress
cycles produced by placing a single truck on the bridge distributed to
the girders as designated in Article 3.23.2 for one traffic lane loading.
The shear in steel girder webs shall not exceed 0.58 F~Dt,,C for this
singie truck loading.
10.6.5 The moment of inertia of the gross cross-sec-
tional area shall be used for computing the defiections of
beams and girders. When the beam or girder is a part of a
composite member, the service live load may be consid-
ered as acting upon the composite section.
10.6.6 The gross area of each truss member shall
be used in computing deflections of trusses. If per-
forated plates are used, the effective area shall be the net
volume divided by the length from center to center of
perforations.
10.6.7 The foregoing requirements as they relate to
beatn or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
of the designer.
t
10.7 LIMITING I,ENGTHS OF MEMBERS
10.7.1 For con1pression members, the ,lendet ness r atio.
KLJt. shall not exceed I 2() for main tnetnbers, or those in
Dir considerations to be taken init account ss hen e \ccedi ng these
limitations. reference is nude to l3ulletin No. I ~J.Criteria tbr the t)e
Ileetion of Stee] Bridge~, as ailahie root the Atoericati lion and Steel
Institute. Nash ington. D.C
TABLE 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for
Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
Minimum Temperature
Service Temperature Zone Designation
00F and above
lFto--30F 2
31Fto 600F 3
which the major stresses result from dead or live load, or
both; and shall not exceed 140 for secondary members, or
those whose primary purpose is to brace the structure
against lateral or longitudinal force, or to brace or reduce
the unbracedlength of other members, main or secondary.
10.7.2 In determining the radius of gyration, r, for the
purpose of applying the limitations of the KL/r ratio, the
area of any portion of a member may be neglected pro-
vided that the strength of the member as calculated with-
out using the area thus neglected and the strength of the
member as computed for the entire section with the KL/r
ratio applicable thereto, both equal or exceed the com-
puted t o t a l force that the member must sustain.
10.7.3 The radius of gyration and the effective area for
carrying stress of a member containing perforated cover
plates shall be computed for a transverse section through
the maximum width of perforation. When perforations are
staggered in opposite cover plates, the cross-sectional
area of the member shall be considered the same as for a
section having perforations in the same transverse plane.
10.7.4 Actual unbraced length, L, shall be assumed as
follows:
For the top chords of half-through trusses, the length
between panel points laterally supported as indicated
under Article It). 16.12; for other main ti~enibers. the
length between panel point intersections or centers of
braced points or centers of end connections; for sec-
ondary members, the length between the centers of the
end connections of such members or centers of braced
points.
10.7.5 For tension members. excel)t rods. evebars. ca-
bles, and plates. the ratio of unbraced length to radius of
gyration shall nol exceed 200 for titain members, shall not
exceed 240 for bracing members, and shall not exceed
140 for main members subject to a reversal of stress.
10.8 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL
10.8 .1 Structural steel (including bracing. cross fratimes.
and all types of gLisset plates. except for webs of certain
rolled shapes. closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers, and
10.6.5 231
232 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.8 .1
in railings, shall be not less than Ys inch inthickness. The
web thickness of rolled beams or channels shall not be
less than 0.23 inches. The thickness of closed ribs in or-
t ho t r o p i c d ec ks s ha l l n o t b e l es s than Y
6 inch.
10.8.2 Where the metal will be exposed to marked cor-
rosive influences, it shall be increased inthickness or spe-
cially protected against corrosion.
10.8 .3 It should be noted that there are other provisions
in this section pertaining to thickness for fillers, segments
of compression members, gusset plates, etc. As stated
above, fillers need not be ~ inch minimum.
10.8.4 For compression members, refer to Trusses
(Article 10.16).
10.8.5 For stiffeners and other plates, refer to Plate
Girders (Article 10.34).
10.8.6 For stiffeners and outstandinglegs of angles, etc.,
r ef er t o Ar t i c l e 1 0. 1 0.
10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND
TEE SECTIONS IN TENSION
10.9.1 The effective area of a single angel tension mem-
ber, a tee section tension member, or each angle of a dou-
ble angle tension member in which the shapes are con-
nected backto back on the same side of agusset plate shall
be assumed as the net area of the connected leg or flange
plus one-half of the area of the outstanding leg.
10.9.2 If a double angle or tee section tension member
ts connected with the angles or flanges backto back on op-
posite sides of a gusset plate, the full net area of the shapes
shall be considered effective.
10.9.3 When angles connect to separate gusset plates, as
in the case of a double-webbed truss, and the angles are
connectedby stay plates locatedas near the gusset as prac-
ticable, or by other adequate means, the full net area of the
angles shall be considered effective. If the angles are not
so connected, only 80 percent of the net areas shall be con-
sidered effective.
10.9.4 Lug angles may be considered as effective in
transmitting stress, provided they are connected with at
least one-third more fasteners than required by the stress
to be carried by the lug angle.
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OFANGLES
The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compres-
ston (except where reinforced by plates) shall not exceed
the following:
In main members carrying axial stress, 12 times the
thickness.
In bracing and other secondary members, 16 times the
thickness.
For other limitations, see Article 10.35.2.
10.11 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to
resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided
for movement caused by temperature changes. Provmstons
shall be made for changes in length of span resulting from
live load stresses. In spans more than 300 feet long, al-
lowance shall be made for expansion and contraction in
the floor. The expansion end shall be secured against lat-
eral movement.
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Flexural members shall be designed using the elastic
section modulus except when utilizing compact sections
under Strength Design as specified in Articles 10.48.1,
10.50.1.1, and 10.50.2.1.
10.13 COVER PLATES
10.13.1 The length of any cover plate added to a rolled
beam shall be not less than (2d3)feet, where (d) is the
depth of the beam in feet.
10.13.2 Partial length welded cover plates shall not be
used on flanges more than 0.8 inches thick for nonredun-
dant load path structures subjected to repetitive loadings
that produce tension or reversal of stress in the member.
10.13.3 The maximum thickness of a single cover plate
on a flange shall not be greater than two times the thick-
ness of the flange to which the cover plate is attached. The
total thickness of all cover plates should not be greater
than 2/2 times the flange thickness.
10.13.4 Any partial length welded cover plate shall ex-
tend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance,
and it shall extend to a section where the stress ranee in
the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress
range for base metal adjacent to or connected by fillet
welds. The theoretical end of the cover plate. when using
service load design methods, is the section at which the
stress in the flange without that cover plate equals the al-
lowable service load stress, exclusive of fatigue consider-
ations. When using strength design methods, the theoret-
10. 13.4 DIVISION IDESIGN 233
ical end of the cover plate is the section at which the flange
strength without that cover plate equals the required
strength for the design loads, exclusive of fatigue require-
ments. The terminal distance is two times the nominal
cover plate width for cover plates not welded across their
ends, and l/s times for cover plates welded across their
ends. The width at ends of tapered cover plates shall be
not less than 3 inches. The weld connecting the cover
plate to the flange in its terminal distance shall be contin-
uous and of sufficient size todevelop a total stress of not
less than the computed stress in the cover plate at its the-
oretical end. All welds connecting cover plates to beam
flanges shall be continuous and shall not be smaller than
the minimum size permitted by Article 10.23.2.
10.13.5 Any partial length end-bolted cover plate shall
extend beyond the theoretical end by a terminal distance
equal to the length of the end-bolted portion, andthe cover
plate shall extendto a section where the stressrange in the
beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress range
for base metal at ends of partial length welded cover plates
with high-strength bolted, slip-critical end connections
(Table 10.3. lB). Beams with end-bolted cover plates shall
be fabricated in the following sequence: drill holes; clean
faying surfaces; install bolts; weld. The theoretical end of
the end-bolted cover plate is determined in the same man-
ner as that of a welded cover plate, as is specified in Arti-
cle 10.13.4. The bolts in the slip-critical connections of
the cover plate ends to the flange, shall be of sufficient
numbers to develop atotal force of not less than the com-
puted force in the cover plate at the theoretical end. The
slip resistance of the end-bolted connection shall be de-
termined in accordance with Article 10.32.3.2 for service
load design, and 10.56.1.4 for load factor design. The lon-
gitudinal welds connecting the cover plate to the beam
flange shall be continuous and stop a distance equal to one
bolt spacing before the first row of bolts in the end-bolted
portion.
mum yield point greater than 50,000 psi shall not be heat-
curved.
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature
10.15.2.1 For heat-curved beams and girders, the
horizontal radius of curvature measured to the center line
of the girder web shall not be less than 150 feet and shall
not be less than the larger of the values calculated (at any
and all cross sections throughout the length of the girder)
from the following two equations:
l4bD
F~ ~ t
7 SOOb
(10-1)
(10-2)
In these equations, F, is the specified minimum yield
point in kips per square inch of steel in the girder web, 4
is the ratio of the total cross-sectional area to the cross-
sectional area of both flanges, b is the widest flange width
in inches, D is the clear distance between flanges in
inches, t~ is the web thickness in inches. and R is the ra-
dius in inches.
10.15.2.2 In addition to the above requirements, the
radius shall not be less than 1,000 feet when the flange
thickness exceeds 3 inches or the flange width exceeds
30 inches.
10.15.3 Camber
To compensate for possible loss of camber of heat-
curved girders in service as residual stresses dissipate, the
amount of camber in inches, A at any section along the
length L of the girder shall be equal to:
10.14 CAMBER
Girders should be cambered to compensate for dead
load deflections and vertical curvature required by profile
grade.
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND
WELDED PLATE GIRDERS
10.15.1 Scope
This section pertains to rolled beams and welded I-sec-
tion plate girders heat-curved to obtain a horizontal cur-
vature. Steels that are manufactured to a specified mini-
A
A= OL(A+A)
AM
(10-3)
0.02_L
2F~(l,oooR~
AR EY~850)
0
AR 0 for radii greater than 1,000
where AOL is the camber in inches at any potnt along the
length L calculated by usual procedures to compensate for
deflection due to dead loads or any other specified loads;
AM is the maximum value of AOL in inches within the
length U; F is the modulus of elasticity in ksi; F~ is the
specified minimum yield point in ksi of the girder flange;
Y
0 is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
234
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10. 15.3
outer fiber in inches (maximum distance for non-symmet-
rical sections); R is the radius of curvature in feet; and L
is the span length for simple spans or for continuous
spans, the distance between a simple end support and the
dead load contraflexure point, or the distance between
points of dead load contraflexure. (L is measured in
inches.) Camber loss between dead load contraflexure
points adjacent topiers is small and may be neglected.
Note: Part of the camnber loss is attributable to construe-
tion loads and will occur during construction of the
bridge; total camber loss will be complete after
several months of in-service loads. Therefore a
portion of the camber increase (approximately 50
percent) should be included in the bridge profile.
Camber losses of this nature (but generally smaller
in magnitude) are also known to occur in straight
beams and girders.
10.16 TRUSSES
10.16.1 General
10.16.1.1 Component parts of individual truss metn-
hers may be connected by welds, rivets, or high-strength
bolts.
10.16.1.2 Preference should be given to trusses with
single intersection web systems. Members shall be sym-
metrical about the central plane of the truss.
10.16.1.3 Trusses preferably shall have inclined end
posts. Laterally unsupported hip joints shall be avoided.
10.16.1.4 Main trusses shall be spaced a sufficient
distance apart, center to center, to be secure against over-
turning by the assumed lateral forces.
10.16.1.5 For the calculation of stresses, effective
depths shall he assumed as follows:
Riveted and bolted trusses, distance between centers of
gravity of the chords.
Pin-connected trusses, distance between centers of
chord pins.
10.16.2 Truss Members
10.16.2.1 Chord and web truss members shall usu-
ally be made in the following shapes:
H sections, made withtwo side segments (composed
of angles or plates) with solid web, perforated web, or
web of stay plates and lacing.
Channel sections, made with two angle segments. with
solid web, perforated web, or web of stay plates and
lacing.
Single Box sections, mnade with side channels, beams,
angles, and plates or side segments of plates only, con-
nected top and bottom with perforated plates or stay
plates and lacing.
Single Box sections. made with side channels, beams,
angles and plates only. connected at top with solid
cover plates and at the bottom with perforated plates or
stay plates and lacing.
Double Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
angles andplates or side segments of plates only, con-
nected with aconventional solid web, together with top
and bottom perforated cover plates or stay plates and
lacing.
10.16.2.2 If the shape of the truss permits. compres-
sion chords shall be continuous.
10.16.2.3 In chords composed of angles in channel-
shaped members, the vertical legs of the angles preferably
shall extend downward.
10.16.2.4 If web members are subject to reversal of
stress, their end connections shall not be pinned. Counters
preferably shall be rigid. Adjustable counters, if used.
shall have open turnbuckles, and in the design of these
members an allowance of 10,000 pounds per square inch
shall be made for initial stress. Only one set of diagonals
in any panel shall be adjustable. Sleeve nuts and loop bars
shall not be used.
10.16.3 Secondary Stresses
The design and details shall be such that secondary
stresses will be as small as practicitble. Secondary stresses
due to truss distortion or floor beam deflection usually
need not be considered in any member, the width of
which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion. is less
than one-tenth of its length. If the secondary stress ex-
ceeds 4,000 pounds per square inch for tension members
and 3,000 for compression members, the excess shall be
treated as a primary stress. Stresses due to the flexural
dead load moment of the member shall be considered as
additional secondary stress.
10.16.4 Diaphragms
10.16.4.1 There shall be diaphragms in the trusses at
the end connections of floor beams.
10.16.4.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
235
10.16.4.2 The gusset plates engaging the pedestal pin
at the end of the truss shall be connected by adiaphragm.
Similarly, the webs of the pedestal shall, if practicable, be
connected by a diaphragm.
10.16.4.3 There shall be a diaphragmbetween gusset
plates engaging main members if the end tie plate is 4 feet
or more from the point of intersection of the members.
10.16.5 Camber
The length of the truss members shall be such that the
camber will be equal to or greater than the deflection pro-
duced by the dead load.
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes
10.16.6.1 Main members shall be proportioned so
that their gravity axes will be as nearly as practicable in
the center of the section.
10.16.6.2 In compressmon members of unsymmetri-
cal section, such as chord sections formed of side seg-
rnents and a cover plate, the gravity axis of the seetton
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the working
line, except that eccentricity may be introduced to coun-
teract dead load bending. In two-angle bottomn chord or di-
agonal members.~, the working line may be taken as the
gage line nearest the back of the angle or at the center of
gravity for welded trusses.
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing
10.16.7.1 Through truss spans shall have portal brac-
ing, preferably, of the two-plane or box type, rigidly con-
nected to the end post and the top chord flanges~, and as
deepas the clearance will allow. If asingle plane portal is
ttsed. it shall be located, preferably. in the central trans-
verse plane of the endposts, with diaphragms between the
webs of the posts to provide for a distribution of the por-
tal stresses. The portal bracing shall be designed to take
the full end reaction of the top chord lateral system. and
the end posts shall be designed to transfer this reaction to
the truss bearings.
10.16.7.2 Through truss spans shall have sway brac-
ing 5 feet or more deep at each intermediate panel point.
Top lateral struts shall be at least as deep as the top chord.
10.16.7.3 Deck truss spans shall have sway bracing
in the plane of the end posts and at all intermediate panel
points. This bracing shall extend the full depth of the
trusses belowthe floor system. The end sway bracing shall
be proportioned to carry the entire upper lateral stress to
the supports through the end posts of the truss.
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates
When perforated cover plates are used, the followimsg
provisions shall govern their design.
10.16.8.1 The ratio of length. in direction of stress. to
width of perforation, shall not exceed two.
10.16.8.2 The clear distance between perforations in
the direction of stress shall not be less than the distance
between points of support.
10.16.8.3 The clear distance between the end perfo-
ration and the end of the cover plate shall not be less than
1 .25 times the distance between points of support.
10.16.8.4 The point of support shall be the inner line
of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the perforated plate
to the flanges. For plates butt welded to the flange edge of
rolled segments, the point of support may be taken as the
weld whenever the ratio of the outstanding flange width
to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than
seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of
the flange of the rolled segment.
10.16.8.5 The periphery of the perforation at all
points shall have a minimumn radius of 1 inches.
10.16.8.6 For thickness of metal, see Article 10.3.9.2.
10.16.9 Stay Plates
10.16.9.1 Where the open sides of compression
members are not connected by perforated plates. such
members shall be providedwith lacingbars and shall have
stay plates as near each end as practicable. Stay plates
shall be provided at intermediate points where the lacing
ms tnterrupted. In main members. the length of the end stay
plates between end fasteners shall be not less tharm I
times the distance between points of support and
the length of intermediate stay plates not less than of
that distance. In lateral struts and other secondary mnem-
hers, the overall length of endand imitermediate stay plates
shall be not less than of the distance between points of
support.
of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the stay plates to the
flanges. For stay plates butt welded to the flange edge of
236
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10. 16.9.2
rolled segments, the point of support may be taken as the
weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width to
flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than seven.
Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of flange
of rolled segment. When stay plates are butt welded to
rolled segments of a member, the allowable stress mn the
member shall be determined in accordance with Article
10.3. Terminations of butt welds shall be ground smooth.
10.16.9.3 The separate segments of tension members
composed of shapes may be connected by perforated
plates or by stay plates or end stay plates and lacing.
End stay plates shall have the same minmmum length as
specified for end stay plates on main comnpression mem-
bers, and intermediate stay plates shall have a minimum
length of A of that specified for intermediate stay plates
on main compression members. The clear distance be-
tween stay plates on tension members shall not exceed
3 feet.
1 0. 1 6 . 9. 4 The thickness of stay plates shall be not
less than A of the distance between points of support for
main members, and A of that distance for bracing mem-
bers. Stay plates shall be connected by not less than three
fasteners on each side, and in members having lacing bars
the last fastener in the stay plates preferably shall also pass
through the end of the adjacent bar.
10.16.10 Lacing Bars
When lacing bars are used, the following provisions
shall govern their design.
10.16.10.1 Lacing bars of compression members
shall be so spaced that the slenderness ratio of the portion
of the flange included between the lacing bar connections
will be not more than 40 or more than A of the slender-
ness ratio of the member.
10.16.10.2 The section of the lacing bars shall be de-
termined by the formula for axial compression in which
L is taken as the distance along the bar between its con-
nections to the main segments for single lacing, and as 70
percent of that distance for double lacing.
10.16.10.3 If the distance across the member be-
tween fastener lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches
and a bar with a single fastener in the connection is used,
the lacing shall be double and fastened at the intersections.
10.16.10.4 The angle between the lacingbars and the
axms of the member shall be approximately 45 degrees for
double lacing and 60 degrees for single lacing.
10.16.10.5 Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars.
For main members, the minimum thickness of flat bars
shall be V t of the distance along the bar between its con-
nections for single lacing and A for double lacing. For
bracing members, the limits shall be A for single lacing
and i~ for double lacing.
10.16.10.6 The diameter of fasteners in lacing bars
shall not exceed one-thirdthe widthof the bar. There shall
be at least two fasteners in each end of lacing bars con-
nected to flanges more than 5 inches in width.
10.16.11 Gusset Plates
10.16.11.1 Gusset or connection plates preferably
shall be used for connecting main members, except when
the tnembers are pin-connected. The fastemlers connecting
each member shall be symmetrical with the axis of the
member, sofar as practicable, and the full development of
the elements of the member shall be given consideration.
The gusset plates shall be of ample thickness to resmst
shear, direct stress, and flexure acting on the weakest or
critical section of maximum stress.
10.16.11.2 Re-entrant cuts, except curves made for
appearance, shall be avoided as far as practicable.
10.16.11.3 If the length of unsupported edge of
a gusset plate exceeds the value of the expres-
smon 11,000/ F~ times its thickness, the edge shall be
stiffened.
10.16.11.4 Listed below are the values of the expres-
sion 11,000/ F~ for the following grades of steel:
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mm 58
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm 49
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm 42
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mm 37
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mm 35
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans
10.16.12.1 The vertical truss members and the floor
beams and their connections in half-through truss spans
shall be proportioned to resist a lateral force of not less
than 300 pounds per linear foot applied at the top chord
panel points of each truss.
10.16.12.2 The top chord shall be considered as a
column with elastic lateral supports at the panel points.
The critical buckling force of the column, so determined,
10. 16. 12.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
237
shall exceed the maximum force from dead load, live load,
and impact in any panel of the top chord by not less than
50 percent.*
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression
Members
In the ends of compression members, the pitch of fas-
teners connecting the component parts of the member
shall not exceed four times the diameter of the fastener
for alength equal to 1 12 times the maximum width of the
member. Beyond this point, the pitch shall be increased
gradually for a length equal to 1/2 times the maximum
width of the member until the maximum pitch is
reached.
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength
Bolted Tension Members
10.16.14.1 The net section of a riveted or high-
strength bolted tension member is the sum of the net sec-
tions of its component parts. The net section of a part is
the product of the thickness of the part multiplied by its
least net width.
10.16.14.2 The net width for any chain of holes ex-
tending progressively across the part shall be obtained by
deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters
of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each gage
space in the chain, the quantity:
4g
where:
S = pitch of any two successive holes in the chain
g gage of the same holes.
The net section of the part is obtained frotn the chain that
gives the least net width.
10.16.14.3 For angles, the gross width shall be the
sum of the widths of the legs less the thickness. The gage
for holes in opposite legs shall be the sum of gages from
back of angle less the thickness.
10.16.14.4 At a splice, the total stress in the member
being spliced is transferred by fasteners to the splice
material.
*l~tsr a discitusion of columns with elastic lateral supports, refer to Tim
oshenko & Gere. ~Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill look Co.,
First Edition. P. 122.
10.16.14.5 When determining the unit stress on any
least net width of either splice material or member being
spliced, the amount of the stress previously transferred
by fasteners adjacent to the section being investigated
shall be considered in determining the unit stress on the
net section.
10.16.14.6 The diameter of the hole shall be taken as
V t inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivet or
high-strength bolt, unless larger holes are permitted in ac-
cordance with Article 10.24.
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS
10.17.1 General
Bents preferably shall be composed of two supporting
columns, and the bents usually shall be united in pairs to
form towers. The design of members for bents and towers
is governed by applicable articles.
10.17.2 Single Bents
Single bents shall have hinged ends or else shall be de-
signed to resist bending.
10.17.3 Batter
Bents preferably shall have a sufficient spread at the
(10-4) base to prevent uplift under the assumed lateral loadings.
In general, the width of a bent at its base shall be not less
than one-third of its height.
10.17.4 Bracing
10.17.4.1 Towers shall be braced, both transversely
and longitudinally, with stiff members having either
welded, high-strength bolted or riveted connections. The
sections of members of longitudinal bracing in each panel
shall not be less than those of the members in corre-
sponding panels of the transverse bracing.
10.17.4.2 The bracing of long columns shall be de-
signed to fix the column about both axes at or near the
same point.
10.17.4.3 Horizontal diagonal bracing shall be
placed inall towers having more than two vertical panels.
at alternate intermediate panel points.
238 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10. 17.5
10.17.5 Bottom Struts
The bottom struts of towers shall be strong enough to
slide the movable shoes with the structure unloaded, the
coefficient of friction being assumed at 0.25. Provision for
expansion of the tower bracing shall be made in the col-
umn bearings.
10.18 SPLICES
10.18 .1 General
10.18 .1.1 The strength of members connected by
high-strength bolts and rivets shall be determined by the
gross section for compression members. For members pri-
marily in bending, the gross section shall also be used, ex-
cept that if more than 15 percent of each flange area is re-
moved, that amount removed in excess of 15 percent shall
be deducted from the gross area. In no case shall the de-
sign tensile stress on the net section exceed 0.50 F,, when
using service load design method or I .0 F,,, when using
strength design method, where F, equals the minimum
tensile strength of the steel, except that for M 270 Grades
100/100W steels the design tensile stress on the net see-
non shall not exceed 0.46 F, when using the service load
design method. Splices may be made with rivets, by high-
strength bolts, or by the use of welding. Splices, whether
in tension, compression, bending, or shear, shall be de-
signed in the case of service load design for a capacity
based on not less than the average of the calculated design
stress at the point of splice and the allowable stress of the
mrtember at the same point but, in any event, not less than
75 percent of the allowable stress in the member. Splices
inthe ease of strength design method shall be designed for
not less than the average of the required strength at the
point of splice and the strength of the member at the same
point but, in any event, not less than 75 percent of the
strength of the member. Where a section changes at a
splice, the small section is to be used for the above splice
requirements.
10.18 .1.2 If splice plates are not in direct contact
with the parts which they connect, the number of fasten-
ers on each side of the joint shall be in excess of the num-
ber required for a direct contact splice to the extent of at
least two extratransverse lines of fasteners for each inter-
vening plate, except as provided in Article 10.18.1.3 and
10.18.6.
10.18 .1.3 Fillers in high strength bolted slip-critical
connections need not be extended and developed, but ec-
centricity of forces at short, thick fillers must be con-
sidered.
10.18 .1.4 Riveted and bolted flange angle splices
shall include two angles, one on each side of the flexural
member.
10.18.2 Beams and Girders
10.18 .2.1 Web splice plates and their connections
shall be designed for the portion of the design moment re-
ststed by the web and for the moment due to eccentricity
of the shear introduced by the splice connection. Web
plates shall be spliced symmetrically by plates on each
side. The splice plates for shear shall extend the full depth
of the girder between flanges. In the splice there shall be
not less than two rows of rivetsor bolts on each side of the
joint.
10.18.2.2 Flange splice plates need be designed only
for the portion of the design moment not resisted by the
web.
10.18.2.3 As an alternate, splices of rolled flexural
members may be proportioned for a shear equal to the ac-
tual maximum shear multiplied by the ratio of the splice
design moment and the acttmal moment at the splice.
10.18 .2.4 For riveted and bolted flexural members,
splices in flange parts shall not be used between field
splices except by special permission of the Engineer. In
any one flange not more than one part shall be spliced at
the same cross section. If practicable, splices shall be lo-
cated at points where there is an excess of section.
10.18.2.5 In continuous spans, splices preferably
shall be made at or near points of contraflexure.
10.18 .3 Columns
10.18 .3.1. Compression members such as columns
and chords shall have ends in close contact at riveted and
bolted splices. Splices of such members which will be fab-
ricated and erected with close inspection and detailed with
milled ends in full contact bearing at the splices may be
held in place by means of splice plates and rivets or high-
strength bolts proportioned for not less than 50 percent of
the lower allowable design stress of the sections spliced.
10.18.3.2 Splices in truss chords and columns shall
be located as near to the panel points as practicable and
usually on that side where the smaller stress occurs. The
arrangement of plates, angles. or other splice elements
shall be such as to make proper provision for the stresses.
both axial and bending, in the component parts of the
members spliced.
10. 18.4 DIV ISION IDESIGN
2 3 9
10.18 .4 Tension Members
10.18.4.1. For tension members and splice material,
the gross section shall be used unless the net section area
ts less than 85 percent of the corresponding gross area, in
which ease that amount removed in excess of 15 percent
shall be deducted from the gross area.
10.18 .4.2 In no case shall the design tensile stress on
the net section exceed 0.50 F, when using service load de-
sign or 1.0 F, when using strength design method, where
F, equals the minimum tensile strength of the steel.
10.18 .4.3 For M 270 Grades 100/100W steels, the
design tensile stress on net section shall not exceed 0.46
F,, when using service load design method.
10.18 .4.4 For calculating the net section, the provi-
smons of Article 10.16.14 shall apply.
10.18 .5 Welding
10.18 .5.1 Tension and compression members may be
spliced by means of full penetration butt welds, preferably
without the use of splice plates.
10.18.5.2 Welded field splices preferably shotmld be
arranged to mtnmtntze overhead welding.
10.18.5.3 In welded splices any tiller V t inch or more
mn thickness shall extend beyond the edges of the splice
plate and shall be welded to the part on which it is fitted,
with sufficient weld to transmit the splice plate load ap-
plied at the surface of the filler as an eccentric load.
10.18 .5.4 The welds joining the splice plate to the
filler shall be sufficient to transmit the splice plate load
and shall be long enough to avoid overloading the filler
along the toe of the weld. Any filler less than V t inch thick
shall have its edges made flush with the edges of the
splice plate. The weld size necessary to carry the splice
plate load shall be increased by the thickness of the filler
plate.
10.18.5.5 Material of different widths spliced by
butt welds shall have transitions conforming to Figure
10. 1 8.5A. The type transition selected shall be consistent
with the Fatigue Stress Category from Table 10.3.1 B for
the Groove Welded Connection used in the design of the
memnber. At butt-welded splices joining pieces of differ-
ent thicknesses, there shall be a uniform slope between
the offset surfaces, including the weld, of not more than
I in 2/2.
10.18 .6 Fillers
When fasteners carrying loads pass through tillers
thicker than /4 inch, except in high-strength bolted con-
nections designed as slip-critical connections, the fillers
shall be extended beyond the splice material and the filler
extensmon shall be secured by enough additional fasteners
to distribute the total stress in the member uniformly over
the combined section of the member and the filler. A5 an
alternate, an equivalent number of additional fasteners
may be passed through the gusset or splice material with-
out extending the filler. Fillers /~ inch or more in thickness
shall consist of not more than two plates, unless special
permission is given by the Engineer.
10.19 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS
10.19.1 General
10.19.1.1 Except as otherwise provided herein, con-
nections for main members shall be designed in the case
of service load design for a capacity basedon not less than
the average of the calculated design stress in the member
at the point of connection and the allowable stress of the
member at the same point but, in any event, not less than
75 percent of the allowable stress in the metnber. Con-
nections for main members in the case of load factor de-
sign shall be designed for not less than the average of the
required strength at the point of connection and the
strength of the member at the same point but, inany event,
not less than 75 percent of the strength of the member.
10.19.1.2 Connections shall be made symmetrical
about the axis of the members insofar as practicable. Con-
nections, except for lacing bars and handrails, shall con-
tain not less than two fasteners or equivalent weld.
10.19.1.3 Members, including bracing, preferably
shall be so connected that their gravity axes will intersect
ina point. Eccentric connections shall be avoided, if prac-
ticable, but if unavoidable the members shall be so pro-
portioned that the combined fiber stresses will not exceed
the allowed axial design stress.
10.19.1.4 In the case of connections which transfer
total member shear at the end of the member, the gross
section shall be taken as the gross. .section of the connected
elements.
10.19.2 End Connections of Floor Beams and
Stringers
10.19.2.1 The end connection shall be designed for
the calculated member loads. The end connection angles
240
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.19.2.1
2
(b) Straig ht Tapered Transition
FIGURE l0.18 .SA Splice Details
of floor beams and stringers shall be not less than /~ inch
in finished thickness. Except in cases of special end floor
beam details, each end connection for floor beams and
stringers shall be made with two angles. The length of
these angles shall be as great as the flanges will permit.
Bracket or shelf angles which may be used to furnish
support during erection shall not be considered in deter-
mining the number of fasteners required to transmit end
shear.
10.19.2.2 End-connection details shall be designed
with special care toprovide clearance for making the field
connection.
10.19.2.3 End connections of stringers and floor
beams preferably shall be bolted with high-strength bolts;
however, they may be riveted or welded. In the case of
welded end connections, they shall be designed for the
vertical loads and the end-bending moment resulting from
the deflection of the members.
10.19.2.4 Where timber stringers frame into steel
floor beams, shelfangles with stiffeners shall be provided
to carry the total reaction. Shelf angles shall be not less
than ~ inch thick.
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross
Frames
10.19.3.1 The end connections for diaphragms or
cross frames in straight rolled-beam and plate-girder
bridges shall be designed for the calculated member
loads.
10.19.3.2 V ertical connection plates such as trans-
verse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or cross
frames to the beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to
both top and bottom flanges.
DETAIL OF WIDTH TRAN SITION
(a) 2-0 Radius Transition
10.20 DIV ISION IDESIGN
241
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES
10.20.1 General
Rolled beam and plate girder spans shall be provided
with cross frames or diaphragms at each support and
with intermediate cross frames or diaphragms placed in
all bays and spaced at intervals not to exceed 25 feet.
Diaphragms for rolled beams shall be at least V t and
preferably /2 the beam depth and for plate girders shall
be at least /2 and preferably V t the girder depth. Cross
frames shall be as deep as practicable. Intermediate cross
frames shall preferably be of the cross type or vee type.
End cross frames or diaphragms shall be proportioned to
adequately transmit all the lateral forces to the bearings.
Intermediate cross frames shall be normal to the main
members when the supports are skewed more than
twenty degrees (200). Cross frames on horizontally
curved steel girder bridges shall be designed as main
members with adequate provisions for transfer of lateral
forces from the girder flanges. Cross frames and di-
aphragms shall be designed for horizontal wind forces as
described in Article 10.21.2.
10.20.2 Stresses Due to Wind Loading When Top
Flanges are Continuously Supported
10.20.2.1 Flanges
The maximum induced stresses, F, inthe bottomflange
of each girder in the system can be computed fromthe fol-
lowing:
F = RFCS
where:
L = span length (ft)
= thickness of flange (in.)
bf = width of flange (in.)
10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
The maximum horizontal force (F
0) inthe transverse di-
aphragms and cross frames is obtained from the following:
F0 = I. l4WS~ with or without bracing
(10-10)
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load WhenTop
Flanges are not Continuously Supported
The stress shall be computed using the structural sys-
tem in the plane of the flanges under consideration.
10.21 LATERAL BRACING
10.21.1 The need for lateral bracing shall be investi-
gated. Flanges attached to concrete decks or other decks
of comparable rigidity will not require lateral bracing.
10.21.2 A horizontal wind force of 50 pounds per
square foot shall be applied to the area of the super-
structure exposed inelevation. Half of this force shall be
applied in the plane of each flange. The stress induced
shall be computed in accordance with Article 10.20.2.1.
The allowable stress shall be factored in accordance with
Article 3.22.
10.21.3 When required, lateral bracing shall be placed
in the exterior bays between diaphragms or cross-frames.
(10-5) All required lateral bracing shall be placed in or near the
plane of the flange being braced.
R =[0.2272L II] 52/3
R =[0.059L 0.64] S~112
when no bottom lateral
C
bracing is provided )
C
when bottom lateral
bracing is provided )
(10-7)
72M
Fcb= ~h (psi)
fbf
M .b .08WS~(ft-lb)
W = wind loading along the exterior flange (lb/ft)
Sa = diaphragm spacing (ft)
(10-8 )
10.21.4 Where beams or girders comprise the main
members of through spans, such members shall be stiff-
(10-6) ened against lateral deformation by means of gusset plates
or knee braces with solid webs which shall be connected
to the stiffeners on the main members and the floor beams.
If the unsupported length of the edge of the gusset plate
(or solid web) exceeds 60 times its thickness, the plate or
web shall have a stiffening plate or angles connected
along its unsupported edge.
10.21.5 Through truss spans, deck truss spans, and
spandrel braced arches shall have top and bottom lateral
(10-9) bracing.
10.21.6 Bracing shall be composed of angles, other
shapes, or welded sections. The smallest angle used in
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
bracing shall be 3 by 2/! inches. There shall be not less
than two fasteners or equivalent weld in each end con-
nection of the angles.
10.21.7 If adouble system of bracing is used, both sys-
tems may be considered effective simultaneously if the
members meet the requirements bothas tension and com-
pression members. The members shall be connected at
their intersections.
10.21.8 The lateral bracing of compression chords
preferably shall be as deep as the chords and effectively
connected to both flanges.
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS
10.22.1 Closed sections andpockets or depressions that
will retain water, shall be avoided where practicable.
Pockets shall be provided with effective drain holes or be
filled with waterproofing material.
10.22.2 Details shall be so arranged that the destructive
effects of bird life and the retention of dirt, leaves, and
other foreign matter will be reduced to a minimum. Where
angles are used, either singly or in pairs, they preferably
shall be placed with the vertical legs extending down-
ward. Structural tees preferably shall have the web ex-
tending downward.
lowed in Article 10.32, The maximum size that may be
used along edges of connected parts shall be:
(I) Along edges of material less than V t inch thick, the
maximum size may be equal to the thickness of the ma-
terial.
(2) Along edges of material V t inch or more in thick-
ness, the maximum size shall be /, inch less than the
thickness of the material, unless the weld is especially
designated on the drawings to be built out to obtain full
throat thickness.
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in the
following table.**
Base Metal Thickness of
Thicker Part Jointed (T)
Minimum Size
of Fillet Weld*
in. mm tn. mm
T=3/4 T~l9.O
3/4<T 19.O<T
t/4 6
5/16 8
Single-pass
s~lds must
be used
* Except that the weld size need not exceed the thickness ofthe thin-
ner part joined. Forthis exception, particular care should be taken to
provide sufficient preheat to ensure weld soundness.
** Smaller fillet welds may be approved by the Engineer based upon
applied stress and the use of appropriate prebeat.
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet
10.23 WELDING Welds
10.23.1 General
The minimum effective length of a fillet weld sh~mll be
four times its size and in no case less than I V t inches.
10.23.1.1 Steel base to be welded, weld metal, and
welding design details shall conform to the requirements
of the ANS!/AASHTO/AWS D/.5 Bridge Welding Code.
10.23.1.2 Welding symbols shall conform with the
latest edition of the American Welding Society Publication
AWS A2.4
10.23.1.3 Fabrication shall conform to Article
II .4Division II.
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds
10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds
The maximum size of a fillet weld that may be assumed
in the design of aconnection shall be such that the stresses
in the adjacent base material do not exceed the values al-
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns
Fillet welds which support a tensile force that is not
parallel to the axis of the weld, or which are proportioned
to withstand repeated stress, shall not terminate at corners
of parts or members but shall be returned continuously.
full size, around the corner for a length equal to twice the
weld size where such return can be made in the same
plane. End returns shall be indicated on design and detail
drawings.
10.23.5 Seal Welds
Seal welding shall preferably be accomplished by a
continuous weld combining the functions of sealing and
strength, changing section only as the required strength or
the requirements of minimum size fillet weld, based on
material thickness, may necessitate.
242
10.2 1.6
DIV ISION IDESIGN
10.24 FASTENERS (RIVETS AND BOLTS)
10.24.1 General
10.24.1.1 In proportioning fasteners, for shear and
tension the cross-sectional area based upon the nominal
diameter shall be used.
10.24.1.2 High-strength bolts may be substituted for
Grade I rivets (ASTMA 502) or ASTMA307 bolts.. When
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) high-strength bolts are
substituted for ASTM A 307 bolts they need not be in-
stalled tothe requirements of Article 11.5.6.4, Division II,
nor inspectedto the requirements of Article II .5.6.4.9, Di-
vision II, but shall be tightened to the full effort of a man
using an ordinary spud wrench.
10.24.1.3 All bolts, except high-strength bolts ten-
sioned to the requirements of Table II .SA or Table 11 .5B,
Division II, shall have single self-locking nuts or double
nuts.
10.24.1.4 Joints required to resist shear between their
connected parts are designated as either slip-critical or
bearing-type connections. Slip-critical joints are defined
as joints subject to stress reversal, heavy impact loads, se-
vere vibration or where stress and strain due to joint slip-
page would be detrimental to the serviceability of the
structure. They include:
(I) Joints subject to fatigue loading.
(2) Joints with bolts installed in oversized holes.
(3) Except where the Engineer intends otherwise and
soindicates in the contract documents, joints withbolts
installed in slotted holes where the force on the joint is
in a direction other than normal (between approxi-
mately 80 and 100 degrees) to the axis of the slot.
(4) Joints subject to significant load reversal.
(5) Joints in which welds and bolts share in transmmt-
ting load at a common faying surface.
(6) Joints in which, in the judgment of the Engineer,
any slip would be critical to the performance of the
joint or the structure and so designated on the contract
plans and specifications.
10.24.1.5 High-strength bolted connections subject
to computed tension or combined shear and computed
tension shall be slip-critical connections.
10.24.1.6 Bolted bearing-type connections usmn?
high-strength bolts shall be limited to members in comn-
pression and secondary members.
10.24.1.7 The effective bearing area of a fastener
shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the
metal on which it bears. In metal less than V t inch thick,
countersunk fasteners shall not be assumed to carry
stress. In metal /, inch thick and over, one-half the depth
of countersink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing
area.
10.24.1.8 In determining whether the bolt threads are
excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces,
thread length of bolts shall be calculated as two thread
pitches greater than the specified thread length as an al-
lowance for thread runout.
10.24.1.9 In bearing-type connections, pull-out shear
in a plate should be investigated between the end of the
plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table l0.32.3B,
footnote h).
10.24.2 Hole Types
Hole types for high-strength bolted connections are
standard holes, oversize holes, short slotted holes and
long slotted holes. The nominal dimensions for each type
hole shall be not greater than those shown in Table
10.24.2, except as maybe permitted under Division II, Ar-
tide 11.4.8.1.4.
10.24.2.1 In the absence of approval by the Engineer
for use of other hole types, standard holes shall be used in
high-strength bolted connections.
10.24.2.2 When approved by the Engineer, overstze,
short slotted holes or long slotted holes may be used sub-
ject to the followingjoint detail requirements.
10.24.2.2.1 Oversize holes may be used in all plies of
connections which satisfy the requirements of Article
10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3, as applicable. Oversize
holes shall not be used in bearing-type conneetmons.
TABLE 10.24.2 N ominal Hole Dimension
Hole Dimensions
Bolt Standard Oversize Short Slot Long Slot
Dia. (Dia.) (Dia.) ( Widt h X Lengt h) ( Widt h X Lengt h)
5/ tt/ i.y
16 m~/16 X 7/~ tt/t5 x 1/ts
3/4 /16 ~/16 ~Yt6 X 1
1Y ~
6 X P!8
7/
t/m6 P/I
6 tS/ms X 1/s ~/,6 X 2/16
1 17,6 174 i7~~ X 1
5 / t 6 i/~~ X 272
=t Y~ d + V.~ d -r Y ~ ~d + t~~) X (d-t- Y ~)(d-- Ar,) X (2.5 Xd)
10.24
243
244 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1 0. 2 4 . 2 . 2 . 2
10.24.2.2.2 Short slotted holes may be used inany or
all plies of high-strength bolted connections designed on
the basis of Table l0.32.3B or Table l0.56A, as applica-
ble. provided the load is applied approximately normal
(between 80 and 100 degrees) to the axis of the slot. Short
slotted holes may be used without regard for the direction
of applied load in any or all plies of connections which
satisfy the requirements of Article 10.32.3.2.1 or Article
10.57.3.1, as applicable.
/0.24.2.2.3 Long slotted holes may be used inone of
the connected parts at any individual faying surface in
high-strength bolted connections designed on the basis of
Table l0.32.3B or Table l0.56A, as applicable, provided
the load is applied approximately normal (between 80 and
1(X) degrees) tothe axis of the slot. Long slotted holes tnay
be used in one of the connected parts at any individual
faying surface without regard for the direction of applied
load on connections which satisfy the requirements of Ar-
ticle 10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3.1, as applicable.
10.24.3 Washer Requirements
Design details shall provide for washers in high-
strength bolted connections as follows:
10.24.3.1 Where the outer face of the bolted parts has
a slope greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to
the bolt axis, a hardened beveled washer shall be used to
compensate for the lack of parallelism.
10.24.3.2 Hardened washers are not required for
connections using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts except as required
in Articles 10.24.3.3 through 10.24.3.7.
10.24.3.3 Hardened washers shall be used under the
element turned in tightening when the tightening is to be
performed by calibrated wrench method.
10.24.3.4 Irrespective of the tightening method,
hardened washers shall be used under both the head and
the nut when AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts are to
be installed in material having a specified yield point less
than 40 ksi.
10.24.3.5 Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)
bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be in-
stalled in an oversize or short slotted hole in an outer ply, a
hardened washer conforming toASTM F436 shall be used.
10.24.3.6 When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in an over-
stze or short slotted hole in an outer ply, hardened wash-
ers conforming toASTM F 436 except with V t~ inch min-
imum thickness shall be used under both the head and the
nut in lieu of standard thickness hardened washers. Mul-
tiple hardened washers with combined thickness equal to
or greater than Y~ inch do not satisfy this requirement.
10.24.3.7 Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)
bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTMA 490j
bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be in-
stalled in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a plate washer
or continuous bar of at least 7~ inch thickness with stan-
dard holes shall be provided. These washers or bars shall
have asmze sufficient to completely cover the slot after in-
stallation and shall be of structural grade material, but
need not be hardened except as follows. When AASHTO
M 253 (ASTM A490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to
be used in long slotted holes in external plies, a single
hardened washer conforming to ASTM F 436 but with
inch minimum thickness shall be used in lieu of washers
or bars of structural grade material. Multiple hardened
washers with combined thickness equal to or greater than
7~ inch do not satisfy this requirement.
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-
Strength Bolts)
10.24.4.1 Fasteners shall be of the size shown on the
drawings, but generally shall be V t inch or 7/~ inch in di-
ameter. Fasteners V t inch in diameter shall not be used in
members carrying calculatedstress except in 2V t-inch legs
of angles and in flanges of sections requiring V t-inch fas-
teners.
10.24.4.2 The diameter of fasteners in angles carry-
mug calculated stress shall not exceed one-fourth the width
of the leg in which they are placed.
10.24.4.3 In angles whose size is not determined by
calculated stress, V t-inch fasteners may be used in 2-inch
legs. V t-inch fasteners in 2V t-inch legs. V t-inch fasteners mn
3-inch legs, and 1-inch fasteners in 3/2-inch legs.
10.24.4.4 Structural shapes which do not admit the
use of V t-inch diameter fasteners shall not be used except
in handrails.
10.24.5 Spacing of Fasteners
10.24.5.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners
The pitch of fasteners is the distance along the line of
principal stress, in inches, between centers of adjacent fas-
10.24.5.1 DIV ISIONIDESIGN 245
teners, measured along one or more fastener lines. The gage
of fasteners is the distance in inches between adjacent lines
of fasteners or the distance from the back of angle or other
shape to the first line of fasteners.
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners
The minimum distance between centers of fasteners in
standard holes shall be three times the diameter of
the fastener but, preferably, shall not be less than the
following:
For I-inch fasteners, 3/2 inches
For 7/s-inch fasteners, 3 inches
F o r /~-i n c h f a s t en er s , 2 /2 inches
F o r V t -i n c h f a s t en er s , 2/4 inches
10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance
Between Holes
When oversize or slotted holes are used, the minimum
clear distance between the edges of adjacent bolt holes in
the direction of the force and transverse to the direction of
the force shall not be less than twice the diameter of the
bolt.
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners
The m a x i m u m s p a c i n g o f f a s t en er s s ha l l b e i n
accordance with the provisions of Article 10.24.6, as ap-
plicable.
10.24.6 MaximumSpacing of Sealing and Stitch
Fasteners
10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners
F o r s ea l i n g a ga i n s t t he p en et r a t i o n o f m o i s t u r e i n j o i n t s ,
the fastener spacing alongasingle line o f f a s t en er s a d j a c en t
to a free edge of an outside plate or shape shall not exceed
4 inches + 4t or 7 inches. If there is a second line of fas-
teners uniformly staggered with those in the line adjacent
t o t he f r ee edge, at a gage g less than 1 /2 inches +4t
t her ef r o m , t he s t a gger ed spacing in two such lines, consid-
ered together, shall not exceed 4 inches + 4t 3g/4 or 7
inches, but need not be less than one-half the requirement
f o r a s i n gl e l i n e, t = the thickness in inches of the thinner
outside plate or shape, and g = gage between fasteners in
inches.
10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners
In built-up members where two or more plates or
shapes are in contact, stitch fasteners shall be used toen-
sure that the parts act as a unit and, in compression mem-
bers, to prevent buckling. In compression members the
pitch of stitch fasteners on any single line in the direction
of stress shall not exceed I 2t, except that, ifthe fasteners omi
adjacent lines are staggered and the gage, g, between the
line under consideration and the farther adjacent line (if
t her e a r e m o r e t ha n t wo l i n es ) is less than 24t, the staggered
pitch in the two lines, considered together, shall not exceed
12t or 1St 3g/8. The gage between adjacent lines of fas-
teners shall not exceed 24t; t = t he t hi c kn es s , i n i n c hes , o f
the thinner outside plate or shape. In tension members the
pitch shall not exceed twice that specified for compression
members and the gage shall not exceed that specified for
compression members.
The m a x i m u m p i t c h o f f a s t en er s i n b u i l t -u p m em b er s
s ha l l b e go v er n ed b y t he r eq u i r em en t s f o r s ea l i n g o r s t i t c h
fasteners, whichever is the minimum.
For pitch of fasteners in the ends of compression mem-
bers, see Article 10.16.13.
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners
10.24.7.1 General
The minimum distance from the center of any fastener
in a standard hole to a sheared or thermally cut edge shall
be:
For 1-inch fasteners, l/~ inches
For V t-inch fasteners, 1 /2 inches
For V t-inch fasteners, I /~ inches
For V t-inch fasteners, I V t i n c hes
The minimum distance from the center of any fastener
in a standard hole to a rolled or planed edge, except in
flanges of beams and channels, shall be:
For 1-inch fasteners, 1/2 inches
For V t-inch fasteners, 1/4 inches
For -/~-inch fasteners, I V t inches
For V t-inch fasteners, 1 inch
In the flanges of beams and channels the tninimum dis-
tance from the center of a standard hole to the edge of the
flange shall be:
For 1-inch fasteners.~, I/~ inches
For 7/s-inch fasteners, I /~ inches
For V t-inch fasteners, 1 inch
For V t-inch fasteners, V t inch
The maximum distance from the center of any fastener
to any edge shall be eight times the thickness of the
thinnest outside plate, but shall not exceed 5 inches.
10.24.7.2 When there is only a single transverse fas-
tener in the direction of the line of force in a standard or
short slotted hole, the distance from the center of the hole
to the edge of the connected part shall not be less than 1/2
times the diameter ofthe fastener, unless accounted for by
the bearing provisions of Table l0.32.3B or Article
10.56.1.3.2.
1 0. 2 4 . 7 . 3 When o v er s i z e o r s l o t t ed ho l es a r e u s ed ,
t he c l ea r d i s t a n c e b et ween ed ges of holes and edges of
members shall not be less than the diameter of the bolt.
10.24.8 Long Rivets
Rivets subjected to calculated stress and having a grip
mn excess of 4/2 diameters shall be increased in number at
least 1 percent for each additional /,~ inch of grip.
If the grip exceeds six times the diameter of the rivet,
specially designed rivets shall be used.
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS
10.25.1 Net Section
In pin-connected tension members other than eyebars,
t he n et s ec t i o n a c r o s s t he p i n ho l e s ha l l b e n o t l es s t ha n
140 percent, and the net sectioml back of the pin hole not
less than 100 percent of the required net section of the
body of the member. The ratio of the net width (through
the pin hole transverse to the axis of the member) to the
thickness of the segment shall not be more than 8. Flanges
not bearing on the pin shall not be considered in the net
section across the pin.
10.25.2 Location of Pins
Pins s ha l l b e so located with respect to the gravity axis
of the members as toreduce toa minimum the stresses due
to bending.
10.25.3 Size of Pins
Pins shall be proportioned for the maximum shears and
bending moments produced by the stresses in the mem-
hers connected. If there are eyebars among the parts con-
nected, the diameter of the pin shall be not less than
L3
(yield point of steel
)
+___] times the width of
400, ~ the body of the
cychar in
inches
10.25.4 Pin Plates
When necessary for the required section or bearing
area, the section at the pin holes shall be increased on each
segment by plates so arranged as to reduce to a minimum
the eccentricity of the segment. One plate on each side
shall be as wide as the outstanding flanges will allow. At
least one full-width plate on each segment shall extend to
t he f a r ed ge o f t he s t a y p l a t e a n d t he o t her s n o t l es s t ha n 6
inches beyond the near edge. These plates shall be con-
n ec t ed b y en o u gh r i v et s , b o l t s , o r f i l l et a n d p l u g wel d s t o
transmit the bearing pressure, and so arranged as to dis-
t r i b u t e i t u n i f o r m l y o v er t he f u l l s ec t i o n .
1 0. 2 5 . 5 Pi n s and Pin Nu t s
1 0. 2 5 . 5 . 1 Pi n s s ha l l b e o f s u f f i c i en t l en gt h t o s ec u r e a
f u l l b ea r i n g o f a l l p a r t s c o n n ec t ed u p o n t he t u r n ed b o d y o f
t he p i n . They s ha l l b e s ec u r ed i n p o s i t i o n b y hex a go n a l r e-
c es s ed n u t s o r b y hex a go n a l s o l i d n u t s wi t h wa s her s . If t he
p i n s a r e b o r ed , t hr o u gh r o d s wi t h c a p wa s her s m a y b e u s ed .
Pi n n u t s s ha l l b e malleable castings or steel. They shall be
s ec u r ed b y c o t t er p i n s i n t he s c r ew en d s o r el s e t he s c r ew
en d s s ha l l b e l o n g en o u gh t o p er m i t b u r r i n g t he t hr ea d s .
1 0. 2 5 . 5 . 2 Mem b er s s ha l l b e r es t r a i n ed a ga i n s t l a t er a l
m o v em en t o n t he p i n s a n d a ga i n s t l a t er a l d i s t o r t i o n d u e t o
t he s kew o f t he b r i d ge.
10.26 UPSET ENDS
Bars and rods with screw ends, where specified. shall
be upset to provide a section at the root of the thread,
which will exceed the net section of the body of the mem-
ber by at least 15 percent.
10.27 EYEBARS
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section
Eyebars shall be of a uniform thickness without rein-
forcement at the pin holes. The thickness of eyebars shall
be not less than V t of the width, nor less than /2 inch. and
not greater than 2 inches. The section of the head through
the center of the pin hole shall exceed the required section
of the body of the bar by at least 35 percent. The net sec-
tion back of the pin hole shall not be less than 75 percent
of the required net section of the body of the member. The
radius of transition between the head andbody of the eye-
bar shall be equal to or greater than the width of the head
(10-Il) through the center line of the pin hole.
10.27.2 Packing of Eyebars
10.27.2.1 The eyebars of a set shall be symmetrical
about the central plane of the truss and as nearly parallel
as practicable. Bars shall be as close together as practica-
ble and held against lateral movement, but they shall be
s o a r r a n ged t ha t a d j a c en t b a r s i n t he s a m e p a n el wi l l b e
s ep a r a t ed b y a t l ea s t /! i n c h.
10.27.2.2 Intersecting diagonal bars not far enough
apart to clear each other at all times shall be clamped to-
gether at the intersection.
10.27.2.3 Steel tilling rings shall be provided, if
needed, to prevent lateral movement of eyebars or other
members connected on the pin.
10.28 FORKED ENDS
Forked ends will be permitted only where unavoidable.
There shall be enough pin plates on forked ends to make
the section of each jaw equal to that of the member. The
pinplates shall be longenough to developthe pinplate be-
yond the near edge of the stay plate, but not less than the
length required by Article 10.25.4.
10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS
10.29.1 General
10.29.1.1 F i x ed en d s s ha l l b e f i r m l y a n c ho r ed . B ea r -
m n gs f o r s p a n s l es s t ha n 5 0 f eet n eed ha v e n o p r o v i s i o n for
d ef l ec t i o n . S p a n s o f 5 0 f eet o r gr ea t er s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed
with a type of bearing etnploying a hinge, curved bearing
plates. elastomeric pads, or pin arrangement for deflection
p u r p o s es .
10.29.1.2 Spans of less than 50 feet may be arranged
to slide upon metal plates with smooth surfaces and no pro-
visions for deflection of the spans need be made. Spans of
50 feet and greater shall be provided with rollers, rockers,
or sliding plates for expansion purposes a n d s ha l l a l s o b e
provided with a type of bearingemploying a hinge, curved
b ea r i n g p l a t es . , o r p i n a r r a n gem en t f o r d ef l ec t i o n p u r p o s es .
10.29.1.3 In lieu of the above requirements, elas-
tomeric bearings may be used. See Section 14 of this
specification.
10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion
Bearings
B r o n z e o r c o p p er -a l l o y s l i d i n g p l a t es s ha l l b e c ha m -
f er ed a t t he ends. They shall be held securely in position,
usually by beinginset into the metal of the pedestals or sole
plates. Provisions shall be made against any accumulation
of dirt which will obstruct free movemnent of the span.
10.29.3 Rollers
Expansion rollers shall be connected by substantial
s i d e b a r s a n d s ha l l be guided by gearing or other effectimal
m ea n s t o p r ev en t l a t er a l m o v em en t , s kewi n g, a n d creep-
ing. The rollers and bearing plates shall be protected from
dirt and water as far as practicable, and the design shall be
such that water will not be retained and that the roller
n es t s m a y b e i n s p ec t ed and clean easily.
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates
10.29.4.1 Sole plates and masonry plates shall have
a minimum thickness of V t i n c h.
10.29.4.2 For spans on inclined grades greater than I
percent without hinged bearings, the sole plates shall be
beveled so that the bottom of the sole plate is level, unless
the bottom of the sole plate is radially curved.
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings
Beams, girders, or trusses on masonry shall be so sup-
ported that the bottom chords or flanges will be above the
bridge seat, preferably not less than 6 inches.
10.29.6 Anchor Bolts
10.29.6.1 Trusses, girders, and rolled beam spans
p r ef er a b l y s ha l l b e s ec u r el y a n c ho r ed t o t he s u b s t r u c t u r e.
Anchor bolts shall be swedged or threaded tosecure a sat-
isfactory grip upon the material used toetnbed them inthe
holes.
10.29.6.2 The following are the minimum require-
m en t s f o r ea c h b ea r i n g:
For rolled beam spans the outer beams shall be an-
chored at each end with 2 bolts, 1 inch indiameter, set
10 inches in the masonry.
For trusses and girders:
S p a n s 5 0 f eet i n l en gt h o r l es s ; 2 b o l t s , I i m i c h irm
diameter, set 10 inches in the tnasonry.
Spans 51 to 100 feet; 2 b o l t s , IA inches in diame-
ter, set 12 inches in the masonry.
Spans 101 to 150 feet; 2 bolts, 1/2 inches in diame-
ter, set 15 inches in the mnasonry.
S p a n s gr ea t er t ha n 1 5 0 feet; 4 b o l t s 1 /~ i n c hes i n d i -
a m et er , s et 1 5 i n c hes i n t he m a s o n r y.
10.29.6.3 Anchor bolts shall be designed to resist
uplift as specified inArticle 3.17.
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes
10.29.7.1 Pedestals and shoes preferably shall be
made of cast steel or structural steel. The difference in
width between the top and bottom bearing surfaces shall
not exceed twice the distance between them. For hinged
bearings, this distance shall be measured from the center
of the pin. In built-up pedestals and shoes, the web plates
and angles connecting them to the base plate shall be not
less than S/~ inch thick. If the size of the pedestal permits,
the webs shall be rigidly connected transversely. The
minimum thickness of the metal in cast steel pedestals
shall be 1 inch. Pedestals and shoes shall be so designed
that the load will be distributed uniformly over the entire
bearing.
10.29.7.2 Webs and pin holes in the webs shall be
arranged to keep any eccentricity to a minimum. The net
section through the hole shall provide 140 percent of the
net section required for the actual stress transmitted
through the pedestal or shoe. Pins shall be of sufficient
length to secure a full bearing. Pins shall be secured in po-
sition by appropriate nuts with washers. All portions of
pedestals and shoes shall be held against lateral move-
ment of the pins.
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM
10.30.1 Stringers
Stringers preferably shall be framed into floor beams.
Stringers supported on the top flanges of floor beams
preferably shall be continuous over two or more panels.
10.30.2 Floor Beams
Floor beams preferably shall be at right angles to the
trusses or main girders and shall be rigidly connected
thereto. Floor beam connections preferably shall be lo-
cated so the lateral bracing system will engage both the
floor beam and the main supporting member. In pin-con-
nected trusses, if the floor beams are located below the
bottom chord pins, the vertical posts shall be extended
sufficiently below the pins to make arigid connection to
the floor beam.
10.30.3 Cross Frames
In bridges with wooden floors and steel stringers, in-
termediate cross frames (or diaphragms) shall be placed
between stringers more than 20 feet long.
10.30.4 Expansion Joints
10.30.4.1 To provide for expansion and contraction
movement, floor expansion joints shall be provided at all
expansion ends of spans and at other points where they
may be necessary.
10.30.4.2 Apron plates, when used, shall be designed
to bridge the joint andto prevent, so far as practicable, the
accumulation of roadway debris upon the bridge seats.
Preferably, they shall be connected rigidly to the end floor
beam.
10.30.5 End Floor Beams
There shall be end floor beams in all square-ended
trusses and girder spans and preferably in skew spans. End
floor beams for truss spans preferably shall be designed to
permit the use of jacks for lifting the superstructure.
For this case, the allowable stresses may be increased
5 0 p er c en t .
10.30.6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges
In skew bridges without end floor beams, the end panel
stringers shall be secured in correct position by end struts
connected to the stringers and to the main truss or girder.
The end panel lateral bracing shall be attached to the main
trusses or girders and also to the end struts. Adequate pro-
visions shall be made for the expansion movement of
stringers.
10.30.7 Sidewalk Brackets
Sidewalk brackets shall be connected in such a way
that the bending stresses will be transferreddirectly t o t he
floor beams.
10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms
10.30.8 .1 Concrete Deck Panels
When precast prestressed deck panels are used as per-
manent forms spanning between beams, stringers, or gird-
ers, the requirements of Article 9.12, Deck Panels. and Ar-
ticle 9.23, Deck Panels, shall be met.
10.30.8 .2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms
When metal stay-in-place forms are used as permanent
forms spanning between beams, stringers, or girders, the
forms shall be designed a minimum of, to support the
weight of the concrete (including that in the corrugations,
if applicable), a construction load of 50 psf, and the weight
of the form. The forms shall be designed tobe elastic under
construction loads. The elastic deformation caused by the
dead load of the forms, plastic concrete and reinforcement,
s ha l l n o t exceed a deflection of greater than Li 180 or one-
half inch (t/2). For form work spans (L)of 10 feet (l0)or
less, or a deflection of L1240 or three-quarters inch (V t).
f o r m wo r k f o r s p a n s L o v er 10 feet (10).
Part C
10.31 SCOPE
Allowable stress design is a method for proportioning
structural members using design loads and forces, allow-
able stresses, and design limitations for the appropriate
material under service conditions. See Part DStrength
Design MethodLoad Factor Design for an alternate de-
sign procedure.
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
10.32.1 Steel
Allowable stresses for steel shall be as specified in
Table l0.32.lA.
10.32.2 Weld Metal
Unless otherwise specified, the yield point and ulti-
mate strength of weld metal shall be equal to or greater
than minimum specified value of the base metal. Allow-
able stresses on the effective areas of weld metal shall be
as follows:
B u t t Wel d s :
The same as the base metal joined, except in the case
of joining metals of different yields when the lower
yi el d m a t er i a l s ha l l govern.
Fillet Welds:
F, = 0.27 F~
with strengths less than the base metal provided that
this requirement is clearly specified on the plans.
Plug Welds:
F. = 12,400 psi for resistance to shear stresses only,
where,
F, = allowable basic shear stress.
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts)
Allowable stresses for fasteners shall be as listed inTa-
bles l0.32.3.A and l0.32.3.B, and the allowable force on
a slip-critical connection shall be as provided by Article
1 0. 3 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 .
10.32.3.1 General
10.32.3.1.1 In proportioning fasteners for shear or
tension, the cross-sectional area based upon the nominal
diameter shall be used except as otherwise noted.
10.32.3.1.2 The effective bearing area of a fastener
shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the
metal on which it bears. In metal less than 3/~ inch thick,
countersunk fasteners shall not be assumedto carry stress.
In metal 3/~ inch thick and over, one-half of the depth of
the countersink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing
area.
10.32.3.1.3 In determining whether the bolt threads
are excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces,
thread length of bolts shall be calculated as two thread
pitches greater than the specified thread length as an al-
(10-12) lowance for thread runout.
where,
F, = allowable basic shear stress;
= tensile strength of the electrode classification but
not greater than the tensile strength of the
connected part.
When detailing fillet welds for quenched and tempered
steelsthe designer may use electrode classifications
10.32.3.1.4 In bearing-type connections, pull-out
shear in a plate should be investigated between the end of
the plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table
10.32.3B, footnote g.)
10.32.3. 1.5 All bolts except high-strength bolts,
tensioned to the requirements of Division II. Table II .5A
TABLE l0.32.IA Allowable StressesStructural Steel (In pounds per square inch)
Quenched and
Structural Tempered High-Yield Strength
I~ipe
Carbon High-Strength Low-Alloy Quenched and Tempered
Steel Low-Alloy Steel Steel Alloy Steele
AASIITODesignationch
M270 M270 M270
Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W
M270 M270
Grade 70W Grades 100/100W
Equivalent ASTM Designation
5
Thickness of Plates
A709 A709 A709 A709 A709
Grade 36 Grade 50 Grade 50W Grade 70W Grades 100/100W
Upto Upto Upto Upto Upto Over2in.
4 in. mcI. 4 in. mcI. 4 in. md. 4 in. mcI. 2in. md. to 4 in. md.
Shapes All Groups All Groups All Groups
Axial tension in members with no
holes for high-strengthbolts or rivets.
Use net section when member has any
open holes larger than 1 /4 inch dia-
meter such as perforations.
0.5SF
5
0.46F~
20,000 27,000 27,000
Not Applicable
38,000
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
51,000 46,000
Axial tension in members with holes
for high-strength bolts or rivets and
tension in extreme fiber of rolled
shapes, girders, and built-up sections
subject to bending. Satisfy both Gross
and Net Section criterion.
Grosst
Section
0.5SF5
Net
Section
0.50F~
20,000 27,000 27,000
29,000 32,500 35,000
51,000 46,000
Axial compression, gross section:
stiffeners of plate girders. Compres-
sion in splice material, gross section
Compression in extreme fibers of
rolled shapes, girders, and built-up sec-
tions subject to bending. Gross sec-
tion, when compression flange is:
(A) Supported laterally its full length 0.5SF3
by embedment in concrete
(B) Partially supported or is unsupportedab
2 0, 000 2 7 , 000 2 7 , 000
2 0. 000 2 7 , 000 2 7 , 000
38,000 55,000 49,000
38,000 55,000 49,000
Fb 50 x_lO6Cb(JYCh/o772J +9.87(d~=055F5
S*c \I V I
Sc
C6 = I .75 + 1.05 (M,/M2) +0.3 (M11M9
2 ~ 2.3 where M
1 is the smaller and M2 the larger end moment in the unbracedsegment
of the beam; M,/A12 is positive when the moments cause reverse curvature and negative when bent in single curvature.
C,, = 1.0 for unbraced cantilevers and for members where the moment within a significant portion of the unbraced segment is greater
than or equal to the larger of the segment end moments.
Compression in concentrically loaded columnsc
with C~ = (21T
2 ElF
5)
2 =
when KL/r ~C
F~ ~ (KL/r)2F
5 1
FS.[ 4ir
2E J
126.1 107.0 107.0 90.4
75.7
33,020 47,170 42,450
2.02(KL/r)2 4. 12(KL/r)2 3.33(KL/r)2
38,000
45,000
Net
Section
0.46F~
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
79.8
16,980 23,580 23,580
0.53(KL/r)2 I .03(KL/r)2 I .03(KL/r)2
TABLE l0.32.IA Allowable StressesStructural Steel (In pounds per square inch) (Continued)
Quenched and
Structural Tempered High-Yield Strength
Carbon High-Strength Low-Alloy Quenched and Tempered
Type Steel Low-Alloy Steel Steel Alloy Steele
when KL/r>C~
135,000,740
Fa FS.(KL/r)
2 (KL/r)2
withES. = 2.12
Shear in girder webs, gross section F~ = 0. 33F
5 12,000 17,000 17,000 23,000 33,000 30,000
Bearing on milled stiffeners and other 0. 8oF~ 29,000 40,000 40,000 56,000 80,000 72,000
steel parts in contact (rivets and bolts
excluded)
S t r es s i n ex t r em e f i b er o f p i n s d 0. 8 0F ~ 2 9 , 000 4 0, 000 4 0, 000 5 6 , 000 8 0, 000 7 2 , 000
S hea r i n p i n s F , 0. 4 0F 5 1 4 , 000 2 0, 000 2 0, 000 2 8 , 000 4 0, 000 3 6 , 000
Bearing on pins not subject to rotations 0. 80F~ 29,000 40,000 40,000 56,000 80,000 72,000
Bearing on pins subject to rotation 0. 40Ff 14,000 20,000 20,000 28,000 40,000 36,000
(such as used in rockers and hinges)
Bearing on connected material at Low
Carbon Steel Bolts (ASTM A 307),
Turned Bolts, Ribbed Bolts, and Rivets
(ASTM A 502 Grades 1 and 2)
Governed by Table l0.32.3A
For the use of larger Cb values, see Structural Stability Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteriafor Metal Structures, 3d Ed., p. 135.
tf cover plates are used, the allowable static stress at the point of theoretical cutoff shall be as determined by the formula.
~ [ length in inches, ofunsupported flange between lateral connections, knee braces, or other points of support.
1,,, = moment of inertia of compression flange about the vertical axis in the plane of the web in.
4
d depth of girder, in.
l(bt~),,+(bin3), + Dt~ I where b and t represent the flange width and thickness of the compression and tension flange, respectively (in.4).
3
= section modulus with r es p ec t to compression flange (in.3).
E = modulus ofelasticity of steel
governing radius of gyration
L = actual unbraced length
K effective length factor (see Appendix C.)
ES. = factorof safety 2.12
For graphic representation ofthese formulas, see Appendix C.
The formulas donot apply to members with variable moment of inertia. Procedures for designing members with variable moments ofinertia can be
found in the following references: Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, January 1969, V olume 6, No. I, and October
1972, V olume 9, No. 4; and Steel Structures, by William MeGuire, 1968, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. For members with
eccentric loading, see Article 10.36.
See also Article 10.32.4.
Except for the mandatory notch toughness and weldability requirements, the ASTM designations are similar to the AASHTO designations. Steels
meeting the AASHTO requirements are prequalified for use in welded bridges.
Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes and seamless mechanical tubing meeting all mechanical and chemical requirements of A
709 Grades 100/100W except that the specified maximum tensile strength may be 140,000 psi for structural shapes and 145,000 psi for seamless
mechanical tubing, shall be considered as A709 Grades 100/100W steel.
This shall apply to pins used primarily in axially loaded members, such as truss members and cable adjusting links. It shall not apply to pins used
in members having rotation caused by expansion ordeflection.
~ M 270 Gr. 36 and A709 Or. 36 are equivalent to M 183 and A 36
M 270 Or. 50 and A709 Gr. 50 are equivalent to M 223 Or. 50 and A 572 Gr. 50
M 270 Gr. 50W and A 709 Gr. SOW are equivalent to M 222 and A 588
M 270 Gr. 70W and A 709 Or. 70W are equivalent to A852
M 270 Or. 100/100W and A 709 Or. 100/100W are equivalent toM 244 and A514
When the area of holes deducted for high-strength bolts or rivets is more than 15 percent ofthe gross area, that area inexcess of 15 percent shall
be deducted from the gross area in determining stress on the gross section. In determining gross section, any open boles larger than 1/4 inch-diam.
eter, such as perforations, shall be deducted.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE I0.32.3A Allowable Stresses for Low-Carbon
Steel Bolts and Power Driven Rivets (inpsi)
Shear
Type of Fastener Tensionb Bearing
Bearing-Type
Connectionb
(A) Low-Carbon Steel 18,000 20,000 11,000
BolIsa Turned Bolts
(ASTM A 307)
Ribbed Bolts
(B) Power-Driven Rivets
(rivets driven by
pneumatically or
electrically operated
hammers are
considered power
driven)
Structural Steel Rivet 40,000 13,500
Grade I (ASTM A 502
Grade 1)
Structural Steel Rivet 40,000 20,000
(high-strength)
Grade 2 (ASTM A 502
Grade 2)
ASTM A 307 bolts shall not be used in connections subject to
fatigue.
bApplies to fastener cross-sectional area based upon nominal body
diameter.
Applies to nominal diameter offastener multiplied by the thickness
ofthe metal.
or Table II .SB, shall have single self-locking nuts or
double nuts.
10.32.3.1.6 Jo i n t s , u t i l i z i n g hi gh-s t r en gt h b o l t s ,
required to resist shear between t hei r c o n n ec t ed p a r t s a r e
designated as either slip-critical (See Article 10.24.1.4)
or bearing-type connections. Shear connections sub-
jected to stress reversal, or where slippage wo u l d be un-
desirable, shall be slip-critical connections.. Potential slip
of joints should be investigated at intermediate load
stages especially those joints located in composite
regions.
10.32.3.1.7 The percentage of unit stress increase
shown in Article 3.22, Combination of Loads, shall apply
to allowable stresses in bolted slip-critical connections
using high-strength bolts, except that in no case shall the
p er c en t a ge o f a l l o wa b l e s t r es s ex c eed 1 3 3 p er c en t , a n d t he
r eq u i r em en t s o f Ar t i c l e 1 0. 3 2 . 3 . 3 s ha l l n o t b e ex c eed ed .
10.32.3.1.8 B o l t ed b ea r i n g-t yp e c o n n ec t i o n s s ha l l
b e l i m i t ed t o m em b er s i n c o m p r es s i o n a n d s ec o n d a r y
members.
10.32.3.2 The allowable stress in shear, bearing and
t en s i o n f o r AAS HTO M 1 6 4 ( AS TM A 3 2 5 ) a n d AAS HTO
M 2 5 3 ( AS TM A 4 9 0) b o l t s s ha l l b e a s l i s t ed i n Ta b l e
l 0. 3 2 . 3 B .
10.32.3.2.1 In addition to the allowable stress re-
quirements of Article 10.32.3.2 the force on a slip-critical
connectionas defined inArticle 10.24.1.4 shall not exceed
t he a l l o wa b l e s l i p f o r c e ( Ps ) o f t he c o n n ec t i o n a c c o r d i n g
t o :
P. . =F ~Ab Nb N,
Where:
= n o m i n a l s l i p r es i s t a n c e p er u n i t o f b o l t a r ea f r o m
Ta b l e l 0. 3 2 . 3 C, ks i .
A
5 = a r ea c o r r es p o n d i n g t o t he n o m i n a l b o d y a r ea o f
t he b o l t s q i n .
TABLE 10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on High-Strength
Bolts or Connected Material (ksi)
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
(ASTM (ASTM
Load Condition A 325)~ A 490)~
Applied Static Tension
5 38 47
Shear, F~, on bolt with threads in
shear planed.~ 19 24
Bearing, F~, on connected material
in standard, oversize, short-slotted
holes loaded in any direction, or
long-slotted holes parallel to the
0 5L~F, ~,
d =F, .h.i
applied bearing force
Bearing, 1%, on connected material
in long-slotted holes perpendicular
to the applied bearing force
0.4L,F, 0 8F f.
5.h.
d
The tensile strength of M 164 (A 325) bolts decreases for diameters
greater than 1 inch. The design values listed are for bolts upto 1 inch
diameter. The design values shall be multiplied by 0.8 75 for diameters
greater than 1 inch.
Bolts must be tensioned to requirements of Table t I. SA. Div It.
See Article 10.32.3.4 for bolts subject to tensile fatigue.
dIn connections transmitting axial force whose length between ex-
treme fasteners measured parallel to theline offorce exeeeds 50 inches,
tabulated values shall be reduced 20 percent.
If material thickness or joint details preclude threads in the shear
plane, multiply tabulated values by 1.25.
= specified minimum tensile strength ofconnected material.
Connections using high-strength bolts in slotted holes with the load
applied in a direction other than approximatelynormal (between 8 0 and
100 degrees) to the axis of the hole and connections with bolts in
oversized holes shall be designed for resistance against slip in accord-
ance with Article 10.32.3.2.1.
L, is equal to the clear distance between the holes or betweenthe
hole and the edge of the material in the direction ofthe applied bearing
force, in. and d is the nominal diameter ofthe bolt, in.
The allowable bearing force for the connection is equal to the sum
of the allowable bearing forces for the individual bolts in the connec-
tion.
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M 253 (ASTM
A 490) high-strength bolts are available in three types, designated as
types 1, 2, or 3. Type 3 shall be required on the plans when using
unpainted AASHTO M 270 Grade SOW (ASTM A 709 Grade SOW).
252 10.32.3. 1.5
253
DIV ISION IDESIGN
10.32.3.2.1
Nb = number of bolts in the joint.
N, = number of slip planes.
10.32.3.3 AppliedTension, Combined Tension
and Shear
Class A, B, or C surface conditions of the bolted parts as
defined in Table l0.32.3C shall be used in joints desig-
nated as slip-critical except as permitted in Article
10.32.3.2.2.
10.32.3.2.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer.
coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33 may be
used provided the mean slip coefficient is established by
test in accordance with the requirements of Article
10.32.3.2.3, and the slip resistance per unit area are es-
tablished. The slip resistance p er u n i t a r ea s ha l l b e t a ken
a s eq u a l t o t he s l i p r es i s t a n c e p er u n i t a r ea f r o m Table
1 0. 3 2 . 3 C f o r Class A coatings as appropriate for the hole
t yp e a n d b o l t t yp e t i m es t he s l i p c o ef f i c i en t d et er m i n ed b y
t es t d i v i d ed b y 0. 3 3 .
10.32.3.2.3 Pa i n t , u s ed o n t he f a yi n g s u r f a c es o f
c o n n ec t i o n s s p ec i f i ed t o b e s l i p -c r i t i c a l , s ha l l b e q u a l i f i ed
b y t es t i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Tes t Method to Determine the
S l i p Co ef f i c i en t f o r Co a t i n gs U s ed i n B o l t ed Jo i n t s a s
a d o p t ed b y t he R es ea r c h Co u n c i l o n Structural Connec-
tions. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Speci-
fication for Structural Joints UsingASTM A 325 or A 490
B o l t s p u b l i s hed b y t he R es ea r c h Co u n c i l o n S t r u c t u r a l
Co n n ec t i o n s .
10.32.3 .3. 1 Hi gh-s t r en gt h b o l t s p r ef er a b l y s ha l l b e
used for fasteners subject to tension or combined tension
a n d s hea r .
10.32.3.3.2 B o l t s r eq u i r ed t o s u p p o r t a p p l i ed l o a d b y
m ea n s o f d i r ec t t en s i o n s ha l l b e s o p r o p o r t i o n ed t ha t t hei r
average tensile stress computed on the basis of nominal
b o l t a r ea wi l l n o t ex c eed t he a p p r o p r i a t e s t r es s i n Ta b l e
l0.32.3B. The a p p l i ed l o a d s ha l l b e t he s u m o f t he ex t er -
n a l l o a d a n d a n y t en s i o n r es u l t i n g f r o m p r yi n g a c t i o n . The
t en s i o n d u e t o t he p r yi n g a c t i o n s ha l l b e
L
3b
0]T
8a 20j
(1013)
where:
Q = the prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when
n ega t i v e) ;
T = the direct tension per bolt due to external load:
a distance from center of bolt to edge of plate in
inches;
b distance from center of bolt under consideration
to toe of fillet of connected part in inches;
= thickness of thinnest part connected in inches.
TABLE l0.32.3C Nominal Slip Resistancefor Slip-Critical Connections (Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, F,, ksi)
Contact Surface of Bolted Parts
Hole Type and Direction of Load Application
Any Direction Transverse Parallel
Standard
Oversized and
Short Slot Long Slots Long Slots
AASHTO AASHTO
MIM M253
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A490)
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
(ASTM (ASTM
A325) A490)
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
(ASTM (ASTM
A325) A490)
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A 490)
ClassA(SlipCoefficient0.33)
Clean mitt scale and blast-
cleaned surfaces with Class
A coatings5
Class 3 (Slip Coefficient 0.50)
Blast-cleaned surfaces and
blast-cleaned surfaces with
Class B coatings
ClassC(StipCoefficient0.33)
Hot-dipgalvanized surfaces
and roughened by wire
brushing after galvanizing
15 19
23 29
15 19
13 16
19 24
13 16
It 13
16 20
11 13
9 11
14 17
9 11
The tensile strength of M 164 (A325) bolts decreases for diameters greater than 1 inch. The design values listed are for bolts up to 1
inch diameter. The design values shall be multiplied by 0.8 75 for diameters greater than 1 inch.
Coatings classified as Class A or Class B include those coatings which provide a mean slip coefficient not less than 0.33 or 0.50,
respectively, as determinedby Testing Method to Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints. See Article 10.32.3.2.3.
10.32.3.3.3 For combined shear and tension in
slip-critical joints using high-strength bolts where applied
forces reduce the total clamping force on the fric-
tion plane, the slip resistance per unit area of bolt, f,~, shall
not exceedthe value obtained from the following equation:
shall not exceed the following design stresses in kips
per square inch. The nominal diameter of the bolt shall
be used in calculating the bolt stress. The prying
force shall not exceed 60 percent of the externally applied
load.
= F , ( l l.8 8 f
1fF~)
( 1 0-1 4 )
where:
= computed tensile stress in the bolt due to applied
loads including any stress due to prying action,
ksi;
F, = nominal slip resistance per unit of bolt area from
Table l0.32.3C, ksi;
F~= 120 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts up to I-inch
diameter;
= 105 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts over I-inch
diameter;
= 150 ksi for M 253 (A 490) bolts.
10.32.3.3.4 Where rivets or high-strength bolts are
s u b j ec t t o b o t h s hea r a n d t en s i o n , t he t en s i l e s t r es s s ha l l n o t
exceed the value obtained from the following equations:
for f,IF < 0 33
= F, (10-15)
Number of Cycles
Not more than 20,000
From 20,000 to 500,000
Mo r e t ha n 5 00, 000
AASHTO
M164
(ASTM
A325)
3 8
35.5
27.5
AASHTO
M 253
(ASTM
A 490)
47
44.0
34.0
10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers
10.32.4.1 The effective b ea r i n g a r ea o f a p i n s ha l l b e
its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the material on
which it bears. When parts in contact have different yield
p o i n t s , F ~ s ha l l b e t he s m a l l er v a l u e.
10.32.4.2 Bearing per linear inch on expansion rock-
ers and rollers shall not exceed the values obtainedby the
following formulas:
for f~/F,. > 0.33
Diameters up to 25 inches:
F1=F~ I(f~/F~)
2 (10-16)
where:
F~ 13,000
600d
20,000
= computed rivet or bolt shear stress in shear, ksi;
F, = allowable shear stress on rivet or bolt from Table
l0.32.3A or Table l0.32.3B, ksi;
F, = allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt from
Table I 0.32.3A or Table I 0.32.3B, ksi;
= reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt
due to the applied shear stress, ksi.
2 + (kt)2 =
(10-17)
s = the computed rivet or bolt unit stress in shear;
= the computed rivet or bolt unit stress in tension,
including any stress due to prying action;
S = the allowable rivet or bolt unit stress in shear;
k = a constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-strength
bolts with thread excluded from shear plane.
Diameters 25 to 125 inches:
F~ 13,000
3,000 d
20,000
(10-19)
where:
p = allowable bearing in pounds per linear inch;
d = diameter of rocker or roller in inches;
= minimum yield point in tension of steel in
the roller or bearing plate, whichever is the
smaller.
Expansion rollers shall be not less than 4 inches in diam-
et er .
10.32.3.4 Fatigue
When subject to tensile fatigue loading, the tensile
stress in the bolt due to the service load plus the pry-
ing force resulting from application of service load
10.32.4.3 Designstresses for Steel Bars. Carbon Cold
Finished Standard Quality, AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A
108), and Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for General
Industrial Use. AASHTO M 102 (ASTMA668), are given
in Table l0.32.4.3A.
(10-18)
1 0. 3 2 . 4 . 3 DIV ISION IDESIGN
255
TABLE 1032.4.3A Allowable StressesSteel Bars and Steel Forgings
AASHTO Designation with Size
Limitations
ASTM Designation Grade or Class
Minimum Yield Point, psi
Stress in Extreme Fiber, psi
Shear, psi
Ml694tn.tn
dia. or less
A108
Grades 1016
1030 mcI.
36,000
O.8 0F~ 29,000
M 102 To 2 0
tn. tn dia.
A 668
Class C
33,000
26,000
0.40F~ 14,000 13,000
M 102 To 20
in. india.
A 668
Class D
M 102 To 10
i n . i n d i a .
A 668
Class F
37,500 50,000 50,000
30,000 40,000
15,000 20,000 20,000
40,000
Bearing on Pins not Subject to Rotation,
psi
Bearing on Pins Subject to Rotation, psi
(such as used in rockers and hinges)
0.80F~ 29,000 26,000 30,000 40,000 40,000
0.40F~ 14,000 13,000 15,000 20,000
For design purposes only. Not a part of the A 108 specifications. Supplementary material requirements sbould provide guarantee that material will
meet these values.
May substitute rolled material of the same properties.
This shall apply to pins used primarily in axially loaded members, such as truss members andcable adjusting links. It shall not apply to pins used
in members having rotation caused by expansion or deflection.
1032.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable
Castings, and Cast Iron
10.32.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile [ron
10.32.5.1.1 For cast steel conforming to speci-
fications for Steel Castings for Highway Bridges,
AASHTO M 192 (ASTM A 486), Mild-to-Medium-
Strength Carbon-Steel Castings for General Application,
AASHTO M 103 (ASTM A 27), andCorrosion-Resistant
Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-
Based Alloy Castings for General Application, AASHTO
M 163 (ASTM A 743), and for Ductile Iron Cast-
tngs (ASTM A 536), the allowable stresses in pounds
per square inch shall be in accordance with Table
10.32.5. IA.
10.32.5.1.2 When in contact with castings or steel of
adifferent yield point, the allowable unit bearing stress of
the material with the lower yield point shall govern. For
rivetedor bolted connections, Article 10.32.3 shall govern.
10.32.5.2 Malleable Castings
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for
Malleable Iron Castings. ASTM A 47 Grade 35018. The
following allowable stresses in pounds per square inch
shall be used:
Tension 18,000
Bending in Extreme Fiber . . . . . . 18,000
Modulus of Elasticity . 25,000,000
10.32.5.3 Cast Iron
Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications for
Gray IronCa s t i n gs , AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A 48). Class
30B. The following allowable stresses in pounds per
square inch shall be used:
Bending in Extreme Fiber 3,000
Shear 3,000
Direct Compression, Short Columns 12,000
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy
10.32.5.4.1 Bronze castings, AASHTO M 107
(ASTM B 22), Copper Alloys 913 or 911, or Copper-
Alloy Plates, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100), shall be
specified.
10.32.5.4.2 The allowable unit-bearing stress in
pounds per square inch on bronze castings or copper-alloy
plates shall be 2,000.
10.32.6 Bearing on Masonry
10.32.6.1 The allowable unit-bearing stress in
pounds per square inch on the following types of masonry
s ha l l b e:
Granite 800
Sandstone and Limestone 400
10.32.6.2 The above bridge seat unit stress will apply
only where the edge of the bridge seat projects at least 3
M 102 To 20
in. in dia.
A
668 b
Class G
20,000
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 1032.5AA Allowable StressesCast Steel and Ductile Iron
AASI-ITODesignation M 103 M 192 M 192 M 163 None
ASTM Designation A 27 A 486 A 486 A 743 A 536
Class or Grade 70-36 70 90 120 CA-15 60-40-18
Minimum Yield Point, F~ 36,000 60,000 95,000 65,000 40,000
Axial Tension 14,500 22,500 34,000 24,000 16,000
Tension in Extreme Fibers 14,500 22,500 34,000 24,000 16,000
Axial Compression, Short Columns 20,000 30,000 45,000 32,000 22,000
Compression in Extreme Fibers 20,000 30,000 45,000 32,000 22,000
Shear 9,000 13,500 21,000 14,000 10,000
Bearing, Steel Parts in Contact 30,000 45,000 68,000 48,000 33,000
Bearing on Pins not Subject to Rotation 26,000 40,000 60,000 43,000 28,000
Bearing on Pins Subject to Rotation 13,000 20,000 30,000 21,500 14,000
(such as used inrockers and hinges)
i n c hes ( a v er a ge) b eyo n d t he ed ge o f s ho e o r p l a t e. Other-
wise, the unit stresses permitted will be 75 percent of the
above amounts.
10.32.6.3 For allowable unit-bearing stress on con-
crete masotirv. refer to Article 8 1 9 2 1 3
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS
10.33.1 General
10.33.1.1 Rolled beams, including those with welded
cover plates, shall be designed by the moment of inertia
method. Rolled beams with riveted cover plates shall be
designed on the same basis as riveted plate girders.
10.33.1.2 The compression flanges of rolled beams
supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be
laterally supported by the flooring unless the floor and fas-
tenings are specially designed to provide adequate support.
10.33.2 Bearing StitTeners
S u i t a b l e s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed t o s t i f f en t he web s
of rolled beams at bearings when the unit shear in the web
adjacent to the bearing exceeds 75 percent of the allow-
able shear for girder webs. See the related provisions of
Article 10.34.6.
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS
10.34.1 General
10.34.1.1 Gi r d er s shall he proportioned by the mo-
ment of inertia method. For members primarily in bend-
ing. the entire gross seetton shall be used when calculat-
ing tensile and compressive stresses. Holes for
high-strength bolts or rivets and/or open holes not ex-
ceeding 1/4 inches, may be neglected provided the area
removed from each flange does not exceed 15 percent of
that flange. That area in excess of 15 percent shall be de-
ducted from the gross area.
10.34.1.2 The compression flanges of plate girders
supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be
laterally supported by the flooring ttnless the floor and
fastenings are specially designed to provide support.
10.34.2 Flanges
10.34.2.1 Welded Girders
10.34.2. 1.1 Each flange may comprise a series of
plates joined end to end by full penetration butt welds.
Changes in flange areas may be accomplished by varying
the thickness and/or width of the flange plate, or by adding
cover plates. Where plates of varying thicknesses or
widths are connected, the splice shall be made in accor-
dance with Article 10. 18 and welds ground smooth before
attaching to the web.
10.34.2.1.2 Whencover plates are used, they shall be
designed in accordance with Article 10.13.
10.34.2.1.3 The ratio of compression flange plate
width to thickness shall not exceed the value determined
by the formula:
b 3,250 but in no case shall
b/t exceed 24
(10-20)
10.34.2.1.4 Where the calculatedcompressive bend-
ing stress equals .55 F~ the (bit) ratios for the various
grades of steel shall not exceed the following:
36.000 psi, Y.P. Mm. bit _
50,000 psi, Y.P Mm. b/t = 20
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. bit = 17
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. bit 15
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t 14
256 1 0. 3 2 . 6 . 3
In the above b is the flange plate width, t is the thickness,
and fh is the calculated maximum compressive bending
stress. (See Article 10.40.3 for Hybrid Girders.)
10.34.2.1.5 In the case of acomposite girder the ratio
of the top compression flange plate width to thickness
shall not exceed the value determined by the formula:
b 3,250
t t(fl
but in no case shall
b/t exceed 24
(10- 21)
where t~
1 is the top flange compressive stress due to non-
composite dead load.
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders
10.34.2.2.1 Flange angles shall form as large a part
of the area of the flange as practicable. Side plates shall
not be used except where flange angles exceeding
7/s i n c h
in thickness otherwise would be required.
10.34.2.2.2 Width of outstanding legs of flange
angles in compression, except those reinforced by
plates, shall not exceed the value determined by the for-
m u l a :
b _ 1,625
but in no case shall
b/t exceed 12
(10-22)
10.34.2.2.3 Where the calculated compressive bend-
ing stress equals 0.55 F
5, the b/t ratios for the various
grades of steel shall not exceed the following:
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t II
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. h/t = 10
7 0, 000 p s i , Y. P. Mi b /t = 8 .5
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 7.5
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mi b/t = 7
10.34.2.2.4 In the case of a composite girder the
width of outstanding legs of top flange angles in com-
pression, except those reinforced by plates. shall not ex-
ceed the value determined by the following formula:
b 1,625
7~ Jfm
but in no case shall (10- 23)
b/t exceed 12
In the above b is the width of a flange angle, t is the thick-
ness. f1, is the calculated maximum compressmve stress.
and f~~1 is the top flange compressive stress due to non-
composite dead load.
10.34.2.2.5 The gross area of the compression
flange, except for composite design. shall be not less than
the gross area of the tension flange.
10.34.2.2.6 Flange plates shall be of equal thickness.
or shall decrease in thickness from the flange angles out-
ward. No plate shall have a thickness greater than that of
the flange angles.
10.34.2.2.7 At least one cover plate of the top
flange shall extend the full length of the girder except
when the flange is covered with concrete. Any coverplate
that is not full length shall extend beyond the theo-
retical cutoff point far enough to develop the capacity
of the plate or shall extend to a section where the stress
in the remainder of the girder flange is equal to the al-
lowable fatigue stress, whichever is greater. The theo-
retical cutoff point of the cover plate is the section at
which the stress in the flange without that cover plate
equals the allowable stress, exclusive of fatigue con-
siderations.
/0.34.2.2.8 The number of fasteners connecting the
flange angles to the web plate shall be sufficient to de-
velop the increment of flange stress transmitted to the
flange angles, combined with any load that is applied di-
rectly to the flange.
10.34.2.2.9 Legs of angles 6 inches or greater in
width, connected to web plates, shall have two lines of
fasteners. Cover plates over 14 inches wide shall have four
lines of fasteners.
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally
10.34.3.1.1 The web plate thickness of plate girders
without longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than that
determined by the formula:
= (See Figure l0.34.3.IA.) (10-24)
but in no case shall the thickness be less than D/170.
10.34.3.1.2 Wher e t he c a l c u l a t ed c o m p r es s i v e b en d -
ing stress in the flange equals the allowable bending
stress, the thickness of the web plate (with the web stiff-
ened or not stiffened, depending on the requirements for
transverse stiffeners) shall not be less than (where the Y.P.
is for the flange material):
258
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1 0. 3 4 . 3 . 1 . 2
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D/165
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D/140
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D/l 15
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D/105
100,000 psi, YP. Mm D/100
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally
10.34.3.2. 1 The web plate thickness of plate girders
equipped with longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than
that determined by the formula:
D ~b
46,000 (See Figure l0.34.3.IA) (10-25)
in combination with one longitudinal stiffener shall not be
l es s t ha n ( wher e t he Y. P. i s f o r t he f l a n ge m a t er i a l ) :
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. D/330
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. D/280
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. D/230
90,000 psi,Y.P. Mi D/210
100,000 psi,Y.P. Mi D/200
In the above, D (depth of web) is the clear unsupported
distance in inches between flange components, t~, i s t he
web thickness, and f
5 is the calculated flange bending
s t r es s .
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners
but in no case shall the thickness be less than D/340.
10.34.3.2.2 Where the calculated bending stress in
the flange equals the allowable bending stress, the thick-
n es s o f t he web p l a t e s t i f f en ed wi t h t r a n s v er s e s t i f f en er s
260
4 T
:: j1L~
0
18 0
0,0)
160
n ~
0)C
50)
1 0. 3 4 . 4 . 1 Tr a n s v er s e i n t er m ed i a t e s t i f f en er s m a y
be omitted if the average calculated unit-shearing stress
in the gross section of the web plate at the point con-
s i d er ed , f ~, i s l es s t ha n t he v a l u e gi v en b y t he f o l l o wi n g
equation:
733x10
7 F~
F= (D/t~)2 3 ( 1 0-2 6 )
where:
D = unsupported depth of web plate between flanges
i n i n c hes ;
= thickness of the web plate in inches;
F, = allowable shear stress in psm.
10.34.4.2 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners
are required, the spacing of the transverse intermediate
stiffener shall be such that the actual shearing stress will
not exceed the value given by the following equation; the
maximum spacing is further limited to 3D and is subject
to the handling requirement below:
0. 8 7 ( 1 C) 1
30 11Lli I .1 1 L2~ 60
o 10 20 30 40 50
~b (ksl
WEB THICKNESS AND G IRDER DEP TH
(a function of bending str ess)
o depth of web
thickness of web
calculated comp r essive bending str ess in flange
( 1 0-2 7 )
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress
divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
follows:
D 6,000 k
for <
fjL~
0
8 0
a
U.-
a
0
00
FIGURE 10.343.IA. Web Thickness vs. Girder Depth
C =1.0
1 0. 3 4 . 4 . 2 DIV ISION IDESIGN 259
for:
6,000 k=(D/ )=7~500 k
(10-28)
6,000 k
(D/t~) F~
for
D/t~ 7,500 k
C 4 . 5 x 1 0
7 k
(Dit~)2F~
wher e:
k=5
( d
0 /D)
2
= s p a c i n g o f i n t er m ed i a t e s t i f f en er
F:, = yield strength of the web plate
10.34.4.5 Wher e t he c a l c u l a t ed s hea r s t r es s eq u a l s t he
allowable shear stress, transverse intermediate stiffeners
may be omitted if the thickness of the web is riot less than:
36,000 psi, YP. Mm. D/78
50,000 psi, YP. Mi D/66
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D156
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mi D/50
100,000 psi, YP. Mi D/47
10.34.4.6 Intermediate stiffeners preferably shall be
(10- 28A) made of plates for welded plate girders and shall be made
of angles for riveted plate girders. They may be in pairs,
one stiffener fastened on each side of the web plate, with
a tight fit at the compression flange. They may, however,
be made of a single stiffener fastened to one side of the
web plate. Stiffeners providedon only one side of the web
must be in bearing against, but neednot be attached to, the
(10- 28B) compression flange for the stiffener to be effective. How-
ever, transverse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or
crossframes to the beam or girder shall be rigidly con-
nected to both the top and bottom flanges.
( F ~/3 ) in Equation (10-27) can be replaced by the allow-
able shearing stress given in Table 10.32.1 A.
Transverse stiffeners shall be required if Dit~~ is greater
than 150. For panels without longitudinal stiffeners, the
spacing of these stiffeners shall not exceed D1260/(D/tv)]
to ensure efficient handling, fabrication, and erection of
the girders.
10.34.4.3 The spacing of the first intermediate stiff-
ener at the simple support end of agirder shall be such that
the shearing stress in the end panel shall not exceed the
value given by the following equation (the maximum
spacing is limited to I SD):
F. = CF~/3 =F~/3 (10-29)
1 0. 3 4 . 4 . 4 If a girder panel is subjected to simultane-
ous action of shear and bending moment with the magni-
tude of the shear stress higher than 0.6 F~, the bending
s t r es s , F ~, s ha l l b e l i m i t ed t o :
= (.754 .34f~/F~)F:, (10-30)
where:
10.34.4.7 The moment of inertia of any type of trans-
verse stiffener with reference to the mid-plane of the web
shall not be less than:
I = d,.,t~J (10-31)
where:
J = 2.5 (D/d
0)
2 2, but not less than 0.5 (10-32)
In these expressions,
I = minimum permissible moment of inertia of any
type of transverse intermediate stiffener in
mnches4;
J = requiredratio of rigidity of one transverse stiffener
t o t ha t o f t he web p l a t e;
= actual distance between stiffeners in inches~
D = unsupported depth of web plate between flange
components in inches for transversely stiffened
girders, or maximum subpanel depth in inches for
longitudinally stiffened girders;
= thickness of the web plate in inches.
The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate trans-
v er s e s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e gr ea t er t ha n :
f. = average calculated unit-shearing stress at the
section; live load shall be the load to produce
maximum moment at the section under consid-
eration
F, =value obtained from Equation (10-27).
A = [0.I5BDt
0(l C) (fiR.) 18 t~.JY (l0-32a)
where Y is the ratio of web plate yield strength to stiffener
p l a t e yi el d s t r en gt h: B = 1.0 for stiffener pairs, 1.8 for sin-
260 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.34.4.7
gle angles, and 2.4 for single plates; andC is computed by
Article 10.34.4.2. When values computed by Equation
(l0-32a) approach zero or are negative, then transverse
stiffeners need only meet the requirements of Equation
(10-31), and the requirements of Article 10.34.4.10.
10.34.4.8 When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment
of inertia shall be taken about the center line of the web
plate. When single stiffeners are used, the moment of
inertia shall be taken about the face in contact with the
web plate.
10.34.5.2 The thickness o f t he l o n gi t u d i n a l s t i f f en er
t, shall not be less than:
b ~b
2,250
(10-34)
where:
width of stiffeners;
= calculated compressive bending stress in the
flange.
1 0. 3 4 . 4 . 9 Tr a n s v er s e i n t er m ed i a t e s t i f f en er s n eed n o t
be in bearing with the tension flange. The distance be-
tween the end of the stiffener weld and the near edge of
the web-to-flange fillet welds shall not be less than 4tv or
more than 6t~. Stiffeners at points of concentrated loading
shall be placed in pairs and should be designed in accor-
dance with Article 10.34.6. However, transverse stiffeners
which connect diaphragms or crossframes to the beam or
girder shall be rigidly connected to both the top and bot-
tom flanges.
10.34.4. 10 The width of a plate or the outstanding
leg of an angle intermediate stiffener shall not be less than
2 inches plus A the depth of the girder, and it shall prefer-
ably not be less than /4 the full width of the girder flange.
The thickness of a plate or the outstanding leg of an angle
intermediate stiffener shall not be less than /16 its width.
Intermediate stiffeners may be AASHTO M 270 Grade 36
s t eel .
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners
10.34.5.1 The center line of aplate longitudinal stiff-
ener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener
s ha l l be D/5 from the inner surface or leg of the compres-
sion flange component. The longitudinal stiffener shall be
proportioned so that:
(10-33)
where:
I = mtnimnum moment of inertia of the longitudinal
stiffener about its edge in contact with the web
plate in inches
4;
D unsupported distance between flange compo-
nents in inches;
t,,. = thickness of the web plate in inches;
= actual distance between transverse stiffeners in
inches.
10.34.5.3 The stress in the stiffener shall not be
greater than the basic allowable bending stress for the ma-
terial used in the stiffener.
10.34.5.4 Longitudinal stiffeners are usually placed
on one side only of the web plate. They need not be con-
tinuous and may be cut at their intersections with the
t r a n s v er s e s t i f f en er s .
10.34.5.5 For longitudinally stiffened girders, trans-
verse stiffeners shall be spaced adistance, dr,, according to
shear capacity as specified in Article 10.34.4.2, but not
more than 1.5 times the maximum subpanel depth. The
handling requirement given in Article 10.34.4.2 shall not
apply to longitudinally stiffened girders. The spacing of
the first transverse stiffener at the simple support end of a
longitudinally stiffened girder shall be such that the shear-
ing stress in the end panel does not exceed the value given
i n Ar t i c l e 10.34.4.3. The maximum spacing of the first
transverse stiffener at the simple support end of a longitu-
dinally stiffened girder is limited to 1.5 times the maxm-
mum subpanel depth. The total web depth D shall be used
in determining the shear capacity of longitudinally stiff-
ened girders in Articles 10.34.4.2 and 10.34.4.3.
10.34.5.6 Transverse stiffeners for girder panels with
longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed according to Ar-
ticle 10.34.4.7 except that the maximum subpanel depth
shall be used instead of the total panel depth, D.
10.34.6 Bearing Stiffeners
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders
O v er t he en d b ea r i n gs o f wel d ed p l a t e gi r d er s a m i d
over the intermediate bearings of continuous welded
plate girders there shall be stiffeners. They shall extend
a s n ea r l y a s p r a c t i c a b l e t o t he o u t er ed ges o f t he f l a n ge
plates. They preferably shall be made of plates placed
on both sides of the web plate. Bearing stiffeners shall
be designed as columns, and their connection to the
10.34.6.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
261
web shall be designed to transmit the entire end reac-
tion to the bearings. For stiffeners consisting of two
plates, the column section shall be assumed to comprise
the two plates and a centrally located strip of the web
plate whose width is equal to not more than 18 times
its thickness. For stiffeners consisting of four or more
plates, the column section shall be assumed to comprise
the four or more plates and a centrally located strip of
the web plate whose width is equal to that enclosed by
the four or more plates plus a width of not more than 18
times the web plate thickness. (See Article 10.40 for
Hybrid Girders.) The radius of gyration shall be
computed about the axis through the center line of the
web plate. The stiffeners shall be ground to fit against
the flange through which they receive their reaction, or
attached to the flange by full penetration groove welds.
Only the portions of the stiffeners outside the flange-
to-web plate welds shall be considered effective in
bearing. The thickness of the bearing stiffener plates shall
not be less than,
1Y 133,000
(10-35)
The allowable compressive stress and the bearingpressure
on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values specified in
Article 10.32.
10.35 TRUSSES
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars
The shearing force normal to the member in the planes
of lacingor continuous perforated plates shall be assumed
divided equally between all such parallel planes. The
shearing force shall include that due to the weight of the
member plus any other external force. For compression
members, an additional force shall be added as obtained
b y t he f o l l o wi n g f o r m u l a :
V ~PF 100 + (L/r)F~ 1
100 [jir +10 3,300,0001
(10-37)
In the above expression:
V = normal shearing force in pounds;
P = allowable compressive axial load on members in
pounds;
= length of member in inches;
r = radius of gyration of section about the axis per-
pendicular to plane of lacing or perforated plate
in inches;
= specified minimum yield point of type of steel
being used.
10.35.2 Compression MembersThickness of
Metal
10.34.6.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders
Over the endbearings of riveted or bolted plate girders
there shall be stiffener angles, the outstanding legs of
whi c h s ha l l ex t en d a s n ea r l y a s p r a c t i c a b l e t o t he o u t er
ed ge o n t he f l a n ge a n gl e. B ea r i n g s t i f f en er a n gl es s ha l l
be proportioned for bearing on the outstanding legs of
flange angles, no allowance being made for the portions
of the legs being fitted to the fillets of the flange angles.
Bearing stiffeners shall be arranged, and their con-
nections to the web shall be designed to transmit the
entire end reaction to the bearings. They shall not be
crimped. The thickness of the bearing stiffener angles
s ha l l n o t b e l es s t ha n :
V F~
12 33,000
(10-36)
The allowable compressive stress and the bearing pressure
on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values specified in
Article 10.32.
10.35.2.1 Compression members shall be so designed
that the main elements of the section will be connected
directly to the gusset plates, pins, or other members.
10.35.2.2 The center of gravity of a built-up section
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the center of
the section. Preferably, segments shall be connected by
solid webs or perforated cover plates.
10.35.2.3 Plates supported on one side, outstanding
l egs o f a n gl es a n d p er f o r a t ed p l a t es f o r o u t s t a n d i n g
plates, outstanding legs of angles, and perforated plates at
the perforations, the b/t ratio of the plates or angle seg-
ments when used in compression shall not be greater than
the value obtained by use of the formula:
b 1,625
~
(10-38)
but in no case shall bit be greater than 12 for main mem-
hers and 16 for secondary members.
2 6 2
(Note: b is the distance from the edge of plate or edge of
perforation to the point of support.)
10.35.2.4 When the compressive stress equals the
limiting factor of 0.44 F~, the b/t ratio of the segments in-
dicated above shall not be greater than the ratios shown
for the following grades of steel:
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 12
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = II
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 9
90,000 psi, YR Mm. b/t = 8
100,000 psi, YP. Mm. b/t = 7.5
10.35.2.5 Plates supported on two edges or webs of
main component segmentsfor members of box shape
consmsting of main plates, rolled sections, or made up
component segments with cover plates, the b/t ratio of the
main plates or webs of the segments when used in com-
pression shall not be greater than the value obtained by
use of the formula:
b 4,000
(10-39)
but in no case shall b/t be greater than 45.
(Note: b is the distance between points of support for the
plate and between roots of flanges for the webs of rolled
segments.)
10.35.2.6 When the compressive stresses equal the
limiting factor of 0.44 F,, the b/t ratio of the plates and
segments indicated above shall not be greater than the ra-
tios shown for the following grades of steel:
3 6 , 000 p s i , Y. P. Mm . b i t = 32
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm, b/t = 27
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 23
90,000 psi. Y.P. Mm. b/t = 20
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. bit = 19
10.35.2.7 Solid c o v er p l a t es s u p p o r t ed o n t wo ed ges
or webs connecting main members or segmentsfor
members of H or box shapes consisting of solid cover
plates or solid webs connecting main plates or segments,
the bit ratio of the solid cover plates or webs when used in
compression shall not be greater than the value obtained
by use of the formula:
(Note: b is the unsupported distance between points of
support.)
limiting factor of 0.44 F:,, the b/t ratio of the cover plate
and webs indicated above shall not be greater than the ra-
tios shown for the following grades of steel:
36,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 40
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 34
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 28
90,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 25
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 24
10.35.2.9 Perforated cover plates supported on two
edgesfor members of box shapes consisting of perfo-
rated cover plates connecting main plates or segments, the
b/t ratio of the perforated cover plates when used in com-
pression shall not be greater than the value obtained by
use of the formula:
b 6,000
~ fa
(10-41)
but in no case shall bit be greater than 55.
(Note: b is the distance between points of support. Atten-
tion is directed to requirements for plate thickness at per-
forations, namely, plate supported on one side, which also
shall be satisfied.)
limiting factor of 0.44 F:,, the b/t ratio of the perforated
cover plates shall not be greater than the ratios shown for
the following grades of steel:
36,000 psi, YP. Mm. b/t = 48
50,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 41
70,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. bit = 34
90,000 psi, YP. Mm. b/t = 30
100,000 psi, Y.P. Mm. b/t = 29
In the above expressmons
= computed compressive stress;
b = width (defined as indicated for each expres-
sion);
= plate or web thickness.
of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the plate to the main
s egm en t . F o r p l a t es b u t t wel d ed t o t he f l a n ge ed ge o f
rolled segments the point of support may be taken as the
b 5,000
7- \/~f~
(10-40)
but in no case shall b/t be greater than 50.
263
weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width to
flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than seven.
Otherwise, point of support shall be the root of flange of
rolled segment. Terminations of the butt welds are to be
ground smooth.
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES
All members subjected to both axial compression and
bending stresses shall be proportioned to satisfy the fol-
lowing requirements:
F, Cmxf
5. + Cii,yf~,y S 1.0 (10-42)
F, (1 ~$-.)F~. (1 ~~FbY
and:
+ ~b5 ~ =1.0 (at points of support)
FbX FbY
(10-43)
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES
10.37.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress
10.37.1.1 Live load plus impact moments that are de-
terminedby an analysis which neglects arch rib deflection
shall be increased by an amplification factor A~:
(10-45) AF = ______
1 70T
I
AFe
where:
T = arch rib thrust at the quarter point from dead plus
live plus impact loading;
= (~~2 (Euler buckling stress) (10-46)
L = one-half of the length of the arch rib;
A = area of cross section;
r = radius of gyration;
K = factor to account for effective length.
K V alues for Use in Calculating F~ and F,
2
itE
C F.S. (KbLb/rb)
2
(10-44)
= computed axial stress;
or f
5:, =computed compressive bending stress
about the x axis and y axis, respectively;
F, = axial stress that would be permitted if axial
force alone existed, regardless of the plane
of bending;
F,,~. F,,:, = compressive bending stress that would be
permitted if bending moment alone existed
about the x axis and the y axis, respec-
tively, as evaluated according to Table
l0.32.IA;
= Euler buckling stress divided by a factor of
safety;
E = modulus of elasticity of steel;
Kh = effective length factor in the plane of bend-
ing (see Appendix C);
= actual unbraced length in the plane of
bending;
r h = radius of gyration in the plane of bending;
Cmx, Ce,:, = coefficient about the x axis and y axis, re-
spectively, whose value is taken from
Table l0.36A;
ES. = factor of safety = 2.12.
Rise to Span
Ratio
0.10.2
0.20.3
0.3-0.4
3-Hinged
Arch
1.16
1.13
1.16
2-Hinged
Arch
1.04
1.10
1.16
Fixed Arch
0.70
0.70
0.72
10.37.1.2 The arch rib shall be proportioned to sat-
isfy the following requirement:
k+ <I
F5 Fh
(10-47)
wher e:
= the computed axial stress;
= the calculated bending stress, including moment
amplification, at the extreme fiber;
F, = the allowable axial unit stress;
F,, = the allowable bending unit stress.
10.37.1.3 For buckling in the vertical plane:
F [ (KL)2F1
212 L 4&E] (10-48)
wher e:
where KL as defined above.
TABLE 10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction Coefficients
Loading Conditions Remarks Cm
Computed moments maximum at end; joint translation o. 85
not prevented
Computed moments maximum at end; no transverse
loading, joint translation prevented I.kL..4
[(O.
4)~t + 0.61
Llva2 j
=0.4
Transverse loading; joint translation prevented
Transverse loading; joint translation prevented
0.85
1.0
= smaller end moment.
M1 /M2 is positive when member is bent in single curvature.
M1 /M2 is negative when member is bent in reverse curvature.
tn all cases C,., may be conservatively taken equal to 1 .0.
10.37.1.4 The effects of lateral slenderness shouldbe
investigated. Tied arch ribs, with the tie and roadway sus-
pended from the rib, are not subject to moment amplifica-
tion, and F, shall be based on an effective length equal to
the distance along the arch axis between suspenders, for
buckling in the vertical plane. However, the smaller cross-
sectional area of cable suspenders may result in an effec-
tive length slightly longer than the distance between sus-
penders.
10.37.2 Web Plates
and the moment of inertia of the stiffener about an axis
parallel to the web and at the base of the stiffener shall be
equal to:
I, = 0.75 Dt~.,
(10-SI)
10.37.2.3 If two longitudinal stiffeners are used at
the one-third points of the web depth D, maximum D/t~.,
shall be as follows:
D 10,000
fa maximumD/t~ =120 (10-52)
10.37.2.1 The depth to thickness ratio D/t0) of the
web plates, having no longitudinal stiffeners, shall not be
greater than the following:
D 5,000
fa maximum D/t~ =60
where t, = web thickness.
10.37.2.2 If one longitudinal stiffener is used at mid-
depth of the web, maximum D/t0) shall be as follows:
D 7,500, maximum D/t~ =90 (10-50)
and the moment of inertia of each stiffener shall be:
Is 2.2 Dt~
(10-53)
10.37.2.4 The width to thickness ratio b/t, of any
(10-49) outstanding element of the web stiffeners shall not exceed
the following:
b 1,625
, maximum b/t,, = 12 (10-54)
1037.2.5 Web plate equations apply between l i m i t s :
0.2= ~b =0.7
+
(10-55)
1 0. 3 7 . 3 DIV ISION IDESIGN 265
10.37.3 Flange Plates
10.37.3.1 The b/t
7 ratio for the width of flange plates
between webs shall be not greater than:
b 4,250
tf ~ maximumb/tt=47 (10-56)
10.37.3.2 The b/t, ratio for the overhang width of
flange plates shall be not greater than:
b 1,625
maximum b/t~ = 12
t~ fa+fti
(10-57)
10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS
10.38 .1 General
10.38 .1.1 This section pertains to structures com-
p o s ed o f s t eel gi r d er s wi t h c o n c r et e s l a b s c o n n ec t ed b y
shear connectors.
10.38.1.2 General specifications pertaining to the de-
sign of concrete and steel structures shall apply to struc-
tures utilizing composite girders where such specifica-
tions are applicable. Composite girders and slabs shall be
designed andthe stresses computed by the composite mo-
ment of inertia method and shall be consistent with the
predetermined properties of the various materials used.
10.38.1.3 The ratio of the moduli of elasticity of steel
(29,000,000 psi) tothose of normal weight concrete (W
145 pci) of various design strengths shall be as follows:
= unit ultimate compressive strength of concrete as
determined by cylinder tests at the age of 28 days
in pounds per square inch.
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of
concrete. The value of n, as a function of the ul-
timate cylinder strength of concrete, shall be as-
sumed as follows:
= 2,0002,300 n = II
2,400-2,800 = 10
2,9003,500 = 9
3,600-4,500 = 8
4,600-5,900 = 7
6,000 or more = 6
10.38 .1.4 The effect of creep shall be considered in
the design of composite girders which have dead loads
acting on the composite section. In such structures,
stresses and horizontal shears produced by deadloads act-
ing on the composite section shall be computed for n as
given above or for this value multiplied by 3, whichever
gives the higher stresses and shears.
10.38 .1.5 If concrete with expansive characteristics
is used, composite design should be used with caution and
provision must be made in the design to accommodate the
expansion.
10.38 .1.6 Composite sections in simple spans and
the positive moment regions of continuous spans should
preferably be proportioned so that the neutral axis lies
below the top surface of the steel beam. Concrete on the
tension side of the neutral axis shall not be considered in
calculating resistingmoments. In the negative moment re-
gions of continuous spans, only the slab reinforcement
can be considered to act compositely with the steel beams
in calculating resisting moments. Mechanical anchorages
shall be provided in the composite regions to develop
stresses on the plane joining the concrete and the steel.
Concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may be
considered in computing moments of inertia for deflection
calculations and for determining stiffness factors used in
calculating moments and shears.
10.38 .1.7 The steel beams, especially if not sup-
portedby intermediate falsework, shall be investigated for
stability and strength in accordance with Articles 10.50(c)
through (g) during the time the concrete is in place andbe-
fore it has hardened.
10.38 .2 Shear Connectors
10.38 .2.1 The mechanical means used at the junction
of the girder and slab for the purpose of developing the
shear resistance necessary to produce composite action
s ha l l c o n f o r m t o t he s p ec i f i c a t i o n s o f t he r es p ec t i v e m a t e-
rials as provided in Division II. The shear connectors shall
b e o f t yp es t ha t p er m i t a t ho r o u gh c o m p a c t i o n o f t he c o n -
crete in order to ensure that their entire surfaces are tn
c o n t a c t wi t h t he c o n c r et e. They s ha l l b e c a p a b l e o f r es i s t -
ing both horizontal and vertical movement between the
concrete and the steel.
10.38 .2.2 The capacity of stud and channel s hea r
connectors welded to the girders is given in Article
10.38.5. Channel shear connectors shall have at least
3 /i s -i n c h f i l l et wel d s p l a c ed a l o n g t he heel a n d t o e o f t he
channel.
10.38 .2.3 The clear depth of concrete cover over the
tops of the shear connectors shall be not less than 2 inches.
266 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.38.2.3
Shear connectors shall penetrate at least 2 inches above
bottom of slab.
10.38 .2.4 The clear distance between the edge of a
girder Ilange and the edge of the shear connectors shall be
not less than 1 inch. Adjacent stud shear connectors shall
not be closer than 4 diameters center to center.
10.38 .3 Effective Flange Width
10.38 .3.1 In composite girder construction the as-
sumed effective width of the slab as a T-beam flange shall
not exceed the following:
(I) One-fourth of the span length of the girder.
(2) The distance center to center of girders.
( 3 ) Twel v e t i m es t he l ea s t t hi c kn es s o f t he s l a b .
10.38 .4.3 In the negative moment regions of contin-
uous spans, the minimutn longitttdinal reinforcetnent in-
cluding the longitudinal distribution reinforcement must
equal or exceed 1 percent of the cross-sectional area of the
concrete slab. Two-thirds of this required reinforcement ms
to be placed in the top layer of slab within the effective
wmdth. Placement of distribution steel as specified in Arti-
cle 3.24.10 is waived within the effective width.
10.38 .4.4 When shear connectors are omitted from
the negative moment region, the longitudinal reinforce-
ment shall be extended into the positive moment region
beyond the anchorage connectors at least 40 times the re-
inforcement diameter. For epoxy-coated bars, the length
to be extended into the positive moment region beyond
the anchorage connectors should be modified to comnply
with Article 8.25.2.3.
10.38 .3.2 For girders having a flange on one side
o n l y, t he ef f ec t i v e f l a n ge wi d t h s ha l l n o t ex c eed o n e-
twelfth of the span length of the girder, or smx ttmes the
thickness of the slab, or one-half the distance center to
center of the next girder.
10.38 .4 Stresses
10.38 .4.1 Maximum compressive and tensile
stresses in girders that are not provided with temporary
supports during the placing of the permanent dead load
shall be the sum of the stresses produced by the dead loads
actingon the steel girders alone and the stresses produced
by the superimposed loads acting on the composite girder.
When girders are provided with effective intermediate
supports that are kept in place until the concrete has at-
tained 75 percent of its required 28-day strength, the dead
and live load stresses shall be computed on the basis of the
composite section.
10.38.4.2 A continuous composite bridge may be
built with shear connectors either in the positive moment
regions or throughout the length of the bridge. The posi-
tive moment regions tnay be designed with composite
sections as mn smmple spans. Shear connectors shall be
provided in the negative moment portion in which the re-
inforcement steel embedded in the concrete is considered
apart of the composite section. In case the reinforcement
steel embedded in the concrete is not used in computing
section propertiesfor negative moments, shear connectors
need not be provided in these portions of the spans. but
a d d i t i o n a l a n c ho r a ge c o n n ec t o r s s ha l l b e p l a c ed i n t he r e-
gi o n o f t he p o i n t o f d ea d l o a d c o n t r a -f l ex u r e i n a c c o r d a m i c e
with Article 10.38.5.1.3. Shear connectors shall be pro-
v i d ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l e 1 0. 3 8 . 5 .
10.38 .5 Shear
10.38 .5.1 Horizontal Shear
The m a x i m u m p i t c h o f s hea r c o n n ec t o r s s ha l l n o t ex -
c eed 2 4 i n c hes ex c ep t over the interior supports of con-
tinuous beams where wider spacing may be used 10 avoid
placing connectors at locations of high stresses in the ten-
s t o n f l a n ge.
R es i s t a n c e to horizontal shear shall be providedby mne-
chanical shear connectors at the junction of the concrete
s l a b a n d t he s t eel gi r d er . The s hea r c o n n ec t o r s s ha l l b e
mechanical devices placed transversely across the flange
of the girder spaced at regular or variable intervals. The
shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue* and
checked for ultimate strength.
10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue
The r a n ge o f ho r i z o n t a l s hea r s ha l l b e c o m p u t ed b y t he
formula:
s V rQ
r I
(10-58)
wher e:
S = range o f ho r i z o n t a l s hea r , i n ki p s p er i n c h. a t t he
junction of the slab and girder at the point in the
span under consideration;
= range of shear dtme to live loads and imupact
in kips: at any section. the range of shear shall
be taken as the difference in the minimum and
maximum shear envelopes (excluding dead loads);
*Reference is made to the paper titled Fatigue Strength of Shear Con-
nectors, by Roger 6. Stutter and John W. Fisher. in Hig/ovos Rexcort/t
Record. No. /47. published by the l-lighwav Research Board. w~hiitg-
ton, D.C.. 1966.
10.38.5.1.1 DIV ISION IDESIGN
267
Q = statical moment about the neutral axis of the
composite section of the transformed compres-
stve concrete area or the area of reinforcement
embedded in the concrete for negative moment,
in cubic inches;
I = moment of inertia of the transformed composite
girder in positive moment regions or the moment
of inertia provided by the steel beam including or
excluding the area of reinforcement embedded in
the concrete in negative moment regions, in
inches to the fourth power.
(In the formula, the compressive concrete area is trans-
formed into an equivalent area of steel by dividing the ef-
fective concrete flange width by the modular ratio, n.)
The allowable range of horizontal shear, Z,, in pounds
on an individual connector is as follows:
The number of s hea r c o n n ec t o r s r eq u i r ed s ha l l eq u a l o r
exceed the number given by the formula:
(10-61)
N
1 =__
~Ss
where:
N, = number of connectors between points of maxi-
mum positive moment and adjacent end sup-
ports;
S. = ultimate strength of the shear connector as given
below;
= r ed u c t i o n f a c t o r = 0.85;
P = force in the slab as defined hereafter as P, or
P,.
At points of maximum positive moment, the force in
the slab is taken as the smaller value of the formulas:
(10-59)
Welded studs (for H/d =4):
P =A,F:,
or:
P2 = 0.85fbt~
w = length of a c ha n n el s hea r c o n n ec t o r , i n i n c hes ,
m ea s u r ed i n a t r a n s v er s e d i r ec t i o n o n t he f l a n ge
of a girder;
d = diameter of stud in inches;
= 1 3 , 000 f o r 1 00, 000 c yc l es
10,600 for 500,000 cycles
7,850 for 2,000,000 cycles
5,500 for over 2,000,000 cycles;
B = 4,000 for 100,000 cycles
3,000 for 500,000 cycles
2,400 for 2,000,000 cycles
2,100 for over 2,000,000 cycles;
H = height of stud in inches.
The r eq u i r ed p i t c h o f s hea r c o n n ec t o r s i s d et er m i n ed
by dividing the allowable range of horizontal shear of all
connectors at one transverse girder cross-section (XZ,) by
t he ho r i z o n t a l r a n ge o f s hea r 5 , . O v er t he i n t er i o r s u p p o r t s
o f c o n t i n u o u s b ea m s t he p i t c h m a y b e m o d i f i ed t o a v o i d
p l a c i n g t he c o n n ec t o r s a t l o c a t i o n s o f hi gh s t r es s es m n
t he t en s i o n f l a n ge p r o v i d ed t ha t t he t o t a l n u m b er o f c o n -
nectt)r5 remains unchanged.
A, = total a r ea o f t he s t eel s ec t i o n i n c l u d i n g c o v er -
plates;
F5 = s p ec i f i ed m i n i m u m yi el d p o i n t o f t he s t eel b ei n g
used;
= compressive strength of concrete at age of 28
days;
b = effective flange width given in Article 10.38.3;
= thickness of the concrete slab.
The number of connectors, N~, required between the
points of maximum positive moment and points of adja-
cent maximum negative moment shall equal orexceed the
number given by the formula:
P + P3
N-,- (10- 64)
At points of maximum negative moment the force in
t he s l a b i s t a ken a s :
= A2F7
(10-65)
1 0. 3 8. 5 . 1 . 2 Ultimate Strength
The number of connectors so provided for fatigue shall
be checked to ensure that adequate connectors are pro-
vided for ultimate strength.
*when reinforcement steel embedded in the top slab is not used in
computing section properties for negative momeots. P is equal to icro.
Channels:
Zr = Bw
where:
Zr otd (10-60)
(10-62)
wher e:
(10-63)
268 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.38 .5.1.2
where:
= total area o f l o n gi t u d i n a l r ei n f o r c i n g s t eel a t
t he i n t er i o r s u p p o r t wi t hi n t he ef f ec t i v e f l a n ge
width;
= specified minimum yield point of the reinforc-
ing steel.
The ultimate strength of the shear connector is given as
follows:
Channels:
Su=550I1h+-Lj~lW i: (10-66)
Welded studs (for H/d > 4):
5
5=0.4d
2 t7E~
wher e:
= modulus of elasticity of the concrete in pounds
per square inch;
E~ ~w31233 f~
S . = u l t i m a t e s t r en gt h o f i n d i v i d u a l s hea r c o n n ec t o r i n
pounds;
h = average flange thickness of the channel flange in
inches;
= thickness of the web of a channel in inches;
W = length of a channel shear connector in inches;
= c o m p r es s i v e s t r en gt h o f t he c o n c r et e i n 2 8 d a ys
in pounds per square inch;
d = diameter of stud in inches;
w = unit weight of concrete in pounds p er c u b i c f o o t .
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to DevelopSlab
Stresses
The number of additional connectors required at points
of contraflexure when reinforcing steel embedded in the
concrete is not used in computing section properties for
negative moments shall be computed by the formula:
= A~fr/Zr
where:
= n u m b er o f a d d i t i o n a l c o n n ec t o r s f o r ea c h b ea m
at point of contraflexure;
Ax = total area of longitudinal slab reinforcing steel
for each beam over interior support;
vWhen reinforcement steel embedded in the top slab is not used in
computing section properties for negative moments, P is equal to zero.
(10-68)
= range of stress due to live load plus impact in
the slab reinforcement over the support (in lieu
of more accurate computations, f, may be taken
as equal to 10,000 psi);
= a l l o wa b l e r a n ge o f ho r i z o n t a l s hea r o n a n i n d i -
v i d u a l s hea r c o n n ec t o r .
The a d d i t i o n a l c o n n ec t o r s , N~, s ha l l b e p l a c ed a d j a c en t
t o t he p o i n t o f d ea d l o a d c o n t r a f l ex u r e wi t hi n a d i s t a n c e
equal to one-third the effective slab width, i.e., placed ei-
ther side of this point or centered about it. It is preferable
to locate field splices so that they clear the connectors.
10.38.5.2 Vertical Shear
The intensity of unit-shearing stress in a composite
(10-67) girder may be determined on the basis that the web of the
steel girder carries the total external shear, neglecting the
effects of the steel flanges and of the concrete slab.
The shear may be assumed to be uniformly distributed
throughout the gross area of the web.
10.38 .6 Deflection
10.38 .6.1 The provisions of Article 10.6 in regard to
deflections from live load plus impact also shall be ap-
plicable to composite girders.
10.38.6.2 When the girders are not provided with
falsework or other effective intermediate support during
the placing of the concrete slab, the deflection due to the
weight of the slab and other permanent dead loads added
before the concrete has attained 75 percent of its required
28-day strength shall be computed on the basis of non-
composite action.
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS
10.39.1 General
10.39.1.1 This section pertains to the design of sim-
ple and continuous bridges of moderate length supported
by two or more single cell composite box girders. The dis-
tance center-to-center of flanges of each box should be the
(10-69) same and the average distance center-to-center of flanges
of adjacent boxes shall be not greater than 1 .2 times and
not less than 0.8 times the distance center-to-center of
flanges of each box. In addition to the above, when nonpa-
rallel girders are used, the distance center-to-center of ad-
jacent flanges at supports shall be not greater than 1 .35
times and not less than 0.65 times the distance center-to-
center of flanges of each box. The cantilever overhang of
t he d ec k s l a b , i n c l u d i n g c u r b s a n d p a r a p et s , s ha l l b e l i m -
i t ed t o 60 percent of the average distance center-to-center
10.39. 1.1 DIV ISION IDESIGN
269
(10-70)
of flanges of adjacent boxes, but shall in no case exceed6
feet.
10.39.1.2 The provisions of Division I, Design, shall
govern where applicable, except as specifically modified
by Articles 10.39.1 through 10.39.8.
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending
Moment
10.39.2.1 The live load bending moment for each
box girder shall be determined by applying to the girder,
the fraction WL of a wheel load (both front and rear), de-
termined by the following equation:
0.85
Wt=0.l+l.7R+
where,
Number of Box Girders
N
0 = W~/l2 reduced to the nearest whole number;
= roadway width between curbs in feet, or barriers
if curbs are not used. R shall not be less than 0.5
or greater than 1.5.
10.39.2.2 The provision of Article 3.12, Reduction of
Load Intensity, shall not apply in the design of box gird-
ers when using the design load WL given by the above
equation.
10.39.3 Design of Web Plates
10.39.3.1 Vertical Shear
The design shear V for a web shall be calculated using
V 0 = V ~/cos 0 (10-72)
where:
= v er t i c a l s hea r ;
0 = a n gl e o f i n c l i n a t i o n o f t he web p l a t e t o t he v er t i -
cal.
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses
10.39.3.2.1 Web plates may be plumb (900 to bottom
of flange) or inclined. If the inclination of the web plates
to a plane normal to the bottom flange is no greater than I
t o 4 , a n d t he wi d t h o f t he b o t t o m f l a n ge i s n o gr ea t er t ha n
2 0 p er c en t o f t he s p a n , t hen t he t r a n s v er s e b en d i n g
s t r es s es r es u l t i n g f r o m d i s t o r t i o n o f the span, and the
transverse bending stresses resulting from distortion of
t he gi r d er c r o s s s ec t i o n a n d f r o m v i b r a t i o n s o f t he bottom
plate need not be considered. For structures in this cate-
gory transverse bending stresses due to supplementary
loadings, such as utilities, shall not exceed 5,000 psi.
10.39.3.2.2 For structures exceeding these limits, a
detailed evaluation of the transverse bending stresses due
to all causes shall be made. These stresses shall be limited
to a maximum stress or range of stress of 20,000 psi.
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates
10.39.4.1 Tension Flanges
10.39.4.1.1 In cases of simply supported spans, the
bottom flange shall be considered completely effective in
(10-71) resisting bending if its width does not exceed one-fifth the
span length. If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of
the span, an amount equal to one-fifth of the span only
shall be considered effective.
10.39.4.1.2 For continuous spans, the criteria above
shall be applied to the lengths between points of con-
traflexure.
10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened
10.39.4.2.1 U n s t i f f en ed c o m p r es s i o n f l a n ges d e-
signed for the basic allowable stress of 0.5SF:, shall have
a width to thickness ratio equal to or less than the value
obtained by the use of the formula:
b 6,140
t~ F
y
(10-73)
where:
b = f l a n ge wi d t h b et ween web s i n i n c hes ;
= f l a n ge t hi c kn es s i n i n c hes .
10.39.4.2.2 For greater b/t ratios, b u t n o t ex c eed i n g
60, the stress in a n u n s t i f f en ed b o t t o m f l a n ge s ha l l n o t ex-
ceed the value determined by the use of the formula:
= 0.5SF:, 0.224F~x
(10-74)
F:
,
270
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.39.4.2
Is
NOTE:
Fcr refers to Load Factor Desig n
lb refers to Working StressDesig n
F
5 iS in lb/in
2
100
REQ UIRED
70
Fcr ~y tb =0.55 F~ t4~ 6.140
Fcr 0.g 6 F~, tb 0.53 Fy, b
T 8 ,200
Fer 0.8 5 Fy, ~b 0.47 F~ b,,.F. -10060
60
40
10
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
FIGURE l0.39.4.3A. Longitudinal StiffenersBox Girder Compression Flange
a It E
B? Af F~
0.5
271
3
1.5
0.07
0.06
0.04
0. 03
FIGURE l0.39.43B. Spacing and Size of Transverse StitTenems (for Flange Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely)
272
10.39.4.2.3 For values of b/t exceeding I 3 , 3 00/\/~,
t he s t r es s i n t he f l a n ge s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l u e gi v en b y
the formula:
=57.6(!j~ x 106 (10-75)
10.39.4.2.4 The b/t ratio preferably should not ex-
ceed 60 except in areas of low stress near points of dead
load contraflexure.
10.39.4.2.5 Should the b/t ratio exceed45, longitudi-
nal stiffeners should be considered.
10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened
Longitudinally*
10.39.4.3.1 L o n gi t u d i n a l s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e a t eq u a l
s p a c i n gs a c r o s s t he f l a n ge wi d t h a n d s ha l l b e p r o p o r t i o n ed
so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener about an
axms parallel to the flange and at the base of the stiffener is
at least equal to:
I, = 4 t~w
where:
= 0.07 k
3n4 for values of n greater than I;
~ =O.l25k3foravalueofn= I;
tf = thickness of the flange;
w = widthof flange between longitudinal stiffeners or
distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal
stiffener;
n = number of longitudinal stiffeners;
k = buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
10.39.4.3.2 For the flange, including stiffeners, to be
designedfor the basic allowable stress of 0.55 F:,, the ratio
w/t s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l u e gi v en b y t he f o r m u l a :
= 0.5SF:, 0. 2 2 4 F : , x
[l~ stn
6,650V ~ w Fy Ni
t I I
3,580 \/j~
(I 078)
10.39.4.3.4 For values of w/t exceeding (6,650 k)/
F:, but not exceeding 60, the stress in the flange, in-
c l u d i n g s t i f f en er s , s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l u e gi v en b y the
formula:
= 14.4 k(t/w)2 X l0~ (10-79)
1 0.39.4.3.5 When longitudinal stiffeners are used, it
ms preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The stiff-
ener shouldhave a size equal to that of a longitudinal stiff-
ener.
10.39.4.3.6 If the longitudinal stiffeners are placed at
t hei r m a x i m u m w/t r a t i o t o b e d es i gn ed f o r t he b a s i c a l -
lowable design stresses of 0.55 F>. and the number of lon-
gitudinal stiffeners exceeds 2, then transverse stiffeners
(10-76) should be considered.
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened
Longitudinally and Transversely
10.39.4.4.1 The longitudinal stiffeners shall be at
equal spacings across the flange width and shall be pro-
portioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener
about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the
stiffener is at least equal to:
I, = 8 t~w (10-80)
10.39.4.4.2 The transverse stiffeners shall be propor-
tioned sothat the moment of inertia of each stiffener about
an axis through the centroid of the section and parallel to
its bottom edge is at least equal to:
=0.l0(n+I)3
3f Af
Ea
10.39.4.3.3 For greater values of w/t but not exceed-
ing 60 or (6,650 Vi~)/ F:,, whichever is less, the stress in
the flange, including stiffeners, s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l u e
determined by the formula:
where:
Af = area of bottom flange including longitudinal
stiffeners;
a = s p a c i n g o f t r a n s v er s e s t i f f en er s ;
= maximum longitudinal bending stress in the
flange of the panels on either side of the trans-
verse stiffener;
E = modulus of elasticity of steel.
3 , 07 01 k
F>,
(10-77)
(10-81)
in solving these equations a value of k between 2 and 4 generally
should be assumed.
10.39.4.4.3
DIV ISION IDESIGN
273
10.39.4.4.3 For the flange, including stiffeners, to be
designed for the basic allowable stress of 0.55 F:,, the ratio
w/t for the longitudinal stiffeners shall not exceed the
value given by the formula:
w 3,070 k
1
F>
10.39.4.4.8 The connection to each longitudinal
stiffener shall be designed to resist the vertical force de-
termined by the formula:
FS
ys
nb
(10-87)
(10-82 )
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners,
General
where:
2~
[l+(a/b) ] +87.3 (10-83)
(n + l)a/ b)
2[l +0.1 (n +1)]
10.39.4.4.4 For greater values of w/t, but not ex-
ceeding 60 or (6,650 k,)/ F:,, whichever is less, the
stress in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not exceed
the value determined by the formula:
= 0.5SF:, 0.224F:, x
( w Fy Ni
1 6,650 k (10-84) [ smn1~X
3,580 v~7 /1
10.39.4.4.5 For values of w/t exceeding (6,650
k,)/\/~ but not exceeding 60, the stress in the flange,
i n c l u d i n g s t i f f en er s , shall not exceed the value given by
the formula:
= l4.4k
1(~ x 106
10.39.4.4.6 The maximum value of the buckling co-
efficient, k,, shall be 4. When k, has its maximum value,
the transverse stiffeners shall have a spacing, a, equal to
or less than 4w. Ifthe ratio a/b exceeds 3, transverse stiff-
eners are not necessary.
10.39.4.4.7 The t r a n s v er s e stiffeners need not be
connected to the flange plate but shall be connected to the
webs of the box and to each longitudinal stiffener. The
connection to the web shall be designed to resist the ver-
tical force determined by the formula:
10.39.4.5.1 The width to thickness ratio of any out-
standing element of the flange stiffeners shall not exceed
b 2,600
t F>,
(10-88)
where:
= width of any outstanding stiffener element
= thickness of outstanding stiffener element
F:, = yield strength of outstanding stiffener ele-
ment.
10.39.4.5.2 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be extended
to locations where the maximum stress in the flange does
not exceed that allowed for base metal adjacent to or con-
nected by fillet welds.
10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds
The total effective thickness of the web-flange welds
shall be not less than the thickness of the web, except,
when two or more interior intermediate diaphragms per
(10- 85) span are provided, the minimum size fillet welds specitied
in Article 10.23.2.2 may be used. Regardless of the type
weld used, welds shall be deposited on both sides of the
connecting flange or web plate.
10.39.6 Diaphragms
10.39.6.1 Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means
shall be provided within the box girders at each support to
resist transverse rotation, displacement, and distortion.
10.39.6.2 Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames
are not required for steel box girder bridges designed in
accordance with this specification.
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing
Generally, no lateral bracing system is required be-
tween box girders. A horizontal wind load of 50 pounds
FS
= ys
2b
(10-86)
where 5, = seetton modulus of the transverse stiffener.
274
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
per square foot shall be applied to the area of the super-
structure exposed in elevation. Half of the resulting force
shall be applied in the plane of the bottom flange. The sec-
tion assumed to resist the horizontal load shall consist of
the bottom flange acting as a web and 12 times the thick-
ness of the webs acting as flanges. A lateral bracing sys-
tem shall be provided if the combined stresses due to the
specified horizontal force and dead load of steel and deck
exceed 1 50 percent of the allowable design stress.
10.39.8 Access and Drainage
Consistent with climate, location, and materials, con-
sideration shall be given to the providing of manholes, or
other openings, either in the deck slab or in the steel box
for form removal, inspection, maintenance, drainage, etc.
1 0. 4 0 HYBRID GIRDERS
10.40.1 General
10.40.1.1 This section pertains to the design of
girders that utilize a lower strength steel in the web
than inone or both of the flanges. It applies to compostle
and noncomposite plate girders, and composite box
girders. At any cross section where the bending stress in
ei t her f l a n ge ex c eed s 55 percent of the minimum speci-
fied yield strength of the web steel, the compres-
sion-tiange area shall not be less than the tension-
flange area. The top-flange area shall include the
transformed area of any portion of the slab or reinforcing
steel that is considered to act compositely with the steel
girder.
10.40.1.2 The provisions of Division I, Design, shall
go v er n wher e applicable, except as specifically modified
b y Ar t i c l es 1 0. 4 0. 1 t hr o u gh 1 0. 4 0. 4 .
100
C
C) 95
0
4)
a
90
0
I-
C
.~ 8 5
Lh~
z
0
- 8 0
C)
0
w
75
= 0.50
00
00 =0. 7 2
70
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
RATIO OF WEB AREA TO TENSION FLANG E AREA,~
FIGURE l0.40.2.lA
C)
C)
C)
a
0
I-
0
U-
z
0
0
0
w
1.0 1.
10.40.2.1 Bending RATIO OF WEB
10.40.2.1.1 The bending stress in the web may ex-
ceed the allowable stress for the web steel provided that
the stress in each flange does not exceed the allowable
stress from Articles 10.3 or 10.32 for the steel in that
flange multiplied by the reduction factor, R.
Fl = I 1 (1 - a)
2 (3 i~, +
(10-89)
FIGURE I0.40.2.lB
where:
a = mtnimum specified yield strength of the web di-
vided by the minimum specified yield strength of
the tension flange;*
13 = area of the web divided by the area of the tension
flange;*
1 0. 3 9 . 7
100
3.5
AREA TO TENSION FLANG E AREA, P
(See Figure 10.40.2.1 A and 10.40.2.1 B.) 0)Bottom flange oforthotropic deck bridges.
10.40.2.1.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
275
4* = distance from the outer edge of the tension
flange* to the neutral axis (of the transformed
section for composite girders) divided by the
depth of the steel section.
10.40.2.1.2 The bending stress in the concrete slab in
composite girders shall not exceedthe allowable stress for
the concrete multiplied by R.
10.40.2.2 Shear
The design of the web for a hybrid girder shall be in
compliance with specification Article 10.34.3 except that
Equation (10-27) of Article 10.34.4.2 for the allowable
a v er a ge s hea r s t r es s in the web of transversely stiffened
n o n -hyb r i d gi r d er s s ha l l be replaced by the following
equation for the allowable average shear stress in the web
of transversely stiffened hybrid girders:
= CF:,/3 ~ F:,/3
The provisions of Article 10.34.4.4, and the equation
for A in Article 10.34.4.7 are not applicable to hybrid
girders.
10.40.2.3 Fatigue
Hybrid girders shall be designed for the allowable
fatigue stress range given inArticle 10.3, Table 10.3.1 A.
10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements
ally the deck plate is stiffened by longitudinal ribs and
transverse beams; effective widths of deck plate act as the
top flanges of these ribs and beams. Usually the deck in-
cluding longitudinal ribs, acts as the top flange of the main
box or plate girders. As used in Articles 10.41.1 through
10.41.4.10, the terms rib and beam refer to sections that
include an effective width of deck plate.
10.41.1.2 The p r o v i s i o n s o f Di v i s i o n I, Des i gn , s ha l l
govern where applicable, except as specifically tnodified
by Articles 10.41.1 through 10.41.4.10.
An appropriate method of elastic analysis, such as the
equivalent-orthotropic-slab method or the equivalent-grid
m et ho d , s ha l l b e u s ed i n d es i gn i n g the deck. The equiva-
lent stiffness properties shall be selected to correctly sim-
ulate the actual deck. An appropriate method of elastic
analysis, such as the thin-walled-beam method, that ac-
counts for the effects of torsional distortions of the cross-
sectional shape shall be used in designing the girders of or-
(10-90) thotropic-deck box-girder bridges. The box-girder design
shall be checked for lane or truck loading arrangements
that produce maximum distortional (torsional) effects.
10.41.1.3 For an alternate design method (Strength
Design), see Article 10.60.
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area
The wheel loads specified in Article 3.7 shall be uni-
formly distributed to the deck plate over the rectangular
area defined below:
In calculating the maximum width-to-thickness ratto
of the flange plate according to Article 10.34.2 and
the minimum thickness of the web plate according to
Ar t i c l e 1 0. 3 4 . 3 , f,, shall be taken as the calculated bend-
ing stress in the compression flange divided by the
reduction factor, R.
Wheel Load
(kip)
8
12
16
Width
Perpendicular
to Traffic (inches)
20 + 2t
20 +2t
24 2t
Length
in Direction
of Traffic (inches)
8 +2t
8 + 2t
8 + 2t
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements
In designing bearing stiffeners at interior supports of
continuous hybrid girders for which c~ is less than 0.7, no
part of the web shall be assumed to act in bearing.
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK
SUPERSTRUCTURES
10.41.1 General
10.41.1.1 This section pertains to the design of steel
bridges that utilize a stiffened steel plate as a deck. Usu-
In the above table, t is the thickness of the wearing sur-
face in inches.
10.4 1.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate
10.41.3.1 Ribs and Beams
The effective width of deck plate acting as the top
flange of a longitudinal rib or a transverse beam may be
calculated by accepted approximate methods.*
*Design Manual for ~Orthotropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges, AISC,
1963, or Orthotropic Bridges, Theory and Design, by MS. Troitsky.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1967.
5Bottom Ilange oforthotropic dock bridges.
276 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.41.3.2
10.41.3.2 Girders
10.41.3.2. 1 The full width of deck plate may be con-
sidered effective in acting as the top flange of the girders
if the effective span of the girders is not less than: (1) 5
times the maximum distance between girder webs and (2)
10 times the maximum distance from edge of the deck to
the nearest girder web. The effective span shall be t a ken
as the actual span for simple spans and the distance be-
tween points of contraflexure for continuous spans. Alter-
natively, the effective width may be determined by ac-
cepted analytical methods.
10.41.3.2.2 The effective width of the bottom flange
of a box girder shall be determined according to the pro-
visions of Article 10.39.4.1.
10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate
The term local bending stresses refers to the stresses
caused in the deck plate as it carries a wheel load to the
ribs and beams. The local transverse bending stresses
caused in the deck plate by the specified wheel load plus
30-percent impact shall not exceed 30,000 psi unless a
higher allowable stress is justified by a detailed fatigue
analysis or by applicable fatigue-test results. For deck
configurations in which the spacing of transverse beams
is at least 3 t i m es t he s p a c i n g of longitudinal-rib webs, the
local longitudinal and transverse bending stresses in the
deck plate need not be combined with the other bending
stresses covered in Articles 10.41.4.2 and 10.41.4.3.
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs
The total bending stresses in longitudinal ribs due to a
combination of (I) bending of the rib and (2) bending of
the girders may exceed the allowable bending stresses in
Article 10.32 by 25 percent. The bending stress due to
each of the two individual modes shall not exceed the al-
lowable bending stresses in Article 10.32.
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams
The bending stresses in transverse beams shall not ex-
ceed the allowable bending stresses inArticle 10.32.
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and
Girders
Connections between ribs and the webs of beams,
holes in the webs of beams to permit passage of ribs,
connections of beams to the webs of girders, and rib
splices may affect the fatigue life of the bridge when they
occur in regions of tensile stress. Where applicable, the
number of cycles of maximum stress andthe allowable fa-
tigue stresses given in Article 10.3 shall be applied in de-
signing these details; elsewhere, a rational fatigue analy-
sis shall be made in designing the details. Connections
between webs of longitudinal ribs and the deck plate shall
be designed to sustain the transverse bending fatigue
stresses caused in the webs by wheel loads.
10.4 1.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements
10.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate
Plate elements comprising longitudinal ribs, and
deck-plate elements between webs of these ribs, shall
meet the minimum thickness requirements of Article
10.35.2. The quantity f.~ may be taken as 75 percent of the
sum of the compressive stresses due to (I) bending of
the rib and (2) bending of the girder, but not less than the
compressive stress due to either of these two individual
b en d i n g m o d es .
10.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams
Plate elements of box girders, plate girders, and trans-
verse beams shall meet the requirements of Articles
10.34.2 to 10.34.6 and 10.39.4.
10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of
Longitudinal Ribs
The slenderness, L/r, of a longitudinal rib shall not ex-
ceed the value given by the following formula unless it
can be shown by a detailed analysis that overall buckling
of the deck will not occur as a result of compressive stress
induced by bending of the girders:
(L~
= 1,000 1,500 2,700F
., (10-91)
F>,
where:
L = distance b et ween t r a n s v er s e b ea m s ;
r = radius of gyration about the horizontal centroidal
axis of the rib including an effective width of
d ec k p l a t e;
F = maximum compressive stress in psi in the deck
plate as a result of the deck acting as the top
flange of the girders; this stress shall be taken as
positive;
F:, = yi el d strength of rib material in psi.
277
10.41.4.7 Diaphragms
Di a p hr a gm s , c r o s s f r a m es , o r o t her m ea n s s ha l l b e
provided at each support to transmit lateral forces to
the bearings and to resist transverse rotation, displace-
ment, and distortion. Intermediate diaphragms or
cross frames shall be provided at locations consistent
with the analysis of the girders. The stiffness and strength
of the intermediate and support diaphragms or cross
frames shall be consistent with the analysis of the
girders.
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections
The deflections of ribs, beams, and girders due to live
load plus impact may exceed the limitations in Article
10.6 but preferably shall not exceed tss:, of their span. The
calculation of the deflections shall be consistent with the
analysis used to calculate the stresses.
To prevent excessive deterioration of the wearing sur-
face, the deflection of the deck plate due to the specified
wheel load plus 30-percent impact preferably shall be less
than /MX of the distance between webs of ribs. The stiff-
ening effect of the wearing surface shall not be included
in calculating the deflection of the deck plate.
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations
The vibrational characteristics of the bridge shall be
considered in arriving at a proper design.
10.4 1.4.9 Wearing Surface
A suitable wearing surface shall be adequately bonded
to the top of the deck plate to provide a smooth, nonskid
riding surface and to protect the top of the plate against
c o r r o s i o n a n d a b r a s i o n . The wea r i n g s u r f a c e m a t er i a l s ha l l
provide (1) sufficient ductility to accommodate, without
cracking or debonding, expansion and contraction im-
posed by the deck plate, (2) sufficient fatigue strength to
withstand flexural cracking due to deck-plate deflections,
(3) sufficient durability to resist rutting, shoving, and
wea r i n g, ( 4 ) i m p er v i o u s n es s t o wa t er a n d m o t o r -v ehi c l e
f u el s a n d o i l s , a n d ( 5 ) r es i s t a n c e t o d et er i o r a t i o n f r o m d e-
i c i n g s a l t s , o i l s , ga s o l i n es , d i es el f u el s , a n d ker o s en es .
1 0. 4 1 . 4 . 1 0 Closed Ribs
Closed ribs without access holes for inspection, clean-
ing, and painting are permitted. Such ribs shall be sealed
against the entrance of moisture by continuously welding
( 1 ) t he r i b web s t o t he d ec k p l a t e, ( 2 ) s p l i c es i n t he r i b s ,
a n d ( 3 ) d i a p hr a gm s , o r t r a n s v er s e b ea m web s , t o t he en d s
of the ribs.
Part D
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
10.42 SCOPE
Load factor design is a method of proportioning struc-
tural members for multiples of the design loads. To ensure
serviceability and durability, consideration is given to the
control of permanent deformations under overloads, to the
fatigue characteristics under service loadings, and to the
control of live load deflections under service loadings. See
Part CService Load Design MethodAllowable Stress
Design for an alternate design procedure.
10.43 LOADS
10.43.1 Service live loads are vehicles which may oper-
ate on a highway legally without special load permit.
10.43.2 For design purposes, the service loads are
taken as the dead, live, and impact loadings described in
Section 3.
10.43.3 Overloads are the live loads that can be allowed
on a structure on infrequent occasions without causing
permanent damage. For design purposes, the maximum
overload is taken as 5(L +1)/3.
10.43.4 The maximum loads are the loadings specified
in Article 10.47.
10.44 DESIGNTHEORY
10.44.1 The moments, s hea r s , a n d o t her f o r c es s ha l l b e
determined by a s s u m i n g el a s t i c b eha v i o r o f t he s t r u c t u r e
except as modified in Article 10.48.1.3.
10.44.2 The members shall be proportioned by the
methods specified inArticles 10.48 through 10.56 so that
t hei r c o m p u t ed m a x i m u m s t r en gt hs s ha l l b e a t l ea s t eq u a l
to the total effects of design loads multiplied by their re-
spective load factors specified in Article 3.22.
278
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.44.3
10.44.3 S er v i c e b eha v i o r s ha l l b e i n v es t i ga t ed a s s p ec i -
fled in Articles 10.57 through 10.59.
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS
Rolled or fabricated I-shaped beams and fabricated
girders meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1
below shall be considered compact sections and the max-
imum strength shall be as computed:
10.45.1 Strain in flexural members shall be assumed di-
rectly proportional tothe distance from the neutral axis.
10.45.2 Stress in steel below the yield strength, F:,, of
the grade of steel used shall be taken as 29,000,000 psi
times the steel strain. For strain greater than that corre-
sponding to the yield strength, F:,, the stress shall be con-
sidered independent of strain and equal to the yield
strength, F:,. This assumption shall apply also to the lon-
gitudinal reinforcement in the concrete floor slab in the
region of negative moment when shear connectors are
provided to ensure composite action in this region.
10.45.3 At maximum strength the compressive stress in
the concrete slab of a composite beam shall be assumed
independent of strain and equal to 0.85~.
10.45.4 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected
in flexural calculations.
M, =F,Z
(10-92)
Wher e F : , i s t he s p ec i f i ed yi el d p o i n t o f t he s t eel b ei n g
u s ed , Z i s t he p l a s t i c s ec t i o n m o d u l u s . *
10.48 .1.1 Beams and girders designed as compact
s ec t i o n s s ha l l m eet t he f o l l o wi n g r eq u i r em en t s : ( F o r c er -
t a i n f r eq u en t l y u s ed s t eel s t hes e r eq u i r em en t s a r e l i s t ed i n
Ta b l e 1 0. 4 8 . 1 . 2 A. )
(a) Projecting compression flange element:
b 2,055
F>,
(10-93)
wher e b i s t he wi d t h o f t he p r o j ec t i n g f l a n ge el em en t .
is the flange thickness.
(b) Web thickness:
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL
STEEL
The d es i gn s t r es s f o r s t r u c t u r a l s t eel s ha l l b e t he spec-
ified minimum yield point or yield strength, F:,, of the steel
used as set forth in Article 10.2.
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS
The maximum moments, shears, or forces to be sus-
tamed by a stress-carrying member shall be computed for
the load combinations specified in Article 3.22. Each part
o f t he s t r u c t u r e s ha l l b e p r o p o r t i o n ed f o r the group loads
t ha t a r e a p p l i c a b l e a n d t he m a x i m u m design required by
the group loading combinations shall be used.
10.48 SYMMETRICAL BEAMS AND GIRDERS
D < 1 9 , 2 3 0
F>,
(10-94)
where D is the clear distance between the flanges, t~ ms
the web thickness.
When both b/t and D/t~~ exceed 75% of the above lim-
tts, the following interaction equation shall apply:
D (b~ 33650
t ~
5
(10-95)
wher e F .
5 is the yield strengfh of the compression
flange.
(c) Lateral bracing:
Lb <[3.62. 2(M1/M9]x 106
F
(10-96)
10.48 .1 Compact Sections
Sytnmetrical I-shaped beams and girders with high re-
sistance to local buckling and proper bracing to resist lat-
eral torsional buckling qualify as compact sections. Com-
pact sections are able to form plastic hinges with an
inelastic rotation capacity of three times the elastic rota-
tion corresponding to the plastic moment.
where L,, is the distance between points of bracing of
the compression flange, r:, is the radius of gyration of
*V alues for rolled sections are listed in the Manual oJ Steel Construc-
tion, Ninth Edition, 1989, American Institute of Steel Construction. Ap-
pendix D shows the method of computing Zas presented in the Corn-
mentary of AISI nulletin 15.
DIV ISION IDESIGN
TABLE l0.48 .1.2A Limitations for Compact Sections
F>, (psi) 36,000 50,000
b/t 10.8 9.2
D/t~ 101 86
Lblr:, (MtIM., =0*) 100 72
Lb/r:, (Mt/MU = 1*) 39 28
* For values of MI/M, other than 0 and I, use Equation (10.95).
10.48 .2 Braced Noncompact Sections
For rolled or fabricated I-shaped beams and fabricated
girders not meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1
but meeting the requirements of paragraph 10.48.2.1
below, the maximum strength shall be cotnputed as:
= F~S (10-98)
where S is the section modulus.
t he s t eel s ec t i o n wi t h r es p ec t t o t he Y-Y a x i s , M
1 i s t he
s m a l l er m o m en t a t t he en d o f t he u n b r a c ed l en gt h o f
the member, and M, is the ultimate moment from
E q u a t i o n ( 1 0-9 2 ) a t t he o t her en d o f t he u n b r a c ed
length: (M1/M5) is positive when moments cause sin-
gle c u r v a t u r e b et ween b r a c e p o i n t s . (M I /M U ) is nega-
t i v e when m o m en t s c a u s e r ev er s e c u r v a t u r e b et ween
brace points.
The required lateral bracing shall be provided by
b r a c es c a p a b l e o f p r ev en t i n g l a t er a l d i s p l a c em en t a n d
t wi s t i n g o f t he m a i n m em b er s o r b y em b ed m en t o f t he t o p
and sides of the compression flange in concrete.
(d) Maximum axial compression:
10.48 .2.1 The above equation is applicable to beams
and girders meeting the following requirements:
( a ) Pr o j ec t i n g c o m p r es s i o n f l a n ge el et n en t :
b 2,200
t~ F>,
(10- 99)
wher e M < MU, b/t may be increased by the ratio
MU/M.
(b) Web thickness:
Q <15,400
~ F~
(10-100)
P =0.15F:,A (10-97)
where A is the area of the cross section. Members with
axial loads in excess of 0.1SF:,A should be designed as
beam-columns as specified in Article 10.54.2.
10.48.1.2 Article 10.48.1 is applicable to steels with
stress-strain diagrams that exhibit a yield plateau fol-
lowed by a strain hardening range. Steels such as
AASHTO M 270 Grades 36, 50, and 50W (ASTM A709
Grades 36, 50, and SOW) meet these requiretnents. The
l i m i t a t i o n s s et f o r t h i n Ar t i c l e 1 0. 4 8 . 1 a r e gi v en i n Ta b l e
1 0. 4 8 . 1 . 2 A.
10.48 .1.3 In the design o f a c o n t i n u o u s b ea m o f
c o m p a c t s ec t i o n c o m p l yi n g wi t h t he p r o v i s i o n o f Ar t i c l es
1 0. 4 8 . I. 1 , n ega t i v e m o m en t s o v er s u p p o r t s a t O v er l o a d
and Maximum Load determined by elastic analysis may
be reduced by a maximum of 10 percent. Such reduction
shall be accompanied by an increase in moments
throughout adjacent spans statically equivalent and op-
posite in sign to the decrease of the negative moments at
the adjacent supports. For example, the increase in mo-
ment at the center of the span shall equal the average de-
crease of the moments at the two adjacent supports. The
reduction shall not apply to the negative moment of a
cantilever.
where D~ is the depth of the web incompression eq u a l
D
to -j- for symmetrical girders.
(c) Spacing of lateral bracing for compression flange:
Lb < 20,000,000A1
F>,d
(10- 101)
where d is the depth of beam or girder, and A, is the
flange area.
(d) Maximum axial compression:
P =0.15F5A.
( 1 0-1 02 )
Members with axial loads inexcess of 0.15 F:,A should
be designed as beam-columns as specified in Article
10.54.2.
10.48.2.2 The limitations set forth in Article
10.48.2.1 above are given in Table l0.48.2.IA.
10.48 .2.3 The maximnumn bending strength of mem-
hers not meeting the web requirements of Article
10.48.2.1(b) or the lateral bracing requirements of Article
10.48.2.1(c) shall be computed from the provisions of Ar-
ticle 10.48.4.1.
10.48.1.1
279
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 10.48 .2.IA Limitations for Braced Noncompact
Sections
= 12,500 for members with a compression
flange area less than the tension flange area.
F~ (psi) 36,000 50,000 70,000 90,000 100,000
b/t 11.6 9.8 8.3 7.3 7.0
Lbd
556 400 286 222 200
D/tw 162 138 116 103 97
The moment capacity of the member, Mr, cannot exceed
the yield moment, M:,. In addition Mr cannot exceed the
lateral torsional buckling moment given below:
D X
For members with i- = or with longitudinally
t F>,
stiffened webs:
10.48.3 Transitions
The maximum strength of members with geometric
properties falling between the limits of Articles 10.48.1
and 10.48.2 may be computed by straight-line interpola-
tion, except that the web thickness must always satisfy Ar-
ticle 10.48.1.1(b).
10.48.4 Unhraced Sections
Mr =91 x lO
6Cb ~Y() j0.772~~+ ~
(10- 103c)
For members with ___
18, 250U
F>,
10.48 .4.1 For members not meeting the lateral brac-
ingrequirements of Article 10.48.2.1(c), or the web thick-
ness requirements of Article 10.48.2.1(b), and with the
ratio of the moment of inertia of the compression flange
to the moment of inertia of the member about the vertical
axis of the web, 1>11>,, within the limits of 0.1 = 1>11:, <
0.9, the maximum strength shall be computed as:
for Lb=LP
Mr =M>, (10- 103d)
for L >Lb>LP
Mr= CbF>,SXCrl~0.5~Lb L~j (l0-103e)
Lr ~1S72 ~~O6I>,~d~
= I for longitudinally stiffened girders meet-
ing the requirements of Articles 10.48.6 and
10.49.3. For all other members:
Rb= 10.002 (DcT~ )[D. \/fTW
]
(l0-103b)
D
= depth of web in compression (in.) = for
symmetrical girders; 2
1,. = thickness of web (in.);
A~. = area of compression flange (in.2);
= lateral torsional buckling moment, or yield
moment, defined below (lb-in.);
= section modulus with respect to compression
flange (in.3). Use SUC for live load for a com-
posite section;
X = 15,400 for all members with a compression
flange area equal to or greater than the ten-
sion flange area;
for Lb=Lr
M~ =Cb F>,S~~
(10- 103g)
Lb =unbraced length of the compression flange,
in.
L~ =9 ,S00r/\/~, inches.
= radius of gyration of compression flange
a b o u t t he v er t i c a l a x i s i n t he p l a n e o f t he web
(in.).
I:,. = moment of inertia of compression flange
about the vertical axis inthe plane of the web
(in.4).
d = depth of girder, in.
= [(bt3). + (bt3), + Dt~>] where b and t repre-
3
sent the flange width and thickness of the
compression and tension flange, respectively
(in.4).
Cb = 1.75 + lOS (M
1/M2) + 0.3(MJMj
2 = 2.3
where M
1 is the smaller and M2 the larger
280
10.48 .2.3
M,= MrRb
(l0-103a)
(10- 103f)
10.48.4.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
281
end moment in the unbraced segment of the
beam; M
11M2 is positive when the moments
cause reverse curvature and negative when
bent in single curvature.
Cb = 1.0 for unbraced cantilevers and for mem-
bers where the moment within a significant
portion of the unbraced segment is greater
than or equal to the larger of the segment end
moments.
If the web slenderness DJt~. for the maximum design
l o a d s ex c eed s t he u p p er l i m i t of l8,250/\~~, either the
section shall be modified to comply with the limit, or Ion-
b
gitudinal stiffeners shall be provided.
10.48.4.2 Mem b er s wi t h a x i a l l o a d s i n ex c es s o f
0.1SF:,A shouldbe designed as beam-columns as specified
in Article 10.54.2.
10.48 .5 Transversely Stiffened Girders
10.48.5.1 For girders not meeting the shear require-
ments of Article 10.48.8.1 (Equation 10-113) transverse
stiffeners are required for the web. For girders with trans-
verse stiffeners but without longitudinal stiffeners the
thickness of the web shall meet the requirement:
width-to-thickness ratio of transverse stiffeners shall be
such that:
2,600
t F>,
(10- 105)
wher e b i s t he p r o j ec t i n g wi d t h o f t he s t i f f en er , a n d F : , i s
the yield strength of the transverse stiffener.
The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate trans-
verse stiffeners shall not be less than:
A = [0.l5BDt~, (I C)(V/V~) l8t~jY (10-106)
whereY is the ratio of web plate yield strength to stiffener
plate yield strength; B = 1.0 for stiffener pairs, 1.8 for sin-
gle angles, and 2.4 for single plates; and Cis computed by
Article 10.48.8.1. When values computed by Equation
(10-106) approach zero or are negative, then transverse
stiffeners need only meet the requirements of Equations
(10-107), (10-105) and Article 10.34.4.10.
The moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners with
reference to the midplane of the web shall be not less
than:
I = d0t2J
(10-107)
where:
3 6 , 5 00
t F>,
( 1 0-1 04 )
For different grades of steel this Immit ins:
192
163
138
122
115
F:,(psi)
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
1 0. 4 8 . 5 . 2 The m a x i m u m b en d i n g s t r en gt h o f t r a n s -
v er s el y s t i f f en ed gi r d er s m eet i n g t he r eq u i r em en t s o f Ar -
ticle 10.48.5.1 shall be computed by Articles 10.48.1,
10.48.2, or 10.48.4.1, as applicable, subject to the re-
quirements of Article 10.48.8.2.
1 0. 4 8 . 5 . 3 The s hea r c a p a c i t y o f t r a n s v er s el y s t i f f -
en ed gi r d er s s ha l l be computed by Article 10.48.8. The
For the use of larger C, values, see Structural Stability Research
Council Guide to Stabilit> Design Criteriafor Metal Structures. 4th Ed..
pg. 135.
~The upper limit on Q It.. of 18,250/ F, maybe waived for compos-
ite girders without longitudinal stiffeners in accordance with Article
lt).SOtd) when checking formulas (lO-102d) through (lO-102g) for fac-
tored noneomposite dead load only.
J = 2.5(D/d0)
2 2, but not less than 0.5 (10-108)
When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment of inertia
shall be taken about the center line of the web plate. When
single stiffeners are used, the moment of inertia shall be
t a ken a b o u t t he f a c e i n c o n t a c t wi t h t he web p l a t e.
Transverse stiffeners need not be in bearing with the
tension flange. The distance between the end of the stiff-
ener weld and the near edge of the web-to-flange fillet
weld shall not be less than 4t~ or more than 6t~,. Stiffeners
provided on only one side of the web must be in bearing
against, but need not be attached to, the compression
flange for the stiffener tobe effective. However, transverse
stiffeners which connect diaphragms or crossframes tothe
beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to both the top
and bottom flanges.
10.48 .6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders
10.48 .6.1 L o n gi t u d i n a l s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e r eq u i r ed
when the web thickness is less than that specified by Ar-
ticle 10.48.S.1 and shall be placed at a distance D/5 from
the inner surface of the compression flange.
The web thickness of plate girders with transverse
stiffeners and one longitudinal stiffener shall meet the
requirement:
282 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.48.6.1
D 73,000
F~
For different grades of steel, this limit is:
385
326
276
243
231
F:,(psi
)
36,000
50,000
70,000
90,000
100,000
10.4&6.2 The maximum bending s t r en gt h o f l o n gi -
tudinally stiffened girders meeting the requirements of
Article 10.48.6.1 shall be computed by Article 10.48.2 or
Article 10.48.4.1 as applicable, subject to the requirement
of Article 10.48.8.1.
10.48 .6.3 The shear capacity of girders with one
longitudinal stiffener shall be computed by Article
10.48.8.1.
The dimensions of the longitudinal stiffener shall be
such that:
(10- 109)
10.48 .7 Bearing Stiffeners
B ea r i n g s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e d es i gn ed f o r b ea m s a n d
girders as specified in Articles 10.33.2 and 10.34.6.
10.48 .8 Shear
10.48.8.1 The shear capacity of rolled or fabricated
I-shaped beams and fabricated girders shall be cotnputed
as follows:
For beams and girders with unstiffened webs, the shear
capacity shall be limited to the plastic or buckling shear
force as follows:
V = CV ~ (10- 113)
For girders with stiffened webs and (diD) less than or
equal to 3, the shear capacity shall be determined by
including post-buckling resistance due to tension-field
action as follows:
VU=VP[C+ 08 7(1C)j ( 1 0-1 1 4 )
(a) the width-to-thickness ratio is not greater than that
given by Article 10.48.5.3.
(b) the rigidity of the stiffener is not less than:
V ~ is equal to the plastic shear force and is determined
as follows:
V ~ =0.58F>,Dt~~ (10-115)
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress
(10-110) divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
follows:
D 6,000 k
for ________
t F>,
C = 1.0
6,000 k D 7500 k
for
F>, t~
6,00() k
D _ 7,5001k
for
(10Ill)
1=Dt42.4(~2 ~0.l3j
(c) the radius of gyration of the stiffener is not less
than:
d
0 F
23,000
In computing I and r values above, a centrally located
web s t r i p n o t m o r e t ha n l 8 t ~ in width shall be considered
as a part of the longitudinal stiffener. Transverse stiffen-
ers for girder panels with longitudinal stiffeners shall be
designed according to Article 10.48.5.3 except that the
maximum subpanel depth shall be used instead of the total
panel depth, D. In addition, the section modulus of the
transverse stiffener shall be not less than:
55 =(D/d~)S1
3
C ~ x l0~ k
42 F>,
(10-112)
where D is the total panel depth (clear distance between
flange components) and 5, is the section modulus of the
l o n gi t u d i n a l s t i f f en er a t D/5 .
( 1 0-1 1 7 )
where the buckling coefficient, k = 5 -t- [5 -> (d/D)],
ex c ep t k s ha l l b e t a ken a s 5 f o r u n s t i f f en ed b ea m s a n d
gi r d er s .
(10-116)
D = clear, unsupported distance between flange
components;
= d i s t a n c e b et ween t r a n s v er s e s t i f f en er s ;
F, = yield strength of the web plate.
10.48.52 If a girder panel is controlled by equation
1 0-1 1 4 a n d subjected to simultaneous action of shear and
bending moment with the magnitude of the moment higher
t ha n 0. 7 5 Mg, t he s hea r s ha l l b e l i m i t ed t o n o t m o r e t ha n :
V /V a = 2.2 (l.6M/MU)
10.49.2 Unsymmetrical Sections with Transverse
Stiffeners
Girders with transverse stiffeners shall be designedand
evaluated by the provisions of Article 10.48.5 except that
when Q, the clear distance between the neutral axis and
the compression flange, exceeds D/2 the web thickness.
t~, shall meet the requirement:
18,250
F>,
(10-118)
(10-120)
10.48.8.3 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners
are required, transverse stiffeners shall be spaced at a dis-
tance, di,, according to shear capacity as specified inArti-
cle 10.48.8.1, but not more than 3D. Transverse stiffeners
may be omitted in those portions of the girders where the
maxmmum shear force is less than the value given by Ar-
ticle 10.48.8.1 (Equation 10-113). subject to the handling
requirement below.
Transverse stiffeners shall be required if D/t~ is greater
than 150. For panels without longitudinal stiffeners, the
spacing of these stiffeners shall not exceed D[260/(D/tj]
2
to ensure efficient handling, fabrication, and erection of
the girders.
For longitudinally stiffened girders, transverse stiffen-
ers shall be spaced a distance, d~. according to shear ca-
pacity as specified in Article 10.48.8.1, but not more than
1 .5 times the maximum subpanel depth. The handling re-
quirement given above shall not apply to longitudinally
stiffened girders. The total web depth D shall be used in
determining the shear capacity of longitudinally stiffened
girders in Article 10.48.8.1 and in Equation (10-119).
The first stiffener space at the simple support end of a
transversely or longitudinally stiffened girder shall be such
that the shear force in the end panel will not exceedthe plas-
tic or buckline shear foree given by the following equation:
V = CV >,
For transversely stiffened girders. the maximum spacing
of the first transverse stiffener is limited to I .SD. For lon-
gitudinally stiffened girders, the maximum spacing of the
first transverse stiffener is limited to 1 .5 times the maxi-
m u m s u b p a n el d ep t h.
1049 UNSYMMETRICAL BEAMS AND
GIRDERS
1049.1 General
10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Unsymmetrical
Sections
10.49.3.1 L o n gi t u d i n a l s t i f f en er s s ha l l b e r eq u i r ed o n
unsymmetrical sections when the web thickness is less
than that specified by Articles 10.48.5.1 or 10.49.2.
10.49.3.2 For girders with one longitudinal stiffener
a n d t r a n s v er s e s t i f f en er s , t he p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l e 1 0. 4 8 . 6
for symmetrical sections shall be applicable provided that:
(a) When D exceeds D/2, the longitudinal stiffener is
placed 2D, /5 f r o m t he i n n er s u r f a c e o r t he l eg o f t he
compression flange element.
(b) When D~ exceeds D/2, the web thickness. t~. shall
meet the requirement:
D~ <36,500
ts.,
(10- 121)
10.49.4 Unsymmetrical Braced Noncompact
Sections
Unsymmetrical braced, noncompact rolled or fabri-
(10-119) cated I-shaped beams and fabricated girders shall be de-
signed and evaluated by the provisions of Article
10.48.2.1.
10.49.5 Unbraced Unsymmetrical Sections
Unsymmetrical sections which do not satisfy the lat-
eral bracing requirements of Article 10.48.2.1(c) shall be
designed and evaluated by the provisions of Article
10.48.4.1.
For beams and girders symmetrical about the vertical
axis of the cross section but unsymmetrical with respect
to the horizontal centroidal axis, the provisions of Articles
10.48. 1 through 10.48.4 shall be applicable.
10.50 COMPOSITE BEAMS AND GIRDERS
Composite beams and girders shall be so proportioned
that the criteria on the next page are satistied.
284 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.50
(a) The maximum strength of any section shall not be
less than the sumof the computed moments at that sec-
tion multiplied by the appropriate load factors.
(b) The web of the steel section shall be designed to
carry the total external shear and must satisfy the ap-
plicable provisions of Articles 10.48 and 10.49. In such
application the value of D~ shall be taken as the clear
distance between the neutral axis of the composite sec-
tion for live loads and the compression flange.
(c) The ratio of the projecting top compression flange
plate width to thickness shall not exceed the value de-
b 2,200
Cross-Section Stress dast ribu t lam
P LASTIC STRESS DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 10.50A
(10-122)
where fdel is the top-flange compressive stress due to
noncomposite dead load.
(d) The maximum moment capacity of noncompact
sections when considering noncomposite dead loads
with a load factor of y = 1.3 shall be computed by
Article 10.48.4.1, except that D~ /t~ of the steel section
Steels such as AASHTO M 270 Grades 36, 50, and SOW
(ASTM A 709 Grades 36, 50, and SOW) meet these
requirements.
10.50.1.1.1 The resultant moment of the fully plastic
stress distribution (Figure l0.50A) may be computed as
follows:
18250 36500
may exceed but D/t~ shall not exceed
F:,
for girders without longitudinal stiffeners. D~ /t~. of the
36 500
s t eel s ec t i o n s ha l l n o t ex c eed - for girders with
longitudinal stiffeners.
(e) The maximum shear due to noncomposite dead
load with a load factor of y = 1 . 3 s ha l l not exceed the
shear buckling capacity of the web inArticle 10.48.8. 1
(Equation 10-112).
(f) The moment capacity at first yield shall be com-
puted considering the application of the dead and live
loads to the steel and composite sections.
(g) The casting or placing sequence for the com-
posite concrete deck should be considered in meeting
the requirements of Articles 10.50(c), 10.50(d), and
10.50(e).
10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections of Composite
Beams and Girders
10.50.1.1 Compact Sections
The maximum strength, MU, of compact composite
beams and girders in the positive-moment regions
shall be computed in accordance withArticle 10.50.1.1.2.
The stress-stramn diagram of the steel shall exhibit a
yield plateau followed by a strain-hardening range.
(a) The compressive force in the slab, C, is equal to the
smallest of the values given by the following Equa-
tions:
(I) C = 0.8Sf. bt,~ + (AF:,X ( 1 0-1 2 3 )
where b is the effective width of slab, specified in Ar-
ticle 10.38.3, t, is the slab thickness, and (AF:,). is the
product of the area and yield point of that part of rein-
forcement which lies in the compression zone of the
slab.
(2) C = (AF:,)br + (AF)
1:, + (AF:,)~ (10124)
wher e (AF:,)bf is the product of area and yield point
f o r b o t t o m f l a n ge of steel section (including cover
plate if any), (AF),f is the product of area and yield
point for top flange of steel section, and (AF>j~ is
t he p r o d u c t o f a r ea a n d yi el d p o i n t f o r web o f s t eel s ec -
t i o n .
( b ) The d ep t h o f t he s t r es s b l o c k i s c o m p u t ed f r o m t he
c o m p r es s i v e f o r c e i n t he s l a b .
C-(AF
)
yc
0. 85fb
(10-125)
(c) When the compressive force in the slab is less than
t he v a l u e gi v en b y E q u a t i o n ( 1 0-1 2 3 ) , t he topportionof
t he s t eel s ec t i o n wi l l b e s u b j ec t ed t o t he c o m p r es s i v e
force on the next page:
bot t om
flange
10.50.1.1.1
C =
2
( d ) The l o c a t i o n o f t he n eu t r a l a x i s wi t hi n t he s t eel
s ec t i o n m ea s u r ed f r o m t he t o p o f t he s t eel s ec t i o n m a y
be determined as follows:
for
C
t
1f
(AF>, )mf
noncomposite or composite negative-moment pier see-
(10-126) tions shall be taken as:
forD,=D
M. =M ~ (l0-129b)
for D<D>,=SD
( 1 0-1 2 7 ) M~ = 5M~ 0.85M>, + 0.85M>, Mp~B.~-~ (l0-129c)
4 4 yD J
for C=(AFY)tf
t1f + C (AF~ )mf D
(AFy)w
where:
(10- 128)
(e) The maximum strength of the section in bending is
the first moment of all forces about the neutral axis, tak-
ing all forces and moment arms as positive quantities.
10.50.1.1.2 Composite beams and girders in posi-
tive-moment regions shall qualify as compact when the
web of the steel section satisfies the following require-
ment:
2D~~ < 19,230
F~
where Do>, is the depth of the web in compression at the
plastic moment calculated in accordance with Article
l0.S0.l.l.l, and t~ is the web thickness. Equation (10-129)
is satisfied if the neutral axis at the plastic moment is
located above the web; otherwise D~>, shall be computed
as 5i from Equation (10-128) minus tim. Also, the distance
from the top of the slab to the neutral axis at the plastic
moment, D>,, shall satisfy:
(10- 129a)
where:
(d + t~ +th
)
7.5
13 = 0.9 forE:, =36,000 psi;
= 0.7 for F:, = 50,000 psi;
d = depth of the steel beam or girder;
thickness of the slab;
thickness of the concrete haunch above the beam
or girder top flange.
Equation (l0-129a) need not be checked for sections
where the maximum flange stress does not exceed the
s p ec i f i ed m i n i m u m f l a n ge yi el d s t r es s .
The maximumbending strength, MU, of compact corn-
p t ) s i t e b ea m s and girders in simple spans or in the posi-
t i v e-t n o m en t r egi o n s o t c o n t i n u o u s s p a n s wi t h c o m p a c t
M~=plastic moment capacity of the composite posi-
tive moment section calculated in accordance
with Article 10.50.1.1.1;
= moment capacity at first yield of the composite
positive moment section calculated as F:, times
the section modulus with respect to the tension
flange. The modular ratio, n, shall be used to
compute the transformed section properties.
In continuous spans with compact composite positive-
moment sections, but with noncompact noncomposite or
composite negative-moment pier sections, the maximum
(10-129) bending strength, M~, of the composite positive-moment
sections shall be taken as either the moment capacity at
first yield determined as specified inArticle 10.50(0, or as:
= M:, +A(MU (l0-129d)
where:
= the moment capacity at first yield of
the compact positive moment section
c a l c u l a t ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l e
1 0. S O ( f ) ;
(MU ~ = Moment capacity of the noncompact
s ec t i o n a t t he p i er , MU, given by Arti-
cle 10.48.2 or Article 10.48.4, minus
the elastic moment at the pier, M~, for
the loading producing maximum pos-
itive bending in the span. Use the
smaller value of the difference for the
two-pier sections for interior spans;
A = I for interior spans;
= Distance from end support to the loca-
tion of maximum positive moment di-
vided by the span length for end spans.
M~ computed from Equation (l0-129d) shall not exceed
the applicable value of MU computed from either Equation
(l0-129b) or Equation (l0-129c).
For continuous spans where the maximum bending
strength of the positive-moment sections is determined
286
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.50. 1.1.2
from Equation (l0-129d), the maximum positive moment
in the span shall not exceedM:,, for the loading which pro-
duces the maximum negative moment at the adjacent
pier(s).
For composite sections in positive-moment regions not
satisfying the requirements of Equation (10-129) or Equa-
t i o n ( l 0-1 2 9 a ) , M~ s ha l l b e d et er m i n ed a s s p ec i f i ed i n Ar -
t i c l e 1 0. 5 0. 1 . 2 .
10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections
10.50.1.2.1 When the steel section does not satisfy
the compactness requirements of Article l0.50.l.l.2 the
maximum bending strength, M
5, of the section shall be
taken as the moment at first yield determined as specified
in Article 10.50(f).
10.50.1.2.2 When the girders are not provided with
temporary supports during the placing of dead loads, the
sum of the stresses produced by I .30D, acting on the steel
girder alone with l.30(D. + 5(L + 1)/3) acting on the
composite girder shall not exceed yield stress at any point,
where D~ and D~ are the moments caused by the dead load
acting on the steel girder and composite girder, respec-
tively.
10.50.1.2.3 When the girders are provided with ef-
fective intermediate supports that are kept in place until
the concrete has attained 75 percent of its required 28-day
strength, stresses produced by the loading, I .30(D +5(L
1)/3), acting on the composite girder, shall not exceed
yield stress at any point.
10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections of Composite
Beams and Girders
The maximum bending strength, MU, of composite
beams and girders in the negative moment regions shall be
computed in accordance with Articles 10.48 and 10.49 as
applicable. It shall be assumed that the concrete slab does
not carry tensile stresses. In cases where the slab rein-
forcement is continuous over interior supports, the rein-
forcement may b e c o n s i d er ed t o a c t c o m p o s i t el y wi t h t he
steel section.
Composite beams and girders in negative bending
qualify as compact when t hei r s t eel s ec t i o n m eet s t he re-
quirements of Article 10.48.1.1, and the stress-strain dia-
gram of the steel exhibits a yield plateau followed by a
strain hardening range. Steels such as AASHTO M 270
Grades 36. 50, and SOW (ASTMA 709, Grades 36, 50, and
SOW) meet these requirements. MU shall be computed as
t he r es u l t a n t m o m en t o f t he f u l l y p l a s t i c s t r es s d i s t r i b u t i o n
a c t i n g o n t he s ec t i o n i n c l u d i n g a n y c o m p o s i t e r eb a r s .
If t he d i s t a n c e f r o m t he n eu t r a l a x i s t o t he c o m p r es s i o n
f l a n ge ex c eed s D/2 , t he c o m p a c t s ec t i o n r eq u i r em en t s
given by Equations (10-93) and (10-94) must be modified
by replacing D with the quantity ~ wher e D~1, is the
depth of the web incompression at the plastic moment.
10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections
When the steel section does not satisfy the compact-
ness requirements of Article 10.50.2.1 but does satisfy the
requirements of Article 10.48.2.1, the maximum strength,
MU, of the section shall be taken as the moment at first
yielding determined as specified in Article 10.50(f). If the
requirements of Article 10.48.2.1(b) or Article
1 0. 4 8 . 2 . 1 ( c ) a r e n o t s a t i s f i ed . M~ s ha l l b e c a l c u l a t ed a c -
c o r d i n g t o t he p r o v i s i o n s s p ec i f i ed i n Ar t i c l e 1 0. 4 8 . 4 . 1 . In
t hi s c a s e, t he web s l en d er n es s s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he r e-
qu irement given by Equation (10-103) or Equation (10-
108), as applicable, subject to the corresponding require-
ments of Article 10.49.2 or 10.49.3.
10.50.2.3
In t he n ega t i v e m o m en t r egi o n s o f c o n t i n u o u s s p a n s ,
the minimum longitudinal reinforcement including the
longitudinal distribution reinforcement must equal or ex-
ceed 1 percent of the cross-sectional area of the concrete
slab. Two-thirds of this required reinforcement is to be
p l a c ed i n t he t o p l a yer o f s l a b wi t hi n t he ef f ec t i v e width.
Placement of distribution steel as specified in Article
3 . 2 4 . 1 0 i s wa i v ed wi t hi n t he ef f ec t i v e wi d t h.
10.50.2.4
When shear connectors are omitted from the negative
moment region, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
extended into the positive moment region beyond the an-
chorage c o n n ec t o r s a t l ea s t 4 0 t i m es t he r ei n f o r c em en t d i -
a m et er .
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS*
This section pertains to the design of simple and con-
tinuous bridges of moderate length supported by two or
more single-cell composite box girders. The distance cen-
5For information regarding the design of long-span steel box girder
bridges. Report No. FHWA-TS-80-205. ~Proposed Design Specifica-
tions for Steel Box Girder Bridges is available from the Federal High-
way Administration.
10.51 DIV ISION IDESIGN 287
ter-to-center flanges of adjacent boxes shall be not greater
than 1.2 times and not less than 0. 8 t i m es t he d i s t a n c e c en -
t er -t o -c en t er o f t he f l a n ges o f ea c h b o x . In a d d i t i o n t o t he
a b o v e, when nonparallel girders are used the distance cen-
ter-to-center of adjacent flanges at supports shall be not
greater than 1 .35 times and not less than 0.65 times the
distance center-to-center of the flanges of each box. The
cantilever overhang of the deck slab, including curbs and
parapet, shall be limited to 60 percent of the distance be-
tween the centers of adjacent top steel flanges of adjacent
box girders, but in no case greater than 6 feet.
10.51.5 Compression Flanges
10.51.5.1 Unstiffened compression flanges designed
for the yield stress, F:,, shall have awidth-to-thickness ratio
equal to or less than the value obtained from the formula:
b 6,140
(10-132)
where b = flange width between webs in inches, and t =
f l a n ge t hi c kn es s i n i n c hes .
10.5 1.1 Maximum Strength
The maximum strength of box girders shall be d et er -
m i n ed a c c o r d i n g t o t he a p p l i c a b l e p r o v i s i o n s o f Ar t i c l es
10.48, 10.49, and 10.50. In addition, the maximum
strength of the negative moment sections s ha l l b e limited
by:
= FcrS (10-130)
where F~, is the buckling stress of the bottom flange plate
as given in Article 10.51.5.
10.5 1.2 Lateral Distribution
The live-load bending moment for each box girder
shall be determined in accordance with Article 10.39.2.
10.51.5.2 For greater bit ratios,
6,140 b 13,300
F>, t F>,
( 1 0-1 3 3 )
the buckling stress of an unstiffened bottom flange is
gi v en b y t he f o r m u l a :
Fer =0.592F>,(l + 0. 6 8 7 s i n f l ( 1 0-1 3 4 )
in which c shall be taken as, b
13,300-- F>,
7,160
(10-135)
10.51.5.3 For values of,
10.51.3 Web Plates
The design shear~ for a web shall be calculatedusing
= V /cos 0
b 13,300
F>,
(10-136)
the buckling stress of the flange is given by the formula:
(10-13 1)
where V = one-half of the total vertical shear force on one
b o x gi r d er , a n d 0 = t he a n gl e of inclination of the web
p l a t e t o t he v er t i c a l .
The i n c l i n a t i o n o f t he web p l a t es t o t he vertical shall
not exceed 1 to 4.
= 105(tlb)
2 X 106 ( 1 0-1 3 7 )
10.51.5.4 If longitudinal stiffeners are used, they
shall be equally spaced across the flange width and shall
be proportioned sothat the moment of inertia of each stiff-
ener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of
the stiffener is at least equal to:
10.51.4 Tension Flanges
In t he c a s e o f s i m p l y s u p p o r t ed s p a n s , t he b o t t o m
flange shall be considered fully effective inresisting bend-
ing if its width does not exceed one-fifth the span length.
If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of the span,
only an amount equal to one-fifth of the span shall be con-
sidered effective.
For continuous spans, the requirements above shall be
applied to the distance between points of contraflexure.
where:
4* = 0.07k3n4 when n equals 2, 3, 4, or 5;
4* = 0.125k3 when n = I;
w = wi d t h of flange between longitudinal stiffeners or
distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal
stiffener;
n = number of longitudinal stiffeners;
k = buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
= 4 t3w (10-138)
28 8
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.5 1.5.4.1
10.51.6 Diaphragms
For a longitudinally stiffened flange designed for the
yi el d s t r es s F : , , t he r a t i o w/t s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l u e
given by the formula:
w 3,070 k
F>,
10.51.5.4.2 For greater values of w/t,
3,070 k w 6,650 k
F>, t F>,
the buckling stress of the flange, including stiffeners, is
given by Article 10.5 1.5.2 in which c shall be taken as:
w
6,650 k--- F>,
3,580 k
10.51.5.4.3 For values of,
w 6,650 k
F>,
t he b u c kl i n g s t r es s o f t he f l a n ge, i n c l u d i n g s t i f f en er s , i s
given by the formula:
= 26.2k(tlw)
2 X 10~
1 0.51.5.4.4 When longitudinal stiffeners are used, it
is preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The stiff-
ener should have a size equal tothat of a longitudinal stiff-
ener.
10.51.5.5 The width-to-thickness ratio of any out-
standing element of the flange stiffeners shall not exceed
h 2,600
t F~.
where:
= wi d t h o f a n y o u t s t a n d i n g s t i f f en er element,
and;
= thickness of outstanding stiffener element;
F:, = yield strength of outstanding stiffener ele-
ment.
Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means shall be
provided within the box girders at each support to resist
transverse rotation, displacement, and distortion.
Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames are not re-
(10- 139) quired for box girder bridges designed inaccordance with
this specification.
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS
10.52.1 General
The horizontal shear at the interface between the con-
crete slab and the steel girder shall be providedfor by me-
chanical shear connectors throughout the simple spans
and the positive moment regions of continuous spans. In
the negative moment regions, shear connectors shall be
provided when the reinforcing steel embedded inthe con-
(10- 141) crete is considered a part of the composite section. In case
the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete is not con-
sidered in computing section properties of negative mo-
ment sections, shear connectors need not be provided in
t hes e portions of the span, but additional connectors shall
be placed in the region of the points of dead load con-
(10-142) traflexure as specified in Article 10.38.5.1.3.
10.52.2 Design of Connectors
The n u m b er o f s hea r connectors shall be determined in
(10-143) accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.2 and checked for fa-
tigue in accordance with Articles 10.38.5.1.1 and
1 0.3 8~5.I.3.
10.52.3 Maximum Spacing
The maximum pitch shall not exceed 24 inches except
over the interior supports of continuous beams where
wider spacing may be used to avoid placing connectors at
locations of high stresses in the tension flange.
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS
( 1 0-1 4 4 ) Thi s s ec t i o n p er t a i n s t o t he d es i gn o f gi r d er s t ha t u t i -
lize a lower strength steel in the web than in one or both
of the flanges. It applies to composite and noncomposite
plate girders and to composite box girders. At any cross
s ec t i o n wher e t he b en d i n g s t r es s i n ei t her f l a n ge c a u s ed b y
the maximum design load exceeds the minimum specified
yi el d s t r en gt h o f t he web s t eel , t he c o m p r es s i o n -f l a n ge
a r ea s ha l l n o t b e l es s t ha n t he t en s i o n -f l a n ge a r ea . The t o p -
f l a n ge a r ea s ha l l i n c l u d e t he t r a n s f o r m ed a r ea o f a n y p o r -
(10- 140)
10.51.5.4.1
10.53
DIVISION IDESIGN
28 9
tion of the slab or reinforcing steel that is considered toact
compositely with the steel girder.
The provisions of Articles 10.48 through 10.52,
10.57.1, and 10.57.2 shall apply tohybrid beams and gird-
ers except as modified below. In all equations of these ar-
ticles, F:, shall be taken as the minimum specified yield
strength of the steel of the element under consideration
with the following exceptions:
(1) In Articles 10.48.1.1(b), 10.48.2.1(b), 10.48.4.1,
10.48.5.1, 10.48.6.1, 10.49.2, 10.49.3.2(b), and 10.50(d)
use the F:, of the compression flange.
(2) In Articles 10.48.6.3(a) and 10.48.6.3(c) use the F:,
of the adjacent flange. Articles 10.57.1 and 10.57.2
shall apply to the flanges, but not to the web of hybrid
girders.
The provision specified in Article 10.40.4 shall also
apply.
10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Girders
The equation of Article 10.48.1 for the maximum
strength of compact sections shall be replaced by the
expression:
= F:,
5Z
where F:,f is the specified minimum yield strength of the
flange, and Z is the plastic section modulus.
In computing Z, the web thickness shall be multiplied
by the ratio of the minimum specified yield strength of the
web, F:,~, to the minimum specified yield strength of F:,f.
10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections
For unsymmetrical sections,
R =1 [f(l + PN)] (10-148)
where 4* is the distance from the outer fiber of the tension
flange to the neutral axis divided by the depth of the steel
section.
10.53.1.3 Unbraced Noncompact Sections
The strength of unbraced noncompact hybrid sections
shall be calculated in accordance with Article 10.48.4.1
with Equation (l0-103a) replaced by the expression:
= MrRhR
(10- 148a)
and the yield moment calculated as:
= F>,~S R.
(10-148b)
where the appropriate R is determined from Article
10.53.1.2 above, and Rb is determined by Equation (10-
103b).
10.53.1.4 Transversely Stiffened Girders
Equation (10-114) of Article 10.48.8.1 for the shear ca-
(10-145) pacity of transversely stiffened girders shall be replaced
by the expression:
(10-149)
The provisions of Article 10.48.8.2, and the equation
for A in Article 10.48.5.3 are not applicable to hybrid
girders.
The equation of Article 10.48.2 for the maximum
strength of noncompact sections shall be replaced by the
expression:
= F:,fSR
For symmetrical sections:
R= 12+13(3pp
3
)
12+2L3
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Girders
The maximum strength of the composite section shall
be the moment at first yielding of the flanges times R (for
unsymmetrical sections) from Article 10.53.1.2, in which
(10-146) 4* is the distance from the outer fiber of the tension flange
to the neutral axis of the transformed section divided by
the depth of the steel section.
(10147)
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
10.54.1 Axial Loading
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity
The maximum strength of concentrically loaded
columns shall be computed as:
where:
13=
Aw/Am
290 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.54.1.1
PU = 0.85AYcr
where A~ is the gross effective area of the column cross
section and F~, is determined by one of the following two
formulas:
F~=F>,[l 4Th2E(r~J
KL 2it
2E
for r~
r F>,
F.r = itE
(10- 152)
(10- 153)
(10-150) 10.54.2 CombinedAxial Load and Bending
10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity
The combined maximum axial force P and the maxi-
mum bending moment M acting on a beam-column sub-
jected to eccentric loading shall satisfy the following
(10-151) eq u a t i o n s :
______ + MC =1.0 (10-155)
P 0.85AsFcr M~ l-----
r ~e~J
AF
P M
______ + =1.0
0.85A
5F>, M~
(10- 156)
for KL~ 2it
2E
r F>,
(10- 154)
where:
K = effective length factor in the plane of buckling;
L~=length of the member between points of support
in inches;
r = radius of gyration in the plane of buckling in
inches;
F:,=yield stress of the steel in pounds per square inch;
F = 29,000,000 pounds per square inch;
Fcr=buckling stress in pounds per square inch.
10.54.1.2 Effective Length
The effective length factor K shall be determined as
follows:
where:
Fcr = buckling stress as determined by the equations of
Article 10.54.1.1;
= maximum strength as determined by Articles
10.48.1, 10.48.2, or 10.48.4;
= EIE2 ilhe Euler Buckling stress
in the plane of bending;
(10-157)
C = equivalent moment factor, as defined below;
M~ =F:,Z, the full plastic moment of the section;
Z = p l a s t i c s ec t i o n m o d u l u s ;
KL~ = effective slenderness ratio in the plane of
r bending.
(a) For members having lateral support in both direc-
tions at its ends:
K = 0.75 for riveted, bolted, or welded end connec-
tions;
K = 0.875 for pinned ends.
(b) For members having ends not fully supported lat-
erally by diagonal bracingor an attachment toan adja-
cent structure, the effective length factor shall be de-
termined by a rational procedure.*
B. G. Johnston. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Struc-
tures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C
If the ends of the beam-column are restrained from
sidesway in the plane of bending by diagonal bracing or
attachment to an adjacent laterally braced structure, then
the value of equivalent moment factor, C, may be com-
puted by the formula:
C = 0.6 +0.4a, but not less than 0.4 (10-158)
where a is the ratio of the numericallysmaller tothe larger
end moment. The ratio a is positive when the two end mo-
ments act in an opposing sense (i.e., one acts clockwise
and the other acts counterclockwise) and negative when
they act in the same sense. In all cases, factor C may be
taken conservatively as unity.
10.55 DIV ISION IDESIGN
291
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES
See Article 3.2 for load factors and combinations. Use
Service Load Design Method for factored loads and the
f o r m u l a s c ha n ged a s f o l l o ws :
10.55.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable
Stresses
I 18T
I ______
AFe
___ (KL)2F 1
1.18 L 4&E JandFb= F:,
10.55.2 Web Plates
No longitudinal stiffener,
D/t~ = 6,750
One longitudinal stiffener,
D/t~ 10,150 ( 1 0-1 6 2 )
Two longitudinal stiffeners,
D/t~ 13,500
The b/t, ratio for the stiffeners shall be:
b 2,200 b
-~ maximum =12 (10-164)
a
1055.3 Flange Plates
(10-163)
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS
10.56.1 Connectors
10.56.1.1 General
Connectors and connections shall be proportioned so
that their design resistance, 4*R, (maximum strength mul-
tiplied by a resistance factor) as given in this Article, as
applicable, shall be at least equal to the effects of service
loads multiplied by their respective load factors as speci-
(10-159) fled in Article 3.22.
10.56.1.2 Welds
The ultimate strength of the weld metal in groove and
fillet welds shall be equal to or greater than that of the base
metal, except that the designer may use electrode classifi-
cations with strengths less than the base metal when de-
(10-160) tailing fillet welds for quenched and tempered steels.
However, the welding procedure and weld metal shall be
selected to ensure sound welds. The effective weld area
shall be taken as defined in ANSI/AASHTO/AWS DI.5
Bridge Welding Code, Article 2.3.
(10- 161) 10.56.L3 Bolts and Rivets
10.56.1.3.1 In proportioning fasteners, the cross sec-
tional area based upon nominal diameter shall be used.
10.56.1.3.2 The design force, 4*R, in kips, for
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M 253
(ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts subject toapplied axial
t en s i o n o r s hea r i s gi v en b y:
= ~FA
5 (l0-166a)
where:
= design strength per bolt area as given in Table
l0.56A for appropriate kind of load, ksi;
Ab = area of bolt corresponding to nominal diameter,
sq in.
The design bearing force, 4*R, on the connected mate-
rial in standard, oversized, short-slotted holes loaded in
any direction, or long-slotted holes parallel tothe applied
bearing force shall be taken as:
b 5,700
for width between webs (10-165)
f-t-f
tf a b
b 2,200
for overhang widths,
ff a h maximumb/t~ =12
(10-166)
= O9LtF < l.8dtF~ (l0-166b)
The design bearing force, ~R, on the connected mate-
rial in long-slotted holes perpendicular to the applied
bearing force shall be taken as:
292 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.56.1.3.2
= 0.75L~tF ~ I 5dtF
The design bearing force f o r t he c o n n ec t i o n is equal to
the sum of the design bearing forces for the individual
bolts in the connection.
In the foregoing:
4R = design bearing force, kips.
= specified minimum tensile strength of the con-
nected material, ksi.
= clear distance between the holes or between the
hole and the edge of the material in the direction
of the applied bearing force, in.
d = nominal diameter of bolt, in.
= thickness of connected material, in.
10.56.1.3.3 High-strength bolts preferably shall be
used for fasteners subject to tension or combined shear
and tension.
For combined tension and shear, bolts and rivets shall
be proportioned sothat the tensile stress does not exceed:
for f/F <0.33
Fm =
f
5/F5 > 0.33
F~=FJI(f/F)2
for
(l0-166c) ternal load and tension resulting from prying action pro-
duced by deformation of the connected parts. The total
tension should not exceed the values given in Table
I 0.56A.
The tension due to prying actions shall be computed as:
Q ~Z [2 ~L] T
(10-168)
where:
Q = prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when nega-
tive);
T = direct tension per bolt due to external load;
a = distance from center of bolt to edge of plate;
b = distance from center of bolt to toe of fillet of con-
nected part;
= thickness of thinnest part connected in inches.
10.56.3 Rigid Connections
10.56.3.1 All rigid frame connections, the rigidity of
which is essential to the continuity assumed as the basis
(10-167) of design, shall be capable of resisting the moments,
shears, and axial loads to which they are subjected by
maximum loads.
(l0-167a)
10.56.3.2 The beam web shall equal or exceed the
t hi c kn es s gi v en b y:
where:
= computed rivet or bolt stress in shear, ksi;
= design shear strength of rivet or bolt from Table
l 0. 5 6 A o r Ta b l e l 0. 5 7 A, ks i ;
F, = design tensile strength of rivet or bolt from Table
10.56A, ksi;
= reduced design tensile strength of rivet or bolt
due to the applied shear stress, ksi.
10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints
Slip-critical joints shall be designed to prevent slip at
the overload in accordance with Article 10.57.3, but as a
minimum the bolts shall be capable of developing the
minimum strength requirements in bearing of Articles
10.18 and 10.19.
Potential slip of joints should be investigated at inter-
mediate load stages especially those joints locatedin com-
posite regions.
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by
Connected Parts
Bolts required to support applied load by means of di-
rect tension shall be proportioned for the sum of the cx-
t~F>,dbdj (10- 169)
wher e:
= column moment;
dh = beam depth;
= column depth.
When the thickness of the connection web is less than
that given by the above formula, the web shall be
strengthened by diagonal stiffeners or by a reinforcing
plate incontact with the web over the connection area.
At joints where the flanges of one member are rigidly
framed into one flange of another member, the thickness
of the web, t~, supporting the latter flange and the thick-
ness of the latter flange, k~ shall be checked by the for-
mulas below. Stiffeners are required on the web of the sec-
ond member opposite the compression flange of the first
member when:
(10-170) Af
tb+Sk
293
TABLE 10.S6A Design Strength of Connectors
l~pe of Fastener
Groove Weld
Fillet Weld
Low-Carbon Steel Bolts
ASTM A 307
Tension
Shear on Bolt with
Threads in Shear Plane
Power-Driven Rivets
ASTM A 502
ShearGrade 1
ShearGrade 2
High-Strength Bolts
AASHTO M 164
(ASTM A 325)
AppliedStatic Tensionc
Shear on Bolt with
Threads in Shear Plane~~d~~
AASHTO M 253
(ASTM A 490)
Applied Static Tension
Shear on Bolt with
Threads in Shear Planed,e
= yield point of connected material.
= minimum strength of the welding rod metal but not greater than the tensile strength of
the connected parts.
UThe tensile strength of M164 (A325) bolts decreases for diameters greater than 1 inch.
The design values listed are for bolts up to 1-inch diameter. The design values shall be
multiplied by 0.8 75 for diameters greater than 1 inch.
dTabulated values shall be reduced by 20 percent in hearing-type connections whose length
betweenextreme fasteners in each ofthe spliced parts measured parallet to the line of axial foree
exceeds 50 inches.
tf material thickness or joint details preclude threads in the shear plane, multiply values by
1.25.
and opposite the tension flange of the first member
when
t< 0.4 Af
where:
= thickness of web to be stiffened;
k = distance from outer face of flange to toe of web
fillet of member to be stiffened;
= thickness of flange delivering concentrated force;
= thickness of flange of member to be stiffened;
A
1 = area of flange delivering concentrated load.
10.57 OVERLOAD
10.57.1 Noncomposite Beams and Girders
For noncomposite beams and girders, the maximum
flange stress caused by D + 5(L +I)/3 shall not exceed
0.8RF:,~ where R is the hybrid girder reduction factor spec-
ified in Article 10.53.1.2, equal to 1 .0 for nonhybrid see-
tions, and F:,f is the specified minimum yield stress of the
flange. For such beams and girders designed for Group IA
loading, the maximum flange stress caused by D + 2.2(L
(10-171) + I) shall not exceed 0.8RF>,C. In the case of moment re-
distribution under the provisions of Article 10.48.1.3 the
above limitation shall apply to the modified moments but
not to the original moments.
10.57.2 Composite Beams and Girders
For composite beams and girders, the maximum
flange stress caused by D + 5(L I)/3 shall not exceed
0.95RF:,~ where R is the hybrid girder reduction factor
specified in Article 10.53.1.2, equal to 1.0 for nonhybrid
sections, and F:,f is the specified minimum yield stress
of the flange. For such beams and girders designed
for Group lA loading, the maximum flange stress caused
by D + 2.2(L I) shall not exceed 0.9SRF:,f. In com-
puting dead load stresses the presence or absence of
temporary supports during the construction shall be con-
sidered.
Strength (~F)
1.00 F~
0.45 F~
30 ksi
18 ksi
25 ksi
30 ksi
68 ksi
35 ksi
85 ksi
43 ksi
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE l0.57A Design Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections
(Slip Resistance per Unit ofBolt Area, 4*F, =4*Tbp., ksi)
Hole I~pe and Direction of Load Application
Any Direction Transverse Parallel
Oversize and
Standard Short Slot Long Slots Long Slots
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
AASHTO AASHTO
M164 M253
Contact Surface of Bolted Parts
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A 490)
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A 490)
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A 490)
(ASTM (ASTM
A 325) A 490)
Class A (Slip Coefficient 0.33)
Clean mill scale and blast-
21 26 18 22 15 18 13 16
cleaned surfaces with Class A
coatings
Claus B (Slip Coefficient 0.50)
Blast-cleaned surfaces and
32 40 27 34 22 28 19 24
blast-cleaned surfaces with
Class B coatings
Class C (Slip Coefficient 0.33)
Hot-dip galvanized surfaces
roughened by wire brushing
after galvanizing
21 26 18 22 15 18 13 16
The tensile strength of M164 (A325) bolts decreases for diameters greater than 1 inch. The design values listed are for bolts up to I-
inch diameter. The design values shall be multiplied by 0.8 75 for diameters greater than 1 inch.
Coatings classified as Class A or Class B include those coatings which provide a mean slip coefficient not less than 0.33 or 0.50,
respectively, as determinedby Testing Methodto Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings Usedin BoltedJoints. See Article 10.32.3.2.3.
10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints
10.57.3.1 In addition to the requirements of
10.56.1.3.1 and 10.56.1.3.2 for fasteners, the force caused
b y D -~- 5(L + I)/3, for H o r HS t r u c k l o a d o n l y, o n a s l i p -
critical joint shall not exceed the design slip force (4*R,)
gi v en b y:
= 4*F,A:,NhN,
(10-172)
where:
= 4*T:,p, design slip resistance per unit of bolt area
gi v en i n Ta b l e l 0. 5 7 A, ks i ;
A: , = area corresponding to t he n o m i n a l b o d y a r ea o f
the bolt, sq in.;
N:, = number of bolts in the joint;
N, = number of slip planes;
= specified tension in the bolt;
p = slip coefficient;
= 0.33 for clean mill scale and Class A coatings
= 0.50 for blast-cleatied surfaces and Class B
c o a t i n gs ;
= 0.33 for hot-dip galvanized and roughened
surfaces;
4* = 1.0 for standard holes;
= 0.85 for oversized and short slotted holes;
= 0.70 for long slotted holes loaded transversely;
= 0.60 for long slottedholes loaded longitudinally.
Class A, B, or C surface conditions of the bolted parts as
defined in Table l0.57A shall be used injoints designated
as slip-critical except as permitted in Article 10.57.3.2.
10.57.3.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer.
coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33 may be
used provided the mean slip coefficient is established by
test in accordance with the requirements of Article
10.57.3.3, and the slip resistance per unit area established.
The slip resistance per unit area shall be taken as equal to
the slip resistance per unit area from Table l0.57A for
Class A coatings as appropriate for the hole type and bolt
type times the slip coefficient determined by test divided
by 0.33.
10.57.3.3 Paint, used on the faying surfaces of con-
nections specified to be slip critical, shall be qualified by
test in accordance with Test Method to Determine the
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints as
294
10.57.2
295
adopted by the Research Council on Structural Connec-
tions. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Speci-
fication for Structural Joints UsingASTMA 325 or A 490
Bolts, published by the Research Council on Structural
Connections.
10.57.3.4 For combined shear and tension in slip
critical joints where applied forces reduce the total clamp-
ing force on the friction plane, the design slip force shall
not exceed the value ~R~ obtained from the following
equation:
= 4*R~(l l.8 8 f!FU) (10-173)
where:
= computed tensile stress in the bolt due to ap-
plied loads including any stress due to prying
a c t i o n . ks i ;
= design slip force specified in Equation (10-172),
kips;
= 120 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts up to I-inch
diameter;
= 105 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts over I-inch
diameter;
= 150 ks i f o r M 253 (A 490) bolts.
range of stress for fatigue shall conform to Article 10.3,
except that the limitation imposed by the basic criteria
given in Article 10.3.1 shall not apply.
10.58 .2 Composite Construction
10.58 .2.1 Slab Reinforcement
Whencomposite action is provided inthe negative mo-
ment region, the range of stress inslab reinforcement shall
be limited to 20,000 psi.
10.58 .2.2 Shear Connectors
The shear connectors shall be designed fbr fatigue in
accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.
10.58 .3 Hybrid Beams and Girders
Hybrid girders shall be designed for fatigue in accor-
dance withArticle 10.3.
10.59 DEFLECTION
The control of deflection of steel or of composite steel
and concrete structures shall conform to the provision of
Article 10.6.
10.58 FATIGUE
10.58 .1 General
The analysis of the probability of fatigue of steel mem-
bers or connections under service loads and the allowable
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES
A rational analysis based on the Strength Design
Method, in accordance with the specifications, will be
considered as compliance with the specitications.
Section 11
ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1 GENERAL
The purpose of this section is to provide a location for
indexing aluminum design, material fabrication, and con-
struction specifications.
11.2 BRIDGES
The Specificationsfor Alumi,mumStructures, Fifth Edi-
tion, December 1986, published by the Aluminum Asso-
ciation, Inc., as it applies to Bridge and Similar Type
Structures, are intended to serve as a standard or guide
for the preparation of plans and specifications and as a ref-
erence for designers, fabricators, and erectors of alu-
minum bridge and railing structures and their aluminum
structural components. Welding shall conform to Section
10 of the current AWS Dl .2 Structural Welding Code
Aluminum, and workmanship requirements for Class II
structures.
11.3 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION
SYSTEMS
The design of aluminum soil-metal plate interaction
systems shall be in accordance with Section 12. Fabrica-
tion and installation shall be in accordance with Section
23Division II.
1 1 . 4 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY
SIGNS, LUMINAIRES, ANDTRAFFIC
SIGNALS
The AASHTO Standard Specifications frr Structural
Supportsfor Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Sig-
nals shall be used for the design and preparation of plans
and specifications, fabrication, and erection of aluminum
sign supports, luminaires, and traffic signals. Welding
shall conform to Section 10 of the current AWS DI.2
Structural Welding CodeAluminum, and workmanship
requirements for Class I structures. Special consideration
may be given to certain support structures, which may be
designed and fabricated according to the provisions ofAr-
ticle 11.2, Bridges.
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING
The design of aluminum bridge railing shall be gov-
erned by Article 2.7; the fabrication and erection shall
conform to Section 6 of the Specifications for Aluminum
Structures, FifthEdition, 198 6; andthe welding shall con-
form to Section 10 of the current AWS Dl.2 Structural
Welding CodeAluminuni, and workmanship require-
ments for Class II Structures. The AASI-ITO Roadside
Design Guide should be consulted for guidance on the
safety considerations in the design of bridge rail.
297
12
SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL
12.1.1 Scope
The specifications of this Section are intended for the
structural design of corrugated metal structures. It must be
recognized that a buried flexible structure is a composite
structure made up of the metal ring and the soil envelope,
and that both materials play a vital part in the structural
design of flexible metal structures.
Only Article 12.7 is applicable to structural plate box
culverts.
12.1.2 Notations
A = r eq u i r ed wa l l a r ea ( Ar t i c l e 1 2 . 2 . 1 )
A = area of pipe wall (Article 12.3.1)
AL = total axle load on single axle or tandem axles (Ar-
ticles 12.8.4.3.2 and 12.8.4.4)
C number of axles coefficient (Article 12.8.4.3.2)
C
2 = number of wheels per axle coefficient (Article
12.8.4.3.2)
Cd = dead load adjustment coefficient (Article
12.8.4.3.2)
live load adjustment coefficient (Article
12.8.4.3.2)
D = straight leg of haunch (Article 12.8.2)
= modulus of elasticity of metal (Articles 12.2.2 and
12.3.2)
= modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles
12.2.4 and 12.3.4)
FF = flexibility factor (Articles 12.2.4 and 12.3.4)
= allowable stressspecified minimum yield point
d i v i d ed b y s a f et y f a c t o r ( Ar t i c l e 1 2 . 2 . 1 )
= c r i t i c a l b u c kl i n g s t r es s ( Ar t i c l es 12.2.2 and 12.3.2)
= specified minimum tensile strength (Articles
12.2.2 and 12.3.2)
specified minimum yield point (Article 12.3. 1)
H = height of cover above crown (Article 12.8.4.4)
= moment of inertia, per unit length, of cross section
of the pipe wall (Articles 12.2.4 and 12.3.4)
k = soil stiffness factor (Articles 12.2.2 and 12.3.2)
Mdl =dead load factored moment (Article 12.8.4.3.3)
= live load factored moment (Article 12.8.4.3.3)
= crown plastic moment capacity (Article
12.8.4.3.3)
M~h = haunch plastic moment capacity (Article
12.8.4.3.3)
P = design load (Article 12.1.4)
P = proportion of total moment carried by the crown.
L i m i t s f o r P a r e gi v en i n Ta b l e 12.7.4D ( Ar t i c l e
12.8.4.3.3)
r = radius of gyration of corrugation (Articles 12.2.2
and 12.3.2)
= radius of crown (Table 12.8.2A)
r h = radius of ha u n c h ( Ta b l e 1 2 . 8 . 2 A)
R = rise of box culvert (Articles 12.7.2 and 12.8.4.4)
= haunch moment reduction factor (Article
12.8.4.3.3)
S = diameter of span (Articles 12.1.4. 12.2.2. 12.8.2,
and 12.8.4.4)
s = pipe diameter or span (Articles 12.2.4. 12.3.2. and
12.3.4)
SF = safety factor (Article 12.2.3)
SS = required seam strength (Articles 12.2.3 and
12.3.3)
T = thrust (Article 12.1.4)
Tm thrust, load factor (Articles 12.3.1 and 12.3.3)
= thrust, service load (Articles 12.2.1 and 12.2.3)
= length of stiffening rib on leg (Article 12.8.2)
V = reaction acting in leg direction (Article 12.8.4.4)
= haunch radius included angle (Table 12.8. 2M
-y = unit weight of backfill (Articles 12.8.4.3,2 and
12.8.4.4)
= capacity modification factor (Articles 12.3.1 and
12.3.3)
12.L3 Loads
Design load. P, shall be the pressure acting on the strtmc-
ture. For earth pressures, see Article 3.20. For live load,
see Articles 3.4 to 3.7. 3.11, 3.12, and 6.4. except that the
299
300
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1 2 . 1 . 3
words When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more in Article
6.4.1 need not be considered. For loading combinations,
see Article 3.22.
12.1.4 Design
(3) The density of the embankment material above
the pipe must be determined. See Article 6.2.
(b) Dimensions of soil envelope.
The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
the culvert soil envelope are as follows:
12.1.4.1 The thrust in the wall shall be checked by
three criteria. Each considers the mutual function of the
metal wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The crite-
n a a r e:
(a) Wall area;
(b) Buckling stress;
(c) Seam strength (structures with longitudinal seams).
(1) Trench installations2-feet minimum each side
of culvert. This recommended limit should be modified
as necessary to account for variables such as poor in-
situ soils.
(2) Embankment installationsone diameter or span
each side of culvert.
(3) The minimum upper limit of the soil envelope is I
foot above the culvert.
12.1.4.2 The thrust in the wall is:
S
T=Px
2
(12-I)
where:
P = design load, in pounds per square foot;
S = diameter or span, in feet;
T = thrust, in pounds per foot.
12.1.43 Handling and installation strength shall be
sufficient to withstand impact forces when shipping and
placing the pipe.
12.1.5 Materials
The materials shall conform to the AASHTO specifi-
cations referenced herein.
12.1.6 Soil Design
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters
The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on
soil structure interaction and soil stiffness.
The following must be considered:
(a) Soils:
(I) The type and anticipated behavior of the foun-
dation soil must be considered; i.e., stability for
bedding and settlement under load.
(2) The type, compacted density, and strength
propertiesof the soil envelope immediately adjacent
to the pipe must be established. Good side fill is ob-
t a m ed f r o m a gr a n u l a r m a t er i a l wi t h l i t t l e o r n o p l a s -
ticity and free of organic material, i.e., AASHT()
classitication groups A-I, A-2. and A-3, compacted
to a minimum 90 percent of standard density based
on AASHTO Specifications T 99 (ASTM D 698).
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design
The design of the corner backfill shall account for
corner pressure which shall be considered to be approxi-
mately equal to thrust divided by the radius of the
pipe arch corner. The soil envelope around the corners of
pipe arches shall be capable of supporting this pressure.
12.1.6.3 Arch Design
12.1.6.3.1 Special design considerations may be ap-
plicable; a buried flexible structure may raise two impor-
tant considerations. The first is that it is undesirable to
make the metal arch relatively unyielding or fixed com-
pared with the adjacent sidefill. The use of massive foot-
ings or piles to prevent any settlement of the arch is gen-
erally not recommended.
Where poor materials are encountered, consideration
should be given to removing some or all of this poor ma-
terial and replacing it with acceptable material.
The footing should be designed to provide uniform
longitudinal settlement, of acceptable magnitude from a
functional aspect. Providing for the arch to settle will pro-
tect it from possible drag down forces caused by the con-
solidation of the adjacent sidefill.
The second consideration is bearing pressure of soils
under footings. Recognition must be given to the effect of
depth of the base of footing and the direction of the foot-
ing reaction from the arch.
Footing reactions for the metal arch are considered to
act tangential to the metal plate at its point of connection
to the footing. The valtme of the reaction is the thrust in the
metal arch plate at the footing.
12.1.6.3.2 Invert slabs and other appropriate inca-
sures shall be provided to anticipate scour.
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions
Extra metal thickness, or coatings, may be required for
resistance to corrosion and abrasion. For highly abrasive
conditions, a special design may be required.
12.1.8 Minimum Spacing
When m u l t i p l e lines of pipes or pipe arches greater
than 48 inches in diameter or span are used, they shall be
spaced so that the sides of the pipe shall be no closer than
one-half diameter or 3 feet, whichever is less, to permit
adequate compaction of backfill material. For diameters
up toand including 48 inches, the minimum clear spacing
s ha l l n o t b e l es s than 2 feet.
12.1.9 End Treatment
Protection of end slopes may require special consid-
eration where backwater conditions may occur, or where
erosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends con-
stitute a major run-off-the-road hazard if not properly de-
signed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate
grating that conforms to the embankment s l o p e, ex t en -
sion of culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or pro-
vision of guardrail, are among the alternatives to be con-
sidered. End walls on skewed alignment require a special
design.
12.1.10 Construction and Installation
The construction and installation shall conform to Sec-
tion 23Division II.
12.2 SERV ICELOAD DESIGN
Service LoadDesign is a working stress method, as tra-
ditionally used for culvert design.
12.2.2 Buckling
Corrugations with the required wall area, A, shall be
c hec ked f o r p o s s i b l e b u c kl i n g. If t he a l l o wa b l e b u c kl i n g
stress, f
0/SF, is 1e.s than f., the required area must be re-
calculated using fjSF in lieu of f,. Formulae for buckling
are:
IfS rj24E~ then ~cr=~u
r 24E 12E
lfS< m thenf =
cr 1
k ~ (kS/ry
(12-3)
(12-4)
where:
f~= s p ec i f i ed m i n i m u m t en s i l e s t r en gt h i n p o u n d s p er
square inch;
f =c r i t i c a l b u c kl i n g s t r es s i n p o u n d s p er s q u a r e i n c h;
k = soil stiffness factor = 0.22;
S = d i a m et er o r s p a n i n i n c hes ;
r = radius of gyration of corrugation in inches;
Em = modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per
s q u a r e inch.
12.2.3 Seam Strength
For pipe fabricated with longitudinal seams (riveted,
s p o t -wel d ed , bolted), the seam strength shall be sufficient
to develop the thrust in the pipe wall.
The required seam strength shall be:
SS = T~(SF) (12-5)
where:
SS = required seam strength in pounds per foot;
Tr= thrust in pipe wall in pounds per foot;
5F safety factor.
12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength
122A Wall Area:
Handling and installation rigidity is measured by a
flexibility factor, FF. determined by the formula:
A = (12-2)
FF = 5
2fEmI
wher e:
A = r eq u i r ed wa l l a r ea i n s q u a r e i n c hes p er f o o t ;
= thrust, service load in pounds per foot;
= a l l o wa b l e s t r es s -s p ec i f i ed m i n i m u m yi el d p o i n t .
pounds per square inch, divided by safety factor,
fr/SF.
(12-6)
where:
FF= flexibility factor in inches per pound;
s = pipe diameter or maximum span in inches;
E~=m o d u l u s o f el a s t i c i t y o f t he p i p e m a t er i a l i n
p o u n d s p er s q u a r e inch;
302 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
12.2.4
I = moment of inertia per unit length of cross section
of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per
inch.
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Load Factor Design is an alternative method of design
based on ultimate strength principles.
12.3.1 Wall Area:
A = TL/4)f: , (12-7)
where:
A = area of pipe wall in square i n c hes per foot;
TL = thrust, load factor in pounds per foot;
= s p ec i f i ed minimum yield point in p o u n d s p er
square inch;
4) = capacity modification factor.
12.3.2 Buckling
where:
SS = required seam s t r en gt h i n pounds per foot;
TL = thrust multiplied by applicable factor, in pounds
per linear foot;
4) = c a p a c i t y m o d i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r .
12.3.4 Handling and Installation Strength
Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor,
FF, determined by the formula:
FF = s
2 /E I (1211)
where:
FF = flexibility factor in inches per pound;
s = pipe diameter or maximum span in inches;
Em = modulus of el a s t i c i t y of the pipe material in
pounds per square inch;
I = moment of inertia per unit l en gt h of cross section
of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per
inch.
If f,sr is less than f:,, A must be recalculated using f~. in
lieu of f~:
24Ern _____
r
If s< ~ U (ks/r)2
k ~ 48Em
(12-8)
r 24Em 12E
Ifs> then ~cr ( 1 2 -9)
k ~ (ks/r)
where:
f. = specified minimum metal strength in pounds per
s q u a r e i n c h;
frr = c r i t i c a l buckling stress in pounds p er s q u a r e inch;
k = soil stiffness factor = 0.22;
s = pipe diameter or span in inches;
r = radius of gyration of corrugation in inches;
Em = modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per
square inch.
For pipe fabricated with l o n gi t u d i n a l s ea m s ( r i v et ed ,
spot-welded. bolted), the seam strength shall be sufficient
to develop the thrust in the pipe wall. The required seam
strength shall be:
12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE
12.4.1 General
12.4.1.1 Corrugated metal pipe and pipe-arches
m a y b e o f r i v et ed , wel d ed , o r l o c k s ea m f a b r i c a t i o n
with annular or helical corrugations. The specifications
a r e:
Aluminum
AASHTO M 190, M 196
Steel
AASHTO M 36, M 245,
M 190
12.4.1.2 Service Load Designsafety factor, SF:
Seam strength = 3.0
Wall area = 2.0
Buckling = 2.0
12.4.1.3 Load Factor Designcapacity
modification factor, 4)
Helical p i p e with lock seam or f u l l y wel d ed s ea m :
4) = 1.00
Annular pipe with spot welded, riveted or bolted seam:
SS = T
1/4) (12-10) 4) = 0.67
12.4. 1.4
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor
(a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed
the following values:
/4-in, and /2-in, depth corrugation,
FF = 4.3)< 10-2
I-in, depth corrugation, FF = 3.3 X 10-2
(b) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not
exceed the following values:
Y4in. and Yin, depth corrugation,
FF = 9.5 X 10~
I-in, depth corrugation, FF = 6 X 10-2
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover
The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8
but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be
measured from the top of a rigid pavement or the bottom
of a flexible pavement.) For construction requirements,
see Article 23.10Division II.
Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strength
2 x 1/2 and 2-2/3 X 1/2 CorrugatedSteel
PipeRiveted or Spot Welded
3 x 1 CorrugatedSteel Pipe-
Riveted or Spot Welded
Single Double
Thickness Rivet Size Rivets Rivets
(in.) (in.) (kips/ft) (kips/ft)
Double
Thickness Rivet Size Rivets
(in.) (in.) (kips/ft)
0.064 5/16 16.7 21.6
0.079 5/16 18 .2 29.8
0.109 3/8 23.4 46.8
0.138 3/8 24.5 49.0
0.168 3/8 25.6 51.3
0.064 3/8 28 .7
0.079 3/8 35.7
0.109 7/16 53.0
0.138 7/16 63.7
0.168 7/16 70.7
2 x 1/2 and 2-2/3 x 1/2 Corrugated
AluminumPipeRiveted
Rivet Single Double
Thickness Size Rivets Rivets
0.060 5/16 9.0 14.0
0.075 5/16 9.0 18 .0
0.105 3/8 15.6 31.5
0.135 3/8 16.2 33.0
0.164 3/8 16.8 34.0
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3 x 1 Corrugated Aluminum 6 X 1 Corrugated Aluminum
PipeRiveted PipeRiveted
Double Double
Thickness Rivet Size Rivets Thickness Rivet Size Rivets
(in.) (in.) (kips/ft) (in.) (in.) (kips/ft)
0.060 3/8 16.5 0.060 1/2 16.0
0.075 3/8 20.5 0.075 1/2 19.9
0.105 1/2 28.0 0.105 1/2 27.9
0.135 1/2 42.0 0.135 1/2 35.9
0.164 1/2 54.5 0.167 1/2 43.5
12.4.3 Section Properties
12.4.3.1 Steel Conduits
1-1/2 x 1/4 Corrugation 2-2/3 x 1/2 Corrugation
Thickness A
5 r I x l0-~ A5 r I X I0-~
(in.) (sq in./ft) (in.) (in.
4/in.) (sq in./ft) (in.) (in.4/in.
)
0.028 0.304
0.034 0.380
0.040 0.456 0.0816 0.253 0.465 0.1702 1.121
0.052 0.608 0.0824 0.344 0.619 0.1707 1.500
0.064 0.761 0.0832 0.439 0.775 0.1712 1.892
0.079 0.950 0.0846 0.567 0.968 0.1721 2.392
0.109 1.331 0.08 79 0.8 57 1.356 0.1741 3.425
0.138 1.712 0.0919 1.205 1.744 0.1766 4.533
0.168 2.098 0.0967 1.635 2.133 0.1795 5.725
3 x I Corrugation 5 x 1 Corrugation
Thickness A
5 r I x l0~ A5 r I x l0~
(in.) (sqin./ft) (in.) (in.
)
0.064 0.890 0.3417 8.659 0.794 0.3657 8.850
0.079 1.113 0.3427 10.883 0.992 0.3663 11.092
0.109 1.560 0.3448 15.459 1.390 0.3677 15.650
0.138 2.008 0.3472 20.18 3 1.78 8 0.3693 20.317
0.168 2.458 0.3499 25.091 2.186 0.3711 25.092
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits
1-1/2 x 1/4 Corrugation 2-2/3 X 1/2 Corrugation
Thickness A
5 r I x l0~ A5 r I X l0~~
)
0.048 0.608 0.0824 0.344
0.060 0.761 0.0832 0.349 0.775 0.1712 1.892
0.075 0.968 0.1721 2.392
0.105 1.356 0.1741 3.425
0.135 1.745 0.1766 4.533
0.164 2.130 0.1795 5.725
3 xl Corrugation 6x I
Effective
Thickness A
5 r I x l0~~ A5 Area r I x l0~
4/in.) (sq in./ft) (sq in/ft ) (in.) (in.4/in.)
0.060 0.890 0.3417 8.659 0.775 0.387 0.3629 8.505
0.075 1.118 0.3427 10.883 0.968 0.484 0.3630 10.631
0.105 1.560 0.3448 15.459 1.356 0.678 0.3636 14.340
0.135 2.088 0.3472 20.183 1.744 0.872 0.3646 19.319
0.164 2.458 0.3499 25.091 2.133 1.066 0.3656 23.760
304
1 2 . 4 . 2
12.4.4
DIV ISION IDESIGN
305
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements
12.5.2 Soil Design
12.4.4.1 Aluminum-corrugated metal pipe and pipe-
arch material requirementsAASHTO M 197:
Mechanical Properties for Design
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
( p s i )
31,000
Minimum
Yield
Point
( p s i )
24,000
Mod. of
Elast.
(psi)
10 x 106
12.4.4.2 Steel-corrugated metal pipe and pipe-arch
material requirementsAASHTO M 218
M 246:
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
( p s i )
45,000
Minimum
Yield
Point
(psi)
33,000
Mod. of
Elast.
(psi)
29 x 106
12.5.2.1 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in
embankment conditions shall have agranular soil backfill
en v el o p e ex t en d i n g t o a m i n i m u m o f o n e s p a n o n ea c h
side of the pipe and one foot above the pipe. This granu-
lar soil envelope shall meet the material and compaction
requirements of Section 12.1 .6.1 (a).
12.5.2.2 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in
s t a n d a r d t r en c h c o n d i t i o n s s ha l l ha v e a b a c kf i l l en v el o p e
that:
(a) Meets the material and compaction requirements
of Section 12.1.6.1 (a).
(b) Extends a minimum of 2 feet each side of the pipe
to the trench wall. To account for variable conditions.
this recommendation shall be increased as required for
poor in situ soils. It may be decreased for trenches in
rock or high-bearing strength in situ soils to the limits
required for backfill compaction. In this condition, the
use of cementitious grouts allows the envelope to he
decreased to 2 inches, each side of the pipe.
(c) Extends a minimum of 1 foot above the crown of
the pipe.
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design
12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe
Corrugated metal pipe composed of a smooth liner and
corrugated shell attached integrally at helical seams
spaced not more than 30 inches apart may be designed in
accordance with Article 12. 1 on the same basis as a stan-
dard corrugated metal pipe having the same corrugations
as the shell and a weight per foot equal to the sum of the
weights per foot of liner and helically corrugated shell.
The shell shall be limited to corrugations having a maxi-
miium pitch of 3 inches and a thickness of not less than 60
percent of the total thickness of the equivalent standard
pipe.
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE
12.5.1 General
12.5.1.1 Spiral Rib metal pipe and pipe-arche~ are
helically brined from a single thickness of steel om alu-
minum with oulwardly projecting ribs and a lockseam.
The specilicatiomis ate:
Alumi mimi ni:
Steel:
AASI-IT() M 196. M 19()
AASHTO M 36. M 245. M 190
The d es i gn o f t he c o r n er b a c kf i l l s ha l l m eet t he r e-
q u i r em en t s o f S ec t i o n 1 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 .
12.5.2.4 Special Conditions
I)esign and installation shall meet the requiremhients of
Section 12. 1.7 for abrasive or corrosive conditions: Sec-
tion 12. 1 .8 for minimum spacing of multiple runs: and
S ec t i o n 1 2 . 1 . 9 f o r en d t r ea t m en t .
12.5.2.5 Construction and Installation
Construction and installation shall conform to Section
23Division II.
12.5.3 Design
12.5.3.1 Service load desien shall conform to the re-
quirements of Section 1 ~Stfety Factor (SF) shall be:
Wall Area = 2.0
Buckline = ~ 0
12.5.3.1 Load factor design shall coilform to the re
quirenlemits of Section I 2.3Capacity modificatiomi fac
tor. 4). shall be:
4) = 1.00
3 06 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 12.5.3.2
12.5.3.2 Flexibility Factor 12.5.4 Section Properties
(I) Forinstallation conforming to Section 12.5.2. I:
FF = 0.173 1033 for 74 X 7~ X 77~ configurations.
FF = 0.l40I~~~~ for 4/4 X 1 X 117 configurations.
(2) For installations conforming to Section
12.5.2.2:
FF = 0. 2 00 ~ f o r 1/4 )< X 772 configurations
FE = 0.163 ~ f o r X I X 1172 configurations.
Note: I is the applicable moment of inertia value from
Section 12.5.4.1.
12.5.2.1:
FE = 0.250 ~ for X /~ X 77~ configurations.
FE = 0.175 I~~~ for X 1 >( 1172 configurations.
12.5.2.2:
FF = 0. 3 00 1033 f o r X X 772 configurations.
FE = 0.215
33 for X I X 1172 configurations.
Note: I is the applicable moment of inertia value from
Section 12.5.4.2.
12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits:
x 3A x 7AConfiguration
Thickness A, r I x l0~
(in.) (sq inift) (in.) (in4/in.)
0.064 0.Slt
0.079 0.7t5
0.t09 1.192
0.290
0.282
0.268
3.590
4.740
7.150
3/4 x I X ltAConfiguration
A, r lXtO-~
(sq inift) (in.) (in/in.)
0.374 0.38 3 4.580
0.524 0.373 6.080
0.883 0.355 9.260
Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress.
12.5.4.2 Aluminum Conduits:
3/ x 3/4 X 71/2 Configuration
Thickness A, r I x i0~
(in.) (sq injft) (in.) (in/in.)
0.060
0.075
0.105
0.135
0.417
0.572
0.922
1.302
0.303
0.299
0.290
0.28 4
3.200
4.260
6.4.60
8.740
3/4X I x 11Configuration
A, r Ixl03
(sq inift) (in.) (in/in.)
0.3t2 0.3% 4.080
0.427 0.391 5.450
0.697 0.38 0 8 .390
1.009 0.369 11.48 0
Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress.
The minimum cover for design loads shall be measured
from the top of rigid pavement or the bottom of flexible
pavement such that:
(a) For steel conduits the minimum cover shall be
s p a n !4 , b u t n o t l es s t ha n 1 2 i n c hes ;
(b) For aluminum conduits with spans of 48 inches or
less, the minimum cover shall be span/2, but not less
than 12 inches. For aluminum conduits with spans
greater than 48 inches, the minimum cover shall be
spanl2.75, but not less than 24 inches.
For construction requirements, see Article 23.10
Division II.
12.5.5 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch
RequirementsAASHTO M 218
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
45,000
Minimum
Yield
Point
(psi)
33,000
Modulus of
Elasticity
(psi)
29 x 106
12.5.5.2 AluminumSpiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch
RequirementsAASHTO M 197
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Yield Modulus of
Strength Point Elasticity
(psi) (psi) (psi
)
31,000 24,000 10 x l0~
DIV ISION IDESIGN
S t eel
AASHTOM 167
12.6.1.2 Service Load Designsafety factor, SF
Seam strength = 3.0
Wall area = 2.0
Buckling = 2.0
12.6.1.3 Load Factor DesignCapacity
Modification Factor, 4)
4) = 0. 6 7
12.6.1.4 Flexibility Factor
6 in. X 2 in. corrugation FF = 2.0 X 102 (pipe)
6 in. X 2 in. corrugation FF = 3.0 X 10-2 (pipe-
arch)
6 in. X 2 in. corrugation FF = 3.0 X l0~ (arch)
9 in. X 272 in. corrugation FF = 2.5 X 10~ (pipe)
9 in. X 272 in. corrugation FF = 3.6 X 102 (pipe-
a r c h)
9 in. >K 272 in. corrugation FF = 7.2 X 102 (arch)
The minimum cover for design loads shall be SpanI8
but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be
of a flexible pavement.) For construction requirements,
Minimum Longitudinal Seam Strengths
6 x 2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe
Thickness Bolt Size 4 Bolts/ft 6 Bolts/ft 8 Bolts/ft
(in.) (in.) (kips/ft) (kips/ft) (kips/ft)
0.109 3/4 43.0
0.138 3/4 62.0
0.168 3/4 81.0
0.188 3/4 93.0
0.218 3/4 112.0
0.249 3/4 132.0
0.280 3/4 144.0 180 194
9 x 2 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe
Steel Bolts Aluminum
Bolts
5Bolts 5Bolts
Thickness Bolt Size Per ft Per ft
0.100 3/4 28.0 26.4
0.125 3/4 41.0 34.8
0.150 3/4 54.1 44.4
0.175 3/4 63.7 52.8
0.200 3/4 73.4 52.8
0.225 3/4 83.2 52.8
0.250 3/4 93.1 52.8
12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits
6 x 2Corrugations
Thickness A~ r I x l0-~
4/in.)
0.109 1.556 0.682 60.411
0.138 2.003 0.684 78.175
0.168 2.449 0.686 96.163
0.188 2.739 0.688 108.000
0.218 3.199 0.690 126.922
0.249 3.650 0.692 146.172
0.280 4.119 0.695 165.836
12.6.3.2 Aluminum Conduits
9 x 2Corrugations
Thickness A~ r I x I0~
(in.) (sq inift) (in.) (in.4/in.)
0.100 1.404 0.8438 83.065
0.125 1 750 0 8444 103.991
0.150 2 100 0.8449 124.883
0.175 2449 08454 145.895
0.200 2.799 08460 166.959
0.225 3.149 0.8468 188.179
0.250 3.501 0.8473 209.434
1 2 . 6
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES
12.6.1 General
12.6.1.1 Structural plate pipe, pipe-arches, and
arches shall be bolted with annular corrugations only.
The specifications are:
307
Aluminum
AASHTO M 219
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties
12.6.4.1 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-
Arch, and Arch Material
RequirementsAASHTO M 219, Alloy
5052
construction a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n s ha l l c o n f o r m t o S ec t i o n
2 6 Di v i s i o n II.
12.7.2 Design
12.7.2.1 General
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Yield Mod. of
Thickness Strength Point Elast.
(in.) (psi) (psi) (psi)
0. 100 to 0.175 35,000 24,000 10 X 106
0.176to0.250 34,000 24,000 lOx 106
Long-span structures shall be designed in accordance
with Articles 12.1 and 12.6, and 12.2 or 12.3 except that
the requirements for buckling and flexibility factor shall
not apply. The span in the formulae for thrust shall be re-
placed by twice the top arc radius. Long-span structures
s ha l l i n c l u d e a c c ep t a b l e s p ec i a l f ea t u r es . Mi n i m u m r e-
quirements are detailed in Table 12.7.IA.
12.6.4.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch,
and Arch Material Requirements
AASHTO M 167
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
45,000
Minimum
Yield
Point
(psi)
33,000
Mod. of
Elast.
(psi)
29 x 106
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches
The design of structural plate arches should be based
on ratios of a rise to span of 0.3 minimum.
12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE
STRUCTURES
12.7.1 General
TABLE 12.7.IA Minimum Requirements for Long-Span
Structures with Acceptable Special Features
I. TOP ARC MINIMUM THICKNESS
Top Radius (ft)
IS 15-17 17-20 20-23 23-25
6 x 2
Corrugated
SteelPlates 0.lO9in. 0.138 in. 0.168 in. 0.218 in. 0.249in.
II. MINIMUMCOVER IN FEET
TOP RADIUS (Fl)
Steel
Thickness
4
in inches 15 15-17 17-20 20-23 23-25
.109
.138
.168
.18 8
.218
.249
.28 0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
Long-span structural plate structures are short-span
b r i d ges d ef i n ed a s f o l l o ws .
12.7.1.1 Structural plate structures (pipe, pipe-arch,
and arch) that exceed the maximum sizes imposedby Ar-
ticle 12.6.
12.7.1.2 Special shapes of any size that involve a rel-
atively large radius of curvature in crown or side plates.
V ertical ellipses, horizontal ellipses, underpasses, low
profile arches, high profile arches, and inverted pear
shapes are the terms describing these special shapes.
12.71.3 Wall strength and chemical and mechanical
properties shall be in accordance with Article 12.6. The
Ill. GEOMETRIC LIMITS
A. MaximumPlate Radius25 Ft.
B. Maximum Central Angle of Top Arc 8 0
C. Minimum Ratio, Top Arc Radius to Side Arc Radius = 2
D. Maximum Ratio, Top Arc Radius to Side Arc Radius = 5*
*Note: Sharp radii generate high soil bearing pressures.
Avoid highratios when significant heights of fill are
involved.
IV. SPECIAL DESIGNS
Structures not deseribed herein shall be regarded as special
designs.
When reinforcing ribs are used the moment of inermia of the
composite section shall be equal to or greater than the moment of
inertia ofthe minimum plate thickness shown.
3 08
12.6.4
1 2 . 7 . 2 . 2 DIV ISION IDESIGN 309
12.7.22 Acceptable Special Features
(a) Continuous longitudinal structural stiffeners con-
nected to the corrugated plates at each side of the top
arc. Stiffeners may be metal or reinforced concrete ei-
ther singly or in combination.
(b) Reinforcing ribs formed from structural shapes
curved to conform to the curvature of the plates, fas-
tened to the structure as requiredto ensure integral ac-
tion with the corrugated plates, and spaced at such in-
tervals as necessary to increase the moment of inertia
of the section to that required by the design.
12.7.2.3 Design for Deflection
Soil design and placement requirements for long-span
structures limit deflection satisfactorily. However, con-
s t r u c t i o n p r o c ed u r es m u s t b e s u c h t ha t s ev er e d ef o r m a -
tions do not occur during construction.
12.7.2.4 Soil Design
12.7.2.4.1 Granular type soils shall be used as struc-
ture backfill (the envelope next tothe metal structure). The
order of preference of acceptable structure backfill mate-
rials is as follows:
(a) Well-graded sand and gravel; sharp, rough, or an-
gular if possible.
(b) Uniform sand or gravel.
(c) Approved stabilized soil shall be used only under
direct supervision of a competent, experienced soils
Engineer. Plastic soils shall not be used.
12.7.2.4.2 The structure backfill material shall con-
form to one of the following soil classifications from
AASHTO Specification M 145, Table 2: for height of fill
less than 12 feet, A-I , A-3, A-2-4, andA-2-5; f o r hei ght o f
fill of 12 feet and more, A-I, A-3. Structure backfill shall
be placed andcompacted to not less than 90-percent den-
sity per AASHTO T 180.
12.7.2.4.3 The extent of the select structural backfill
about the barrel is dependent on the qualityof the adjacent
embankment. For ordinary installations, with good qual-
ity, well-compacted embankment or in situ soil adjacent
to t he s t r u c t u r e b a c kf i l l , a wi d t h o f s t r u c t u r a l b a c kf i l l 6
feet b eyo n d t he s t r u c t u r e i s s u f f i c i en t . The s t r u c t u r e b a c k-
fill shall also extend to an elevation 2 to 4 feet over the
structure.
12.7.2.4.4 It s ha l l n o t b e n ec es s a r y t o ex c a v a t e n a t i v e
soil at the sides if the quality of the native soil is as good
as the proposed compacted side fill except to create the
minimum width that can be compacted. The soil over the
t o p s ha l l a l s o b e s el ec t a n d s ha l l b e c a r ef u l l y a n d d en s el y
compacted.
310
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
12.7.3
12.7.3 Structural Plate Shapes
ROUND
ARcH
UNOERP ASS
LOW P ROFILE ARCH
FIGURE 12.7.lA. Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes Including Long-Span Structures
12.7.5 Multiple Structures
When headwalls are not used, special attention may
be necessary at the ends of the structure. Severe bevels
and skews are not recommended. For hydraulic struc-
tures, additional reinforcement of the end is recom-
mended to secure the metal edges at inlet and outlet
against hydraulic forces. Reinforced concrete or struc-
tural steel collars, tension tiebacks or anchors in soil,
partial headwalls and cut-off walls below invert eleva-
tion are some of the methods which can be used. Square
ends may have side plates beveled up to a maximum 2:1
slope. Skew ends up to 150 with no bevel are permissi-
ble, but when this is done on spans over 20 feet the cut
edge must be reinforced with a reinforced concrete or
structural steel collar. When full headwalls are used and
they are skewed, the offset portion of the tnetal structure
shall be supported by the headwall. A special headwall
shall be designed for skews exceeding 150. The maxi-
mum skew shall be limited to 350
Care must be exercised on the design of multiple,
closely spaced structures to control unbalanced loading.
F i l l s s ho u l d b e kep t l ev el o v er t he s er i es o f s t r u c t u r es
when possible. Significant roadway grades across a series
of structures require checking of the stability of the flexi-
ble structures under the resultant unbalanced loading.
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS
12.8 .1 General
S t r u c t u r a l p l a t e b o x c u l v er t s ( her ea f t er b o x c u l v er t s )
are composite reinforcing rib-plate structures of approxi-
mate rectangular shape. Box culverts are intended for
s ha l l o w c o v er s a n d l o w wi d e wa t er wa y o p en i n gs . The
shallow covers and extreme shapes of box culverts require
special design procedures. Requirements of Articles 12.1
through 12.7 are not applicable to box culvert designs urm-
less included inArticle 12.8 by specific reference.
VERTICAL ELLiP SE
cii
P IP E ARCH
HORIZONTAL
ELLIP SE
HIG H P ROFILE ARCH
INVERrEO P EAR
12.7.4 End Treatment
12.8 .1.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
311
TABLE 12.8 .2A Geometric Requirements
for Box Culverts
Span, (5), may vary from8 ft-9in. to 25 ft-5 in.
Rise, (R), may vary from2 ft-6 in. to 10 ft -6 in.
Radius of crown, (r
0) = 24 ft-9in. maximum
Radius of haunch, (r,.J = 2 ft -6 in. minimum
~ may vary from50 to 70
Length of leg, (D), may vary from 0.5 ft to 5.2 ft.
Minimum length of rib on leg, (in), is either 19 in. or the length
of leg, (D), minus 3 in., whichever is less.
12.8.1.1 Scope
Article 12.8 presents structural capacity requirements
for box culverts based on the load factor method. Standard
shapes, soil requirements, and permissible product details
for b o x c u l v er t s i n c o m p l i a n c e wi t h t hi s s p ec i f i c a t i o n a r e
defined.
12.8.2 Structural Standards
The d es i gn c r i t er i a p r es en t ed i n s u b s eq u en t a r t i c l es a r e
applicable only to structures in compliance with the stan-
dards described in Article 12.8.
12.8.2.1 S t r u c t u r a l p l a t e b o x c u l v er t s s ha l l b e b o l t ed .
The box culvert materials specitications are:
Alumi numn
AASHTO M 219
Steel
AASHTOM 167
12.8.2.2 Reinforcing ribs shall be an aluminum or
steel structural section curved to fit the structural plates.
Ribs shall be bolted to the plates so as to developthe plas-
tic moment capacity required. Spacing between ribs shall
not exceed 2 feet on the crown and 4.5 feet on the haunch.
Rib s p l i c es s ha l l d ev el o p t he p l a s t i c m o m en t c a p a c i t y r e-
quired at the location of the splice.
12.8.2.3 Plastic moment capacities of ribbed sections
may be computed using minimum yield strength values
for both rib and corrugated shell. Such computed values
may be used for design only after they have been con-
firmed by representative flexural test data. (Reference Ar-
tide 10.48.1).
1%8 .3 Structure Backfill
12.8 .3.1 Structure backfill material shall conform to
the requirements of Article 12.7.2.4, compacted to a min-
imum 95 percent of standard density based on AASHTO
Specifications T-99 or 90 percent of standard density
based on AASHTO Specifications T-180.
12.8 .3.2 Specified structure backfill material shall be
3 feet wide, minimum, at the footing and shall extend up-
ward to the road base elevation.
12.8 .4 Design
12.8 .4.1 Analytical Basis for Design
Structural requirements for box culverts have been de-
veloped from finite element analyses covering the range
of structures allowed by Article 12.8.2.
12.8.4.1.1 Structural requirements are based on
analyses using two dimensional live loads equivalent to
HS-20, 4-wheel, single-axle vehicles. Dead load of soil
equals 120 pounds per cubic foot. Coefficients to adjust
for other load conditions are contained in Article
12.8.4.3.2.
12.8.4.1.2 Backfill required in Article 12.8.3 is dense
granular material. The analyses that provide the basis for
this specification were based on conservative soil proper-
ties of low plasticity clay(CL) compacted to90 percent of
standard AASHTO Specifications T-99.
12.8 .4.2 Load Factor Method
Actual moments from the analyses have been load fac-
tored to obtain the total plastic moment capacities re-
quired for box culverts. Load factors applied and included
in Tables 12.8.4A and 12.8.4B are:
Dead load, load factor = 1 .5
Live load, load factor = 2.0
12.8 .4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements
Analyses covering the range of box culvert shapes de-
scribed in Article 12.8.2 have shown moment require-
ments governthe design in all cases. Effects of thrust were
found to be negligible when combined with moment.
Metal box culverts act similar to rigid frames, distrib-
uting moment between the crown and haunch on the basis
I.
II.
Ill.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Cro,.,~
aunch
t
Eod of Rib
S
R
FIGURE 12.8 .2A Standard Terminology of Structural
Plate Box Culvert Shapes
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
of their relative stiffness. Within limits, increasing the
stiffness of one component of the box (either crown or
haunch) reduces the portion of the total moment carried
by the other.
Article 12.8 provides for this moment distribution
within the allowable limits of the moment proportioning
factor (P). P represents the proportion of the total moment
that can be carried by the crown of the box culvert and
varies with the relative moment capacities of the crown
and haunch components. Limits for P are given in Table
I 2.8.4D.
12.8.4.3.1 The sum of the factored crown andhaunch
dead and live load moments are given in Tables 12.8.4A
and 12.8.4B for standard dead and live load conditions.
Moments for intermediate spans and covers may be lin-
early interpolated.
TABLE 12.8 .4A Cd, Mdl, Load Factored Dead Load
Moment for Soil Density of 120 lbfft
3,
(Cdl LO), kip-ftlft
Span
Cover Depth, ft
ft 1.40* 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
8 0.58 0.94 1.55 2.16 2.77
10 1.04 1.61 2.57 3.52 4.47
12 1.65 2.47 3.85 5.22 6.59
14 2.38 3.50 5.37 7.24 9.11
16 3.20 4.67 7.11 9.55 11.99
18 4.05 5.91 9.00 12.09 15.18
20 4.8 7 7.16 10.97 14.79 t8 .60
22 5.56 8 .33 12.95 17.56 22.18
24 6.02 9.32 14.81 20.31 25.80
26 6.14 10.01 16.46 22.91 29.35
* Minimum cover depth frombox culvert rise to top of pavement.
12.8.4.3.2 Dead and live load crown and haunch mo-
ments are adjusted for other loading conditions using the
following adjustment coefficients:
Cdl = y/120
C
0 = CC.,(AL132)
where:
Cd = Dead load adjustment coefficient;
y = Backfill unit weight in pounds per cubic foot:
C,1 = Live load adjustment coefficient for axle loads
other than 32 kips, loads on tandem axles, and
axles with other than 4 wheels;
AL = Total axle load on single axle or tandem axles in
kips;
C1 = Adjustment coefficient for number of axles;
C1 = 1.0, forsingle axle;
C1 = (0.5 + S/SO), for tandem axles, (C1 ~ 1.0);
S = Box culvert span in feet;
C2 = Adjustment coefficient for number of wheels
per axle. (V alues for C2 are given in Table
12. 8.4C.)
TABLE 12.8 .4B C~ M,.1 , Load Factored Live Load
Moment for HS-20, 4-Wheel Single Axle,
(C0 = 1.0), kip-ftlft
Span
Cover Depth, ft
ft 1.40~ 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
8 10.44 8 .44 5.73 4.44 3.60
10 13.64 11.04 7.49 5.8 0 4.71
12 16.98 13.74 9.32 7.22 5.86
14 20.43 16.53 11.21 8 .69 7.05
16 23.98 19.40 13.16 10.20 8 .27
18 27.62 22.35 15.16 11.75 9.53
20 31.35 25.36 17.20 13.33 10.81
22 33.39 27.01 18.32 14.20 11.51
24 35.11 28.40 19.27 14.93 12.11
26 36.51 29.53 20.03 15.52 12.59
* Minimum cover depth from box culvert rise to top of pavement.
TABLE 12.8 .4C C2, Adjustment coefficient Values for
Number of Wheels per Axle
Wheels
per
Cover Depth, ft
Axle 1.4 2.0 3.0 5.0
2 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.02
4 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
8 0.63 0.70 0.8 2 0.93
12.8.4.3.3 Crown plastic moment capacity (Mpc),
and haunch plastic moment capacity (Mph), must be equal
to or greater than the proportioned sum of load adjusted
(12-12) dead and live load moments.
(12-13)
=P [(CdM~) +(C11M11)] (12-14)
M~h =(1.0 P)[(CdiMd,) + (R5CIMJI)] (12-15)
where:
P = Proportion of total moment carried by the crown.
Limits for P are given in Table 12.8.4D;
Rh =Haunch moment reduction factor from Table
I 2.8.4E.
312 1 2 . 8. 4 . 3
DIV ISION IDESIGN
TABLE 12.8 .4D P, Crown Moment Proportioning Values
Allowable
Span ft Range of P
Less Than 10 0.55 to 0.70
10IS 0.50 to 0.70
1520 0.45 to 0.70
2026 0.45 to 0.60
TABLE 12.8 .4E Ri,, Haunch Moment ReductionValues
Cover Depth, ft
1.4 2 3 4to5
0.66 0.74 0.87 1.00
12.8.4.3.4 Article 12.8 can be used to check the
adequacy of manufactured products for compliance with
the requirements of this specification. Using the actual
crown moment capacity (Mpc) provided by the box
culvert under consideration and the loading requirements
of the application, Equation 12-14 is solved for the fac-
tor P. This factor should fall within the allowable range
of Table 12.8.4D. Knowing the factor P, equation
12-15 is then solved for Mph, which should be less
than or equal to the actual haunch moment capacity
provided.
If Equation 12-14 indicates a higher P factor than
permitted by the ranges of Table 12.8.4D, the actual crown
is over designed, which is acceptable. However, in this
case only the maximum value of P allowed by the table
shall be used to calculate the required Mph from Equation
12-15.
12.8 .4.4 Footing Reactions
The reaction at the box culvert footing may be com-
puted using the following equation:
V = y(HS/2,000 S
2/40,000)
+ ALI[8 + 2(H + R)] (12-16)
where:
V = Reaction in kips per foot acting in the direction
of the box culvert straight side;
-y = Backfill unit weight in pounds per cubic foot;
H = Height of cover over the crown in feet;
S = Span of box culvert in feet;
AL = Axle load in kips;
R = Rise of box culvert in feet.
12.8 .5 Manufacturing and Installation
12.8 .5.1 Manufacture and assembly of structural
plates shall be in accordance with Articles 23.2.1, and
23.3.1.4. Reinforcing ribs shall be attached as shown
by the manufacturer. Bolts connecting plates, plates to
ribs and rib splices shall be torqued to 150-foot pounds.
12.8.5.2 Sidefill and overfill per Article 12.8.3 shall
be placed in uniform layers not exceeding 8 inches in
compacted thickness at near optimum moisture with
equipment and methods which do not damage or distort
the box culvert.
12.8 5.3 Following completion of roadway paving,
crown deflection due to live load may be checked. After a
minimum of 10 loading cycles with the design live load,
the change in rise loaded with the design live load relative
to the rise unloaded, should not exceed 72~ of the box
culvert span.
12.8.4.3.3
313
Section 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS
13.1.1 General
The following information on wood design is generally
based on the National Design Specification for Wood
Construction (NDS), 1991 Edition. See the 1991 Edition
of the NDS for additional information.
13.1.2 Net Section
In determining the capacity of wood members, the net
section of the member shall be used. Unless otherwise
noted, the net section shall be determined by deducting
from the gross section, the projected area of all material
removed by boring, grooving, dapping, notching or other
means.
13.1.3 Impact
In calculating live load stresses in wood, impact shall
be neglected unless otherwise noted. See Article 3.8.1.
13.1.4 Notations
a = coefficient based on support conditions for ta-
pered columns (Article 13.7.3.4.2)
b = width of bending member (Article 13.6.4.3)
C[) = load duration factor (Article 13.5.5.2)
CF = bending size factor for sawn lumber, struc-
tural composite lumber, and for glued lami-
nated timber with loads applied parallel to
the wide face of the laminations (Article
13.6.4.2)
CF = compression size factor for sawn lumber (foot-
notes to Table 13.5.IA)
CF = tension size factor for sawn lumber (footnotes
to Table 13.5.IA) and structural composite
lumber (footnotes to Tables 13.5.4A and
13.5.4B)
C
1 = beam stability factor (Article 13.6.4.4)
Cmi = wet service factor (Article 13 I)
C,. = column stability factor (Article 13.7.3.3)
= volume factor for glued laminated timber with
loads applied perpendicular to the wide face of
the laminations (Article 13.6.4.3)
Cb = bearing area factor (Article 13.6.6.3)
Cf = form factor (Article 13.6.4.5)
Cf~ = fiat use factor for sawn lumber (footnotes to
Table 13.5.IA)
Cr = repetitive member factor for sawn lumber (foot-
notes toTable 13.5.IA)
d = depth of member (Article 13.6.4.2.2)
dmax = maximum column face dimension (Article
13.7.3.4.2)
= minimum column face dimension (Article
13.7.3.4.2)
= representative dimension for a tapered column
face (Article 13.7.3.4.2)
E = tabulated
13.6.3)
= allowable
13.6.3)
Fb = tabulated
13.6.4.1)
= allowable
13.6.4.1)
modulus of elasticity
modulus of elasticity
unit stress in bending
(Article
(Article
(Article
unit stress in bending (Article
= adjusted tabulated bending stress for beam sta-
bility (Article 13.6.4.4.5)
= tabulated unit stress in compression parallel to
grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
= allowable unit stress in compression parallel to
grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
F~* =adjusted tabulated stress in compression par-
allel to grain for column stability (Article
13 9)
= actual unit stress incompression parallel tograin
(Article 13.7.3.1)
= tabulated unit stress in compression perpendicu-
lar to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
F. = allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
ular to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
Fg = tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
(Article 13.7.4.1)
= allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
(Article 13.7.4.1)
315
F, = tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain
(Article 13.8.1)
= allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain
(Article 13.8.1)
F, = tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain
(Article 13.6.5.3)
F, = allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain
(Article 13.6.5.3)
= actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain (Arti-
cle 13.6.5.2)
F
0. = allowable unit stress for bearing on an inclined
surface (Article 13.6.7)
K = column effective length factor (Article
13.7.3.3.3)
KbE = material factor for beam stability (Article
13 .6.4.4.5)
= m a t er i a l f a c t o r f o r c o l u m n s t a b i l i t y ( Ar t i c l e
13.7.3.3.5)
L = length of bending member between points of
zero moment (Article 13.6.4.3)
= actual column length between points of lateral
support (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
4, = length of bearing (Article 13.6.6.3)
4 = effective bending member length (Article
13.6.4.4.3)
4 = effective column length (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
1,, = unsupported bending member length (Article
13.6.4.4.3)
= bending member slenderness ratio (Article
13.6.4.4.4)
V = vertical shear (Article 13.6.5.2)
VLt) = maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due to
wheel loads distributed laterally as specified for
moment (Article 13.6.5.2)
V 1~ = distributed live load vertical shear (Article
13.6.5.2)
V ie = maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due
to undistributed wheel loads (Article 13.6.5.2)
x = species variable for computing the volume factor
(Article 13.6.4.3)
8 = angle between the direction of load and the di-
rection of grain (Article 13.6.7)
13.2 MATERIALS
13.2.1 Sawn Lumber
13.2.1.2 Dimensions
13.2.1.2.1 Structural calculations for sawn lumber
shall be based on the net dimensions of the member for
the anticipated use conditions. These net dimensions de-
pend on the type of surfacing, whether dressed, rough-
sawn or full-sawn.
13.2.1.2.2 For dressed lumber, the net dry dimen-
sions given in Table 13.2.IA shall be used for design, re-
gardless of the moisture content at the time of manufac-
ture or in use.
13.2.1.2.3 Where the design is based on rough, full-
sawn or special sizes, the applicable moisture content and
dimensions used in design shall be noted in the plans and
specifications.
TABLE 13.2.lA Net Dry Dimensions
for DressedLumber
Nominal Dry Nominal
Thickness Thickness Width
Dimension Lumber (inches):
2 1-1/2
2-1/2 2
3 2-1/2
3-1/2 3
4 3-1/2
4-1/2 4
Beams and Stringers and
Posts and Timbers (inches):
5 and 1/2 less 5 and
greater than greater
nominal
Dry
Width
2 1-1/2
3 2-1/2
4 3-1/2
5 4-1/2
6 5-1/2
8 7-1/4
10 9-1/4
12 11-1/4
14 13-114
16 15-1/4
1/2 less
than
nominal
13.2.2 Glued LaminatedTimber
132.2.1 General
Glued laminated timber shall comply with the require-
ments of AASHTO M 168 and shall be manufactured
using wet-use adhesives.
13.2.2.2 Dimensions
13.2.1.1 General
Sawn lumber shall comply with the requirements of
AASHTOM 168.
13.2.2.2.1 Structural calculations for glued lami-
nated timber shall be based on the net finished dimen-
smons.
DIV ISION IDESIGN
13.2.2.2.2 For Western Species and Southern Pine,
the standard net finished widths shall be as given in Table
1 3 . 2 . 2 A. Other, nonstandard finished widths may be used
subject to design requirements.
TABLE 13.2.2A Standard Net Finished Widths of Glued
Laminated Timber Manufactured from
Western Species or Southern Pine
Nominal
Width
(in.)
Western Species
Net Finished
Width (in.)
Southern Pine
Net Finished
Width (in.)
4 3-1/8 3
6 5-1/8 5
8 6-3/4 6-3/4
10 8-3/4 8-1/2
12 10-3/4 10-1/2
14 12-1/4 12
16 14-1/4 14
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumiber
13.2.3.1 General
Structural composite lumber, including laminated ve-
neer lumber and parallel strand lumber, shall comply with
the requirements of ASTM D 5456 and shall be manufac-
tured using wet-use adhesives which comply with re-
quirements of ASTM D 2559.
13.2.3.2 Laminated V eneer Lumber
Laminated veneer lumber shall consist of a composite
of wood veneer sheet elements with wood fibers oriented
primarily along the length of the member. V eneer thick-
ness shall not exceed 0.25 inches.
13.23.3 Parallel Strand Lumber
Parallel strand lumber shall consist of wood strand el-
ements with wood fibers oriented primarily along the
length of the member. The least dimension at the strands
shall not exceed 0.25 inches and the average length shall
be a minimum of 150 times the least dimension.
132.3.4 Dimensions
Structural calculations for structural composite lumber
shall be based on the net finished dimensions.
13.2.4 Piles
Wood piles shall comply with the requirements of
AASHTOM 168.
317
13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment
All wood used for structural purposes in exposed per-
manent applications shall be pressure impregnated with
wood preservative in accordance with the requirements of
AASHTO M 133.
13.3.2 Treatment Chemicals
All structural members that are not subject to direct
pedestrian contact shall preferably be treated withoil-type
preservatives. Members that are subject to direct pedes-
trian contact, such as rails and footpaths, shall be treated
with waterborne preservatives oroilborne preservatives in
light petroleum solvent. Direct pedestrian contact is con-
sideredto be contact whichmay be made while the pedes-
trian is situated anywhere in the access route provided for
pedestrian traffic.
13.3.3 Field Treating
Insofar as is practicable, all wood members shall be de-
signed to be cut, drilled, and otherwise fabricatedprior to
pressure treatment with wood preservatives. When cut-
ting, boring, or other fabrication is necessary after preser-
vative treatment, exposed, untreated wood shall be speci-
fied to be field treated in accordance with the requirements
ofAASHTOM 133.
13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments
Fire-retardant chemicals shall not be used unless it is
demonstrated that they are compatible with the preserva-
tive treatment. When fire retardants are used, design val-
ues shall be reduced by the strength and stiffness reduc-
tion factors specified by the fire retardant chemical
manufacturer.
13.4 DEFLECTION
13.4.1 The term deflection as used herein shall be the
deflection computed in accordance with the assumptions
made for loading when computing stress in the members.
13.4.2 Flexural members of bridge structures shall be
designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or
any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or
serviceability of the structure.
13.2.2.2.2
13.4.3 Members having simple or continuous spans
preferably should be designedso that the deflectiondue to
service live load does not exceed 7s~ of the span.
1 3 . 4 . 4 For timber deck structures with timber girders or
stringers of equal stiffness, and cross-bracing or di-
aphragms sufficient in depth and strength toensure lateral
distribution of loads, the deflection may be computed by
considering all girders or stringers as acting together and
having equal deflection. When the cross-bracing or di-
aphragms are not sufficient to laterally distribute loads,
deflection shall be distributed as specified for moment.
134.5 For concrete decks on wood girders or stringers,
the deflection shall be assumedto be resisted by all beams
or stringers equally.
13.5 DESIGN VALUES
13.5.1 General
Stress and modulus of elasticity values used for design,
referred to as allowable design values, shall be the tabu-
lated values modified by all applicable adjustments re-
quired by this Section. The actual stress due to loading
shall not exceed the allowable stress.
13.5.2 Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber
13.5.2.1 Tabulated values for sawn lumber are given
in Table 13.5.IA for visually graded lumber and Table
13.5.1 B for mechanically graded lumber. V alues forbear-
ing parallel to grain are given inTable I 3.5.2A. These val-
ues are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS andrep-
resent a partial listing of available species and grades.
Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS for a more com-
plete listing.
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades in Flexure
13.5.2.2.1 The tabulated unit bending stress for Di-
mension (2 to 4 inches thick) and Post and Timber grades
applies to material with the load applied either to the nar-
row or wide face.
13.5.2.2.2 The tabulated unit bending stress for
Decking grades applies only when the load is applied to
the wide face.
13.5.2.2.3 The tabulated unit bending stress for
Beam and Stringer grades applies only when the load is
applied to the narrow face. When Post and Timber sizes
are graded to Beam and Stringer grade requirements, the
tabulated unit bending stress for the applicable Beam and
Stringer grades may be used.
13.5.2.2.4 Beam and Stringer grades are normally
graded for use as a single, simple span. When used as a
continuous beam, the grading provisions customarily ap-
plied to the middle third of the simple span length shall be
applied to the middle two-thirds of the length for two-span
beams, and to the entire length for beams continuous over
three or more spans.
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated
Timber
13.5.3.1 Tabulated values for glued laminated tim-
ber of softwood species are given in Tables I 3.5.3A and
13.5.3B. V alues for bearing parallel to grain are given in
Table 13.5.2A. These values are taken from the 1987
Edition of the American Institute of Timber Construc-
tion, AITC 117-87 Design, Standard Specifications for
Structural Glued Laminated Timber of Softwood
S p ec i es . R ef er t o AITC 1 1 7 -8 7 Des i gn f o r a m o r e c o m -
plete listing.
13.5.3.2 Tabulated values for hardwood species shall
be as given in the 1985 Edition of American Institute of
Timber Construction, AITC 119, Standard Specifications
for Hardwood Glued Laminated Timber.
13.5.3.3 Species other than those specifically in-
cluded orreferenced inthis Section may be used, provided
that tabulatedvalues are established for each species in ac-
cordance with AASHTO M 168.
13.5.4 Tabulated Values for Structural Composite
Lumber
135.4A Representative tabulated design values for
structural composite lumber are given in Table 13.5.4A
for laminated veneer lumber and Table I 3.5.4B for paral-
lel strandlumber.
13.5.5 Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values
13.5.5.1 Wet Service Factor, CM
13.5.5.1.1 Tabulated values for sawn lumber assume
that the material is installed and used under continuously
dry conditions where the moisture content of the wood
does not exceed 19 percent. When the moisture content at
installation or tnservice is expected toexceed 19 percent,
tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service fac-
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HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.5.5.1.1
TABLE 13.5.IB Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded Dimension Lumber
Design Values
in Pounds per Square Inch (psi)
Tension Compression Modulus
Parallel Parallel of
Species and Size Bending to Grain to Grain Elasticity
Commercial Grade Classification Fb F, FA E
Grading
Rules
Agency
MACHINE STRESS RATED (MSR) LUMBER
900f-1.OE 900 350 1050
1200f-1.2E 1200 600 14(10
1350f-1.3E 1350 750 1600
1450f-1.3E 1450 8 00 1625
1500f-1.3E 1500 900 1650
1500f-l.4E 1500 900 1650
1650f-1.4E 1650 1020 1700
1650f-1.5E 1650 1020 1700
18 00f-1.6E 18 00 1175 1750
1950f-1.SE 2 & less in thickness 1950 1375 18 00
1950f-1.7E 1950 1375 18 00
2100f-1.8 E 2& wider 2100 1575 18 75
2250f-1.6E 2250 1750 1925
2250f-1.9E 2250 1750 1925
2400f-1.7E 2400 1925 1975
2400f-2.OE 2400 1925 1975
2550f-2.1E 2550 2060 2025
2700f-2.2E 2700 2150 2100
28 50f-2.3E 28 50 2300 2150
3000f-2.4E 3000 2400 2200
3150f-2.SE 3150 2500 2250
3300f-2.6E 3300 2650 2325
900f-1 .2E 900 350 1050
1200f-1.SE 2~I & less in thickness 1200 600 1400
1350f-1.8 E 1350 750 1600
1500f-1.8 E 6 & wider 1500 900 1650
18 00f-2.1E 18 00 1175 1750
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,300,000
1,400,000
1,400,000
1,500,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,700,000
1,8 00,000
1,600,000
1,900,000
1,700,000
2,000,000
2,100,000
2,200,000
2,300,000
2,400,000
2,500,000
2,600,000
WCLIB, WWPA
NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
NLGA, WCLIB, WWPA
SPIB
NLGA,SPIB,WCLIB,WWPA
SPIB
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB
NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
SPIB, WWPA
NLGA, SPIB
SPIB
SPIB
1,200,000
1,500,000
1,8 00,000
1,8 00,000
2,100,000
NLGA, WCLIB
NLGA, WCLIB
NLGA
WCLIB
NLGA, WCLIB
1. Design values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS and are for a 10-year load duration and dry service conditions. Refer to
the 1991 NDS for additional grades and for a summary of grading rules agencies.
2. Design values for shear parallel to grain andcompression perpendicular to grain shall be asspecified in Table 13.5.1A forNo.2 visually
graded dimension lumber of the appropriate species.
3. Use of the wet service factor, shear stress factor, repetitive member factor, and flat use factor shall be as specified in Table 13.5. lA
for visually graded dimension lumber.
tors. CM, given in footnotes to Tables 13.5.IA and
13.5.lB.
13.5.5.1.2 Tabulated values for glued laminated tim-
her and structural composite lumber assume that the ma-
terial is used under continuously dry conditions where the
moisture content in service does not exceed 16 percent.
When the moisture content in service is expected to ex-
ceed 16 percent, tabulated values shall be reduced by the
wet service factors, C~
1, given in the footnotes to Tables
13.5.3A and 13.5.3B for glued laminated timber and Ta-
bles I 3.5.4A and I 3.5.4B for structural composite lumber.
13.5.5.1.3 The moisture content of wood used in cx-
posedbridge applications will normally exceed 19 percent
and tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service
factor unless an analysis of regional, geographic, and cli-
matological conditions that affect moisture content indi-
cate that the in-service moisture content will not exceed
19 percent for sawn lumber and 16 percent for glued lam-
inated timber and structural composite lumber over the
life of the structure.
326
327
TABLE 13.5.2A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain
Species Combination
Wet Service
Conditions
Dry Service Conditions
Sawn Lumber
5 x 5 2and 4 Glued
& Larger Thick Laminated Timber
Douglas Fir-Larch (Dense)
Douglas Fir-Larch
Eastern Softwoods
Hem-Fir
Mixed Southern Pine
Northern Red Oak
Red Maple
Red Oak
Southern Pine
Southern Pine (Dense)
Spruce-Pine-Fir
Spruce-Pine-Fir (South)
Yellow Poplar
1570
1350
8 8 0
1110
1270
1150
1100
1010
1320
1540
940
8 10
8 90
1730 2360 2750
148 0 2020 2360
1340
1220 1670 1940
1390 1900
1270 1730 2010
1210 1650 1930
1110 1520 1770
1450 1970 2300
1690 2310 2690
1040 1410 1650
900 1220 1430
1340 1560
1. Design values are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDS. Refer to the 1991 NDS for additional species.
2. Wet and dry service conditions are as defined in Article 13.5.4.1. The wet service factor has been applied to values
tabulated for wet service conditions and further adjustment by this factor is not required.
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, Cm)
13.5.5.2. 1 Wood can sustain substantially greater
maximum loads for short load durations than for long load
durations. Tabulated stresses for sawn lumber, glued lain-
mated timber, and structural composite lumber are based
on a normal load duration which contemplates that the
member is stressed to the maximum stress level, either
continuously or cumulatively, for a period of approxi-
mately 10 years, andlor stressed to 90 percent of the max-
imum design level continuously for the remainder of the
member life.
13.5.5.2.2 When the full maximum load is applied
either cumulatively or continuously for periods other than
10 years, tabulated stresses shall be multiplied by the load
duration factor, C
1), given in Table I 3.5.5A.
13.5.5.2.3 The provisions of this article do not apply
to modulus of elasticity or to compression perpendicular
to grain, but do apply to mechanical fastenings, except as
otherwise noted. The load duration factor for impact does
not apply to members pressure-impregnated with preser-
vative salts to the heavy retentions required for marine ex-
posure.
13.5.5.2.4 Increases in tabulated stresses resulting
from various load duration factors are not cumulative and
the load duration factor tor the shortest duration load in a
combination of loads shall apply for that load combina-
tion. The resulting structural members shall not be
smaller than required for a longer duration of loading
(refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS~ for additional
commentary).
13.5.5.2.5 Modification of design stresses for load
combinations, as specified in Section 3, are cumulative
with load duration adjustments.
13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment
Tabulated values apply to untreated wood and to wood
that is preservatively treated in accordance with the re-
quirements ofAASHTO M 133. Unless otherwise noted,
no adjustment of tabulated values is required for preserv-
ative treatment.
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS
13.6.1 General
13.6.1.1 The provisions of this article are applicable
to straight members and to slightly curved bending mem-
bers where the radius of curvature exceed the span in
inches divided by 800. Additional design requirements for
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
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DIVISIONIDESIGN
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13.6.1.1
333
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
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334
13.6.1.1
DIVISION IDESIGN
13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity used for stiffness and stabil-
ity computations shall be the tabulated modulus of elas-
ticity adjusted by the applicable adjustment factor given
in the following equation:
TABLE 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, C
0
Load Duration CD
Permanent
2 months (vehicle live load)
7 days
1 day
5 minutes (railing only)
0.90
1.15
1.25
1.33
1.65
curved glued laminated timber members shall be as spec-
ified in the 1991 Edition of the NDS.
13.6.1.2 For simple, continuous, and cantilevered
bending members, the span shall be taken as the clear dis-
tance between supports plus one-half the requiredbearing
length at each support.
13.6.1.3 Bending members shall be transversely
braced to prevent lateral displacement and rotation and
transmit lateral forces to the bearings. Transverse bracing
shall be provided at the supports for all span lengths and
at intermediate locations as required for lateral stability
and load transfer (Article 13.6.4.4). The depth of trans-
verse bracing shall not be less than Y .1 the depth of the
bending member.
where:
= allowable modulus of elasticity in psi;
E = tabulated modulus of elasticity in psi;
CM = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1.
13.64 Bending
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress
The allowable unit stress in bending shall be the tabu-
lated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors
given in the following equation:
= FbCMC~Ci.CvCLCtCr~C,
where:
13.6.1.4 Support attachments for bending members
shall be of sufficient size and strength to transmit vertical,
longitudinal and transverse loads from the superstructure
to the substructure in accordance with the requirements of
Section 3.
13.6.1.5 Glued laminated timber and structural com-
posite lumber girders shall preferably be cambered amin-
imum 3 times the computed dead load deflection, but not
less than Y =inch.
13.6.2 Notching
Notching of bending members can severely reduce
member capacity and is not recommended. When notch-
ing is required for sawn lumber members, design limita-
tions and requirements shall be in accordance with the
NDS, 1991 Edition. Design requirements and limitations
for notching glued laminated timber members shall be as
given in the Timber Construction Manual, 1985 Edition
by the American Institute of Timber Construction, pub-
lished by John Wiley & Sons, New York, NewYork. De-
sign requirements and limitations for notching structural
composite lumber shall be as specified for glued lami-
nated timber.
= allowable unit stress in bending in psi
Eb = tabulatedunit stress in bending in psi
CM = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1
CD = load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2
CF = bending size factor for sawn lumber and struc-
tural composite lumber, and for glued laminated
timber with loads applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.2
C, = volume factor for glued laminated timber with
loads applied perpendicular to the wide face of
the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.3
CL = beam stability factor from Article 13.6.4.4.
Cf = form factor fromArticle 13.6.4.5
= flat use factor for sawn lumber fromfootnotes to
Tables 13.5.IA and 13.5.IB
C, = repetitive member factor for sawn lumber from
footnotes to Table 13.5.IA.
The volume factor, C,, shall not be applied simultane-
ously with the beam stability factor, C1, and the lesser of
the two factors shall apply in Equation 13-2.
13.6.42 Size Factor, CF
13.6.4.2.1 The tabulated bending stress, for dimen-
sion lumber 2 inches to 4 inches thick shall be multiplied
by the bending size factor, CF. given in the footnotes to
Table 13.5.IA.
13.6.1.1 335
= ECM (13-I)
( 1 3 -2 )
336 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.6.4.2.2
13.6.4.2.2 For rectangular sawn lumber bending
members 5 inches or thicker and greater than 12 inches in
depth, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied
parallel to the wide face of the laminations and greater
than 12 inches in depth, the tabulated bending stress shall
be multiplied by the size factor, CF. determined from the
following relationship:
CF (l2j/
9
where d is the member depth in inches.
13.6.4.2.3 For structural composite lumber bending
members of any width, the tabulated bending stress shall
be reduced by the size factor, CF. given by the following
equation:
1 3 . 4 4 . 4 Beam Stability Factor, CL
13.6.4.4.1 Tabulatedbending values are applicable to
members which are adequately braced. When members
are not adequately braced, the tabulated bending stress
shall be modified by the beam stability factor, CL.
13.6.4.4.2 When the depth of a bending member
does not exceed its width, or when lateral movement of
(13- 3) the compression zone is prevented by continuous support
andpoints of bearing have lateral support to prevent rota-
tion, there is no danger of lateral buckling and CL = 1.0.
For other conditions, the beam stability factor shall be de-
termined in accordance with the following provisions.
13.6.4.4.3 The bending member effective length, l~,
shall be determined from the following relationships for
any loading condition:
CF = (21/L)A-(l2fd) (13-4)
1. = 2.061,
4 = 1.631, + 3d
le = 1.841,
when 1,/d K 7
when 7 ~ lJd = 14.3
when 1,/cl> 14.3
L = length of bending member between points of zero
moment in feet;
d = depth of bending member in inches;
m = parameter for the specific material determined in
accordance with the requirements of ASTM D
5456.
1 3 . 6 . 4 . 3 Volume Factor, C,
13.6.4.3.1 The tabulated bending stress for glued
laminated timber bending members with loads applied
perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations shall be
adjusted by the volume factor, C~, as determined by the
following relationship:
= (21/L) (12/d) (5.125/b) ~ 1.0 (13-5)
where:
L = length of bending member between points of zero
moment in feet;
b = width of bending member in inches;
x = 20 for Southern Pine;
x = 10 for all other species.
13.6.4. 3.2 When multiple piece width layups are
used, the width of the bending member used in Equation
13-4 shall be the width of the widest piece used in the
layup.
where:
le = effective length in inches;
1, = unsupported length in inches;
d = depth of bending member in inches.
If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation at the
points of bearing, but no other lateral support is provided
throughout the bending member length, the unsupported
length, I,, is the distance between points of bearing, or the
length of a cantilever.
If lateral support is providedto prevent rotationand lat-
eral displacement at intermediate points as well as at the
bearings, the unsupported length, I,, is the distance be-
tween such points of intermediate lateral support.
13.6.4.4.4 The slenderness ratio for bending mem-
bers, RB, is determined from the following equation:
ld
~
(13-6)
where:
RB = bending member slenderness ratio;
b = width of bending member in inches.
13.6.4.4.5 The beam stability factor, CL, shall be
computed as follows on the next page.
where:
13.6.4.4.5
DIVISION IDESIGN
337
where:
C_ l+( FbE/ F) _ /l+(FbE/F)2 _ FbE/ F~
1 . 90 3 . 6 1 0. 95
KbEE
FbE
(13-7)
(13-8 )
where:
= tabulated bending stress adjusted by all ap-
plicable adjustment factors given in Equation
13-2 except the volume factor, C,, the beam
stability factor, CL, andthe fiat-use factor, CfU;
KhE = 0.438 for visually graded sawn lumber 0.609
for glued laminated timber, structural com-
posite lumber, and machine stress rated lum-
ber;
= allowable modulus of elasticity in psi as de-
termined by Article 13.6.3.
13.6.4.5 FormFactor, Cf
= actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain in psi;
b = width of bending member in inches;
V = vertical shear in pounds, as determined in accor-
dance with the following provisions.
For uniformly distributed loads, such as dead load, the
magnitude of vertical shear used in Equation 13-9 shall be
the maximum shear occurring at a distance from the sup-
port equal to the bending member depth, d. When mem-
bers are supported by full bearing on one surface, with
loads applied to the opposite surface, all loads within a
distance from the supports equal to the bending member
depth shall be neglected.
For vehicle live loads, the loads shall be placed to pro-
duce the maximum vertical shear at a distance from the
support equal to three times the bending member depth,
3d, or at the span quarter point, L/4, whichever is the
lesser distance from the support. The distributed live load
shear used in Equation 13-9 shall be determined by the
following expression:
For bending members with circular cross sections
the tabulated bending stress shall be adjusted by the
form factor, C, = 1.18. A tapered circular section shall
be considered as a bending member of variable cross
section.
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain
13.6.5.1 General
13.6.5.1.1 The provisions of this article apply to
shear parallel to grain (horizontal shear) at or near the
points of vertical support of solid bending members. Refer
to the 1991 edition of the NDS for additional design re-
quirements for other member types.
13.6.5.1.2 The critical shear in wood bending mem-
bers is shear parallel to grain. It is unnecessary to verify
the strength of bending members in shear perpendicular to
grain.
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress
The actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain due to
applied loading on rectangular members shall be deter-
mined by the following equation:
3V
V 2bd
(13-9)
VLL 0.50 [(0.60 V LU) + VLD]
(13-10)
where:
VLL = distributed live load vertical shear in pounds;
V Lu = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
L/4 due to undistributed wheel loads;
VLD = maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
L/4 due to wheel loads distributed laterally as
specified for moment in Article 3.23.
For undistributed wheel loads, one line of wheels is as-
sumed to be carried by one bending member.
The allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain shall
be the tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjust-
ment factors given in the following equation:
F, = F~CMCD
(13Il)
where:
F,. = allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain in
psi;
F, = tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain in
psi;
CM = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1;
CD = load duration factor from Article 13 2.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
For sawn lumber beams, further adjustment by the
shear stress factor may be applicable as described in the
footnotes to Table 13.5.IA.
For structural composite lumber, more restrictive ad-
justments to the tabulated shear stress parallel to grain
shall be as recommended by the material manufacturer.
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain
13.6.6.1 General
When calculating the bearing stress in compression
perpendicular to grain at beam ends, a uniform stress dis-
tribution shall be assumed.
13.64.2 Allowable Stress
The allowable unit stress in compression perpen-
337dicular to grain shall be the tabulated stress adjusted
by the applicable adjustment factors given in the follow-
ing equation:
F, = F, CMCb
(13-12)
where:
F,, = allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
ular to grain, in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in compression perpendic-
ular to grain, in psi;
= bearing area factor from Article 13.6.6.3.
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, Cb
Tabulated values incompression perpendicular tograin
apply to bearings of any length at beam ends, and to all
bearings 6 inches or more in length at any other location.
For bearings less than 6 inches in length and not nearer
than 3 inches to the end of a member, the tabulated value
shall be adjusted by the bearing area factor, CF. given by
C _
where F is the length of bearing in inches, measured par-
allel to the wood grain. For round washers, or other round
bearing areas, the length of bearing shall be the diameter
of the bearing area.
The multiplying factors for bearing lengths on small
areas such as plates and washers are given in Table
13.6.IA.
TABLE 13.6.IA Values of the BearingArea Factor~ CA.,
for Small BearingAreas
Length of
Bearing, lb
(in.) t/2 1 l-1t2 2 3 4 6or more
Bearing Area
Factor, CA. 1.75 1 . 3 8 1 . 2 5 1 . 1 9 1 . 1 3 1 . 1 0 1 . 00
13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces
For bearing on an inclined surface, the allowable unit
stress in bearing shall be as given by the following equa-
tion:
F F
F sin
2 g ci
g 0+FjI coKO
(13-14)
where:
F, = allowable unit stress for bearing on an inclined
surface, in psi;
F, = allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
from Article 13.7.4;
F,, = allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
ular to the grain from Article 13.6.6;
0 = angle in degrees between the direction of load
and the direction of grain.
13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
13.7.1 General
13.7.1.1 The provisions of this article apply to
simple solid columns consisting of a single piece of
sawn lumber, piling, structural composite lumber, or
glued laminated timber. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the
NDS for design requirements for built-up columns,
consisting of a number of solid members joined to-
gether with mechanical fasteners, and for spaced
columns consisting of two or more individual members
with their longitudinal axes parallel, separated and
fastened at the ends and at one or more interior points by
(13-13) blocking.
13.7.1.2 The term ~column. refers to all types of
compression members, including members forming part
of a truss or other structural components.
13.7.1.3 Column bracing shall be provided where
necessary to provide lateral stability and resist wind or
other lateral forces.
338
13.6.5.3
13.7.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
339
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses
Members with eccentric loading or combined stresses
shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the
NDS, 1991 Edition.
13.73 Compression
13.7.3.1 Net Section
The actual unit stress in compression parallel to grain,
f~, shall be based on the net section as described in Article
13.1, except that it may be based on the gross section when
the reduced section does not occur in the critical part of the
column length that is most subject to potential buckling.
Actual column length. 11 may be multiplied by an effective
length factor to determine the effective column length:
le = KI
(13-16)
where:
= effective column length in inches
K = effective length factor from Table C-I of Appen-
dix C
= actual column length between points of lateral
support in inches.
13.7.3.3.4 For columns of rectangular cross section,
the column slenderness ratio, hid, shall be taken as the
larger of the ratios, l~,/d, or 1
0/d2. (See Figure 13.7.1 A.)
The slenderness ratio shall not exceed 50.
The allowable unit stress in compression parallel to
grain shall not exceed the tabulated stress adjusted by the
applicable adjustment factors given in the followingequa-
tion:
= FCCMCDCFCP
(13-15)
where:
F, = allowable unit stress in compression parallel to
grain in psi;
= tabulated unit stress in compression parallel to
grain in psi;
CD = load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2;
CF = compression size factor for sawn lumber from
footnotes to Table 13.5.IA;
= column stability factor from Article 13.7.3.3.
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, C~
13.7.3.3. 1 Tabulated values in compression parallel
to grain are applicable to members which are adequately
braced. When members are not adequately braced, the
tabulated stress shall be modified by the column stability
factor, C~.
13.7.3.3.2 When a compression member is supported
throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement in all
directions, C~ = 1.0. For other conditions, the column sta-
bility factor shall be determined in accordance with the
following provisions.
13.7.3.3.3 The effective column length, L. shall be
determined in accordance with good engineering practice.
(~ and (~ diamances betwecim poimmis of lateral muppon an planes I and 2.
anchee.
d1 and d: ~iS.iWi@naI dimmiensions of rectang ular coimmpressiowm mem-
her iii planea of laserul suppott. inches.
FIGURE 13.7.lA
13.7.3.3.5 The column stability factor, C~, shall be as
given by the following expressions:
__________ l+( FC E/ FC ) FC E/ FC
C1= (ph 9 * . *
2c (2c)
2 c
(13-17)
F_ KCEE (13-18)
(l~ id)2
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 13.7.lA Support Condition Coefficients for
Tapered Columns
Support
Condition
Support Condition
Large end fixed, small end unsupported
Coefficient, a
0.70
Small end fixed, large end unsupported 0.30
Both ends simply supported
Tapered toward one end 0.50
Tapered towards both ends 0.70
where:
= tabulated stress in compression parallel to grain
adjusted by all applicable modification factors
given in Equation 13-14except Cp;
=0.300 for visually graded sawn lumber; 0.418
for glued laminated timber, structural compos-
ite lumber, and machine stress-rated lumber;
c = 0.80 for sawn lumber;
0.85 for round piles;
0.90 for glued laminated timber and structural
composite lumber.
For especially severe service conditions or extraordi-
nary hazardous conditions, the use of lower design values
than those obtained above may be necessary. Refer to the
1991 Edition of the NDS.
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns
13.7.3.4. I For rectangular columns tapered at one or
both ends, the cross-sectional area shall be based on the
representative dimension of each tapered face. The repre-
sentative dimension, d,e,,, of each tapered face shall be
based on the support condition coefficient given in Table
13.7.IA.
13.7.3.4.2 For support conditions given in Table
13.7.IA, the representative dimension, d,~, of each ta-
pered face shall be as given by the following equation:
~
=d
01~~ ~ d~,1~) La 015(1 ~
(13-19)
13.7.3.4.3 For support conditions other than those in
Table 13.7.IA, the representative dimension of each ta-
pered face shall be as given by the following equation:
d~ ~ + 0.33(d,,,~, (13-20)
13.7.3.4.4 For any tapered column, the actual stress
in compression parallel to grain, f~, shall not exceedthe al-
lowable stress determined by Equation 13-14, assuming
the column stability factor C~ = 1.0.
13.7.35 Round Columns
The design of a round column shall be based on the de-
sign of a square column of the same cross-sectional area
with the same degree of taper.
13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain
13.7.4.1 The actual stress in bearing parallel to grain
shall be based on the net area andshall not exceed the tab-
ulated stress for bearing parallel to grain adjusted by
the applicable adjustment factor given in the following
equation:
Fg = FgCD (13-21)
where:
F, = allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
in psi;
Fg = tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
from Table 13.5.2A, in psi:
C[) = load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2.
13.7.4.2 When the bearing load is at an angle to the
grain, the allowable bearing stress shall be determined by
Equation 13-14, using the design values for end-grain
bearingparallel to grain and design values in compression
perpendicular to grain.
13.7.4.3 When b ea r i n g p a r a l l el t o gr a i n ex c eed s 7 5 %
of the allowable value determined by Equation 13-21,
bearing shall be on a metal plate or on other durable, rigid,
homogeneous material of adequate strength and stiffness
to distribute applied loads over the entire bearing area.
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS
where: 138 .1 Tension Parallel to Grain
dr cp = representative dimension for a tapered column
face, in inches;
= minimum column face dimension, in inches;
= maximum column face dimension, in inches;
a = coefficient based on support conditions.
The allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain
hall be the tabulated value adjusted by the applicable ad-
justment factors given in the following equation:
340 13.7.3.4.2
= FCMCDCF (13-22)
13.8.1
DIV ISION IDESIGN
341
where:
= allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain
in psi;
F, = tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain
in psi;
C M = wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1;
CD = load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2;
CF = tension size factor for sawn lumber from foot-
notes to Table 13.5.IA and for structural com-
posite lumber from footnotes to Tables 13.5.4A
and 13.5.4B.
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain
Des i gn s whi c h i n d u c e t en s i o n p er p en d i c u l a r t o t he
grain of wood members should not be used. When tension
perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided, mechanical re-
inforcement sufficient to resist all such forces should be
used. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDS for additional
information.
139 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS
139.1 General
13.9.1.1 Except as otherwise required by this speci-
tication, mechanical connections and their installation
shall conform to the requirements of the NDSx, 1991 Edi-
tion.
13.9.1.2 Components at mechanical connections, in-
el u d i n g t he wo o d m em b er s , c o n n ec t i n g el em en t s , a n d f a s -
teners, shall be proportioned so that the design strength
equals or exceeds the required strength for the loads act-
ing on the structure. The strength of the connected wood
components shall be evaluated considering the net sec-
tion, eccentricity, shear, tension perpendicular to grain
and other factors that may reduce component strength.
139.2 Corrosion Protection
13.9.2.1 Except as permitted by this section, all steel
hardware for wood structures shall be galvanized in ac-
cordance with AASHTO M 232 or cadmium plated in ac-
cordance with AASHTO M 299.
13.9.2.2 All steel components, timber connectors,
and castings, other than malleable iron, shall be galva-
nized in accordance with AASHTO M Ill.
13.9.2.3 Alternative corrosion protection coatings.
such as epoxies, may be used when the demonstrated per-
formance of the coating is sufficient to provide adequate
protection for the intended exposure conduction.
13.92.4 Heat-treated alloy components and fasten-
ings shall be protected by an approved alternative protec-
tive treatment that does not adversely affect the mechani-
cal properties of the material.
13.9.3 Fasteners
13.9.3.1 Fastener design values shall be adjusted by
the applicable adjustment factors for the intended use con-
dition.
13.9.3.2 When determining fastener design values,
wood shall be assumed to be used under wet-use or ex-
posed to weather conditions.
13.9.3.3 Glulam rivets shall not be used in permanent
structures.
13.9.4 Washers
13.9.4.1 Washers shall be provided under bolt and
lag screw heads and under nuts that are in contact with
wood. Washers may be omitted under heads of special
timber bolts or dome-head bolts when the size and
strength of the head is sufficient to develop connection
strength without excessive wood crushing.
139.4.2 Washers shall be of sufficient size and
strength to prevent excessive wood crushing when the fas-
tener is tightened. For bolts or rods loaded in tension,
washers shall be of sufficient size and strength to develop
the tensile strength of the connection without excessive
bending or exceeding wood strength in compression per-
pendicular to grain.
Section 14
ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
1 4 . 1 GENERAL
An elastomeric bridge bearing is a device constructed
partially or wholly from elastomer, the purpose of which
is to transmit loads and accommodate movements be-
tween a bridge and its supporting structure. This section
of the Specification covers the design of plain pads (con-
sisting of elastomer only) and reinforced bearings (con-
sisting of alternate layers of steel or fabric reinforcement
and elastomer, bonded together). Tapered elastomer lay-
ers in reinforced bearings are not permitted. In addition to
any internal reinforcement, bearings may have external
steel load plates bonded to the upper or lower elastomer
layers or both.
Two design procedures are provided in this Section.
Bearings reinforced with steel may be designed either by
the procedure defined in 14.4.1 or the one in 14.4.2. Bear-
ings with fabric reinforcement or unreinforced pads shall
be designed by 14.4.1. Both design procedures are based
on service loads, and require that no impact fraction be
added to the live load. The materials, fabrication, and in-
stallation of the bearings shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Section 18.2 of Division II of the Speci-
fication.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
Longitu- = The axis of the bearing parallel to the
dinal longitudinal axis of the bridge girder(s)
Axis
Lot
Trans-
verse
Axis
A
bf
D
A group of bearings made from the same
batch of materials
The axis of the bearing perpendicu-
lar to the longitudinal axis
Gross plan area of bearing
Width of flange of steel girder (in.)
Gross diameter of a circular bearing (in.)
Effective compressive modulus of the elas-
tomer. taking account of restraint of bulging
= 3G(l +2kS
2) (psi)
= Yield strength of the steel reinforcement (psi)
Fyg = Yield strength of the steel girder (psi)
G = Shear modulus of elastomer (psi) at 730F
H = Design shear force on bearing (Ib) = G A
A h fh r ,
= Total elastomer thickness of the bearing (in.)
= Xhr,
= Thickness of elastomer layer number i (in.)
= Thickness of one steel reinforcement layer
(in.)
k = Constant dependent on elastomer hardness
(See Table 14.3.1 for values.)
L = Gross dimension of rectangular bearing par-
allel to the longitudinal axis (in.)
P = Compressive load on the bearing (Ib)
S = Shape factor of one layer of a bearing
Plan Area
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge
LW
for rectangular bearings with-
2h~ (L + W) out holes
D
= for circular bearings without holes
4hr,
tt = Thickness of flange of steel girder
W = Gross dimension of rectangular bearing par-
allel to the transverse axis
= Modifying factor having a value of 1.0 for in-
ternal layers of reinforced bearings, 1 .4 for
cover layers, and 1.8 for plain pads. If slip is
prevented from occurring at the surfaces of
plain pads or outer layers of reinforced bear-
ings under all circumstances, ~3 factors
smaller than those definedabove may be used
at the discretion of the Engineer. ~shall never
be taken as less than 1.0.
= Instantaneous compressive deflection of
bearing (in.)
A,, = Total horizontal movement of superstructure.
measured from state at which bearing is un-
deformed (in.)
A. =Shear deformation of the bearing in one di-
rection from the undeformed state, account-
ing for support flexibility (in.)
343
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
= Instantaneous compressive strain in elas-
tomer layer number i (change inthickness di-
vided by the unstressed thickness)
o = Relative rotation of top and bottom surfaces
of bearing (radians)
Subscripts:
Th = total load
LL = live load
x = about transverse axis
z = about longitudinal axis
= P/A = average compressive stress on the
bearing caused by the dead and live load, ex-
cluding impact
TABLE 14.3.2. LowTemperature Zones and Elastomer
Grades
LowTemperaturezone A B C D E
50-Year Low Temperature
(degrees F)
0 20 30 45 All
Others
Maximum Number of
Consecutive Days When the
Temperature does not Rise
Above 32 Degrees F
3 7 14 N/A N/A
Minimum Low Temperature
Elastomer Grade Without
Special Provisions
0 2 3 4 5
Minimum Low Temperature
Elastomer Grade With
Special Provisions
0 0 2 3 5
1 4 . 3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The shear modulus at 73F shall be used as the basis
for design. If the material is specified explicitly by its
shear modulus, that value shall be used in design and the
other properties shall be obtained from Table 14.3.1. If the
material is specified by its hardness, the shear modulus
shall be taken as the value from the range for that hardness
given inTable 14.3.1, which is most conservative for each
part of the design. Intermediate values shall in all cases be
obtained by interpolation.
Material with a shear modulus greater than 200 psi or
a nominal hardness greater than 60 shall not be used for
reinforced bearings. Under no conditions shall the nomi-
nal hardness exceed 70 or the shear modulus exceed 300
psi.
For the purposes of bearing design, all bridge sites
shall be classified as being in temperature zone A, B, C,
or E. The zones are defined by their extreme low tem-
peratures or the largest number of consecutive days for
which the temperature has ever remained below 32
0F,
whichever gives the more severe condition. V alues are
given in Table 14.3.2. In the absence of more precise in-
formation, Figure 14.3.1 may be used as a guide in se-
l ec t i n g t he z o n e r eq u i r ed f o r a gi v en r egi o n .
TABLE 14.3.1. Elastomer Properties at Different
Harnesses
Hardness (Shore A) 50 60 70
Shear Modulus (G) (psi) 95130 130200 200300
at 73 degrees F (MPa) 0.68 0.93 0.931.43 1.432.14
Creep deflection at 25 years 25% 35% 45%
Instantaneous deflection
k 0.75 0.6 0.55
Bearings shall be made from AASHTO low tempera-
ture grades of elastomer as defined in Section 18.2 of Di-
vision II. The minimum grade of elastomer required for
each low temperature zone is specified in Table 14.3.2.
The special provisions required inTable 14.3.2 are that ei-
ther a positive slip apparatus be installed and the bridge
components shall be able to withstand forces arising from
a bearing force equal to twice the design shear force or
that the components of the bridge be able to resist the
forces arising from a bearing force four times the design
shear force as defined in Section 14.6.
14.4 BEARING DESIGN METHODS
14.4.1 Method ADesign Procedure for Steel
Reinforced, Fabric Reinforced or Plain
Bearings
144.1.1 Compressive Stress
Unless shear deformation is prevented, the average
compressive stress ~ in any layer shall satisfy:
~ TL ~ GS/f3
and o~Ti ~ 1 000 psi for steel-reinforced bearings
or o>TL ~ 800 psi, for plain pads or fabric remmi-
forced bearings
These stress limits may be increased by 10 percent where
shear deformation is prevented. In bearings containing
layers of different thickness, the value of S used shall be
that whichproduces the smallest S/Is. In bearings in which
the elastomer is specified by its hardness, the value of G
used shall be the lowest value of the range given in Table
14.3.1.
344 14.2
345
144.1.2 Compressive Deflection
The compressive deflection, A~, of the bearing shall be
so limited as to ensure the serviceability of the bridge and
joint system. Deflections due to total load and to live load
alone shall be considered separately.
Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as
A. =
V alue for e~, shall be obtained from design aids based on
tests such as presented in Figures 14.4.l.2A and
14.4.l.2B, by testing or by an approved analysis method.
Figures 14.4.l.2A and 14.4.l.2B are for internal layers of
reinforced bearings. They may be used for plain pads or
cover layers of reinforced bearings ifS is replaced by Sr3.
When long-term deflections are to be considered, the
total deflection shall be computed by adding deflections
due to the effects of creep of the elastomer to the instan-
taneous deflection. Long-term deflections may affect the
serviceability of the joint system, andshall be considered
at joints between sections of bridges resting on bearings
of different design and for other conditions where signif-
icant large or differential deflection is expected in the joint
system. They also should be accounted for when estimat-
ing redistribution of forces in continuous bridges caused
by support settlement. Deflections due to creep shall be
computed from information relevant to the elastomeric
compound used if it is available. If not, the values given
in Article 14.3 shall be used.
14.4.1.3 Shear
The horizontal bridge movement shall be taken as the
maximum possible deformation caused by creep, shrink-
age, and post-tensioning, combined with thermal effects
Compressive str ain (%)
FIGURE 14.4.1.2A Compressive Stress vs. Strain for 50
Durometer Steel-Reinforced Bearings
computed in accordance with Article 3.16. The maximum
shear deformation of the bearing, A~, shall be taken as the
horizontal bridge movement, modified to account for the
pier flexibility and construction procedures. If a positive
slip apparatus is installed, A, need not be taken larger than
the deformation corresponding to first slip.
The bearing shall be designed so that h, =2A~.
144.1.4 Rotation
The rotational deformations about each axis shall be
taken as the maximum possible rotation between the
top and bottom of the bearing caused by initial lack of
parallelism and girder end rotation. They shall be limited
by:
0~ . =2 A JL
and O~, ~ 2A /W. for rectangular bearings or
(O
2TL.~ -~ 0%,,) =2A~/D, for circular bearings.
144.1.5 Stability
To ensure stability, the total thickness of the bearing
shall not exceed the smallest of:
L/5, W15, or D/6 for plain pads;
L/ 3 , W/ 3 , or D/4 for reinforced bearings.
1600
1400
1200
FIGURE 14.3.1 Map of Low Temperature Zones
0~
(n
C,,
U,
Ci,
U,
ci,
(0
U)
0.
E
0
U
1000
800
600
400
2001
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 4 . 4 2 . 1 Compressive Stress
In any bearing layer, the average compressive stress
shall satisfy:
for bearings subject to shear deformations
~ 1,600 psi
tT~ =1.66 GS/j3
0c.LL =0.66 GS/(3
for bearings fixed against shear deformations
cr,.
1~ 1,600 psi
(T~ = 200 GS/[3
u~ ~ = 1 00 GS/13
where j3 = 1.0 for internal layers and 1.4 for cover
layers.
In bearings containing layers of different thickness, the
value of S used shall be that which produces the smallest
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S/~3. In bearings in whichthe elastomer is specified by its
hardness, the value of G used shall be the lowest value of
the range given in Table 14.3.1.
C omp r essive str ain (%)
FlGURE 14.4.l.2B Compressive Stress vs. Strain for 60
Durometer Steel-Reinforced Bearings
The reinforcement shall be fabric or steel and its resis-
tance in pounds per linear inch at working stress levels in
each direction shall not be less than:
1,400 h~ for fabric
l,700h~ for steel
For these purposes h,, shall be taken as the mean thick-
ness of the two layers of the elastomer bonded to the re-
inforcement if they are of different thicknesses. The resis-
tance per linear inch is given by the product of the material
thickness of the reinforcement and the allowable stress.
The allowable stress shall be calculated taking into ac-
count fatigue loading but ignoring holes in the reinforce-
ment. Holes shall be prohibited in fabric reinforcement.
They are not recommended in steel reinforcement; but, if
they exist, the steel thickness shall be increased by a fac-
tor (2 X gross width)/(net width).
14.4.2 Method BOptional Design Procedure for
Steel Reinforced Bearings
Bearings shall not be designed by the provisions of Ar-
ticle 14.4.2 unless they are subsequently tested in accor-
dance with the requirements of Article 18.2.7 of Division
11 of this specification.
14.4..2.2 Compressive Deflection
The compressive deflection, A~, of the bearing shall be
so limited as to ensure the serviceability of the bridge and
joint system. Deflections due to total load and to live load
alone shall be considered separately.
Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as:
V alues for e~, shall be obtained from design aids based on
tests such as presented in Figure 14.4.1 .2A and 14.4.1 .2B.
by testing or by an approved analysis method. Figures
14.4.l.2A and 14.4.l.2B are for internal layers of rein-
forced bearings. They may be used for cover layers of re-
inforced bearings if S is replaced by 543.
When long-term deflections are to be considered,
the total deflection shall be computed by adding deflec-
tions due to the effects of creep of the elastomer to the
instantaneous deflection. Long-term deflections may
affect the serviceability of the joint system. and shall
be considered at joints between sections of bridges rest-
ing on bearings of differenl design and for other con-
ditions where significant large or differential deflection
is expected in the joint system. They also should be
accounted for when estimating redistribution of forces in
continuous bridges caused by support settlement. Dc-
flections due to creep shall be compuled from infor-
mation relevant to the elastomeric compound used if it
is available. If not, the values given in Article 14.3 shall
be used.
CO
0.
(0
(0
0 1000
(0
0
(0
(0
0
0.
E
0
C,
0
1 4 . 4 . 2 . 3 DIV ISION IDESIGN 347
14.42.5 Stability
The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure,
A,,, shall be taken as the maximum possible deforma-
tion caused by creep, shrinkage, and post-tensioning,
combined with thermal effects computed in accor-
dance with Article 3.16. The maximum shear deforma-
tion of the bearing, A,, shall be taken as A,,, modified to
account for the pier flexibility and construction proce-
dures. If a positive slip apparatus is installed, A. need not
be taken larger than the deformation corresponding to
first slip.
The bearing shall be designed so that h,, =2A~
14.4.2.4 Rotation and Combined Compression
and Rotation
The rotational deformations about each axis shall
be taken as the maximum possible rotation between the
top and bottom of the bearing caused by initial lack of
parallelism and girder end rotation. They shall be limited
by:
Ehm ~2A/L
and
01L ~ 2A /W, for rectangular bearings or
(O2TL.~ + O2T[,) ~ 2A~fD, for circular bearings.
In bearings subjected to both compression and rotation
about the transverse axis of the bearing, the average com-
pressive stress shall satisfy, for bearings subject to shear
deformations:
0c.Ti. <1.66 GSd3
LO~i
1--~~>
4A~
or, for bearings fixed against shear deformations:
~1c.TL < 2.0 GS/f~i
LOT,
1+
4A~
where 0Tr. is the total rotation about the transverse axis
of the bearing, including the effects of initial lack of par-
allelism, creep, shrinkage, and temperature.
Reduced stress levels for rotations about the longitudi-
nal axis of the bearing shall be computed by a rational
method.
The bearings shall be proportioned to prevent stability
failure. The average compressive stress due to total dead
and live load on rectangular bearings shall satisfy:
if the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally:
3 84(h
0 IL
)
S~J+2L/W
2.67
S(S+2)(l L/4W)J
or, if the bridgedeck is not free to translate horizontally:
G /J .92 2L /W
2.67
S(S2)(lL/4W) J
If L is greater than W for a rectangular bearing, stability
shall be checked by the above formulas with L and W in-
terchanged.
The stability of circular bearings may be evaluated by
using the equation for a square bearing with W = L =
0.8D.
The thickness of the reinforcement h,, shall satisfy:
l.5(h~, +hr2)~cTL
h > , for total load
1 5(h
h > + h~ ) ~c.t.L , for live load
Fsr
where F~r is the allowable stress range based on fatigue
loading. F,, shall be taken from Table 10.3.1 A of Division
I of this specification using category A for a Nonredun-
dant Load Path Structure. If holes exist, the minimum
thickness shall be increased by a factor:
2 x gross width
net width
14.5 ANCHORAGE
If the design shear force, I-I, due to bearing deforma-
tion exceeds one-fifth of the compressive force P due to
dead load alone, the bearing shall be secured against hor-
izontal movement. The bearing shall not be permitted to
sustain uplift forces.
14.4.2.3 Shear
348
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
14.6
14.6 DESIGN FORCES FOR SUPPORTING
STRUCTURE
The forces imposedby the bearing on the substructure
are a function of the stiffness of the bearing and the flexi-
bility of the substructure. Maximum forces to be applied
by the bearing (for a rigid substructure) may be computed
in accordance with Article 14.6.1 for shear and in accor-
dance with Article 14.6.2 for moment.
14.6.1 Shear Force
Ifa positive slip apparatus is installed, H shall be taken
as the largest force which can be transmitted by the appa-
ratus. If no positive slip apparatus is installed, the design
shear force shall be taken as not less than H = G A ~h/hfl,
where ~,, is the horizontal movement of the bridge super-
structure relative to conditions when the bearing is unde-
formed and G is the shear modulus of the elastomer at
73
0F. In bearings in whichthe elastomer is specified by its
hardness, the value of G used shall be the highest value of
the range given in Table 14.3.1.
14.6.2 Moment
The moment induced by bending of a rectangular
bearing about an axis parallel to its long side shall be
taken as not less than M = (0.5 E~) I OTL.X/h~, where
I = WLV 12.
14.7 STIFFENERS FOR STEEL BEAMSAND
GIRDERS
The flanges of steel members seated on elastomeric
bearings must be flexurally stiff enough not to risk dam-
age to the bearing. Any necessary stiffening may be ac-
complished by means of a sole plate or vertical stiffeners.
The stiffening requirements of this section do not replace
any others in this specification, but should be read in con-
junction with them.
Single-webbed beams and girders symmetric about
their minor (vertical) axis and placed symmetrically on
the bearing need no additional stiffening if:
bf< Fyg
2tf 3.4 G~
where b
1 = total flange width, t~ = thickness of flange or
combined flange and sole plate, and F,g = yield stress of
the girder steel.
14.8 PROVISIONS FORINSTALLATION
EFFECTS
Allowance shall be made during design for misalign-
ment in bridge girders due to fabrication and erection tol-
erance, camber, and other sources. The bearings shall be
located and installed in such a way as to permit subse-
quent replacement.
Section 15
TFE BEARING SURFACE
Unfilled or filled TFE
15.1.1 Proprietary makes of polytetrafluoroethylene
(TFE) fixed and expansion bearings may be used if in the
opinion of the Engineer. and substantiated either by tests
or experience, they meet design requirements.
15.1.2 Bearings having sliding surfaces of TFE shall be
subject to the requirements of this Section andto Sections
applicable to the particular types of construction with
which they are used.
15.1.3 The TFE material consisting of filled or un-
filled sheet, fabric containing TFE fibers, interlocked
bronze and filled TFE structures, TFE-perforated metal
composites together with adhesive materials, stainless
steel mating surface and manufacturing processes shall
conform to the requirements given in Article 18.8
Division II.
15.2 DESIGN
15.2.1 TFE sliding surfaces are designed to translate or
rotate by sliding of a self-lubricating polytetrafluoroeth-
ylene surface across a smooth hard mating surface prefer-
ably of stainless steel or other equally corrosion resistant
material.
15.2.2 Expansion hearings having sliding surfaces of
TFE shall not be used without provision for rotation,
which shall be not less than 0.015 radians, to prevent ex-
cessive local stresses on the TFE sliding surface. Rotation
shall be considered the sum of live load rotation, changes
in camber during construction, and misalignment of the
bearing seats due to construction tolerances. The design
shall include compensating provision for grade. Provision
for rotation may be accomplished with a hinge, radiused
sliding surfaces, elastomeric pads, pre-formed fabric
pads, or other means.
15.2.3 TFF sliding surfaces shall have the following
minimum and maximum thickness:
Fabric containing
TFEfibers
Interlocked Bronze
and Filled TFE
Structures
TFE-Perforated Metal
Composite
~in. minimum to 12 in.
maximum
V~, in. minimum
/2 in. minimum
to 1,, in.
maximum
to 1,, in.
maximum
1,, in. minimum to 1, in.
maximum
15.2.4 The TFE sliding surface must be either bonded
under factory controlled conditions or mechanically con-
nected to a rigid back-up material capable of resisting any
bending stresses towhich the sliding surfaces may be sub-
jected. Alternatively, TFE material of twice the thickness
specified above may be recessed for half its thickness in
the back-up material and shall not be less than i~ in. thick.
Ifthe other side of the back-up material is to be bonded to
an elastomeric pad, the back-up material must have suffi-
cient tensile strength to restrain the elastomeric pad. The
elastomeric pad must be sufficiently hard to allow sliding
of the contact surfaces, preferably at least 70 durometer
hardness.
15.2.5 The mating surface to the TFE should be an
accurate flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface as required
by the design and shall have minimum Brinell hard-
ness of 125 and a surface finish of less than 20-microinches
root mean square (rms). The mating surface shall com-
pletely cover the TFE surface in all operating positions of
the bearing. Wherever possible, the mating surface shall be
oriented so that sliding movements will cause dirt and dust
accumulation to fall from the mating surface.
15.2.6 The minimum coefficient of friction used fbr de-
sign shall he as specified by the bearing manufacturer or
as shown on the next page.
151 GENERAL
349
350
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1 5 . 2 . 6
Material
Unfilled TFE, Fabric
containing TFE fibers,
TFE-Perforated Metal
Composite
Filled TUE
Interlocked Bronze and
Filled TFE Structures
Bearing Pressure
500 psi 2,000 psi 3,500 psi
.08 .06 .04
.12 .10 .08
.10 .07 .05
Unfilled and Filled TFE
Fabric containing TFE fibers
Interlocked Bronze and Filled
TFE Structures
TFE-Perforated Metal Composite
5,000 psi
10,000 psi
10,000 psi
5,000 psi
152.9 Holes or slots shall not be used in the sliding
surfaces.
15.2.7 The average bearing pressure on the TUE sliding
surface due to all loads shall not exceed:
Filled TFE 3,500 psi
Unfilled TFE (Recessed) 3,500 psi
Unfilled TUE (Not Recessed) 2,000 psi
Fabric containing TFE fibers 3,500 psi
Interlocked Bronze and Filled
TUE Structures
TFE-Perforated Metal Composite
15.2.8 The edge load pressure due toall loads and rota-
tion shall not exceed:
15.2.10 Welding to steel plate that has a bonded TFE
surface may be permitted providing welding procedures
are established which restrict the maximum temperature
reached by the bond area to less than 300
0F (I 500C) as de-
termined by temperature indicating wax pencils or other
suitable means.
15.2.11 Means shall be provided in the design to locate
positively all elements of the bearing. Where a thin non-
corrosive smooth facing material is used as a mating slid-
6,000 psi ing surface, it shall be structurally bonded by an approved
5,000 ~ adhesive system and may also be mechanically fastened
by means of either screws or rivets to the back-up mater-
ial, or if the materials permit, seal-welded around the en-
tire perimeter of the facing material.
Section 16
STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
16.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS
16.1.1 General
16.1.1.1 These criteria cover the design of cold-
formed panel steel tunnel liner plates. The minimum
thickness shall be as determined by design in accordance
with Articles 16.2, 3, 4, 5, and6 andthe construction shall
conform to Section 26Division II. The supporting ca-
pacity of a nonrigidtunnel lining such as a steel liner plate
results from its ability to deflect under load, so that side
restraint developed by the lateral resistance of the soil
constrains further deflection. Deflection thus tends to
equalize radial pressures and to load the tunnel liner as a
compression ring.
16J.1.2 The load to be carried by the tunnel liner is
afunction of the type of soil. In agranular soil, with little
or no cohesion, the load is a function of the angle of in-
ternal friction of the soil and the diameter of the tunnel
beingconstructed. In cohesive soils such as clays and silty
clays the load to be carried by the tunnel liner is depen-
dent on the shearing strength of the soil above the roof of
the tunnel.
16.1.1.3 A subsurface exploration program and ap-
propriate soil tests should be performed at each installa-
tion before undertaking a design.
16.1.1.4 Nothing included in this section shall be in-
terpreted as prohibiting the use of new developments
where usefulness can be substantiated.
16.1.2 Notations
A = cross-sectional area of liner plates (Article
16.3.4)
Cd = coefficient for tunnel liner, used in Marstons
formula (Article 16.2.4)
D = horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel (Arti-
cle 16.2.4)
D = pipe diameter (Article 16.3.3)
= critical pipe diameter (Article 16.3.4)
E = modulus of elasticity (Article 16.3.3)
FS = factor of safety for buckling (Article 16.3.4)
= buckling stress (Article 16.3.4)
= minimum specified tensile strength (Article
16.3.4)
H = height of soil over the top of the tunnel (Article
16.2.4)
I = moment of inertia (Article 16.3.3)
k = parameter dependent on the value of the friction
a n gl e ( Ar t i c l e 1 6 . 3 . 4 )
P = external load on tunnel liner (Article 16.2.1)
Pd = vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
liner due to dead load (Article 16.2. I)
= vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
liner due to live load (Article 16.2.1)
r = radius of gyration (Article 16.3.4)
T = thrust per unit length (Article 16.3.4)
W = total (moist) unit weight of soil (Article
16.2.4)
0 = friction angle of soil (Article 16.3.4.1)
16.1 LOADS
162.1 External load on a circular tunnel liner made up
of tunnel liner plates may be predicted by various meth-
ods including actual tests. In cases where more precise
methods of analysis are not employed, the external load P
can be predicted by the following:
(a) If the grouting pressure is greater than the com-
puted external load, the external load P on the tunnel
liner shall be the grouting pressure.
(b) In general the external load can be computed by
the formula:
P = P + Pd (16-I)
where:
P = the external load on the tunnel liner;
P, = the vertical load at the level of the top of the
tunnel liner due to live loads;
351
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
= the vertical load at the level of the top of the
tunnel liner due to dead load.
16.2.2 For an H 20 load, values of P, are approximately
the following:
H(ft) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P,(lbpersqft) 375 260 190 140 110 90 75
16.2.3 V alues of Pd may be calculated using Marstons
formula for load or any other suitable method.
16.2.4 In the absence of adequate borings and soil tests,
the full overburden height should be the basis for ~d in the
tunnel liner plate design.
The following is one form of Marstons formula:
= CdWD
where:
C d = coefficient for tunnel liner, Figure 16.2.3A;
W = total (moist) unit weight of soil;
D = horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel;
H = height of soil over the top of the tunnel.
C
Cs
0.
CO
0
C
0)
n
.0
I)
0
0
0
Cs
0
I
0
(I)
I)
Cs
16.3 DESIGN
16.3.1 Criteria
The following criteria must be considered in the design
of liner plates:
(a) Joint strength.
(b) Minimum stiffness for installation.
(c) Critical buckling of liner plate wall.
(d) Deflection or flattening of tunnel section.
16.3.2 Joint Strength
16.3.2.1 The seam strength of liner plates must be
sufficient to withstand the thrust developed from the total
(16-2) load supported by the liner plate. This thrust, T, in pounds
per linear foot is:
T = PD/2 (16-3)
where P = load as defined in Article 16.2, and D =
diameter or span in feet.
V alues of coefficient Cd
352 16.2.1
1 2
FIGURE 16.2.3A. Diagram for Coefficient Cd for Tunnels in Soil (~ Friction Angle)
353
DIV ISION IDESIGN
16.3.2.2 The ultimate design longitudinal seam
strengths are:
TABLE 16.3.2.2
Ultimate Seam Strength of Liner Plates
Plate Thickness Ultimate Strength,
(in.) (kips/fi)
2 Flange 4 Flange
0.075 20.0
0.105 30.0 26.0
0.135 47.0 43.0
0.164 55.0 50.0
0.179 62.0 54.0
0.209 8 7.0 67.0
0.239 92.0 81.0
0.313 115.0
0.375 119.0
For diameters less than D~, the ring compression stress
at which buckling becomes critical is:
L4~E x~+2~
2j in psi
(16-5)
For diameters greater than D~:
1 2E
= inpsi
(kD/r)2
(16-6)
where:
= (r/k) 24E/f, = critical pipe (16-7)
diameters in inches;
= minimum specified tensile strength in pounds per
square inch;
f~=buckling stress in pounds per square inch, not to
exceed minimum specified yield strength;
16.3.2.3 The thrust, T, multiplied by the safety fac-
tor, should not exceed the ultimate seam strength.
16.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation
16.33.1 The liner plate ring shall have enough rigid-
ity to resist the unbalanced loads of normal construction:
grouting pressure, local slough-ins, and miscellaneous
concentrated loads.
The minimum stiffness required for these loads can be
expressed for convenience by the formula below. It must
be recognized, however, that the limiting values given here
are onlyrecommendedminima. Actual job conditions may
require higher values (greater effective stiffness). Final de-
termination on this factor should be based on intimate
knowledge of the project and practical experience.
16.3.3.2 The minimum stiffness for installation is de-
D = pipe diameter in inches;
r = radius of gyration of section in inches per foot;
E = modulus of elasticity in pounds per square
inch.
k will vary from 0.22 for soils with ~> 15 to 0.44 for
soils 4 K 15.
16.3.4.2 Design for buckling is accomplishedby lim-
iting the ring compression thrust T to the buckling stress
multiplied by the effective cross-sectional area of the liner
plate divided by the factor of safety.
T= f~A
FS
(16-8)
where:
T = thrust per linear foot from Article 16.3.2;
A = effective cross-sectional area of liner plate in
square inches per foot;
FS = factor of safety for buckling.
Minimum stiffness = EI/D2
where:
D = diameter in inches;
F = modulus of elasticity, psi (29 X lOb);
= moment of inertia, inches to the fourth power per
inch;
For 2-Flange (FIID2) 50 minimum;
For 4-Flange (EI/D2) = Ill minimum;
16.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall
16.3.4.1 \V all buckling stresses are determined from
the following forminilac:
16.3.5 Deflection or Flattening
16.3.5.1 Deflection of a tunnel depends significantly
on the amount of over-excavation of the bore and is af-
fected by delay in backpacking or inadequate backpack-
ing. The magnitude of deflection is not primarily a func-
tion of soil modulus or the liner plate properties, so it
cannot be computed with usual deflection formulae.
16.3.5.2 Where the tunnel clearances are important.
the designer should oversize the structure to provide for a
normal deflection. Good construction methods should re-
suIt in deilections of not more than 3 percent of the nor
mnal diameter.
1 6 . 3 . 2 . 2
(16-4)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
164 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL
REQUIREMENTS
16.4.1 Chemical Composition
Base metal shall conform to ASTM A 569.
16.4.1 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat
Plate Before Cold Forming
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation, 2 inches
42,000 psi
28,000 psi
30 percent
164.3 Dimensions and Tolerances
Nominal plate dimensions shall provide the section
properties shown in Article 16.5. Thickness tolerances
shall conform to Paragraph 14 of AASHTO M 167.
16.5 SECTION PROPERTIES
The section properties per inch of plate width, based on
the average of one ring of linear plates, shall conform to
the following:
TABLE 16.5a Section Properties for Four-Flange
Liner Plate
Gage
Thickness
(in.)
Area
(in.
2/in.)
Effective
Area
(in.2/in.)
Moment
of Inertia
(in.4/in.)
12 0.105 0.133 0.067 0.042
II 0.1196 0.152 0.076 0.049
10 0.135 0.170 0.085 0.055
8 0.164 0.209 0.105 0.070
7 0.179 0.227 0.114 0.075
5 0.209 0.264 0.132 0.087
3 0.239 0.300 0.150 0.120
1/4 0.250 0.309 0.155 0.101
5/16 0.3125 0.386 0.193 0.123
3/8 0.375 0.460 0.230 0.143
TABLE 16.5b Section Properties for Two-Flange
Liner Plate
Thickness
(in.)
Effective
Area
(in3/in.)
Moment
of Inertia
(in.4/in.)
0.075 0.096 0.034
0.105 0.135 0.049
0.135 0.174 0.064
0.164 0.213 0.079
0.179 0.233 0.087
0.209 0.272 0.103
0.239 0.312 0.118
16.6 COATINGS
Steel tunnel liner plates shall be of heavier gage or
thickness or protected by coatings or other means when
required for resistance to abrasion or corrosion.
16.7 BOLTS
16.7.1 Bolts and nuts used with lapped seams shall be
not less than Y ~ inch in diameter. The bolts shall conform
to the specifications of ASTM A 449 for plate thickness
equal to or greater than 0.209 inches and A 307 for plate
thickness less than 0.209 inches. The nut shall conform to
ASTM A 307, Grade A.
16.7.2 Circumferential seam bolts shall be A 307 or bet-
ter for all plate thicknesses.
16.73 Bolts and nuts used withfour flanged plates shall
be not less than Y2 inch in diameter for plate thicknesses
to and including 0.179 inches and not less than Y~ inch in
diameter for plates of greater thickness. The bolts and nuts
shall be quick acting coarse thread and shall conform to
ASTM A 307, Grade A.
16.8 SAFETY FACTORS
Longitudinal test seam strength
Pipe wall buckling
3
2
354
16.4
Section 17
SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1 GENERAL
17.1.1 Scope
Specifications in this Section govern the design of
buried reinforced concrete structures. A buried reinforced
concrete element becomes part of a composite system
comprising the reinforced concrete section and the soil
envelope, both of which contribute to the structural be-
havior of the system.
17.1.2 Notations
A = effective tension area of concrete surround-
ing the flexural tension reinforcement and hav-
ing the same centroid as that reinforcement, di-
vided by the number of bars or wires, sq in.;
when the flexural reinforcement consists of
several bar sizes or wire the number of bars
or wires shall be computed as the total area
of reinforcement divided by the area of the
largest bar or wire used (Articles 17.6.4 and
17.7.4)
A,, = total active lateral pressure acting on pipe, lbs/ft
(Article 17.4.5 and Figure 17.4C)
A, = tension reinforcement area on width b, in.
2/ft
(Article 17.4.6)
A,, = stirrup reinforcement area to resist radial ten-
sion forces on width b, in.2/ft in each line of
stirrups at circumferential spacing s (Article
17.4.6)
A,, = required area of stirrups for shear reinforcement,
in.- (Article 17.4.6.4.6.2)
b = width of section which resists M, N, V Usually
b = 12 inches (Article 17.4.6)
= out-to-out horizontal span of pipe or box, ft (Ar-
tides 17.4.4. 17.4.5, 17.6.4, and 17.7.4.)
Bd = horizontal widthof trench at top of pipe or box, ft
(Articles 17.4.4, 17.6.4, and 17.7.4.)
Bf = bedding factor (Article 17.4.5)
Bf,, = earth load bedding factor
= live load bedding factor
B, = crack control coefficient for effect of
cover and spacing of reinforcement (Article
17.4.6)
B, =out-to-out vertical rise of pipe, ft (Figure 17.4C)
C. =1oad coefticient for embankment installations
(Article 17.4.5)
Cd = load coefficient for trench installations (Article
17.4.4)
CA = constant corresponding to the shape of pipe (Ar-
tide 17.4.5)
CN = parameter which is a function of the distribution
of the vertical load and the vertical reaction (Ar-
tide 17.4.5)
C, = crack control coefficient for type of reinforce-
ment (Article 17.4.6)
d = distance from compression face to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (Article 17.4.6)
= thickness of concrete cover measured from
extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto (Articles 17.6.4 and
17.7.4)
D = D-load of pipe, three-edge bearing test load ex-
pressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of span
to produce a 0.01-inch crack (Article 17.4.5)
= inside diameter of pipe, in.
= maximum service load stress in the reinforcing
steel for crack control (Articles 17.6.4 and
17.7.4)
= maximum allowable strength of stirrup material.
lbs/in.2 (Article 17.4.6.4.6)
f~ =specified yield strength of reinforcement, lbs/in.2
(Article 17.4.6)
= factor for effect of curvature on diagonal tension
(shear) strength in curved components (Article
17.4.6.4.5)
F,, = factor for adjusting crack control relative to aver-
age maximum crack width of 0.01 inch when F<
= 1.0 (Article 17.4.6.4.4)
355
356 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
17.1.2
F,, = factor for crack depth effect resulting in increase
in diagonal tension (shear) strength with decreas-
ing d (Article 17.4.6.4.5)
= soil-structure interaction factor (Articles 17.4.4,
17.6.4, and 17.7.4)
F,, = soil structure interaction factor for embank-
ment installations (Articles 17.4.4, 17.6.4, and
17.7.4)
= soil-structure interaction factor for trench
installations (Articles 17.4.4, 17.6.4, and
17.7.4)
Frp = factor for process and local materials that af-
fect the radial tension strength of pipe (Article
17.4.6)
F,,, = factor for process and local materials that affect
the shear strength of pipe (Article 17.4.6.4.5)
FN = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear strength
(Article 17.4.6.4.5)
= design compressive strength of concrete, lbs/in.-
(Articles 17.4.6, 17.6.2, and 17.7.2)
h = overall thickness of member (wall thickness), in.
(Article 17.4.6.4.4)
H = height of fill above top of pipe or box, ft (Articles
17.4.4, 17.4.5, 17.6.4, and 17.7.4)
HAF = horizontal arching factor (Figure 17.4A)
= coefficient for effect of axial force at service load
stress, f, (Article 17.4.6.4.4)
j = coefficient for moment arm at service load stress,
f, (Article 17.4.6.4.4)
K ratio of the active unit lateral soil pres-
sure to unit vertical soil pressure-Rankines
coefficient of active earth pressure (Figures
I 7.4B-D)
M = moment acting on cross section of width, b, ser-
vice load conditions, in-lbs/ft (Taken as absolute
value in design equations, always +) (Article
17.4.6.4.4)
= service load bending moment, in-lbs/ft (Article
17.4.6.4.4)
= factored moment acting on cross section of width
b, in.-lbs/ft (Article 17.4.6.4.6.1)
n = number of layers of reinforcement in a cagei
or2 (Article 17.4.6)
N, = axial thrust acting on cross section of width
b, service load condition (-~- when com-
pressive, when tensile), lbs/ft (Article
17.4.6.4.4)
N, = factored axial thrust acting on cross section of
width b, lbs/ft (Article 17.4.6)
p = projection ratio (Article 17.4.5.2.1)
= negative projection ratio (Figure 1 7.4A and Table
17.4A)
q = ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total verti-
cal load (Article 17.4.5)
= radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (Article
17.4.6.4.3.1)
r,,j = settlement ratio (Article 17.4.5.2.1)
S. = etreumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (Article
17.4.6.4.6.1)
= spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in. (Ar-
ticle 17.4.6)
5, = internal horizontal span of pipe, in. (Articles
17.4.5 and 17.4.6)
= clear cover over reinforcement, in. (Article
17.4.6)
= basic shear strength of critical section, lbs/ft
where M/(V ,~d) = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6)
= nominal shear strength provided by width b of
concrete cross section, lbs/ft (Article 17.4.6)
= factored shear force acting on cross section of
width b, lbs/ft (Article 17.4.6.4.6)
= factored shear force at critical section, lbs/ft
where M/(V ~~d) = 3.0 (Article 17.4.6.4.6.2)
V AF = vertical arching factor (Article 17.4.4.2.1.1)
w = unit weight of soil, lbs per cubic foot (Article
17.4.4)
WE = total earth load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
17.4.4, 17.4.5, 17.6.4, and 17.7.4)
= fluid load in the pipe as determined according to
Article 17.4.4.2.2, lbs/ft
WL = total live load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
WT = total load, earth and live, on pipe or box, lbs/ft
(Articles 17.4.4 and 17.4.5)
x = parameter which is a function of the area of the
vertical projection of the pipe over which lateral
pressure is effective (Article 17.4.5)
p = coefficient of internal friction of the soil (Fig-
ure 17.4B)
p = coefficient of friction between backfill and trench
walls (Figure 17.4B)
= central angle of pipe subtended by as-
sumed distribution of external reactive force
(Figure 17.4F)
p = ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area (Ar-
tide 17.4.6)
= strength reduction factor for flexure (Article
17.4.6.4.1)
= strength reductionfactors for shear and radial ten-
sion (Article 17.4.6.4.5)
17.1.3 Loads
Design loads shall be determined by the forces acting
on the structure. For earth loads, see Article 3.20. For live
17.1.3
loads see Articles 3.4 through 3.8 and Articles 3.11 and
3.12. For loading combinations see Article 3.22.
17.1.4 Design
Design may be based on working stress or ultimate
strength principles. The design criteria shall include
structural aspects (e.g. flexure, thrust, shear), handling
and installation, and crack control. Footing design for
cast-in-place boxes and arches shall be in conformity
with Article 4.4.
17.L5 Materials
The materials shall conform tothe AASHTO materials
specifications referenced herein.
rials specifications may be used in lieu of service load
design.
173 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
173.1 Soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction
systems shall be designed to have design strengths of all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated
for the factored loads as stipulated inArticle 3.22, except
as modified herein.
17.3.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, el-
liptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge-bear-
ing tests made in accordance with AASHTO materials
specifications may be used in lieu of load factor design.
17.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE
17.1.6 Soil
Structural performance is dependent on soil structure
interaction. The type and anticipated behavior of the ma-
terial beneath the structure, adjacent to the structure, and
over the structure must be considered.
17.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions
Where abrasive or corrosive conditions exist, suitable
protective measures shall be considered.
17.1.8 End Structures
Structures may require special consideration where
erosion may occur. Skewedalignment may require special
end wall designs.
17.1.9 Construction and Installation
tion 27Division II.
17.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
17.2.1 For soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction
systems designed with reference to service loads and al-
lowable stresses, the service load stresses shall not exceed
the values shown in Article 8.15 except as modified
herein.
17.2.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe,
elliptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge-
bearing tests made in accordance with AASHTO mate-
17.4.1 Application
This Specification is intended for use indesign for pre-
cast reinforced concrete circular pipe, elliptical pipe, and
arch pipe. Standard dimensions are shown in AASHTO
Material Specifications M 170, M 206, M 207, and M 242.
Design wall thicknesses other than the standard wall di-
mensions may be used, providedthe design complies with
all applicable requirements of Section 17.
17.4.2 Materials
17.4.2.1 Concrete
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2 except that eval-
uation of f may be based on cores.
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Articles
8.3.1 through 8.3.3 only, and shall conform to one of the
followingAASHTO Material Specifications: M 31, M 32,
M 55, M 221, or M 255. For smooth wire and smooth
welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 65,000 psi and for de-
formed welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 70,000 psi
may be used.
17.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
The minimum concrete cover for the reinforcement in
precast concrete pipe shall be 1 inch in pipe having a wall
thickness of 2/2 inches or greater and /4 inch in pipe hav-
ing a wall thickness of less than 2/2 inches.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
in the Standard Installations are presented in Table
17.4C.
Standard Embankment Installations are presented in
Figure 17.4B and Standard Trench Installations are pre-
sented in Figure 17.4C; these figures define soil areas and
critical dimensions. Generic soil types, minimum com-
paction requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses
are listed in Table 17.4A for four Standard Embankment
Installation Types and in Table 17.4B for four Standard
Trench Installation Types.
17.4.3.2 Soils
The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the USCS
Soil Classifications equivalent to the generic soil types
17.4.4 Design
17.4.4.1 General Requirements
Design shall conform to applicable sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this Section.
For design loads, see Article 17.1.3; for standard installa-
tion, see Article 17.4.3.1; and for bedding conditions, see
Section 27, Division IlConstruction and the Soil-Struc-
ture Interaction Modifications that follow. Live loads, WL,
shall be included as part of the total load, WT, and shall be
distributed through the earth cover as specified in Article
6.4, except that the 2-foot minimum in the first paragraph
of Article 6.4 does not apply. Other methods for determmn-
TABLE 17.4A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Installation Type Bedding Thickness
Haunch and
Outer Bedding Lower Side
Type I B,/24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML,
3 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use B,/12 or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 6 100% CL
(150 mm).
Type 2 B,/24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 90% SW 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 3 (75 mm). Ifrock foundation, use B /12 or or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 6 95% ML 95% CL
(150 mm).
Type 3 B,/24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 3 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use B,/12 95% CL or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 6 95% CL
(150 mm).
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock No compaction required, No compaction required,
foundation, use B,/ 12(300 mm) minimum, except if CL, use except if CL, use
not less than 6(150 mm). 8 5% CL 8 5% CL
NOTES:
I . C omp aciion and soil symbols -i.e. 95% SW refer toSWsoil material with a minimum siandar d p r octor comp action of 95%.
Sec T able 17.4C for equivalent modified p r octor values.
2 . Soil in th e outer bedding, h aunch , and lower side zones, excep t with in B ,/3 fr om th e p ip e sp r ingline. sh all be comp acted toat least th e same
comp action as th e major ity of soil in th e over fill zone.
3. O nly T yp e 2 and 3 installations ar e available for h or izontal ellip tical, ver tical ellip tical and ar ch p ip e.
4. SUBTRENCHES
4.1 A subtr eneh is defined as a tr ench with its top below finish ed gr ade by mor e tI tan 0.1 H or . for r oadways, ii~ top is at an elevation lower th an
1(0.3 m) below th e bottom of th e p avement base mater ial.
4.2 T h e minimum width of a subtr ench sh all be 1.33 B ~, or wider if r equir cd for adequate sp ace toattain th e sp ecified comp action in th e h aunch
and bedding zones.
4.3 For subtr cnch es with walls of natur al soil, any p or tion of th e lower side zone in th e subtr ench wall sh all be am least as fir m as an equivalent
soil p laced toth e comp action r equir ements sp ecified for th e lower side zone and as fir m as th e major imy of soil in th e over fill lotte, or sh all be
removed and r ep laced with soil comp acted toth e sp ecified level.
358
17.4.3 Installations
17.4.3.1 Standard Installations
17.4.3
DIVISION IDESIGN
TABLE 17.4B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Haunch and
Installation Type Bedding Thickness Outer Bedding Lower Side
Type I B,/24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML,
3 (75 mm). Ifrock foundation, use B,/ 12 100% CL, or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 6 natural soils of
(150 mm). equal firmness
Type 2 Bj24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 90% SW 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 3 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use B,/12 or 95% CL, or natural
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 6 95% ML soils of equal
(150 mm). firmness
Type 3 B~/24 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 3 (75 mm). Ifrock foundation, use B.] 12 95% CL 95% CL, or natural
(300mm) minimum, not less than 6 soils of equal
(150 mm). firmness
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock No cotnpaction required, 85% SW, 90% ML
foundation, use B.] 12 (300mm) minimum, except if CL, use 95% CL, or natural
not less than 6 (150 mm). 85% CL soils of equal
firmness
NOTES:
I . C omp action and soil symbols -i.e. .95%SW-r efer s toSW soil mater ial wiih minimum standar d Pr octor comp action of 95%.
See T able 17.4C for equivalent modified Pr octor values.
2 . T h e tr ench top elevation sh all be nolower th an 0.1 1-1 below finish ed gr ade or . for r oadways, its mop sh all be nolower th an an elevation of
I tt).3 m) below th e bottom of th e p avement base mater ial.
3. O nly T yp e 2 and 3 installations ar e available for h or izontal ellip tical, ver tical ellip tical and ar ch p ip e.
4. Soil in bedding and h aunch zones sh all be comp acted toat leasi th e same comp action as sp ecified for th e major ity ofsoil in th e backfill zone.
5. T h e tr ench width sh all be wider than shown if r equir ed for adequate sp ace toattain th e sp ecified comp action in th e h aunch and bedding
zones.
6. For tr ench walls th at ar e with in I ti degr ees of ver tical. th e comp action or fir mness of th e soil in th e tr ench walls and lower side tone need
not be consider ed.
7. For tr ench walls with gr eater th an 10-degr ee slop es th at consist of embankment, th e lower side sh all be comp acted toat least th e same
comp action as sp ecified for th e soil in th e backfill zone.
ing total load and pressure distribution maybe used, if they
are based on successful design practice or tests that reflect
the appropriate design conditions.
17.4.4.2 Loads
17.4.4.2.1 Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution
The effects of soil-structure interaction shall be taken
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover.
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics of the
pipe-soil installations.
17.4.4.2.1. 1 Staimdard Installations
For the Standard Installations given in 17.4.3.1. the
earth load, Wi., may be determined by multiplying the
prism load (weight of the column of earth) over the pipes
outside diameter by the soil-structure interaction factor.
F,, for the specified installation type.
= F,wB,H (17-I)
Standard Installations for both embankments and trenches
shall be designed for positive projection, embankment
loading conditions where F~ = V AF given, in Figure
17.4A for each Type of Standard Installation.
For Standard Installations the earth pressure distribu-
tion shall be the Heger pressure distribution shown in Fig-
ure I 7.4A for each type of Standard Installation.
The unit weight of soil used to calculate earth load
shall be the estimated unit weight for the soils specified
for the pipe-soil installation and shall not be less than 110
lbs/cu ft.
17.4.4.2. 1.2 Nonstandard Installations
When nonstandard installations are used, the earth load
and pressure distribution shall he determined by an ap-
propriate soil-structure interaction analysis.
17.4.4.1
359
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 17.4C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications For SIDD Soil Designations
SIDD Soil
Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction
USCS AASHTO Standard Proctor Modified Proctor
GravellySand SW,SP AI,A3 100 95
(SW) GW, GP 95 90
90 85
85 80
80 75
61 59
Sandy Silt (ML) GM, SM, ML A2, A4 100 95
Also GC, SC 95 90
with less than 20% 90 85
passing No. 200 sieve 85 80
80 75
49 46
Silty Clay (CL) GL, MH, GC, SC A5, A6 100 90
95 85
90 80
85 75
80 70
45 40
CH A7 100 90
95 85
90 80
45 40
17.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight
The weight of fluid, W
5 in the pipe shall be considered
in design based on a fluid weight of 62.4 lbs/ft
3, unless
otherwise specified. For Standard Installations, the fluid
weight shall be supported by vertical earth pressure that
is assumed to have the same distribution over the lower
part of the pipe as given in Figure 17.4A for earth load.
17.4.4.2.3 Live Loads
Live loads shall be either the AASHTO HS-Series or
the AASHTO Interstate Design truck loads. Live loads
shall be distributed through the earth cover as specified in
Article 6.4, except that the 2-foot minimum in the first
paragraph of Article 6.4 does not apply. For Standard In-
stallations the live load on the pipe shall be assumed to
have a uniform vertical distribution across the top of the
pipe and the same distribution across the bottom of the
pipe as given in Figure 17.4A for earth load.
17.4.4.3 Minimum Fill
For unpaved areas and under flexible pavements,
the minimum fill over precast reinforced concrete pipe
shall be 1 foot or ~ of the diameter or rise, whichever is
greater. Under rigid pavements, the distance between the
top of the pipe and the bottom of the pavement slab shall
be a minimum of 9 inches of compacted granular fill.
17.4.4.4 Design Methods
The structural design requirements of installed precast
reinforced concrete pipe may be determined by either the
Indirect or Direct Method.
17.4.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe
Strength and Load-Carrying Capacity
17.4.5.1 Loads
The design load-carrying capacity of a reinforced con-
crete pipe must equal the design load determined for the
pipe as installed, or
~~l21~WF + W~ WL
______ + (17-2)
360 1 7 . 4 . 4 . 2 . 2
17.4.5.1 DIVISIONIDESIGN
I
VAFg
4
HAF
~
361
V
VA?

P .2 P .3 A4 AS A6 a b C 6 f U V
A
Al Iauaflada.T~e HAP
L~ GAS W 0.73 LII 0.19 GAS 0.3 1.40 GAG 0.3 0.05 0.0 GAO GAG
2 2.40 GAG 0.5 0.55 1.40 0.15 O.K 0.17 1.45 0.40 0.19 0.10 0.0 0.8 2 0.~
3 UG 0.37 1.0 0.15 lAO 0.10 0.10 0.17 1.45 0.36 0.3 0.12 0.0 G.M GAG
4 1.45 0.3
1.450001.450.130.110.191.450.30 OZ 0.00 0.90

N O T E S:
I . V A F and HA F ar e ver tical and h or izontal ar ch ing factor s. T h ese coefficients r ep r esent nondimensional total ver tical and h or izontal loads on th e p ip e.
r esp ectively. T h e actual total ver tical and h or izontal loads ar e (V A F) X (PL) and (HA F) X (PL). r esp ectively, wh er e PL is th e p r ism load.
2 . C oefficients A l th r ough A 6 r ep r esent th e integr ation of nondimensional ver tical and h or izontal comp onents of soil p r essur e under th e indicated
p or tions of th e comp onent p r essur e diagr ams (i.e., th e ar ea under th e comp onent p r essur e diagr ams). T h e p r essur es ar e assumed tovar y eith er p ar a-
bolically or linear ly, as sh own, with th e nondimensional magnitudes am goveming p oints r ep r esented by h , h ~, oh ,, vh
1, a and b. N ondimensional h or -
izontal and ver tical dimensions of comp onent p r essur e r egions ar e defined bye, d, e, uc, vd, and fcocfficients.
3. d is calculated as (0.5 c-c)
h is calculated as(l.5A 1)/(e) (I u)
h ~ is calculated as (1.5 A 2 ) / [(d) (I + v) + (2 e)l.
FIGURE 17.4A Fleger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors
STANDARD EMBANKMENT INSTALLATIONS
U
B edd.nq See Table 17.4A
O uler B edding
mater.al and
canip acion each
side, same
e~jWenients
as haunch
I
Haunch See Table 17.4A
Lower Side See Table 1 7.4A
FIGURE 17.4B
STANDARD TRENCH INSTALLATIONS
OveriW - SW. ML. or CL
B c
16 IM )
~ ~oundatsan
Mid~e Bedding
loosely placed
uncampacted bedding
excep t for T~pe 4
.uvwli - SW. ML or Ci.
Sed~q-See
Oulw Seding
metwl~ and
ceinpctian each
eel~
reQ .n1t3
as ham~ch
Escavatman line as
requwed
Faundation
Haunch See Table 17.4B
Side See Table 17.4B
FIGURE 17.4C
where:
D = D-loadof the pipe (three edge-bearing test load
expressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of
diameter) to produce a 0.01-inch crack. For
Type 1 installations, D-load as calculated
above shall be modified by multiplying by an
installation factor of I . 10;
5, = internal diameter or horizontal span of the pipe
in tnches;
B, = bedding factor, see Article 17.4.5.2;
BF. = earth load bedding factor;
BELL = live load bedding factor;
WT = WE WL;
= total load on the pipe as determined according
to Article 17.4.4;
WE = earth load on the pipe as determined according
to Article 17.4.4;
= fluid load in the pipe as determined according
to 17.4.4.2.2;
= live load on the pipe as determined according
to Article 17.4.4.
17.4.5.1.1 Ultimate D-load
The required D-load at which the pipe develops its ul-
timate strength in a three-edge-bearing test is the design
D-load (at 0.01-inch crack) multiplied by a strength fac-
tor that is specified in AASHTO materials specifications
M 170 or M 242 (ASTM C 76 or C 655) for Circular pipe,
M 206 (ASTM C 506) for Arch Pipe and M 207 (ASTM
C 507) for Elliptical Pipe.
17.4.5.2 Bedding Factor
The bedding factor, B,, is the ratio of the supporting
strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe deter-
mnined in the three-edge-bearing test. The supporting
strength of buried pipe depends on the type of Standard
Installation. See figures 17.4B and 17.4C for circular pipe
and figures 17.4D and 17.4E for other arch and elliptical
shapes. The tables I 7.4A and I 7.4B apply tocircular, arch
and elliptical shapes.
17.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular
Pipe
B fe = C A
CN xq
(17-3)
V alues for C A and CN are listed in Table 17.4D.
CA = a constant corresponding to the shape of the
pipe;
CN = a parameter which is a function of the distribu-
tion of the vertical load and vertical reaction;
x = a parameter which is a function of the area of the
vertical projection of the pipe over which lateral
pressure is effective;
q = the ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total
vertical fill load.
17.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor
The bedding factors for live load, WL, for both Circu-
lar pipe and Arch and Elliptical pipe are given in Table
I 7.5F. If B,~ is less than Bfl L use B,, instead of B,, L for the
live load bedding factor.
Design values for CA, CN, and x are found in Table
17.4D. The value of q is determined by the following
equations:
Arch and Horizontal Elliptical Pipe:
q =.232.j1 + .35pi~4~;~ (17-4)
V ertical Elliptical Pipe:
(17-5)
where:
p = projection ratio, ratio of the vertical distance
between the outside top of the pipe and the
ground or bedding surface to the outside ver-
tical height of the pipe;
17.4.5.2.4 Intermediate Tre,mch Widths
For intermediate trench widths, the bedding factor may
be estimated by interpolation between the narrow trench
and transition width bedding factors.
Earth load bedding factors, B,,, for circular pipe are
presented in Table 17.4E.
17.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factorfrr Arch and
Elliptical Pipe
The bedding factor for installations of arch and ellip-
tical pipe, Figures 17.4D and 17.4E, is:
17.4.6 Direct Design Method Based on Pressure
Distribution
17.4.6.1 Loads
The total load on the pipe shall be determined accord-
ing to Article 17.4.4 and Table 3.22.1 A.
17.4.6.1
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Onerln Sw.
Sp~ng Line
Bedding See Table lT4B-.j I I
Outer Bedding I I
materials and
comp action each
side, some
requirements
as haunch
roundaton
Z I
llouflCh
See Table 1748
Lower Side
See Table 17 48
Middle Bedding
loosely placed
uncompacied bedding
LEG END:
Ac Outside Diameter
H Backlill rooer above
top of pipe
O~erliIl SW. ML. or
Ed
Spring Line
Bedding See Table 17.48
0.4cr Bedding II
materials and
compaction each
side, same
r equir ements
as na
0ncr r oundatan
HORIZONTAL ELLIP TiCAL P IP E
Bedding
17.48
~ wer Side
Table 1748
LEG END;
Bc = Outside Diameter
H Backfill rouer abOuC
top at p p e
ARCH P IP E
FIGURE 17.4DTrench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
The pressure distribution on the pipe from ap-
plied loads and bedding reaction shall be determined
from a soil-structure analysis, or shall be a rational ap-
proximation. For possible pressure diagrams, see Figure
17.4F.
17.4.6.2 Strength-Reduction Factors
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design
of plant made reinforced concrete pipe may be taken
as 1 .0 for flexure and 0.9 for shear and radial tension.
For Type I installations, the strength-reduction factor
shall be 0.9 for flexure and 0.82 for shear and radial
tension.
17.4.6.3 Process and Material Factors
Process and material factors F~ for radial tension and
~ for shear strength for load factor design of plant made
reinforced concrete pipe are conservatively taken as 1.0.
Higher values may be used if substantiated by appropriate
test data approved by the Engineer.
17.4.6.4.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength
A~f) sg~fdN0
g[g(t~fd)
2N~(2tt~dh)2MU] (17-6)
364
Middle Bedding
loosely placed
uncOmpadted beading
LEG END:
H = Backfill couer ooo~e
top of pipe
VERTiCAL ELLIP liCALP IP E
Overfill - SW. ML.
roundalion
DIV ISION IDESIGN
Overfill SW. ML. or CL
Bc/B(Min. Ac Bc(Mn.)
Haunch
Lire See Table t7.4A
Spring ~ Loser Side
See Table 1 7.4A
Bedding See Table 174A~J
O uter Bedding
materials and
compaction each Bc/3
side, same
requirements Foundation
as haunch
Middle Bedding
loosely placed
uncomp octed bedding
LEG END:
H Backlill caoer abdue
top at pipe
Overfill SW. ML. or CL 1
H
Bc,B(Min.) Bc Bc l.lin.
Haunch
See Table 17.4A
L,ne Laser Side
Sp r ing ~ See Table 1 7.4A
Bedding See Table t7.4A.J Middle Bedding
Outer Bedding loosely placed
materials and Bc uncampacted bedding
compaction each
side. so me
requireme nrs
as haunch
Foundation LEG END:
H = Backfill caoer abouc
top ot pipe
HORIZONTALELLIP TiCALP IP E VERTiCAL ELUP TiCAL P IP E
Bc/6 Mm. Bc H
Haunch
bOle I? 4A
Loser Side
~n
.
Spi nq ii2Z\u, See Table 17AA
Bedding See Table 17.4A Jl
Outer Bedding
materials and Bc/3 ____
compaction each
side, same
requirements Foundation
as haunch
~~Middte Bedding
loosely placed
uncompacted bedding
LEG END:
H = Backfill caner abone
tap of pipe
ARCHP IP E
FIGURE 17.4E Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
where g = 0.85 bf,~
17.4.6.4.2 Minimum Rei,4~rcement
For inside face of pipe:
A, = (5, -I- h)
2165,000
For outside face of pipe:
A, = 0.65 (5, + h)2165,000
h = wall thickness in inches;
S = internal diameter or horizontal span of pipe in
inches.
In no case shall the minimum reinforcement be less
(17-7) than 0.07 square inches per linear foot.
17.4.6.4.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement
Without Stirrups
17.4.6.4.3.1 Limited b-y Radial Tension
Inside A, max ~ = ~ (17-10)
(17-8)
For elliptical reinforcement in circular pipe and for
pipe 33-inch diameter and smaller with a single cage of
reinforcement in the middle third of the pipe wall:
17.4.6.4.1
.s,in~ in
365
where:
A, = 2 (5, + h)2/65,000 (17-9)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 17.4D Design Values of Parameters in
___________Bedding Factor Equation
V alues
ofCA
Type of V alues Projection V alues
Pipe Shape Bedding ofCN Ratio of x
1 . 3 3 7 Type 2 0.630 0.9 0.421
0.7 0.369
Type 3 0.763 0.5 0.268
0.3 0.148
Type 2 0.516 0.9
0. 7
1.02 1 Type 3 0.615 0.5
0. 3
0.718
0.639
t).457
0.238
17.4.6.4.4 Crack Width Control
30,00OdA,~~ [M. + N.jd 0 C,bh
2 fj
(17-12)
where:
Fcr = crack control factor, see Note c;
= bending moment, service load;
N, = thrust (positive when compressive), service load.
If the service load thrust, N, is tensile rather than com-
pressive (this may occur in pipes subject to intermittent
hydrostatic pressure), use the quantity (l.IM,0.6N,d)
(with tensile N, taken negative) in place of the quantity
([M, + N,(d h12)]Iji) in Equation (17-12).
where:
= maximum flexural reinforcement area without
stirrups in in.2/ft;
F,,, = 1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by test
data is approved by the Engineer;
= radius of the inside reinforcement in
inches.
17.4.6.4.3.2 Limitedhv Concrete Compression
A max. f 5.5xl0~g~fd] 0.75N
0
L (87,000+f~) 7
(17- II)
j ~0.74+0.leld;
= 0.9;
C
M h
e
N 2
eldmi. = 1.15;
tb = clear cover over reinforcement in inches
h = wall thickness of pipe in inches;
B~ and C, = crack control coefficients dependent on
type of reinforcement used as follows:
= bfFO 85 0.05 (f: 4,000)7
C L.- 1,000 7
=0.85bf,~ and ~ =0.65 bf~
Type Reinforcement:
Equation (1712) (Y )ttrifljfes on page 367.
TABLE 17.4E Bedding Factors For Circular Pipe
Pi p e Di a m et er , i n .
Standard Installations
Typ e I Typ e 2 Typ e 3 Typ e 4
12 4.4 3.2 2.5 1.7
24 4.2 3.0 2.4 1.7
36 4.0 2.9 2.3 1.7
72 3.8 2.8 2.2 1.7
144 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.7
/~inQ 7f.>
For p ip e diameter s oth er th an listed, embankment condition bedding factor s, B ,. can be obtained by inter p olation.
B edding factor , ar e based on soils being p laced with th e minilttulll er lolp action sp ecified in T ables I 7.4A and I 7.4B for each Standar d
lostal lation
366
17.4.6.4.3.1
Horizontal
Ellipt i-
cal and
Arch
V ert ical
Elliptical
where:
B, C,
0.5t~s1
n
1.0
DIV ISION IDESIGN
I. Smooth wire or plain bars
2. Welded smooth wire fabric, 8
inches maximum spacing of longi-
tudinals
3. Welded deformed wire fabric,
deformed wire, deformed bars or
any reinforcement with stirrups
anchored thereto.
1.0 1.5
367
1.0, the probability of a crack greater than 0.01 inch is
increased.
d. Higher values for C, may be used if substantiated
by test data and approved by the Engineer.
17.4.6.4.5 Shear Strength
1.9
where:
5 , = spacing of circumferential reinforcement in inches.
Notes:
a. Use n = I when the inner and the outer cages are
each a single layer. Use n = 2 when the inner and the
outer cages are each made up from multiple layers.
b. For type 2 reinforcement having (t~sO/n > 3, also
check F., using coefficients B, and C, for type 3 rein-
forcement, and use larger value for F
0~.
c. When For = 1.0, the reinforcement area, A,, will
produce an average crack maximum width of 0.01
inch. For F0, values less than 1.0, the probability of a
0.01-inch crack is reduced. For F0, values greater than
The area of reinforcement, A,, determined in Article
17.4.6.4.1 or 17.4.6.4.4 must be checked for shear
strength adequacy, so that the basic shear strength, V 5, is
greater than the factored shear force, V 00, at the critical
section located where MIV u~,d = 3.0.
[ Fd 1
V h = ~ \/i~(l.l + 63p) I (17-13)
[FC F~ J
where:
Vh = shear strength of section where M5/V 0~,d =
3.0;
= 1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by test
data is approved by the Engineer;
A
,
p
4,bd
= 0.02;
TABLE 17.4F Bedding Factors, BLI, For 11S20 Live Loadings
FillHeight,Ft
Pipe Diameter, in.
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 144
0.5 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.0 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.5 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1
2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
2.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3
3.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.4
3.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4
4.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5
4.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7
5.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8
5.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9
6.() 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0
6.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2
N O T E : For p ip e diameter s (lih er th an listed, B 1 values can be obtained by inter p olation.
17.4.6.4.4
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 368
17.4.6.4.4
FIGURE 17.4F Suggested Design Pressure Distribution
Around a Buried Concrete Pipe for Analysis by Direct Design
ES~NTl~ F~ATtAS ~ P IP ES U fl6T~LAflWi
nT-?
N
/
in<
N
/ /
N
/
/
9e
/ 5
.5
T O P LW LI I B A WI fE N T
T l)f*E .LE D
I foA r ivE Ptto.E cT tfJO
DEAWJENT
FIGURE 17.4G Essential Features of Types of Installation.
17.6.4.5
DIV ISION IDESIGN
369
TOP OF EMBANKMENT
\~7K7KI7K
77KyK~Z777\~Y 77KR~77
a It
ii
I I
: 1
I~ I
I
Ig ~
II
I
W,=F,,wB,H
II I,
I. Ii
IV IV V
H
pB~
FIGURE 17.4H General Relationship of Vertical Earth Load and Lateral Pressure
.~ = 7,000 psi;
1.6
F
1 = 0.8 + Ed ax = 1.25;
~x d
F. = __
____ (+) tension on the inside of the pipe 2r ~ tension on the outside of the pipe;
( N5 (N 5)2
E N =0.5 ) + 0.25
6V .
If V 5 is less than V ~, radial stirrups must be provided.
See Article 17.4.6.4.6.
17.4.6.4.6 Radial Stirrup.s
17.4.6.4.6.1 Radial Tension Stirrups
l.lS,(M5 0.45 N~k,d
)
f,r.A~d
(17-14)
where:
A5, = required area of stirrup reinforcement for
radial tension;
370
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
17.4.6.4.6
S = circumferential spacing of stirrups (Sx
0.75f~xd);
= maximum allowable strength of stirrup ma-
terial ( f m a n = f
5, or anchorage strength,
whichever is less).
17.4.6.4.6.2 Shear Stirrups
1.1S5 [V aFc~4~sV ci+Axr (17-15)
fx,ttls.d
= 17.5 REINFORCED CONCRETEARCH, CAST-
IN-PLACE
17.5.1 Application
This specification is intended for use in the design of
cast-in-place reinforced concrete arches withthe arch bar-
rel monolithic with each footing. A separate reinforced
concrete invert may be required where the structure is sub-
ject to scour.
17.5.2 Materials
where:
= required area of stirrups for shear reinforce-
ment;
V a = factored shear force at section;
17.5.2.1 Concrete
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2.
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Article
8 .3.
r o a n =2(~)xbd \/i~
17.5.3 Design
17.4.6.4.6.3 Stirrup Reinft.rcement Anchorage
17.4.6.4.6.3.1 Radial Tension Stirrup Anchorage
When stirrups are used to resist radial tension, they
shall be anchored around each circumferential of the in-
side cage to develop the design strength of the stirrup, and
they shall also be anchored around the outside cage, or
embedded sufficiently in the compression side to develop
the design strength of the stirrup.72
17.4.6.4.6.3.2 ShearStirrup Anchorage
When stirrups are not requiredfor radial tension but re-
quired for shear, their longitudinal spacing shall be such
that they are anchoredaround each or every other tension
circumferential. Such spacings shall not exceed 6 inches
(ISO mm).
17.4.6.4.6.3.3 Stirrup Enmbeddment
Stirrups intended to resist forces in the invert and
crown regions shall be anchored sufficiently in the oppo-
site side of the pipe wall to develop the design strength of
the stirrup.
17.4.6.4.6.3.4 Other Provisions
Section 8.27. Development of Shear Reinforcement,
does not apply to pipe designed according toprovisions of
Section 17.4.5.
Design shall conform to these specifications except as
provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads and
loading conditions, see Article 3.2. For reinforced con-
crete design requirements see Section 8.
The minimum fill over reinforced concrete arches shall
be 12 inches or SpanI8.
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of
cast-in-place arches may be taken as 0.90 for flexure and
0.85 for shear.
17.5.3.4 Splices of Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be in conformity with Art-
ide 8.33.1.1. If lap splicing is used, laps shall be stag-
gered with a minimum of 1 foot measured along the cir-
cumference of the arch. Ties shall be provided connect-
ing the intrados and extrados reinforcement. Ties shall be
at 12-inch maximum spacing, in both longitudinal and
circumferential directions, except as modified by shear.
4V 8
= Mu +1
V a~xd
17.5.3.5
DIVISION IDESIGN
371
17.5.3.5 Footing Design
Design shall include consideration of differential hor-
izontal and vertical movements and footing rotations.
Footing design shall conform to Article 4.4.
17.6 REINFORCED CONCRETEBOX ,
CAST-IN-PLACE
17.6.1 Application
This specitication is intended for use in the design of
cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts.
17.6.2 Materials
17.6.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for Soil
Structure Interaction
The effects of soil structure interaction shall be taken
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover,
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics.. These
parameters may be determined by a soil-structure interac-
tion analysis of the system. The loads given inArticle 6.2
may be used, if they are multiplied by a soil-structure in-
teraction factor, F
0, that accounts for the type and condi-
tions of installation as definedin Figure 1 7.6A, so that the
total earth load, W~ on the box section is:
= F0wB~H
(17-16)
F0 may be determined by the Marston-Spangler Theory of
earth loads, as follows:
17.6.4.2.1 Embankment Installations
17.6.2.1 Concrete
uation of f may be based on test beams.
8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield strength of
65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the spacing of
longitudinal wires shall be a maximtmmn of 8 inches.
17.6.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement shall
conform to Article 8.22. The top slab shall be considered
a bridge slab for concrete cover considerations.
H
F0 = 1 -t 0.20
B0
(17-17)
F,, need not be greater than 1.15 for installations with
compacted fill at the sides of the box section, and need not
be greater than 1.4 for installations with Lmncompacted till
at the sides of the box seetton.
17.6.4.2.2 Trench Installatiotts
(17-18)
F02 = CdB3
HB,
V alues of C~ can be obtained from Figure 17.4B for nor-
mally encountered soils. The maximum value of F<~ need
not exceed F01.
The soil-structure interaction factor, F0, is not applica-
ble if the Service Load Design Method is used.
17.6.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load
Effects to Bottom Slab
Designs shall conform to applicable sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this See-
tion. For design loads and loading conditions see Section
3. For distribution of concentrated loads through earth for
culverts with less than 2 feet of cover, see Article 3.24.3,
Case B, and for requirements for bottom distribution re-
inforcement in top slabs of such culverts see Article
3.24.10. For distribution of wheel loads to culverts with 2
feet or more of cover see Article 6.4. For reinforced con-
crete design requirements, see Section 8.
The width of top slab strip used for distribution of con-
centrated wheel loads may be increased by twice the box
height and used for the distribution of loads to the bottom
slab.
17.6.4.4 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in
Skewed Culverts
Wheel loads on skewed culverts shall be distributed
using the same provisions as given for etllverts with main
reinforcement parallel to traffic.
17.6.4 Design
Backf ill
Existing
Ground
Leveling Course
Fine Granu lar
Fill M at erial 2 mm.
EMBANKMENTCONDITION
C ON C RETE BOX SEC TION S
FIGURE 17.6A
17.6.4.5 Span Length
For span length, see Article 8.8, except when mono-
lithic haunches included at 45 degrees are considered
in the design, negative moment reinforcement in walls
and slabs may be proportioned based on the bending mo-
ment at the intersection of haunch and the uniform depth
member.
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design may
be taken at 0.9 for combined flexure and thrust and as 0.85
for shear.
17.6.4.7 Crack Control
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing
steel for crack control shall be:
98
~d~A ksi
17.6.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement shall be provided in accor-
dance with Article 8.17.1 at all cross sections subject to
flexural tension, including the inside face of walls. Shrink-
age and temperature reinforcement shall be provided near
the inside surfaces of walls and slabs in accordance with
Article 8.20.
17.7 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX,
PRECAST
17.7.1 Application
This specification is intended for use in design for pre-
cast reinforced concrete box sections. Boxes may be man-
ufactured using conventional structural concrete and
forms (formed) or with dry concrete and vibrating form
pipe-making methods (machine made). Standard dimen-
sions are shown in AASHTO Materials Specification M
259 and M 273.
17.7.2 Materials
17.7.2.1 Concrete
Concrete shall conform toArticle 8.2 except that eval-
uation of f~ may be based on cores.
(17-19) 8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield strength of
65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the spacing of
longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of 8 inches.
17.7.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement in
boxes reinforced with wire fabric shall be three times the
wire diameter but not less than 1 inch. For boxes covered
by less than 2 feet of fill, the minimum cover for retn-
forcement in the top of the slab shall be 2 inches.
TRENCHCONDITION
17.7.4
DIV ISION IDESIGN
373
17.7.4 Design
Design shall conform to applicable sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this Section.
For design loads and loading conditions see Section 3. For
distribution of wheel loads to culvert slabs under less than
2 feet of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B, and for require-
ments for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of such cul-
verts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of wheel loads to
culvert slabs with 2 feet or more of cover, see Article 6.4.
For reinforced concrete design requirements see Sec-
tion 8. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted in
Article 17.7.4.6.
17.7.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for
Soil-Structure Interaction
The effects of soil-structure interaction shall be taken
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover,
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics. These
parameters may be determined by a soil-structure interac-
tion analysis of the system. The loads given in Article 6.2
may be used, if they are multiplied by a soil-structure in-
teraction factor, F~, that accounts for the type and condi-
tions of installation as defined in Figure I 7.6A, so that the
total earth load, WE, on the box section ts:
WE = F~wB~H
F~ may be determined by the Marston-Spangler Theory of
earth loads as follows:
17.7.4.2.1 Embankment Installations:
H
Fet = I +0.20
B,
need not be greater than 1.15 for installations with
compacted fill at the sides of the box section, and need not
be greater than 1 .4 for installations with uncompacted fill
at the sides of the box section.
17.7.4.2.2 Trench Installations:
C dB ~
HB.
V alues of C~ can be obtained from Figure 17.4B for nor-
mally encountered soils. The maximum value of F~
2 need
not exceed ~
The soil-structure interaction factor F,., is not applica-
ble if the Service Load Design Method is used.
17.7.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load
Effects in Sides and Bottoms
The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of
concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determi-
nation of bending moments, shears, and thrusts in the
sides and bottoms.
Skewed Culverts
using the same provisions as given for culverts with main
reinforcement parallel to traffic.
17.7.4.5 Span Length
When monolithic haunches inclined at 45 degrees are
taken into account, negative reinforcement in walls and
slabs may be proportioned based on the bending moment
at the intersection of haunch and uniform depth member.
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of ma-
chine-made boxes may be taken as 1.0 for moment and 0.9
(17-20) for shear.
(17-21)
98
(17-23)
d,A
17.7.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of
the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to0.002. Such minimum
reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sections sub-
ject to flexural tension, at the inside face of walls~, and in
(17-22) each direction at the top of slabs of box sections with less
than 2 feet of fill. The provisions of Article 8.20 do not
apply to precast concrete box sections, except if units of
unusual length (over 16 ft) are fabricated, the minimum
longitudinal reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
should be as provided inArticle 8.20.
17.8 PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE
THREE-SIDED STRUCTURES
17.8 .1 Application
This specification is intended for use in design for pre-
cast reinforced concrete three-sided structures supported
on a concrete footing foundation. Units may be manufac-
tured using conventional structural concrete and forms
(formed) or machine made using low slump concrete and
vibrating forms.
17.8 .2 Materials
17.8 .2.1 Concrete
uation of fC may also be based on cores.
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Art-
ide 8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield
strength of 65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the
spacing of longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of
8 inches. Circumferential welded wire fabric spacing
shall not exceeed a 4-inch maximum and 2-inch mini-
mum. Prestressing if used, shall be in accordance with
Section 9.
17.8 .3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement
in precast three-sided structures reinforced with welded
wire fabric shall be three times the wire diameter but
not less than 1 inch. For precast three-sided structures cov-
ered by less than 2 feet of fill, the minimum cover for the
reinforcement in the top of the top slab shall be 2 inches.
17.8 .4 Geometric Properties
The shape of the precast three-sided structures may
vary in span, rise, wall thickness, haunch dimensions and
curvature. Specific geometric properties shall be specified
by the manufacturer. Wall thicknesses, however, shall be
a minimum of 8 inches for spans under 24 feet and 10
inches for 24-foot spans and larger.
17.8 .5 Design
17.8 .5.1 General Requirements
Designs shall conform to applicable Sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this Sec-
tion. For design loads and loading conditions see Section
3. For distribution of wheel loads to culvert surfaces under
less than 2 feet of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B. For re-
quirements for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of such
culverts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of wheel
loads to culvert surfaces with 2 feet or more of cover, see
Article 6.4.
For reinforced concrete design requirements see Sec-
tion 8 and for prestress concrete design requirements see
Section 9. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted
in Article 17.8.5.5. Design analysis shall be based on a
pinned (hinged) connection at the footing and take into ac-
count footing movement, see Article 17.8.5.10.
17.8 .5.2 Distribution of Concentrated Load
Effects in Sides
The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of
concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determina-
tion of bending moments, shears, and thrusts in the sides.
Skewed Culverts
using the same provisions as given for culverts with main
reinforcement parallel to traffic. For culvert elements with
skews greater than 150, the effect of the skew shall be con-
sidered in analysts.
17.8 .5.4 Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints
Between Culvert Sections
Eachprecast three-sided structure is analyzed indepen-
dently with no shear or stress transfer assumed between
sections. As no shear transfer is assumed between sections,
distribution width for a wheel load must be limited to the
unit width. Flat top structures with shallow cover may ex-
perience differential deflection of adjacent units which can
cause pavement cracking if a shear key is not utilized.
17.8 .5.5 Span Length
When monolithic haunches inclined at 45 degrees are
taken into account, negative reinforcement in walls and
slabs may be proportioned based on the bending moment
at the intersection of the haunch and uniform depth
member.
17.8 .5.6 Strength-Reduction Factor
These structures shall be designed by load factor
design and the maximum strength-reduction factors
shall be 0.95 for combined flexure and thrust and 0.9
17.8.5.6
DIV ISION IDESIGN
375
for shear. See Section 8 and Section 9 for factors used
for cast-in-place and prestressedcomponents, respectively.
tions in urban areas used in part by pedestrians, the ratio
shall not exceed /n~.
98 ksi
d~A
(17-24)
17.8 .5.8 Minimum Reinforcement
17.8.5.10 Footing Design
Design shall include consideration of differential hor-
izontal and vertical movements and footing rotations.
Footing design shall conform toArticle 4.4.
17.8 .5.11 Structure Backfill
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of
the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.002. Such minimum
reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sections sub-
ject to flexural tension, at the inside face of walls, and in
each direction at the top of slabs of three-sided sections
with less than 2 feet of fill. The provisions of Article 8.20
do not apply to precast three-sided structures.
17.8 .5.9 Deflection Control
Live load deflection of the top section in three-sided
structures shall not exceed Ye of the span, except for see-
Different backfill may be required depending on de-
sign assumptions. However, a minimum backfill com-
paction requirement of 90% standard proctor density
should be achieved to prevent roadway settlement adja-
cent to the structure. A higher backfill compaction density
may be required on structures utilizing a soil-structure in-
teractIon system.
17.8 .5.12 Scour Protection
Consideration should be given to scour susceptibility.
Footing protection should be designed accordingly.
Section 18
SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
18 .1 GENERAL
18.1.3 Loads
18.1.1 Scope
The specifications of this section are intended for the
structural design of plastic pipes. It must be recognized
that a buried plastic pipe is a composite structure made up
of the plastic ring amid the 5 0i 1 envelope, and that both ma-
terials play a vital part in the structural desigmi of plastic
pipe.
Design load, P. shall be the pressure actingon the str Ltc-
ture. For earth pressures see Article 3.20. For live load see
Articles 3.4 to 3.7, 3.11, 3.12, and 6.4, except that the
words ~When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more in Article
6.4.1 need not be considered. For loading combinations
see Article 3.22.
18.1.4 Design
18.1.2 Notations
A area of pipe wall in square inches/foot (Articles
18.2.1 and 18.3.1)
B = water buoyancy factor (Articles 18.2.2 and
18.3.2)
c = distance from inside surface to neutral axis (Arti-
des 18.2.2. 18.3.2, and 18.4.2)
= effective diameter = ID -t- %
F = modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles
18.2.2 and 18.3.2)
FE = flexibility factor (Articles 18.2.3 and 18.3.3)
= allowable stress-specified minimum tensile
strength divided by safety factor (Article
18.2.1)
= critical bLickling stress (Articles 18.2.2 and
18.3.2)
= specified minimum tensile strent~th (Articles
18.2.1, 18.3.1. and 18.3.2)
= average niomnent of inertia, per unit length. of
cross section of the pipe wall (Articles 18.2.2.
18.2.3. and 18.3.3)
II) inside diameter (Articles 18.2.2. 189.2, arid
18.4.2)
= soil modttlus (Articles 18.2.2. 18.3.2)
O[) = outside diameter (Article 18.4.2)
design load (Article 18.1.4)
SF = safety factor (Article 18.2.1)
I = thrust (Article 18.1.4)
I, = thrtmst. load factor (Article 18.3.1)
T = thrust, service load (Article 18.2.1)
o = capacity modification factor (Article 18.3.1)
18.1.4.1 The thrust in the wall shall be checked by
two criteria. Each considers the mutual function of the
plastic wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The cri-
teria are:
(a) Wall area
(b) Buckling stress
18.1.4.2 The thrust in the wall is:
D
T=PX
in)
(18-I)
where:
P = design load, in poumids per square foot:
D = diameter in feet;
T = thrust, in pounds per foot.
18.1.4.3 Handlintz amid installation strentzth shall be
sufficiemit to withstand impact forces when shipping and
placimig the pipe.
18 .1.5 Materials
The materials shall conformii to the AASI]TO and
ASTM specificatiomis referenced heremn.
18 .1.6 Soil Design
18 .1.6.1 Soil Parameters
The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on
soil stnmcture interaction amid soil stiffness.
377
The following must be considered:
(a) Soils:
I ) The type and anticipated behavior of the founda-
tion soil must be considered; i.e.. stability for bedding
and settlement tinder load.
(2) The type, compacted density, and strength proper-
lies of the envelope immediately adjacent to the pipe
tnust be established.
Good side fill is obtained from a granular material
with little or no plasticity and free of organic material.
mc.., AASHT() classification groups A-I. A-2. and A-3,
et)mpacted to a minimum 90 percent of standard den-
sity based on AASHTO Specifications T 99 (ASTM
U 698).
(3) The density of the embankment material above the
pipe must be determined. See Article 6.2.
(b) l)imensions of envelope
V he general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
the culvert envelope are as follows:
(I) Trench installationsthe minimum trench width
shall provide sufficient space between the pipe and the
trench wall to ensure sufficient working room to prop-
erly and safely place and compact backfill material. As
a guide. the minimum trench width should not be less
than the greater of the pipe diameter plus 16.0 in.. or
the pipe diameter times 1.5 plus 12.0 in. The use of
specially designed equipment may enable satisfactory
installation and embedment even in narrower trenches.
(2) Etnbanktnent installationsthe minimum width
of the soil envelope shall be sufficient to ensure lateral
restraint for the buried structure. The combined width
of the soil envelope and embankment beyond shall be
adequate to support all the loads on the pipe. As a
guide. the width of the soil envelope on each side of the
pipe should be the pipe diameter or 2.0 ft. whichever is
less.
(3) The minimum upper limit of the soil envelope is I
foot above the culvert.
18 .1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions
Extra thickness may be required for resistance to abra-
sion. For highly abrasive conditions, a special design may
be required.
18 .1.8 Minimum Spacing
When multiple lines of pipes greater than 48 inches
in diameter are used, they shall be spaced so that the sides
of the pipe shall be no closer than one-half diameter or
3 feet. whichever is less, to permit adequate compaction
of backfill material. For diameters up to and including
48 inches, the minimum clear spacing shall not be less
than 2 feet.
18 .1.9 End Treatment
Protection of end slopes may require special consider-
ation where backwater conditions may occur, or where
erosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends con-
stitute a major runotT-the road hazard if not properly de-
signed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adeLluate
grating that conforms to the etnbankment slope, extension
of etmlvert length beyond the point of hazard, or provision
of guardrails. is among the alternatives to he considered.
End walls on skewed aligmiment reqttire a special design.
18 .1.14) Construction and Installation
tion 26Division II.
18 .2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
Service Load Design is a working stresr method, as
traditionally used for culvert design.
18 .2.1 Wall Area
A = Tjf,
where:
A = required wall area in square inches per foot:
thrust, service load in pounds per foot:
= allowable stress. specitied minimum tensile
strength, pounds per square inch. divided by
safety factor, fJSF. (For. SF. see Artiele
18.4,1.2.)
18 .2.2 Buckling
Walls within the required wall area. A. shall be checked
for possible buckling. If the allowable buckling stress.
17SF, is less than I , . the reqtmired area must he recalculated
using 17SF in lieu of f~. The formtila for buckling is:
= 9.24 (R/A) \ BMx EI/0.149R
where:
B = water buoyancy factor or
= I 0.33h /h;
height of water surface above top of pipe:
h = height of ground surface above top of pipe:
F = Long term (50-year) modulus of elasticity of the
plastic in pounds per sqttare inch;
= soil modulus in pounds per square inch:
= 1700 for side fills meeting Article 18.1.6:
f x r = critical buckling stress in pounds per square inch;
18.2.2
DIV ISION IDESIGN
379
R = effective radius in inches
= c -r ID/2;
A = actual area of pipe wall in square inches/foot.
18 .2.3 Handling and Installation Strength
Handling and installation rigidity is measured by a
flexibility factor, FF. determined by the formula:
FF = D~/EI
where:
= effective diameter in inches;
E = initial modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
I = average moment of inertia per unit length of
cross section of the pipe wall in inches tothe 4th
power per inch.
18 .3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Load Factor Design is an alternative method of design
based on ultimate strength principles.
18.3.1 Wall Area
A = TL/~fu
where:
A = required area of pipe wall in square inches per
foot;
= thrust, load factor in pounds per foot;
= specified minimum tensile strength in pounds
per square inch;
= capacity modification factor.
18 .3.2 Buckling
If ~x, is less than ~u, A must be recalculated using f~, in
lieu of f~ The formula for buckling is:
= 9.24 (RIA) BM, EI/0. 149R
5
where:
B = water buoyancy factor or
= I 0.33h~/h;
h,,. = height of water surface above top of pipe;
h = height of ground surface above top of pipe;
E = Long term(50-year) modulus of elasticity of the
plastic in pounds per square inch;
= soil modulus in pounds per square inch
1,700 for side fills meeting Article 12.1.6;
= critical buckling stress in pounds per square
inch;
R = effective radius in inches
c +ID/2;
A = actual area of pipe wall in square inches/foot.
18 .3.3 Handling and Installation Strength
Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor,
FF, determined by the fortnula:
FF = D~/EI
where:
D
0=effective diameter in inches;
E = initial modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
I = average moment of inertia per unit length of
cross section of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th
power per inch.
18 .4 PLASTIC PIPE
18 .4.1 General
18 .4.1.1 Plastic pipe maybe smooth wall, corrugated
or externally ribbed and may be manufactured of poly-
ethylene (PE) or poly (vinyl chloride) (PV C). The mater-
ial specifications are:
Polyethylene (PE)
Smooth Wall ASTM F 714 Polyethylene (PE)
Plastic Pipe (SDR-PR) Based on
Outside Diameter
Corrugated AASHTO M 294 Corrugated
Polyethylene Pipe, 12 to 36 in.
Diameter
Ribbed ASTM F 894 Polyethylene (PE)
Large-Diameter Profile Wall
Sewer and Drain Pipe
Poly (V inyl Chloride)(PV C)
Smooth Wall AASHTO M 278 Class PS 46
Polyvinyl Chloride (PV C)
Pipe, ASTM F 679 Poly (V inyl
Chloride) (PV C) Large-Diame-
ter Plastic Gravity Sewer Pipe
and Fittings
Ribbed AASHTO M 304 Poly (V inyl
Chloride) (PV C) Ribbed Drain
Pipe and Fittings and Based on
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Controlled Inside Diameter
ASTM F 794 Poly (V inyl Chlo-
ride) (PV C) Large-Diameter
Ribbed Gravity Sewer Pipe and
Fittings Based on Controlled In-
side Diameter
18.4.1.2 Service load designsafety factor, SF:
Wall area = 2.0
Buckling = 2.0
18.4.1.3 Load factor designcapacity modification
factor, ~:
PE, k = 1.0
PV C, b= 1.0
18 .4.1.4 Flexibility Factor:
PE, FF = 9.5 X IOU
PV C, FF = 9.5 x 10-i
Note: PE and PV C are thermoplastics and, therefore, sub-
ject to reduction in stiffness as temperature is increased.
The minimum cover for design loads shall be ID/8 but
not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall he
of a flexible pavetnent.) For construction requirements,
18 .4.1.6 Maximum Strain
The allowable deflection of installed plastic pipe may
be limited by the extreme fiber tensile strain of the pipe
wall. Calculation of the tensiomi strain in a pipe sigmiifi-
eantly deflected after installment can be checked against
the allowable long-term strain for the tnaterial in Article
18.4.3. Compression thrust is deducted frotn deflection
bending stress to obtain net temision action. The allowable
longterm strains shown in Article 18.4.3 should not be
reached in pipes desigmied and constructed in accordance
with this specifleatiomi.
18 .4.1.7 Local Buckling
The manufacturers of corrugated and ribbed pipe
should demonstrate the adequacy of their pipes against
local buckling when designed and constructed in accor-
dance with this specification.
The values given in the following tables are limiting
values and do not describe actual PE or PV C pipe prod-
ucts. Section properties for specific PEor PV C pipe prod-
ucts are available from individual pipe manufacturers and
can be compared against the following values for comnpli-
ance.
18.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes (AASHTO NI 294)
Nominal Mm. Max. Mi Mi Mm.
Size I.D. OD. A C I
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.
2lft) (in.) (in.4/in.)
12 11.8 14.7 1.50 0.35 0.024
15 14.8 18.0 1.91 0.45 0.053
18 17.7 21.5 2.34 0.50 0.062
24 23.6 28.7 3.14 0.65 0.116
30 29.5 36.4 3.92 0.75 0.163
36 35.5 42.5 4.50 0.90 0.222
18.4.2 .2 PE R ih bed Pip es (A ST N 4 F 894)
Mm. I
(in.4/in.)
Nominal Mm Max Mtn Mm. Cell Cell
Size 1.D. OD. A C Class Class
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.2lf1) (in.) 334433C 335434C
18 17.8 21.0 2.96 0.344 0.052 0.038
21 20.8 24.2 4.15 0.409 0.070 0.051
24 23.8 27.2 4.66 0.429 0.081 0.059
27 26.75 30.3 5.91 0.520 0.125 0.091
30 29.75 33.5 5.91 0.520 0.125 0.091
33 32.75 37.2 6.99 0.594 0.161 0.132
36 35.75 40.3 8.08 0.640 0.202 0.165
42 41.75 47.1 7.81 0.714 0.277 0.227
48 47.75 53.1 8.82 0.786 0.338 0.277
18 .4.2.3 Profile Wall PVC Pipes (AASHTO NI 304)
Nominal
Size
(in.)
Mm.
ID.
(in.)
Max.
O.D.
(in.)
Mm.
A
(in.2/ft)
Mm.
C
(in.)
Mm. I
(in.4/in.)
Cell Cell
Class Class
12454C 12364C
12
15
18
21
24
30
36
42
48
11.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
23.4
29.4
35.3
41.3
47.3
13.6
16.5
20.0
23.0
26.0
32.8
39.5
46.0
52.0
1.20
1.30
1.60
1.80
1.95
2.30
2.60
2.90
3.16
0.15
0.17
0.18
0.21
0.23
0.27
0.31
0.34
0.37
0.004 0.003
0.006 0.005
0.009 0.008
0.012 0.011
0.016 0.015
0.024 0.020
0.035 0.031
0.047 0.043
0.061 0.056
380
18.4.1.1
18.4.3
DIV ISION IDESIGN
381
18 .4.3 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements
18.4.3.1.3 Ribbed PE pipe requirementsASTM
F 894:
The polyethylene (PE) and poly (vinyl chloride)
(PV C) materials described herein have stress/strain rela-
tionships that are nonlinear and time dependent. Mini-
mum 50-year tensile strengths are derived from hydro-
static design bases and imidicate a minimum 50-year life
expectancy under continuous application of that tensile
stress. Minimum 50-year moduli do not indicate a soft-
ening of the pipe material but is an expression of the time
dependent relation between stress and strain. For each
short-term increment of deflection, whenever it occurs,
the response will reflect the initial modulus. Both short-
and long-term properties are shown. Except for buckling
for which long-term properties are required, the judg-
ment of the Engineer shall determine which is appropri-
ate for the application. Initial and long term relate to con-
ditions of loading, not age of the installation. Response
to live loads will reflect the initial modulus, regardless of
the age of the installation.
18 .4.3.1 Polyethylene
Initial 50 -Year
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
Tensile Tensile
Strength Strength
(psi) _____________ (psi) _____________
3,000 1,125
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
80,000
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 334433C
Allowable long-tertn strain = 5%
OR:
Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
3,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
110,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
1,440
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
22,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
20,000
18.4.3. 1. 1 Smooth wall PE pipe requirements
ASTM F 714:
Initial
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
3,000
Minimum
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
110,000
50-Year
Minimum Mtnimum
Tenstle Mod
Strength of Elast.
(psi) (psi
)
1,440 22,000
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 335434C
Allowable long-term strain = 5%
/8.4.3.1.2 Corrugated PE pipe requirements
AASHTO M 294:
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3390 339434(7
18 .4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC)
18.4.3.2.1 Smooth wall PV C pipe requirements
AASHTO M 278, ASTM F 679:
Initial 50-Year
Tensile Mod. Tensile
Strength of Elast. Strength
(psi) (psi) (psi) _________
7,000 400,000 3,700
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 1784. 12454C
OR:
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
140,000
Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi) _________
3,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Mod.
Strength of Elast.
(psi) (psi
)
900 22,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
440,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
158,400
Initial 50-Year
Tensile
Strength
(psi) __________ __________ __________
6,000
Tensile
Strength
__________ __________ (psi)
2,600
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 1784. 12364(7
Allowable long-term strain 3.5%
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
110,000
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350. 31541 2C
Allowable long-term strain 5%
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.4.3.2 .2 Ribbed PV C pipe requirements
AASHTO M304:
Minimum Properties for Design
OR:
Initial 50-Year
Initial
Minimum Minimum
Tensile
Strength
(psi) __________
7,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
400,000
50-Year
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Mod.
Strength of Elast.
(psi) (psi
)
3,700 140,000
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
6,000
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
440,000
Tensile
Strength
(psi)
2,600
Mod.
of Elast.
(psi)
158,400
Minimum cell class, ASTM 1) 1784, 12364C
Allowable long-term strain = 3.5%
Minimum cell class. ASTN4 D 1784. 1 2454C
Allowable long-term straimi =
382
18.4.3.2.2
Section 19
POT BEARINGS
19.1 GENERAL
Pot bearings shall be supplied as tixed bearings, guided
expansion bearings, or nonguided expansion bearings as
designated by the Contract Documents, Bearings shall ad-
equately provide for the thermal expansion and contrac-
tion, rotation, camber changes, and creep andshrinkage of
structural members, where applicable. The materials, fab-
rication, and installation of the bearings shall be in accor-
dance with Article 18.3, Division II of this Specification.
19.1.1 Fixed Bearings
Fixed bearings shall allow rotation but no longitudinal
or transverse movement in the bearing plane. Fixed bear-
ings shall consist of an elastomeric rotational element,
confinedand sealed by a steel piston and steel base pot. To
facilitate rotation of the elastomeric rotational element, ei-
ther polytetrafluorethylene (TEE) sheets shall be attached
to the top and bottom of the elastomeric disc, or the ele-
ment shall be lubricated with amaterial that is compatible
with the elastomer.
19.1.2 Guided Expansion Bearings
Guided expansion bearings shall allow rotation and
longitudinal movement in the bearing plane; transverse
movement shall be restricted. Guided expansion bearings
shall consist of an elastomeric rotational element, con-
fined and sealed by a steel piston and steel base pot. To
facilitate rotation of the elastomeric rotational element,
either polytetrafluorethylene (TFE) sheets shall be at-
tached to the top and bottom of the elastomeric disc, or
the element shall be lubricated with a material that is
compatible with the elastomer. To allow longitudinal
movement, the upper surface of the steel piston shall be
facedwith TEEsheet and support a sliding steel top bear-
ing plate. The mating surface of the sliding steel bearing
plate shall be faced with polished stainless steel. To re-
strict transverse movement, either a guide bar or keyway
system shall be used. When a keyway system is used, it
shall be fabricated in such a way as to prevent overturn-
ing of the key. The sliding surfaces of the guide bar or
keyway systems shall be ofTFE sheet and stainless steel.
Guiding offof the fixed base, or any extension of it, will
not be permitted.
19.1.3 Nonguided Expansion Bearings
Nonguided expansion bearings shall allow rotation,
longitudinal, and transverse movement in the bearing
plane. Nonguided expansion bearings shall consist of an
elastomeric rotational element, confined and sealed by a
steel piston and steel base pot. To facilitate rotation of the
elastomeric rotational element, either TEE sheets shall be
attached to the top and bottom of the elastomeric disc, or
the element shall be lubricated with a material that is com-
patible with the elastomer. To allow longitudinal and
transverse movement, the upper surface of the steel piston
shall be faced with TEE sheet and support a sliding steel
top bearing plate. The mating surface of the sliding steel
top bearing plate shall be faced with polished stainless
steel.
19.2 DESIGN
19.2.1 Design Parameters
19.2.1.1 Allowablestresses in steel shall meet the re-
quirements of Section 10, Division I.
19.2.1.2 Allowable stresses in concrete shall meet
the requirements of Article 8.15.2.1.3, Division I.
19.2.1.3 All other materials used shall meet the re-
quirements as specified in the following subsections:
(a) All fixed or guided expansion bearings shall be ca-
pable of resisting either the designated horizontal de-
sign load effects or 10% of the vertical design load on
the bearings applied horizontally in any direction,
(b) All expansion bearings shall have a maximum fric-
tion coefficient of 3% and maximum average bearing
pressures as specified in Article 15.2, Division I.
383
(c) Expansion bearings shall be capable of providing
the full anticipated longitudinal movement plus an ad-
ditional I-inch movement in either direction to allow
for construction tolerances. The center line of all bear-
ing componeilts is symmetrical about the bearing stiff-
ener. The value used for the full anticipated longitLidi-
nal movement shall be made equal to twice the amount
of contraction.
(d) The gap between guide bars for guided expansion
bearimigs shall be s-inch maximum. On wide structures
or curved strttctures where lateral movements are an-
ticipated, the designer shall specify an Additional
Guide Clearance.
19.2.2 Types of Pot-Bearing 1)esign
19.2.2.1 Pot facing down and sliding surface on
top of the bottom plate.
19.2.2.2 Pot lacing Lt~ with plates applied to the
piston and guides on the edge of the sliding plate. Piston
to) he selfaligning to direction of movement. but etudes to)
be carefully aligned.
19.2.2.3 Pot facing up with guide in the middle be-
tween sliding plate and piston.
19.2.2.4 Design as in l~.2.2.l to 19.2.2.3 above but
with double elastomeric pad for greater rotational capac-
ity.
19.2.3 Limitations of Pot Bearings
19.2.3.1 Pot bearings are not stiff against bending in
their plane. A sole pl~ile, beveled if necessary. on top and
a masomiry plate at the bottom of the bearing shall be pro-
vided.
19.2.3.2 Limited capacity of rotation..See Article
19.2.2.4.
19.2.3.3 Pot bearings shotmld not be mixed with other
types of bearings having different compressive and rota-
tiotial characteristics under the same member.
19.2.3.4 The minimum load on a bearing should tint
be less than 20 peucent of the vertical (lesign load capacity.
Section 20
DISC BEARINGS
20.1 GENERAL
Disc bearings shall consist of a polyether urethane
structural element (disc) confined by upper and lower
steel-bearing plates. The hearing shall be eqtiippeLl with a
shear restriction mechanism to prevent movement of the
disc. Bearings shall adequately provide for the thermal cx-
pansio)n amid contraction, rotation, camber changes, and
creep amid shrinkage of structural miiernbers, where applic-
able.
The materials, fabricatiomi, and installatiomi of the bear
imigs shall be iii accordance with Article 18.3, Division II
of this Specification.
Disc bearings shall be supplied as fixed bearings;
guided cxparisiomi bearings; and rionguided expamision
bearimigs as designated by the Contract Doeumiients.
20.1.1 Fixed Bearings
Fixed bearings shall allow rotation but rio longitudinal
or transverse mt)vement in the bearing plane.
20.1.2 Guided Expansion Bearings
Guided expansion bearings shall allow rotation amid
lotigitriLlinal miiovement in the bearing platte: transverse
movement shall be restricted. To allow lomigitudinal move-
merit. the upper steel bearing plate shall he faced with
polytetrafiuoretliylene (TFIi) sheet amid support ~tslidimig
steel top bearimig plate. The malirig soirface of the slidimig
steel top bearing plate shall be faced with polished stain-
less steel. To restrict tramtsverse mnovemetit, either a gumide
bar or keyway system shall be used. Wheti a keyway sys-
tem is useLl. it shall be fabricated in such a way as to l)re
vemit overturmiing of the key. The slidimio surfaces of the
or ~ .k..ll of TVF ..t~... ....t outide bir Nc.Y55d~ systemiis be
staimiless steel. Guidimig off of the fixed base, or amiy cx-
tension o)f it. will riot be permitted.
20.1.3 Nonguided Expansioii Bearings
Nongutided exparisiomi bearings shall allow rota-
tiO)ri. lotigitudimial. amid tramisverse iliovememit iii the bear
ing plane. To allow lomigitudimial amid transverse move-
merit, the upper steel bearing plate shall be faced with
polytetrafiuorethylente (TFE) sheet arid support a sliding
steel bearing plate. The mating surface of the sliding steel
to)p bearing plate shall be faced with polished stainless
steel.
20.2 DESIGN
20.2.1 Design Parameters
20.2.1.1 Allowable stresses in steel shall meet the re-
quiremnents o)f Sectiomi 10, Division I.
20.2.1.2 Allowable stresses in comicrete shall meet
the requiremiients of Article 8. 15.2.1.3. Division I.
20.2.1.3 All other materials used shall iiieet the re-
quiremnenits as specified in the followimig subsections:
(a) All fixed or guided expansion bearings shall be ca-
pable of resistimig either the designated horizontal LIe-
sign load effects or I 0~4 of the vertical desigmi load on
the bearimigs applied horizontally in any direction,
(b) All expatisioti bearings shall have a maximum
friction coefficient of 3% amid tnaximiiumii average
bearing pressures as specified iii Article 15.2. Divi-
sittnt I.
(e) + Expansioti bearings shall be capable of prox id-
imio the full anticipated longitudimial mnovennetit plus an
additional Iinch movememit iii either direction to allow
for comistruetion toleramices. The centerline of all bean-
tie. comiipomiemits is symmetrical about the bearitig stilT
emiem. The value used for the lull anticipated lonigitudi
mial miiovemenit shall be made equal to twice the ainoutit
of contraction.
(d) The gap betweemi guide bars for guided expanisiomi
bearimigs shall he ~-imicli mnaxinnumii. Cmi wide structures
or curved structures where lateral miiovements are ant-
ticipated, the desigmier shall specify ati ~Additiomial
Guide Clearamice.
385
HIGHWAY BRI[)GES
(e) The shear restriction niechanismn shall be designed
to allow free rotation but prevent any shear froni being
applied to the rotational element
20.2.2 Limitations of Disc Bearings
20.2.2.1 Disc bearings are not stiff against bendimig in
their plane. A sole plate. beveled if necessary, on top and
a masonry plate at the bottom of the bearing shall be pro-
vided.
20.2.2.2 Disc bearings should not be mixed with
other types of bearings having different conipressive amid
rotational characteristics under the same member.
20.2.2.3 When uplift occurs, the bearing shall be pro-
vided with uplift restraint allowing rotation in any direc-
tion.
386 2 0. 2 . 1 . 3
Division I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSEAND PHILOSOPHY
These Specifications establish design and construction
provisions for bridges to minimize their susceptibility to
damage from earthquakes.
The design earthquake notions aridforces specified in
these provisions are based on a low probability of their
being exceeded during the normal life expectancy of a
bridge. Bridges arid their components that are designed
to resist these forces and that are constructed in accor-
dance with the design details comitained in the provisions
may suffer damage, but should have low probability of
collapse due to seismically induced ground shaking.
The principles used for the developnient of the provi-
5i0)ri5 are:
I. SnaIl to moderate earthquakes should be resisted
within the elastic range of the structural comiipomiemits
without significant damane.
2. Realistic seisnume ground motiomi intensities and
forces are used in the desigmi procedures.
3. Exposure to shaking finn large earthquakes should
not cause collapse of all or part of the bridge. Where
possible, damage that does occur should be readily de-
tectable and accessible for imispection amid repair.
A basic premise in developing these seismic desigmi
guidelines was that they are applicable to all parts of the
United States. The seismiiic hazard varies from yery smiiall
to high across the country. Therefore, for purposes of de-
sign, four Seismic Perfortiiariee Categories (SPC) are de-
hued on the basis of ami Aeceleratioti Coefficiemit (A) for the
site. determimied from the nap provided. and the hmnpor-
tamice Classification (IC). Different degrees of enniplexity
amid sophistication of seismiiie analysis and design are spec-
ihied for each of the four Seismic Perfomniance Categories.
An essential bridge must be designed to fumictiomi dur-
ing and after an earthquake. In areas with an Aeceheratioti
T h e p r obability of th e elastic design for ce lcxcls oot being exceedext
I n 50 r ear s ix th e r anec of XI I to
- - 95 p er cent. B ossever . th c desiininn e,r th -
quake lor cc level by itself does not deter ot inc r isk: th e r i ~k is alsoaf
lectexl by th e design r ules and analysis p r ocedur es used in connectI on
sr iitt th e design gr ound niotioll
Coefficient greater than 0.29 essential bridges must meet
additional requirememits. A bridge is designated essential
on the basis of Social/Survival and Secunity/Defemise clas-
sifications presemited in the Commentary.
1.2 BACKGROUND
The 1971 San Fernando earthquake was a major tunmi-
ing point in the development of seismic design criteria for
bridges in the United States. Prior to 1971. the American
Associatiomi of State Highway arid Transportation Offi-
cials (AASHTO) specifications for the seisnuic design of
bridges were based iii part on the lateral forces require-
ments for buildings developed by the Strntctural Engineers
Association of California. In 1973, the California Depart-
nienit of Transportation (CalTrans) introduced new seis-
mic design criteria for bridges, which imicluded the rela-
tionship of the site to active faults, the seisnuic respomise of
the soils at the site amid the dynamic response characteris-
tics of the bridge. In 1975, AASHTO adopted Interim
Specitications which were a slightly niodified version of
the 1973 CalTrans provisions, and made them applicable
to all regions of the United States. In addition to these
co)de changes, the 1971 Sami Fermiando earthqtmake stint-
hated research activity on seismic problems related to
bridges. lii the light of these research findings, the Federal
Highway Adnuinistration awarded a comitract in 1978 to
the Applied Technology Council (ATC) to:
Evaluate curremit criteria used for seismic desigmi of
high way bridges.
Review recemit seismic research findings for design
applicability and use in new specitications.
Develop new arid improved seisniic desigmi gotide-
lines for highway bridges applicable to all regions of
the United States.
Evaluate the impact of these guidelimies arid niodify
them as appropriate.
The guidelines frotn this ATC project (kmiowii as
ATC-6) were first adopted by AASHTO as a set of Guide
389
390
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1.2
Specifications in 1983. They were later adopted as seis-
mic provisions within the Standard Specifications in
1990. After damaging earthquakes occurred in California
(1989), Costa Rica (1991) and the Philippines (1991),
AASHTO requested the Transportation Research Board
to review these criteria and prepare revised specifications
as appropriate. Funded through the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program under NCHRP Project 20-
7/45, the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Re-
search (NCEER) prepared this current set of seisniic de-
sign provisions. They closely follow the previous criteria
but remove ambiguities andtechnical errors, correct tech-
nical omissions and introduce new material which is
based in part on recent field experience and partly on new
research findings. In addition, a new format is introduced
so as to assist the application of these specifications to
bridges in different seisnuic zones.
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS
The development of these specifications was predi-
cated on the following basic concepts.
Hazard to life to be minimized.
Bridges may suffer damage but have low probabil-
ity of collapse due to earthquake niot ions.
Function of essential bridges to be maintained.
Ground motions used in design should have low
probability of being exceeded during normal life-
time of bridge.
Provisions to be applicable to all of the United
States.
Ingenuity of design not to be restricted.
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION
The ATC-6 project was advised by a Project Engineer-
ing Panel comprising the following members:
Mr. James Cooper, Federal Highway Administra-
tion; Mr. Gerard Fox, HNTB, New York; Mr. James
H. Gates, California Departtnent of Transportation;
Mr. V eldo Goins, Oklahoma Department of Trans-
portation; Dr. William Hall, University of Illinois,
Urbana; Mr. Edward Hourigan, New York Depart-
ment of Transportation; Mr. Robert Jarvis, Idaho De-
partment of Transportation; Mr. Robert Kealey,
Modjeski and Masters, Harrisburg; Mr. James
Libby, Libby Engineers, San Diego; Dr. Geoffrey
Martin, Fugro Inc., Long Beach; Mr. Joseph Nico-
letti, URS Blume, San Francisco; Dr. Joseph Pen-
zien, University of California, Berkeley; Dr. Walter
Podolny, Federal Highway Administration; and Dr.
Robert Scanlan, Princeton University, New Jersey.
The ATC project manager and technical director were
Mr. Roland Sharpe and Dr. Ronald Mayes, respectively.
In a similar manner, the NCHRP project was also
guided by a Project Panel. The members were:
Mr. James D. Cooper, Federal HighwayAdministra-
tion; Mr. James H. Gates, California Department of
Transportation; Mr. V eldo Goins. Oklahoma Depart-
ment of Transportation; Mr. Ayaz Mahik, New York
Department of Transportation; Mr. Charles Ruth,
Washington Department of Transportation; and Mr.
Edward Wasserman, Tennessee Department of
Transportation.
Liaison members were Dr. John Kuhicki, Modjeski
and Masters (NCHRP 12-33 Liaison) and Dr. Walter
Podolny (Federal HighwayAdministration Liaison).
The principal investigator for NCEER was Dr. Ian
Buckle; subcontractors included Computech Engi-
neering Services, Berkeley, CA, and Imbsen and As-
sociates, Sacramento, CA.
NCHRPProject Officers were Mr. Ian Friedland and
Mr. Scott Sabol.
The work was conducted in several stages:
Review of 1992 Standard Specifications (Division
I-A); survey of designer experience with the ap-
plication of Division I-A and evaluation of design
philosophy.
Review of bridge performance in recent earth-
quakes.
Review of revised CalTrans seismic design criteria
(ATC-32 project).
Review of seismic criteria in the proposed LRFD
Bridge Specification (NCHRP 12-33).
Conduct of certain special studies.
Development of draft revisions in various formats of
increasing complexity.
Evaluation of proposed revisions.
Modification and preparation of final standards, as
appropriate.
1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS
There are numerous instances of structural failures
which have occurred during earthquakes that are directly
traceable to poor quality control during construction. The
literature is replete with reports noting that collapse may
have been prevented had proper inspection been exer-
DIV ISION IASEISMIC DESIGN
cised. To provide adequate seisnuic quality assurance re-
quirements the engineer specifies the quality assurance re-
quirenients. the comitractor exercises the control to achieve
the desired quality and the owner nionitors the construc-
tion proteess through special inspection. II is essential that
each party recognizes its respomisibihities. umiderstands the
procedures and has the capability to carry themi~ out. Be-
cause the contractor does the work amid exercises quality
control it is essemitial that the inspection be perfornied by
soiiieonme approved by the owner amid not the comitractors
direct employee.
lii recognition of the fact that responsibility mnst be
coordinated during comistrometiomi, the Project Engineenimig
Panel (PEP) for the ATC-6 Ji ject examiiitle(i the respttui-
sibihity of each party in the current AASIITO ([)ivision I)
specifications. This PEP found the quality assurance re-
quirenients of the Division I speeilieatioinms adequate to
cover seismic as well as other design nequirenients. There-
fore. rio special quality assttnanee requ irennetits are iii
eluded iii Division I-A.
1.6 FLOW CHARTS
Flow charts outhimiimig the steps iii the seismiiie design
pr(scedures imiiplicit iii these specilicatiomis ate given iii
Figures l.6Aamid l.6B.
1.5
391
392 HIGHWAY BRII)GES 1.6
A PPLI C A B I LI T Y O F ST A N D A R D S
A r ticle 3.1
PR E LI M I N A R Y D E SI GN
D E T E R M I N E A C C E LE R A T I O N C O E FFI C I E N T
A r ticle 3.2
D E T E R M I N E I M PO R T A N C E C LA SSI FI C A T I O N
A r ticle 3.3
D E T E R M I N E SE I SM I C PE R FO R M A N C E C A T E GO R Y
A r ticle 3.4
D E T E R M I N E SI T E C O E FFI C I E N T
A r ticle 3.5
SE I SM I C PE R FO R M A N C E
C A T E GO R I E S B , C A N D D ______________
SE I SM I C PE R FO R M A N C E ________________
C A T E GO R I E S B , C A N D D
See Figur e 2 for Sub
Flow C h ar t
I
I
SE I SM I C PE R FO R M A N C E
C A T E GO R Y A
D E T E R M I N E
D E SI GN FO R C E S
A r ticle 3.11
D E T E R M I N E
D E SI GN FO R C E S
A r ticle 5.2
D E T E R M I N E D E SI GN
D I SPLA C E M E N T S
A r ticle 3.10
D E T E R M I N E
D E SI GN D I SPLA C E M E N T S
A r ticle 5.3
FIGURE 1.6 A Desig n P rocedure FIo~~ Chart
DIV ISION IASEISMIC 1)ESIGN
D E T E R M I N E A N A LY SI S PR O C E D U R E
A r ticle 4.2
D E T E R M I N E C O M PO N E N T E LA ST I C FO R C E S
A N D D I SPLA C E M E N T S
A r ticle 3.8
C O M B I N E LO N GI T U D I N A L A N D
T R A N SV E R SE FO R C E S
A r ticle 3.9
D E T E R M I N E D E SI GN FO R C E S
A r ticle 6.2 SPC B
A r ticle 7.2 - SPC C and D
D E T E R M I N E D E SI GN D I SPLA C E M E N T S
A r ticle 6.3 SPC B
A r ticle 7.3 - SPC C and 0
D E SI GN ST R U C T U R A L C O M PO N E N T S
Section 6 SPC B
Section 7 SPC C and D
D E SI GN FO U N D A T I O N S
Section 6 SPC B
Section 7 SPC C and D
D E SI GN A B U T M E N T S
A r ticle 6.4.3 SPC B
A r ticle 7.4.3 SPC C
A r ticle 7.4.5 SPC D
D E SI GN SE T T LE M E N T SLA B S
A r ticle 7.4.5- SPC D only
A R E T HE
C O M PO N E N T S
D E Q U A T E ?
Y E S
N O
L~
T U R ~J
S SE I SM I C D E SI GN C O M PLE T E
FIGURE 1.6 B Sub FlowChart for Seismic Performance
Categ ories B, C. and D
1 6
393
I
Section 2
SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS
The following symbols and definitions apply to these Specifications:
a = V ertical spacing of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) in rectangular reinforced concrete
columns (in. or mm)
A =Acceleration coefficient determined in Article 3.2 (dimensionless)
A, Area of reinforced concrete column core (in.
2 or mm2)
Ag = Gross area of reinforced concrete column (in.2 or mm2)
= Area of longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile (in.2 or mm2)
= Total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) used in rectangular rein-
forced concrete columns (in.2 or mm2) and defined by Eqs. 66, 67, 76, and 77
Total amount of reinforcement normal to a construction joint (in.2 or mm2)
B Loads resulting from buoyancy forces and used in the group load combinations of Eqs. 6I. 62,7--I,
and 72
=Coefficient used in steel design to account for boundary conditions (dimensionless)
C. = Elastic seismic response coefficient defined in Article 3.6.1 (dimensionless)
= Elastic seismic response coefficient for mode indefined in Article 3.6.2 (dimensionless)
d = Diameter of a reinforced concrete column (in. or mm)
D Loads resulting from dead load and used in the group load combinations of Eqs. 6-1.6-2.7I, and
72
F Loads resulting from earth pressure and used in the group load combinations of Eqs. 6I, 62. 7I,
and 72
EQF = Modified foundation seismic forces used in the group load combination of Eqs. 6-2 and 72, and de-
fined in Articles 6.2.2 and 7.2.1
EQM = Modified seismic forces used in the group load combination of Eqs. 6-I and 7I, and detined inAr-
ticles 6.2.1 and 7.2.1
= Specified compressive strength of reinforced concrete (psi or MPa)
= Yield strength of reinforcement in reinforced concrete members (psi or MPa)
= Yield strength of transverse reinforcement (psi or MPa)
F, = Axial stress in steel design that would be permitted if axial force alone existed (psi or MPa)
F, = Buckling stress for load factor steel design (psi or MPa)
F, = Euler buckling stress in the plane of bending (psi or MPa)
= Euler buckling stress for service load steel design (psi or MPa)
Yield strength of structural steel (psi or MPa)
g = Acceleration of gravity (in./sec2 or cmlsec2)
= Core dimension of a rectangular reinforced concrete column (in. or mm)
H =Height of a column or pier defined in Articles 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m)
IC = Importance Classification given in Article 3.3 (dimensionless)
K = Total lateral stiffness of bridge as defined inArticle 4.3 (lb/in, or kN/m)
K = Effective length factor used in steel design and given in Articles 6.5 and 7.5 (dimensionless)
k
1~ = Seismic coefficient used to calculate lateral earth pressures and defined in Articles 6.4.3 and 7.4.3
(dimensionless)
395
L = Length of bridge deck defined in Articles 4.3, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m)
N = Minimum support length for girders specified inArticles 3.10, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (in. or mm)
p~(x) = Intensity of the equivalent static seismic loading applied to represent the primary mode of vibration
inArticles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length)
P. = Minimum axial load specified inArticle 7.2.3 for columns and 7.2.4 for piers (lb or N)
PO =Assumed uniform loading used to calculate the period in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length)
Q =V erticalforceatasupportduetolongitudinalhorizontalseismicloads(lborN)
R =Response modification factor specified in Article 3.7 (dimensionless)
S = Site coefficient specified inArticle 3.5.1 (dimensionless)
S = Angle of skew of girder support as defined in Articles 5.3 and 6.3 (degrees)
SF = Loads resulting from stream flow forces and used in the group load combinations of Eqs. 6-1, 62,
7I, and 72
SPC = Seismic Performance Category specified inArticle 3.4 (dimensionless)
T = Fundamental period of the bridge determined in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (sec.)
= Period of the mth mode of vibration of a bridge (sec.)
= Nominal shear strength provided by concrete as specified in Article 7.6.2(C)
= Limiting shear force across a construction joint (lb or N)
= Shear stress (psi or MPa)
V . = Shear force (lb or N)
v~(x), v~(x) = Static displacement profiles resulting from applied loads p, and p,~, respectively, and used in Articles
4.3 and 4.4 (in. or mm)
w(x) = Dead weight of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure per unit length (force/unit length)
W = Total dead weight of bridge superstructure and tributary substructure (lb or kN)
Ph = The ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of a vertical sectionArticle
7.6.3 (dimensionless)
p = The ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to the gross concrete area of a horizontal section
Article 7.6.3 (dimensionless)
p. =V olumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement for a circular column (dimensionless)
Strength reduction factor (dimensionless)
a =Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (length
2)
f3 = Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force length)
y = Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force . length2)
Section 3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS
These Specifications arc for the design and construc-
tion of new bridges to resist the effect of earthquake mo-
tions. The provisions apply to bridges of conventional
steel and concrete girder and box girder construction with
spans not exceeding 500 ft (150 in). Suspension bridges.
cable-stayed bridges, arch type and movable bridges are
not covered by these Specifications. Seismic design is
usually not required for buried type (culvert) bridges.
The provisions contained in these Specifications are
minimum requirements.
No detailed seismic analysis is required for any single
span bridge or for any bridge in Seismic Performance Cat-
egory A. For single span bridges (Article 3.11) and
bridges classified as SPC A (Section 5) the connections
must be designed for specified forces and must also meet
minimum support length requirements.
3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT
The Acceleration Coefficient (A) to be used in the ap-
plication of these provisions shall be determined from the
contour maps of Figures 3.2A and 3.2B. (Note: An en-
K
FIGURE 3.2A Acceleration Coeffluent Continental United States
(An enlarged version of this map, including tounties, is given at the end of Division I A
397
398 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3 ~)
ALASKA
HAWAII
o 00
P UERTO RICO
FIG LRI~: 3.211 Acceleration CoefficientAlaska, LIai~aii. and I~uerto Rico
3.2
399
larged version of Figure 3.2A is given at the end of Divi-
sion I-A.) V alues given in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B are ex-
pressed in percent. Numerical values for the coefficient A
are obtained by dividing contour values by 100.0. Local
maxima (and minima) are given inside the highest (and
lowest) contour for a particular region. Linear interpola-
tion shall be used for sites located between contour lines
and between a contour line and local maximum (or mini-
mum). The seismic loads represented by the acceleration
coefficients in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B have a 10-percent
probability of exceedance in 50 years (which is approxi-
mately equivalent to a IS-percent probability of cx-
ceedance in 75 years). This corresponds to a return period
of approximately 475 years . ~Special studies to determine
site- and structure-specific acceleration coefficients shall
be performed by a qualified professional if any one of the
following conditions exist:
(a) The site is located close to an active fault.
(b) Long duration earthquakes are expected in the
region.
(c) The importance of the bridge is such that a longer
exposure period (and therefore return period) should
be considered.
The effect of soil conditions at the site are considered
in Article 3.5.
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION
An Importance Classilication (IC) shall be assigned for
all bridges with an Acceleration Coefficient greater than
().29 for the purpose of determining the Seismic Perfor-
mance Category (SPC) in Article 3.4 as follows:
I. Essential bridges IC =
2. Other bridges IC II
Bridges shall be classified on the basis of Social/Sur-
vival and Security/Defense requirements, guidelines for
which are given in the Commentary.
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
Each bridge shall be assigned to one of four Seismic
Performance Categories (SPC), A through D, based on the
Acceleration Coefficient (A) and the Importance Classifi-
cation (IC), as shown in Table 3.4. Minimum analysis and
design requirements are governed by the SPC.
3.5 SITE EFFECTS
The effects of site conditions on bridge response shall
be determined from a Site Coefficient (5) based on soil
profile types defined as follows:
TABLE3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC)
Acceleration Importance
Coefficient Classification (IC)
A
A S 0.09
0.09 <A 250.19
0.19 <A ~ 0.2 9
0.2 9 < A
H
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
C
SOIL PROFILE TYPE I is a profile with either
I. Rock of any characteristic, either shale-like or
crystalline in nature (such material may be character-
ized by a shear wave velocity greater than 2,500 ftis
(760 m/s), or by other appropriate means of elassifi-
cation)~ or
2. Stiff soil conditions where the soil depth is less than
200 ft (60 m) and the soil types overlying rock are sta-
ble deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
SOIL PROFILE TYPE II is a profile with stiff clay or
deepcohesionless conditions where the soil depth exceeds
200 ft (60 m) and the soil types overlying rock are stable
deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
SOIL PROFILE TYPE III is a profile with soft
to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 30 ft
(9 m) or more of soft to medium-stiff clays with or with-
out intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless
soils.
SOIL PROFILE TYPE IV is aprofile with soft clays or
silts greater than 40 ft (12 in) in depth. These materials
may be characterized by a shear wave velocity less than
500 ftls (150 mIs) and might include loose natural de-
posits or synthetic, nonengineered fill.
In locations where the soil properties are not known in
sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type with
confidence, the Engineers judgement shall be used to se-
lect a site coefficient from Table 3.5.1 that conservatively
represents the amplification effects of the site. The soil
profile coefficients apply to all foundation types including
pile supported and spread footings.
A site coefficient need not be explicitly identified if a
site-specific seismic response coefficient is developed by
a qualified professional (Article 3.6).
3.5.1 Site Coefficient
The Site Coefficient(S) approximates the effects of the
site conditions on the elastic response coefficient or spec-
trum of Article 3.6 and is given in Table 3.5.1.
400
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.6
TABLE 3.5.1 Site Coetricient (5)
Soil Profile I~pe
I II III tV
5 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE
COEFFICIENT
A Seismic respotise coefficient is specified in this Arti-
cle which defines the earthquake load to be used in the
elastic analysis for seismic effects.
These requirentents may be supcrseded b~ a 5 percent
damped, sitespecific. response spectrum developed by
a qual i lied professional..Sucb a spectrum shall include
the effects of both the local seisniolocy and the site soil
conditions.
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for
Single Mode Analysis
The elastic seismic response coefficient C, nsed to de-
termine the desi en forces is civen by die dimensionless
fornin Ia:
I .2A5
C,
where.
A the Acceleration Coefficient from Article 3.2.
S <= the dimensionless coefficient for the soil
profile characteristics of the site as given in
Article 3.5.
The value of C~ need not exceed 2.5A. For Type III or
Type IV soils in areas where the coefficient A 0.3t), C,,,
need not exceed 2.OA.
EXCEPTIONS:
For Soil Protile Type Ill or Type IV soils, C,,, for
modes other than the fundamental mode which have
periods less than 0.3 s may be determined in accor-
dance with the following formula:
C,, A(0.8 -r 4.OT,
(3-3)
2. For structures in which any T, exceeds 4.0 >. the
value of C,,, for that mode may he Lletermined in ac-
cordance with the f d lowinc fk nmu I a:
3A5
C,
TV
(3-4)
3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS
Seismic desi en forces for i ndividnal members and con
nections of bridees classified as SPC B. C. or I.) are deter
(3I mined by dividine the elastic forces by the appropriate
Response Modification Factor ) R ) as 512cc fied in Article
6.2 or 7.2. The Response Modification Factors for various
bridge components are civen in Table 3.7. These foctors
shall only be used when all of the design reqoirements of
Sections 6 and 7 are satisfied. Ifthese requirements are not
satisfied, the max i mum value of R for substructures and
connections shall be I .0 and 0.8. respectively.
T the period of the bridge as determined in
Articles 4.3 and 4.4 or by other acceptable
methods.
The value of C, need not exceed 9A. For Soil Profile
Type Ill or Type IV soils in areas where A 0.30. (1, need
not exceed 2.0A.
3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Respotise Coefficient for
Multimodal Analysis
The elastic seisn2ic response coefficient for mode ~m.
C shall be detern] ned in accordance v~ ith the followine
formula:
l.2A5
(3-2)
3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
AND I)ISPLACEMENTS
For bridees classified as .SPC B, C. or D the elastic
forces and displacements shall be determined indepen-
dently along tv~ o perpendicular axes bx use of the analx
sis procedure specified in Article 4.2. The resultin0 forces
shWl then be combined as specified in Article 3.9. Tvpi
cally. the perpendicular axes are the longitudinal and
transverse axes of the bridge but the choice is open to the
designer. The longitudinal axis of a curved bridge may be
a chord connecting the two abutments.
3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL
SEISMIC FORCES
A combination of orthoconal seismic forces is used
to account for the directional uncertainty of earthquake
where J the period of the mth mode of vibration.
TABLE 3.7 Response Modifications Factor (R)
Substructure R Connections
3 R
Wall- type pier2
Reinforced concrete pile bents
a. Vertical piles only
b. One or more batter piles
Single columns
Steel or composite steel
and concrete pile bents
a. Vertical piles only
b. One or more batter piles
Multiple column bent
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Superstructure to abutment
Expansion joints within a
span of the superstructure
Columns, piers or pile bents
to cap beam or superstructure4
Columns or piers to foundations4
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
The R-Factor is to be used for both orthogonal axes of the substructure.
2A watt-type pier may be designed as a column in the weak direction of the pier provided all the
provisions for columns in Article6.6or7.6, as appropriate, are followed. The R-Factorfora single column
may then be used.
3Connections are those mechanical devices which transfer shear and axial forces from one structural
component to another. They generally do not include moment connections and thus comprise bearings
and shear keys. The R factors in this Table are applied to the elastic forces in the restrained directions
only.
4For bridges classified as SPC C or D, ii is recommended that the connections be designed for thc
maximum forces capable of beingdeveloped by plastic hinging of the column or column bent as specified
in Article 7.2.5. These forces will often be significantly less than those obtained using an R-Factor of I.
in (01 ons and the sim iilt aneons occurrences of earthquake
fore es in two pe rpe n dieufat hon 1(31]taI (Iirect ions The
elastic seismic forces and moments resulti no from analy-
ses in the two perpendicular directions of Article 3.8 shall
be combined to forni two load cases as follows:
LOAD CASE I : Seismic forces and inonlents on each
of the principal axes of a member sl]all be obtained Wv
adding lO() percent of tl]e absolute value of the member
elastic seisi]iie forces and motl]ei]ts resulting from the
ai]alysis in one of the peiretidicular (longitudinal) direc
tions to 3(1 pereetit of the absolute value of tl]e corre-
sponding n]ember elastic seismic f~orces and moments re
suIting from the analysis in the second perpendicular
direction (transverse). ( NOTF.: The absolute values ate
used because a seismic force can be positive (Sr negative.)
t.OAI) CASE 1 Seisusic forces and riomerits on each of
the principal axes (Sf a member shall be obtained by adding
I 0(1 percent of the absolute valtie of the member elastic seis-
t]]ic forces and moments resulting frot]~ the analysis in the
second perpendicular direction (transverse) to 30 percent of
the absolute value of the corresponding member elastic seis-
mic forces and i]Someiits resulting from the analysis it] tl]e
first pcrpei]dicrilar direction (longitudinal).
EXCEPTION:
For SPC C and 1) when foundation at]d/or column con
nectioSn forces are deterirtined f~ront plastic hinging (Sf
the columns (Article 7 1 1) the resulting forces need
not be combined as specitied in this section. If a pier is
desi ~ned as a column per Article 7.2.4 this excepti4 n
only applies for the weak direction of the pier whet]
forces resulting t~rom plastic hinging are nised. TI]e
con]binatiot] speci fied i]lust be userl for the strong di-
rection osf the pier.
3.11) MINIMUM SEAT-WII)TH REQUIREMEN~IS
All bridges, regardless (Sf Seismic Pertori]]ai]cc (ate-
gory ( SPC ) and number (Sf spans. shall satisfx minimum
support lengtl] reqLiit~ements at the expansiolt etids ot ~ml
girders. These support lengths are defii]ed in Eigttre 3. It)
as ditisension N. The mii]irnum value for N is given for
SPC Ain Article 5.3: for SPC B in Article 6.3: and for SPC
C and [) ii] Article 7.3.
3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE
SPAN BRIDGES
The detailed analysis and design reqtiiret]lel]ts (Sf Sec-
tions 4. 5 6, and 7 are i]ot required for single span bridges.
In lieu (Sf rigorous analysis. the contiections between the
bridge span and the abutn]ents shall be designed to resist
the tributary v. eigl]t at the abutn]ent multiplied by the Ac-
celeration Coefficiet]t at]d the Site Coef~ficient for the site.
This force t1] tist be considered t(S act in each horizontally
restrained direct i(Sn. The milSimum stip~Sort lengths sl]al I
be as specified in Article 3.10.
3.9
4() I
1
LuLL
L
K--
Lii Z I Z I ] Li] C l]
LZ 7Z Z
K N
~- N
2
L
_____j
LIII
N
C O LU M N O R PI E R
_Kill
HING E WITHIN A SP AN
*EXP ANSION JOINTOR END OF BRIDG E DECK
FIGURE 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length Requirements
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY
BRIDGES AND STAGED CONSTRUCTION
The requirement that an earthquake shall not cause col-
lapse of all or part of a bridge as stated in Article 1.1, ap-
plies to tensporary bridges which are expected to carry
traffic and/or pass over r~Sutes that carry traffic. It also ap-
plies to those bridges that are constructed in stages and ex-
pected to carry traffic and/or pass over routes that carry
traffic. However, in view of the limited exposure period,
the Acceleration Coefficient given in Article 3.2 may be
reduced by a factor of not more than 2 in order to calcu-
late the component elastic forces and displacements. Note
that Acceleration Coefficients for construction sites that
are close to active faults shall be the subject of special
study. Further, the Response Modification Factors given
its Article 3.7 may be increased by a factor of n(St more
than 1.5 in order to calculate the design forces. This
factor shall not be applied to connections as defined in
Table 3.7.
The minimum seat-width provisions of Article 3.10shall
applyto all temporary bridges and staged construction.
Any bridge or partially constructed bridge that is ex-
pected to be temporary for more than 5 years shall be de-
signed using the requirements for permanent structures
and shall not use the provisions of this Article.
ABUTMENT
Section 4
ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL
The requirensents of this secti(S1S shall c(Si]trol the se-
lection and method of seismic analysis of bridges. Fotir
analysis procedures are preseisted.
Procedtire I . Uniform Load Method
Procedure 2. Single- Mode Spectral Method
Procedure 3. Multitnode Spectral Method
Procedure 4. Time History Method
In each method, all fixed coltirun, pier, or abutnsent
supports are asstimcd to have the same ground moti(Sn at
the same instant its time. At movable sulSISorts. displace-
ments determined from the analysis prescribed in this
chapter. which exceed the tS]im]itssutSl seat width require-
t]]ents as specified in Article 6.3 or 7.3. shall be used in
desieti without reductiot] by the Rcspoi]se Modification
Eactor (Article 3.7).
4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOI)
Minimum requireissenv for the selection of an at]alysis
t]lethod for a particular bridge type are given its Table
42A. Applicability is deterrnit]ed by the ~regularityof a
bridge which is a futictiots of the nun]ber of spans and the
distribution of weight and sti tft]ess. Regular bridges have
less tl]an sevets spans. no abrupt or tinusual changes iii
weight. stiffisess. (Sr geon]etmy and iso large change.. its
these parameters from sjSatSt(Sspats (Sr supp(Srtto suISport
abtitnseists exeltided). They arc defined in Table 4 ~i3
Ans bridge not satisfying the requireissetsts (Sf Talde 4.213
IABI.l; 4.2.X Minimum Analysis Requirements
Seismic
Performance
Category
Regular Bridges
with
2 Through 6 Spans
Not Regular
Bridges with
2 or More Spans
A Not requtred Not required
B, C. D Use Procedure Use Procedure
lor2 3
is considered to be not regular. A more rig(Srous, gener-
ally accepted aisalysis procedure maybe tised in lieu of the
recommended nsinimum such as the Tinse History
Method (Procedure 4).
4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A
Notwithstanditsg the above requirensents, detailed seis-
mic analysis is not required for a single-spais bridge or for
bridges classified as SPC A.
4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges
A curved bridge may be analyzed as if it were straight
provided all of tlse followiisg rcqtiirenteists are satisfied:
(a) the bridge is regtilar as defined its i~able 4 ~B ex-
cept that for a twospan bridge the isiax itntitn 5lS~i5
length ratio from spais-t(S-spaiS must not exceed 2:
(b) the subtended angle in plan is ut greater thais 3~O:
and
(c) the span leisgtlss of the equivalent straight bridge
are equal to the arc lengths of the curved bridge.
Iftlsese requireissents are isot satisfied, then curved bridges
must be analyted tising the actual curs cr1 geonsetry
T.~BI.E 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements
Parameter V alue
NumberofSpans 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum subtended 900 900 900 900 900
angle (curved bridge)
Maximum span length
ratio from span-to-span
Maximum bent/pier
stiffness ratio from
4
4
4
4
1.5
3
1.5
2
span-to-span
(excluding abutments)
in terms of the smaller value. Note: All ratios expressed
403
404
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges
More rigorous methods of analysis are required for cer-
tain classes of important bridges which are considered to
be critical structures (e.g., those that are major structures
in smze and cost or perform a critical function), and/or for
those that are geometrically complex and close to active
earthquake faults. Time history methods of analysis are
recommended for this purpose, provided care is taken
with both the modeling of the structure and the selection
of the input titne histories of ground acceleration. Time
history methods of analysis are described in Article 4.6.
4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHOD
PROCEDURE 1
ments and other relevant loads including, but not limited
to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other
loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the
inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analy-
sis; however, the probability of a large live load being on
the bridge during an earthquake should be considered
when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios
which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic cots-
gestion is likely to occur.)
Step 3. Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using
the expression:
T =
(4-3)
The uniform load nsethod, described in the following
steps, may be used for both transverse and longitudinal
earthquake motions. It is essentially an equivalent static
method of analysis which uses a uniforns lateral load to
approximate the effect of seismic loads. The method is
suitable for regular bridges that respond principally in
their fundamental mode of vibration. Whereas all dis-
placements and most memnber forces are calculated with
good accuracy, the nsethod is known to overestinsate the
transverse shears at the abutnsents by up to 100 percent. If
such conservatmsm is undesirable thems the single nsode
spectral analysis method (Procedure 2) is recomnsended.
Step 1. Calculate the static displacensents v~(x) due to
an assumed uniforns load p. as shown in Figure 6. The umli-
foriss loading p, is: ~appliedover the length of the bridge; it
has units of force/tmnit length and mnay be arbitrarily set
equal to 1 .0. The static displacement v~(x) has units of
length.
where g = acceleration of gravity (length/time
2)
Sfep 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake
loading p. from the expression:
C~W
pC=
L
(4-4)
where C~ the dimensionless elastic seismic re-
sponse coefficient given by Eq. (3-1)
=equivalent uniform static seismic loading
per unit length of bridge applied to repre-
sent the primary mode of vibration.
Step 5. Calculate the displacements amid nsensber
forces for use in design either by applying PC tO the struc-
ture and performing a second static analysis or by scalimsg
the results of Step I by the ratio PC/P~
Step 2. Calculate the bridge lateral stiffness, K, and
total weight, W, fromn the follnswing expressinsns:
K p~)L
v ~
W =Jw(x)dx
where L =total length of the bridge
= maximuns value of v~(x)
and w(x) =weight per unit length of the dead
load of the bridge superstructure and
tributary substructure
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
METHODPROCEDURE 2
The single mode spectral analysis method described in
(4-I) the following steps may be used for both transverse and
longitudinal earthquake motions. Exansples illustrating its
application are given in the Commentary.
(4-2)
Step I. Calculate the static displacements v~(x) due to
an assumed uniform loading p, as shown in Figure 4.4A.
The uniform loading p
0 is applied over the length of the
bridge; it has units of force/unit length and is arbitrarily
set equal to I. The static displacensent v}x) has units of
length.
Step 2. Caletmlate factors a, ~, and -y frons the
expressions on the next page. The weight should take into account structural dc-
4.4
DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN
405
V t~)
~Po
FIGURE 4.4 A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed
Transverse and Longitudinal Loading
=fv~(x)dx
f3 =Jw(x)v~(x)dx
y =Jw(x)v~(x)2dx
(a) Plan Transverse Loading (b) Elevation Long itudinal Loading
FIGURE 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent
Transverse and Longitudinal Seismic Loading
(4 - 5) Step 5. Apply loading p
0(x) to the structure as shown
in Figure 4.4B and determine the resulting member forces
(4 - 6) and displacements for design.
(4-7)
where w(x) is the weight of the dead load of the bridge su-
perstructure and tributary substructure (force/unit length).
The computed factors, a, ~, y, have units of (length
2),
(force X length), and (force X length2), respectively.
The weight should take into account structural ele-
ments and other relevant loads including, but not limited
to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other
loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the
tnertia effects of live loads are not included in the analy-
sis; however, the probability of a large live load being on
the bridge during an earthquake should be considered
when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios
which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic con-
gestion is likely to occur.)
Step 3.
the expression:
Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using
T=2it
p
0gQ
where g = acceleration of gravity (length/time
2).
Step 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake
loading p
0(x) from the expression:
I,
where.
C, =the dimensionless elastic seismic response co-
efficient given by Eq. (3-1),
p~(x) = the intensity of the equivalent static semsmmc
loading applied to represent the primary mode
of vibration (force/unit length).
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
METHODPROCEDURE 3
The multimode response spectrum analysis should be
performed with a suitable space frame linear dynamic
analysis computer program.
4.5.1 General
The multimode spectral analysis nsethod applies to
bridges with irregular geometry which induces coupling
in the three coordinate directions within each mode of vi-
bration. These coupling ~.ffects make it difficult to cate-
gorize the modes into simple longitudinal or transverse
modes of vibration and, in addition, several modes of vi-
bration will in general contribute to the total response of
the structure. A computer program with space frame dy-
namic analysis capabilities should be used to determine
coupling effects and multimodal contributions to the final
response. Motions applied at the supports in anyone of the
(4 - 8) two horizontal directions will produce forces along both
principal axes of the individual members because of the
coupling effects. For curved structures, the longitudinal
motion shall be directed along a chord connecting the
abutments and the transverse motion shall be applied nor-
mal to the chord. Forces due to longitudinal andtransverse
motions shall be combined as specified in Article 3.9.
(4-9)
4.5.2 Mathematical Model
The bridge should be modeled as a three-dimensional
space frame with joints and nodes selected to realistically
model the stiffness and inertia effects of the structure.
Each joint or node should have six degrees of freedom,
three translational and three rotational. The structural
mass should be lumped with a minimum of three transla-
tional inertia terms.
The mass should take into account structural elements
and other relevant loads including, but not limited to. pier
caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other loads such
as live loads may be included. (Generally, the inertia ef-
fects of live loads are not included in the analysis; how-
ever, the probability of a large live load being on the
bridge during an earthquake should be considered when
designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios which
are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion
is likely to occur.)
4.5.2(A) Superstructure
The superstructure should, as a minimum, be modeled
as a series of space frame members with nodes at such
points as the span quarter points in addition to joints at the
ends of each span. Discontinuities should be included in
the superstructure at the expansion joints and abutments.
Care should be taken to distribute properly the lumped
mass inertia effects at these locations. The effect of earth-
quake restrainers at expansion joints may be approxi-
mated by superimposing one or more linearly elastic
members having the stiffness properties of the engagedre-
strainer units.
4.5.2(B) Substructure
The intermediate columns or piers should also be mod-
eled as space frame nsembers. Generally, for short, stiff
colunsns having lengths less than one-thirdof either of the
adjacent span lengths, intermediate nodes are not neces-
sary. Long, flexible columns should be modeled with in-
termediate nodes at the third points in addition to the
joints at the ends of the columns. The model should con-
sider the eccentricity of the columns with respect to the
superstructure. Foundation conditions at the base of the
colunsns atsd at the abutments may be modeled using
equivalent linear spring coefficients.
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods
The required periods and mode shapes of the bridge in
the direction under consideration shall be calculated by
established nsethods for the fixed base condition using the
mass and elastic stiffness of the entire seismic resisting
system.
4.5.4 Muitimode Spectral Analysis
The response should, as aminimuns. include the effects
of a number of modes equivalent to three times the num-
ber of spans up to a maximum of 25 modes.
4.5.5 Combination of Model Forces and
Displacements
The member forces and displacements can be estm-
mated by combining the respective response quantities
(e.g., force, displacement, or relative displacement) from
the individual modes by the Complete Quadratic Combi-
nation (CQC) method. The member forces and displace-
ments obtained using the CQC method of combining
modes is generally adequate for most bridge systems.
4.6 TIME HISTORY METHODPROCEDURE 4
Any step-by-step, time history method of dynamic
analysis, that has been validated by experiment and!
or comparative performance with similar methods, may
be used provided the following requirements are also
satisfied:
(a) The time histories of input acceleration used to de-
scribe the earthquake loads shall be selected in consul-
tation with the Owner or Owners representative. Un-
less otherwise directed, five spectruns-compatible time
histories shall be used when site-specific time histories
are not available. The spectrum used to generate these
five time histories shall preferably be a site-specific
spectrum. In the absence of such a spectruns, the re-
sponse coefficient given by Eq. (3-1), for the appropri-
ate soil type. may be used to generate a spectrumn.
(b) The sensitivity of the numerical solution to the size
of the time step used for the analysis shall be deter-
mined. A sensitivity study shall also be carried out to
investigate the effects of variations in assumed mate-
rial properties.
(c) If an in-elastic time history method of analysis is
used, the R-factors permitted by Article 3.7 shall be
taken as 1.0 for all substructures and connections.
5.1 GENERAL
Section 5
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
or,
Bridges classified as SPC A in accordance with Table
3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conforns to all the requirements of
this Section.
N=(203 + l.67L r 6.66H)
(I +0.000125S
2) (inns)
(5-I B)
where,
5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
If a nsechanical device is used to connect the super-
structure to the substructure it shall be designed to resmst a
horizomstal seismic force in each restrained directiois equal
to 0.20 timnes the tributary weight.
For each segmnent of a superstructure, the tributary
weight at the line of fixed bearings, used to deternsine the
longitudinal connection design force, is defined as the
total weight of the segmentt.
If each bearimsg supporting a segnsemst or smmply sup-
ported span is restrained in the transverse direction, the
tributary weight used to determine the tramssverse conisec-
tion design force is defined as the dead load reaction at
that bearing.
5.3 DESIGN I)ISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC
Minimum bearing support lengths as deternsined in
this Article shall be pr(Svided for the expansioms ends of all
girders.
Bridges classified as SPC A shall meet the followimig
requirement: Bearing seats stmpporting the expamlsi(Sts ends
of girders, as shown in Figure~ ~ 10, shall be designed to
provide a nsiisimum support length N (in. or nsm). usca-
sured nortnal to the face of ams abutment or pier, n(St less
than that specified below.
N = (8 0.02L + 0.081-1)
(I 0.000125S2) (in)
L = length, in feet for Eq. 5-lA or meters for Eq. 5-
lB. of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion
joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. For hinges
wmthin aspan, L shall be the suns of L
1 and U2, the
distances to either side of the hinge. For single
span bridges L equals the length of the bridge
deck. These lengths are shown in Figure 3.10.
S = angle of skew of support its degrees. nseasured
from a line normal t(S the spats.
and H is given by one of the followimsg:
for abutments, H is the average height. imi feet for
Eq. 5-1 A or meters for Eq. 5-1 B, of columns sup-
porting the bridge deck to the next expansion
joint. H =0 for siisgle spats bridges.
for colunsns and/or piers, H is the columsin (Sr pier
height in feet for Eq. 5-1 A or nseters for Eq. 5-I B.
for hinges withims a span. H is tlse average height
of the adjacent two colunins or piers in feet for Eq.
5-lAornseters for Eq. 5-lB.
5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
There are no special seisnsic design requirensents
for the foundations and abutments of bridges us this
category.
Nevertheless, compliance is assunsed with all require-
ments that are necessary to provide support for ~ertieal
and lateral loads other than those due to earthquake mo-
(5-IA) tions. These include, but are not limited t(S. provisi(Sns for
407
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
the extent of foundation investigati(Sn. tills, slope stabil-
ity. bearing and lateral 5(Sil pressures. drainage. settlememst
c(Sntrol. and pile requirements atsd capacities.
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
No c(Snsiderati(Sts of seismic forces is required for tlse
desigms of structural eomsmponents for bridges in this cate
gory except for the design of the commnection of the super-
structure to the substmucttmre as specified in Article S __
Nevertheless. desigms and construction (Sf strtmc-
tural steel coltmmnns and connections shall conform to the
reqtmirensents of Division I (AASHTO Standard .Speciji-
caflons toe Hg.hmvay Brid~<ex). Either Service Load or
Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design
ms used the allowable stresses are permssitted to increase
by 50 percemst.
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
No consideration of seisnsic forces is required for the
design of strtmctural consponents for bridges in this cate-
gory except for the desigms of the comsmsection rsf the super-
structure to the substructure as specified in Article 52.
Nevertheless. desigms and construction (Sf cast-in-place
monolithic reinforced concrete columns, pier footings atsd
connecti(Sns shall conform to the reqtmirensents of Division
I. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used.
If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are
permitted to increase by 33 percemst.
4(f 8 5.4
Section 6
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL
Bridges classified as SPC B in accordance with Table
3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all tlse requiremetsts (Sf
this Section.
6.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and
Connections
Seismic desigms forces specified in this subsectioms shall
apply t(S:
(a) The stmperstructure, its expansion j(Sints and the
c(Snnecti(Sns between the superstructure and the sup-
porting substructure.
(b) The supporting substructure down to the base of
the columns and piers but not including the footing.
pile cap. or piles.
(c) Components connecting the superstructure t(S the
abutnsent.
Seismic design forces for the above comnponents sIsall
be detcrnsined by dividing the elastic seistnic forces ob-
tained finns [.oad Case I and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
by the appropriate Response Modification Factor of Arti-
cle 3.7. The modified seisnsic forces resimlting fromn the
two load cases shall then be combined imsdepemsdently with
forces fromn other loads as specitied in the following group
foadimsg conshination for the comnp(Snents. Note that the
seisnsie forces are reversible (positive and isegative) amsd
tlse nsax mnsumss loading for each comnpomsent shall be calcu-
lated as follows:
Grotip Load l.0([) + B ~- SF -r E EQM)
(6-1)
wlsere,
D = dead load
B = buoyancy
SF = stream-flow pressure
E = earth pressure
EQM = elastic seismic force for either Load Case I or
Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 modified by di-
viding by the appropriate R-Factor.
Each conspomsent of the structure shall he desigtsed to
withstand the forces resulting finns each load cotitbinati(Sn
according to Division I (AASHTO Standard Sped/ira-
non.s frr Highway Bridges), and the additiomsal require-
ments of this chapter. Note that Eq. 6-1 shall be used in
lieu of the Division I. Group V II group loading combina-
tion and that the y and 13 factors equal I. For Service Load
Design, a 50-percent imscrease is permitted its the allow-
able stresses for structural steel and a 33/ percent in-
crease for reinforced concrete.
6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations
Seismic design forces for foundations. imscludimsg foot-
ings. pile caps. and piles shall be the elastic seisisiic forces
obtained from Load Case I amsd Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
divided by the Response Modification Factor (R) from Ar-
tide 3.7 and mnodified as specified below. These niodified
seisnsic forces shall then be consbimsed imsdependently with
forces frons other loads as specitiedin the followimsg group
loading conshination to determine two alternate load
cotsThinations for the foundations.
Group Load l.0([) B 1- SF Er EQE)
(6-2)
where D. B. F. and SF are as defused in Article 6.2. I. amsd
FQF = the elastic seistssic force for either Load Case
I or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by
onehalf of the Response Moditication Factor
for the substructure (colunsms or pier) t(S which
the foundation is attached.
EXCEPTION:
For pile bents. the Respomsse Moditication Factor shall
not be redm.tced by (Sne-half.
409
410 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 6.2 .2
If a Group [.oad other than Equation 6-I governs the
design of the columns, seismic forces transferred to the
foundations may be larger than those calculated using
Equation 6-2, due to possible overstrength of eolunsns.
Each comp(Snent of the foundation shall be desigtsed to
resmst the forces resulting frons each load conshination ac-
cording to the requirements of Division I and to the addi-
tional requirensents of Article 6.4.
6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining
Walls
The comsiponemsts connecting the superstructure to ams
abutnient (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be desigtsed
to resist the forces specified in Article 6.2.1.
Design requirements for abutnsents are given in Arti-
cle 6.4.3.
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC
The seismnic design displacensents shall be the maxi-
nium of those determined in accordance with Article 3.8
or those specified in Article 6.3.1.
6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for
Seismic Performance Category B
Bridges classified as SPC B sIsall nseet the following
requirement: Bearing seats sttpporting the expatssioms emsds
(Sf girders, as shown in Figure 3.1 t), shall be designed to
provide a mininsuns support length N (in. (Sr msiiss) inca-
sured norusal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less
than that specified below.
S =angle of skew of support in degrees, measured
from a line normal to the span.
and H is given by one of the following:
for abutnsents, H is the average height, in feet for
Eq. 63A or meters for Eq. 63i3, of colunsns sm.mp-
porting the bridge deck to the next exISanston
joint. H = 0 for single span bridges.
for eolutnns and/or piers, H is the columssis or pier
height in feet for Eq. 6-3Aor meters for Eq. 6-3B.
for hinges withimi a span, H is the average height of
the adjacent two c(Slumns or piers in feet for Eq. 6-
3A or meters for Eq. 6-3B.
6.4 FOUNDATION ANDABUTMENT I)ESIGN
6.4.1 General
This section includes (Snly those foundation amid abLmt-
meist requirememsts that arc specifically related to seismisme
resistant c(Snstruction in SPC B. It assunses conspliamsce
with all requirensents that are necessary to provide sup-
p(Srt for vertical and lateral loads (StIler than those dime to
earthquake nsotions. These include, but are riot limnited to.
provisions for the extent of foundation investigation.
fills. slope stability, bearitsg and lateral soil pressures.
drainage, settletsient comstrol. and pile requirensermts amid
capacities.
Foundation and abutnsent seismssic desigmi requirements
for SPC B are given in the following subsections.
6.4.2 Foundations
N=(8 + 0.02L + 0.08H)
(6-3A) (I 0.000125S
2) (in.)
or.
N= (203 l.67L 6.66H)
(I + 0.00012552) (mm)
where,
L = length. in feet for Eq. 63A or nseters for Eq. (s
3B, of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion
j(Sint. or to the end of the bridge deck. For hiisges
withiti a span, L shall be the sum of L
1 and L2, the
6.4.2(A) Investigation
In addition to the nornsal site investigatioms report, the
Engineer may require the submission of a report which
describes the results of an investigatioms 1(5 determimse po-
tential hazards and seismic design requirememits related to
(I) slope instability, (2) liquefaction. (3) fill settlement.
(6-3B) and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of
earthquake motions. Seismically imsdtmced slope imsstability
in approach fills or cuts may displace abuttnents and lead
to significant differential settleisseisi amid structural datsm
age. Fill settlement and abutnsent displacements dtme to
lateral pressure increases mnay lead to bridge access prob-
lems and structural damage. Liquefaction of saturated co-
hesionless fills or foundation soils msiay contribute to slope
and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of fouis-
dation-bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Lique-
6.4.2 (A ) DIV ISION IASEISMIC DESIGN 411
faction failures of the above type have led to bridge fail-
ures during past earthquakes.
6.4.2(B) Foundation Design
For the load combinations specified in Article 6.2.2,
the soil stremsgth capable of being mobilized by the foun-
dations shall be established in the site investigation report.
Because of the dynamic cyclic nature of seismic loading.
the ultinsate capacity of the foundation supporting
medium should be used in conjunction with these load
consbinations. Due c(Snsideration shall be given to the
magnitude of the seismically induced foundation settle-
ment that the bridge can withstand.
Transient foundation uplift or rocking involving sepa-
ration from the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing
foundation pile group or up to one-half of the contact area
of foundatiots footings is permitted under seisnsicloading,
provided that foundation soils are not susceptible to loss
(Sf strength under the imposed cyclic loading.
General comments on soil strength and stiffness niobi-
lized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral load-
ing of piles. soil-structure interaction and foundation de-
sign in environments susceptible to liquefaction are
provided in the Commentary.
6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements
The following special pile requirensents are in addition
to the requiretnents for piles in other applicable specifica-
tt(5t55.
Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads.
The mnininsum depth of enshedment. together with the
axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resist seismic
loads shall be determined by mneans of the design criteria
established in the site investigatiots report. Note that the
ultinsate capacity of the piles shotmld be used in desPnino
C- C-
for seismic loads.
All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile foot-
ing or cap. Comscrete piles shall be aisehored by embed-
nscmst (Sf sufficient lemsgth of pile reinforeensemst (mmnless
special anchorage is provided) to develop uplift forces but
mn no case shall this length be less than the developtssetst
length required for the reinforcetisent. Each concrete-
filled pipe ISile shall be atsclsored by at least foimr reimsforc-
imsg steel dowels with a nsimsimum steel ratio (Sf 0.01 ems]
bedded sufficiently as rcqtiired for concrete piles. Tinsher
and steel piles, imscluding unfilled pipe piles. shall be pro-
vided with anchoring devices to develop all uplift forces
adequately btmt in iso case shall these forces be less than 10
percent of the allowable pile load.
All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the de-
sign moments, shears, and axial loads. Minimum rein-
forcensent shall be not less than tlse following:
I. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal
reinforcing steel shall be provided for cast-in-place
concrete piles in the upper one-third (8 ft or 2.4 mn
minimum) of the pile length with a mininsum steel
ratio of 0.005 provided by at least four bars..Spiral
reinforcement or equivalent ties of 1/4 in. (6 mm) di-
ameter or larger shall be provided at 9 in. (225 mm)
maxinsum pitch, except for the top 2 ft (610 nsns)
below the pile cap reinforcensent where the pitch shall
be 3 in. (75 mm) maximuns.
2. Precast Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall
be provided for each precast concrete pile with a mm-
imumn steel ratio of 0.01 provided by at least four bars.
Spiral reinforeensent or equivalent ties of No. 3 bars or
larger shall be provided at 9 in. (225 mm) mnaximuns
pitch, except for the top 2 ft (610 mm) below the pile
cap reinforcensent where the pitch shall be 3 in. (75
mm) maxinsum.
3. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-pre-
stressed piles shall conformn to the requirements of pre-
cast piles.
6.4.3 Abutments
6.4.3(A) Free-StandingAburnmeimts
For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which
may displace horizontally without significant restraint
(e.g., stiperstructure supported by sliding bearings), the
psermdostatic Mononobe-Okabe mnethod of analysis is rec-
omnsended for computing lateral active soil presstmres dtmr-
ing seismic loading. A seismic coefficient cqtmal to otse-
half the acceleration coefficient (kh = OSA) is
recommetsded. The effects of vertical acceleration mssay be
onsitted. Abtttnsents shotild be pr(SportiomScd t(S SI ide rather
than tilt, and provisions should be misade t(S acconstisodate
smssall lsorizomstal seismically induced abtitmnent displace-
ments when minimal dansace is desired at abutmssemst stmp-
ports. Abutnient displacensents of up to IOA in. (25t)A
mm) may be expected.
The seismic design of free-standing abuttnents should
take int(S account forces arising frons seisnsically induced
lateral earth pressures, additional forces arisiisg frons wall
inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces frons the
bridge deck thrtsugh bearimsg supports which do mS(St slide
freely (e.g.. elastomeric bearings).
For free-standing abutments which are restraimsed
finns horizontal displacement by aisehors (Sr batter piles.
the magnittides of seismically induced lateral earth pres-
sures are higher than those given by the Mononobe-
Okabe method of analysis. As a first approxinsati(Sn.
it is recomtTtended that the nsaximum lateral earth pressure
be computed by using a seismic coefficient k
5 = I .SA in
conjunction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis method.
412
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
6.4.3(B)
6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments
For monolithic abutnsents where the abutment fornss
an integral part of the bridge superstructure, maximum
earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed
equal to the maximum longitudinal earthquake force
transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To
minimize abutment damage, the abutment should be de-
signed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mo-
bilized by the abutment backfill, which should be greater
than the maximum estimated longitudinal earthquake
force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that
the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loading is
less than the superstrrmcture earthquake load.
When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted
by piers or e(Slumns, it is necessary to estimate abut-
ment stiffness in the longitudinal direction in order to
compute the proportion of earthquake load tratssferred to
the abutnseist.
6.5.1 General
Design and eonstrtictioms of structural steel columns
amsd c(Snnectiomss shall confortss to the requiremssemsts of I)i-
vmsi(Sn I and to the additiomial requirements of this section.
Either Service Load or Load Factor design misay be used.
If Service Load design is tmsed tlse allowable stresses are
permitted to increase by 50 percent.
6.5.2 P-delta Effects
Wlsere axial aisd flextmral stresses are determniised by
cormsidering secondary bemsdimw resultino froiss the design
C- C-
P-delta effects (mnoissemsts induced by the eccentricity re-
sulting frotss the seismic displacemnemsts and the colummi
axial force), all axially loaded nsensbers may be propor-
tioned its accordance with Divisioms I, Article 10.36 or
10.54.
6.6.1 General
Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic
reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connec-
tions shall conforns to the requirements of Division I and
to the additional requirements of this seetioms. Either Ser-
vice Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Servtee
Load design is used the allowable stresses are pernsitted
to increase by 33/ percent.
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement
Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category B
For bridges classified as SPC B, the mininsuns trans-
verse reinforcement requiretssents at the top amsd bottom (Sf
a columssn shall be as required its Article 6.6.2(A). The
spacing of the transverse reinforcemnent shall be as re-
qtmired in Article 6.6.2(B).
6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinftrcenment for Confinement
The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled slsafts shall
be confined by transverse reinforcenseist in tlse expected
plastic hinge regi(Sns, generally located at the top and hot-
tons of colunins and pile bents, as specitied its this sub-
section. The transverse reinforeensent for confinement
shall have a yield strength not nsore than that of the lon-
gitudinal reinforcement atsd the spacimsg shall be as speci-
fled in Article 6.6.2(B).
The volunsetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (p1 for a
circular colutsrn shall be either that required itt Division I,
Article 8.18 or.
=O.
4S[~il~l]c
(64)
or,
EXCEPTIONS:
I. The effective lemsgtls factor. K, its tlse plane of bend-
mng may be assunsed to be umsity in the calculatiois of F~,
Fe. F~3. (Sr F,.
2.The coel~ficiemst C,,, is comptmted as for the cases
where joint tramislatiort is prevented.
(6-5)
txh
The total gross sectiomial area (A~1,) of rectangular hoop
(stirrup) reinforcemssemst for a rectarmgtmlar colunsms shall be
citlser.
6.6.2(A)
413
A~h =0.30ah~ ~
or
Abh =0.l2ah,
5
whichever is greater, where:
a = vertical spacing of hoops (stirrups) in inches
(millimeters) with a maximum of 6 in. (150
ns m)
A, = area of column core measured to the outside of
the transverse spiral reinforcement
= gross area of column
= total cross-sectional area in square inches
(square millimeters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforce-
ment including supplemnentary cross ties having
a vertical spacing of an in. (mm) and crossmno a
C-
section havimsg a core dimension of h, in. (nsm).
Note that this should be calculated for both
principal axes of a rectangimlar columnn.
fj = specified compressive strength of c(Sncrete in
psi (MPa)
= yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in
psi (MPa)
= core dimnension of tied column in inches (nsil-
linseters) in the directioms under consideration
= ratio of volunse of spiral reinforeemnent t(S total
voslume of concrete core (out-toout of spirals).
Transverse hoop reinforcement may be provided by
single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same
bar size as the hoop may be used. Each end of the cross-
tie shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar.
A crosstie is a continuous bar having a hook of not less
than 135 deg with an extension of not less than six-diam-
eter. but not less than 3 in. (76 mm), at one end and a hook
of not less than 90 deg with an extemssion of not less than
six-diameter at the osther end. The hooks shall engage pe-
ripheral longitudinal bars. The 90-deg hooks of two sue-
(6-6) cessive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars shall
be alternated end for end.
A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
closed tie may be made up of several reinforcing elements
with 135-deg hooks having a six-diameter, but not less
(6-7) than 3 in. (76 mm), extension at each end. A continuously
wound tie shall have at each end a 135-deg hook with a
six-diameter, but not less than 3 in. (76 mm), extension
that engages the longtitudinal reinforcement.
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Tratmscerxe Reinforeenment
for Confinement
I. Transverse remnforcensent for confinemnent shall
be provided at the top and bottons of the column
over a length equal t(S the maximum cross-sectional
column dimension or one-sixth of the clear height
of the columnn whichever is the larger but isot less than
18 in. (450 nsm). Transverse reinforcement shall be
extended into the top and bottomn conmsections for a
distance equal to one-half the maxinsuns colunsn di-
mension but n(St less than 15 in. (375 inns) frons the
face of the column connection into the adjoining
member.
2. Transverse remnforcement for confinemssent shall be
provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same
length as specified for colunins. At the bottons of piles
in pile bents, transverse reinforcement for confimsemcmst
shall be provided over a length extending from three
pile diameters below the calculated point of nsoment
fixity to one pile diameter but mint less than 18 in. (450
mm) above the mud line.
3. The inaxinsuns spacimsg for reinforcement shall miot
exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the mninmnsuns
member dimension or 6 in. (150 mists]).
4. Lapping of spiral reinforcensent in the transverse
confinement regions specified in I and 2 shall isot be
permitted. Connections of spiral reinforcensent in this
region must be full strength lap welds.
Section 7
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
7.1 GENERAL
Bridges classified as either SPC C ~srSP~ I) us accor-
dance witls Table I of Article 3.4 shall conform to all tlse
reqimirements of this Sectioms.
7.2 I)ESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
Two sets of desigms forces are specified in Articles 7.2.1
amsd 7.2.2 for bridges classified as Category C or B. The
design forces for the various comssponermts are specified us
Articles 7.2.3 throttgh 7.2.7.
7.2.1 Modified Design Forces
Design forces shall be deternsiised as in Articles
7.2.1(A) and 7.2.1(B). Note that for colunsns a nsaximutss
and mniisimutn axial force shall be calculated for each
load case by taking the seisnsic axial force as positive and
negative.
7.2. 1(A) Modified t)esign Forcesfor Structural
Menmber.s and Cotumections
Seismic design forces specified in this Article shall
apply to:
(a) The superstrtmcture, its expansion joints and the
comsnectiomss betweeis the superstructure and the sup-
porting substructure.
(b) The supporting substructure dowms to the base of
the columns and piers btmt not including the footing,
pile cap, or piles.
(c) Components connecting the superstrrmctrmre to the
abutmemst.
Seismic design forces for the above consponents shall
be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces ob-
tamed from Load Case I and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
by the appropriate Response Modification Factor of Arti-
ele 3.7. The modified seismic forces resulting Irons the
tw(S load cases shall then be c(Stssbmned independently with
forces from other loads as specified in the following r(Stmp
loading comisbinatiots for the compoisents. Note that tlse
seismic forces are reversible (positive and negative) aisd
the maximuns loading for each component shall be calcu-
lated as follows:
Group Load = l.0(D -r B SF F EQM)
(7-It
where,
D =dead load
B =buoyamscy
SF = stream-flow pressure
E =earth pressure
EQM = elastic seismic force for either Load Case I
or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 niodified by
dividing by the appropriate R-Faetor.
Each comnponemst of the structure shall be designed to
withstand the forces resultimsg froiss each load comssbination
acc(Srding to I)ivision I (AASHTO Sta,mdard Specifications
for Highway Bridges), andthe additional requirements of
this chapter. Note that Eq. 7-I shall be used in lieu of the
Division I, GroupV II group loading consbination and that
the y and 13 factors equal I. For Service Load Desigmi,
a 50-percent increase is permitted in the allowable
stresses for structural steel and a33V ~ percent increase for
reinforced concrete.
7.2.1(B) Modified Design Forcesfor Foundatioum.s
Seismic design forces for foundations, including foot-
ings, pile caps, and piles shall be the elastic seisnsic forces
obtainedfrom Load Case I and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
divided by the Response Modificatioms Factor (R) speci-
fled below. These modified seismic forces shall then be
combined independently with forces from other loads
as specified in the following group loading combination
to determine two alternate load combinations for the
foundations.
415
416 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.2.1(B)
Group Load = l.0(D B SF + E + EQF) (7-2) The forces corresponding to a single column hinging
are:
where D, B, E, and SF are as defined in Article 7.2.1 and
EQF = the elastic seisnsic force for either Load Case I
or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by an
Factor equal to I .0.
Each component of the foundation shall be designed
to resist the forces resulting from each load combination
according to the requirements of Division I and to the
additional requirements of Article 7.2.6.
7.2.2 Forces Resultingfrom Plastic Hinging in the
Columns, Piers, or Bents
The force resulting from plastic hinging at the top
and/or bottom of the column shall be calculated after the
preliminary design of the columns is complete. The forces
resulting from plastic hinging are recommended for de-
ternmining design forces for most components as specified
in Articles 7.2.3 through 7.2.6. Alternate conservative de-
sign forces are specified if forces resulting from plastic
hinging are not calculated. The procedures for calculating
these forces for single column and pier supports and bents
with two or more columns are given in the following
subsections.
(a) Axial Forcesunreduced maximum and mini-
mum seismic axial load of Article 3.9 pIus the dead
load.
(b) Momentsas calculated in Step 1.
(c) Shear Forceas calculated in Step 2.
7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns
The forces for bents with two or more columns shall be
calculated both in the plane of the bent and perpendicular
to the plane of the bent. Perpendicular to the plane of the
bent the forces shall be calculated as for single columns to
accordance with Article 7.2.2(A). In the plane of the bent
the forces shall be calculated as follows:
Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic
moment capacities. For reinforced concrete use a strength
reduction factor (~) of 1 .3 andfor structural steel use 1 .25
times the nominal yield strength. (Note: This corresponds
to the normal use of a strength reduction factor for rein-
forced concrete. In this case it provides an increase in the
ultimate strength.) For both materials use the axial load
corresponding to the dead load.
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers
The forces shall be calculated for the two principal
axes of a column and in the weak direction of a pier or
bent as follows:
Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic
moment capacities. For reinforced concrete columns, use
a strength reduction factor (~) of 1 .3 and for structural
steel columns use 1 .25 times the nominal yield strength.
(Note: This corresponds to the normal use of a strength
reduction factor for reinforced concrete. In this case it pro-
vides an increase in the ultimate strength.) For both mate-
rials use the maximum elastic column axial load from
Article 3.9 added to the column dead load.
Step 2. Using the column overstrength plastic mo-
ments, calculate the corresponding colunsn shear force.
For flared columns this calculation shall be performed
usmng the overstrength plastic moments at both the top and
bottom of the flare with the appropriate column height. If
the foundation of a column is significantly below ground
level, consideration should be given to the possibility of
the plastic hinge forming above the foundation. lfthis can
occur the column length between plastic hinges shall be
used to calculate the column shear force.
Srep 2. Using the column overstrength plastic mo-
ments calculate the corresponding column shear forces.
Sum the column shears of the bent to determine the max-
imum shear force for the bent. Note that, if apartial-height
wall exists between the columns, the effective column
height is taken fromthe top of the wall. For flaredcolumns
and foundations below ground level, see Article 7.2.2(A)
Step 2. For pile bents the length of pile above the mud line
shall be used to calculate the shear force.
Step 3. Apply the bent shear force to the top of the
bent (center of mass of the superstructure above the bent)
and determine the axial forces in the columns due to over-
turning when the column overstrength plastic moments
are developed.
Step 4. Using these column axial forces combined
with the dead load axial forces, determine revisedcolumn
overstrength plastic moments. With the revised over-
strength plastic moments calculate the column shear
forces and the maximum shear force for the bent. If the
maximum shear force for the bent is not within 10 percent
of the value previously determined, use this maxmmum
bent shear force and returu to Step 3.
The forces in the individual columns in the plane of a
bent corresponding to column hinging, are:
7.2.2(B)
417
(a) Axial Forcesthe maximum and minimum axial
load is the dead load plus, or minus, the axial load de-
termined from the final iteration of Step 3.
(b) Momentsthe column overstrength plastic nso-
ments corresponding to the maximum compressive
axial load specified in (a) above, with a strength re-
duction factor of 1.3 for reinforced concrete and 1.25
times the nominal yield strength for structural steel.
(c) Shear Forcethe shear force corresponding to the
column overstrength moments in (b) above, noting the
provisions in Step 2 above.
7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces
Design forces for columns and pile bents shall be the
following:
(a) Axial Forcesthe minimum and maximum design
force shall either be the elastic design values deter-
mined in Article 3.9 added to the dead load, or the val-
ues corresponding to plastic hinging of the column and
determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values cor-
responding to column hinging will be smaller.
(b) Momentsthe modified design monsents deter-
mined inArticle 7.2.1.
(c) Shear Forceeither the elastic design value deter-
mined from Article 7.2.1 using an R-Factor of I for the
column or the value corresponding to plastic hinging
of the colunsn as determined in Article 7.2.2. Gener-
ally, the value corresponding to column hinging will be
significantly smaller.
7.2.4 Pier Design Forces
The design forces shall be those determined in Arti-
cle 7.2.1 except if the pier is designed as a column in its
weak direction. If the pier is designed as a column the
design forces in the weak direction shall be as specified
in Article 7.2.3 and all the design requirements for
columns of Article 7.6 shall apply. (Note: When the
forces due to plastic hinging are used in the weak direc-
tion the combination of forces specified in Article 3.9 is
not applicable.)
7.2.5 Connection Design Forces
The design forces shall be those determined in Article
7.2.1 except that for superstructure connections to
columns and column connections to cap beams or foot-
ings, the alternate forces specified in 7.2.5(C) below are
recommended. Additional design forces at connections
are as follows:
7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces
Positive horizontal linkage shall be provided between
adjacent sections of the superstructure at supports and ex-
pansion joints within a span. The linkage shall be de-
signed for a minimum force of the Acceleration Coeffi-
cient times the weight of the lighter of the two adjoining
spans or parts of the structure. If the linkage is at a point
where relative displacement of the sections of super-
structure is designedto occur during seismic motions, suf-
ficient slack must be allowed in the linkage so that the
linkage force does not start to act until the design dis-
placement is exceeded. Where linkage is to be provided at
columns or piers, the linkage of each span may be at-
tached to the column or pier rather than between adjacent
spans. Positive linkage shall be provided by ties, cables.
dampers, or an equivalent mechanism. Friction shall not
be considered apositive linkage.
7.2.5(B) Hold-Dowo Devices
Hold-down devices shall be provided at all supports or
hinges in continuous structures, where the vertical seismic
force due to the longitudinal horizontal seismic load op-
poses and exceeds 50 percent but is less than 100 percent
of the dead load reaction. In this case, the mininsum net
upward force for the hold-down device shall be 10 percent
of the dead load downward force that would be exerted if
the span were simply supported.
If the vertical seismic force (Q ) due to the longitudinal
horizontal seismic load opposes and exceeds 100 percent
of the dead load reaction (DR), the net upwards force for
the hold-down device shall be l.2(Q DR) but it shall
not be less than that specified in the previous paragraph.
7.2.5(C) Column andPier Connections to Cap
Beams aimd Footings
The recommended connection design forces between
the superstructure and columns, columns and cap beams.
and columns and spread footings or pile caps are the
forces developed at the top and bottom of the columns due
to column hinging and determined in Article 7.2.2. The
smaller of these or the values specified in Article 7.2. 1
may be used. Note that these forces should be calculated
after the column design is complete and the overstreisgth
moment capacities have been obtained.
7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces
The design forces for foundations including footings,
pile caps, and piles may be either those forces determnined
in Article 7.2.1(B) or the forces at the bottom of the
columns corresponding to column plastic hinging as
418
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.2.6
determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values corre-
sponding to columnn hinging will be signifieamstly smaller.
When the columns of a bent have a consmon footing
the final force distribution at the base of the columns frons
Step 4 of Article 7.2.2(B) may be used for the design of
the footing in the plaise of the bent. This force distribution
produces lower shear forces and nsoments on the footing
because one exterior colunsn may be in tension and the
other in c(Smpression due to the seismic overturnimsg mo
mnent. This effectively increases the ultitnate nsomsients and
shear forces (Sn orte c(Slunsn and reduces them on the other.
7.2 .7 Abutment and RetainingWall Design Forces
The comssponetsts comsnectimsg the superstructure to an
abtmtment (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be desigmsed
to resmst the forces specified its Article 7.2.1.
Design requiremnents for abutments are givems its Arti-
dc 7.4.3 for SPC C and Article 7.4.5 for SPC D.
7.3 I)ESIGN 1)ISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATE(;ORIES C ANI) D
The seisnsic desigms displacensents shall be the mnaxi-
muns of those determiised its accordance with Article 3.8
or those specified in Article 7.3.1.
7.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for
Seismic Performance Categories C and D
Bridges elassilied as SPC C or D shall meet the fol-
lowing requirensent: Bearing seats supporting the expan-
smon ends of girders, as shown in Figure 5, shall be de-
signed to ISrovide a mininsumss support length N (in. or
mm), measured isorissal to the face of ams abutnseist or pier,
not less than that specified below.
N = (12 0.03L 0.12H)
(I + 0.00012552) (in.)
(7-3A)
or.
N = (305 2.SL IOH)
(I 0.000125S
2) (mm) (7-3 B)
where.
L = length, in feet for Eq. 7-3A or meters for Eq. 7-
3B, of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansiots
joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. For hinges
within a span, L shall be the sum of L
1 and L2, the
S = angle of skew of support in degrees measured
from a line normal to tlse span.
and H is given by one of the followimsg:
for abutments, H is the average height, us feet for
Eq. 7-3A or meters for Eq. 7-3B, of columns sup-
porting the bridge deck t(S the next expanston
joint. H = 0 for single span bridges.
for columnns amscl/or piers, H is the colunsms (S~ pier
height in feet for Eq. 7-3A or mneters for Eq. 7-3B.
for hinges within a span, H is the average height of
the adjacent two columsstss or piers in feet for Eq. 7-
3A or nseters for Eq. 7-3B.
Positive horizontal limskages shall be provided at all su-
perstructure expaission joints, includimsg those joimits
within a span, as specified in Article 7.2.5.
Relative displacemnents betweems different segmnemsts of
the bridge shotild be carefully considered in the evalua-
tion of the results determined in accordance with Article
3.8. Relative displacensents arise from effects that are isot
eastly included in the analysis procedtmre but slsould be
considered in determnining the design displacemssents. They
imiclude the following:
(a) Torsional displacemssemsts of bridge decks on
skewed supports.
(b) Rotation and/or lateral displacensemsts of tlse foun-
dations.
(c) Out-of-phase displacemssents of different segments
of the bridge. This is especially important in determin-
mng seat widths at expansion joints.
(d) Out-of-phase rotatiots of abutnsemsts and colummss
imsduced by traveling seismssic waves.
7.4 FOUNDATION ANDABUTMENT DESIGN
7.4.1 General
This section includes only those foundation and abut-
ment requirensents that are specifically related to seisnsmc
resmstant construction in SPC C and D. It assutnes comss-
pliance with all requirensents that are necessary to provide
support for vertical and lateral loads other than those dtme
to earthquake motions. These include. but are isot linsited
to, provisions for the extent of foundation investigation.
fills, slope stability. bearimsg and lateral soil pressures.
drainage, settlensent control, and pile requirements atsd
capacmtmes.
7.4.1
419
Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements
for SPC C are given in Articles 7.4.2 and 7.4.3. Require-
ments for bridges in SPC D are given in Articles 7.4.4
and 7.4.5.
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category C
Foundation and abutment seismic design requiretnents
for SPC C are given in the following subsections.
In addition to the normal site investigation report, the
Engineer may require the submission of a report which
describes the results of an investigation to determine po-
tential hazards andseismic design reqtmirements related to
(I) slope instability, (2) liquefaction, (3) fill settlement,
and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of
earthquake nsotions. Seismically induced slope instability
in approach fills or cuts nsay displace abutmnents and lead
to significant differential settlement and structural datss-
age. Fill settlement and abutment displacemeists due to
lateral pressure increases may lead to bridge access prob-
lems and structural damnage. Liquefaction (Sf saturated co-
hesionless tills or foundation soils may contribute to slope
and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of foun-
dation bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Lique-
factioms failures of the above type have led to bridge fail-
ures during past earthquakes.
Further. tlse above report should include a determnina-
tion of the potential for surface rupttmre due to faultimsg or
differemstial ground displacement (lurching), as a result of
earthquake tmsttons.
7.4.2(B) J~undatio,m Design
Tlse design forces for tlse fotiisdations sIsall be those
specified in Article 7.2.6.
The soil stremsgtls capable of beimsg nsobilized by the
foundations shall be established in the site investigatioms
report. Because of the dymiamisic cyclic nature of seismnic
loadimsg, the ultimate capacity of the foumsdatiois support-
imsg mueditmns should be tised in conjunctiois with these load
consbimsatiomss. Due comisideration shall be givets to the
magnitude of the seismnically imsdtmced foutsdatiots settle-
rent tlsat the bridge can withstamsd.
Transient foundation uplift or rocking iisvolving sepa-
ratioms finns the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing
foundation pile group or tmp to oneIsalf of the comstact area
of fotmndation footings is permitted under seismnic loading.
provided that foundation soils are msot suscelstible to loss
of stremsgth umsder the it~pOs~d cyclic loading.
For saturated sand and soft clay foundation soils, due
consideration shall be given to the potential for soil
strength loss under the insposed cyclic loading in assess-
ing the ultimate capacity of foundations.
General comments on soil strength and stiffness nsobi-
lized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral load-
ing of piles, soil-structure interaction and foundation de-
sign in environments susceptible to liquefaction are
provided in the Commentary.
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements
The following special pile requirements are in addition
to the requirements for piles in other applicable specifica-
tions.
Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads.
The minimum depth of embedment, together with the
axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resmst seismnmc
loads shall be determined by means of the design criteria
established in the site investigation report. Note that the
ultimate capacity of the piles should be used in designing
for seismic loads.
All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile foot-
ing or cap. Concrete piles shall be anchored by enshed-
ment of sufficient length of pile reinforcemnemst (umsless
special anchorage is provided) to develop tiplift forces but
mn n(S case shall this length be less than the developisicist
length required for the reinforcement. Each concrete-
filled pipe pile shall be amschored by at least four reinforc-
ing steel dowels with a minimum steel rati(S of 0.01 em-
bedded sufficiently as required for concrete piles. Timber
and steel piles., including unfilled pipe piles, shall be pro-
vided with anchoring devices to develop all implift forces
adequately but in tso case shall these forces be less than
10 percent of the allowable pile load.
All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the de-
sign nsoments. shears, and axial loads.
The following special requirensents for coiscrete piles
shall apply:
Anchorage. TIse longitudinal reimsforeemssemst of all
c(Sncrete piles shall be anchored to the pile footiisg or
cap to develop a force oI~ at least I .25A,f, wlsere A, is
the area of longittidinal reinI~orcement its tlse concrete
pile amid f, is its msomssinal yield stremsgth.
2. Confinensent Length. The upper end of every pile
shall be reinforced as a p(Stential plastic hinge regioms.
except where it can be establislsed that there is no pos-
sibility of army signiticamst lateral defiectiomis in the pile
resimlting fromis defornsatiois. The potential plastic hiisge
region shall, as a mimsimnumn. be comisidered to extend
from tlse underside of the pile cap over a lemsgth of not
less than two pile diameters (Sr 24 in. (610 nins). If an
420 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.4.2(C)
analysis of the bridge and pile system indicates that a
plastic hinge can form at a lower level, the transverse
reinforcement requirements of (3) shall extend to that
level. Note the special requirements for pile bents
given in Article 7.6.2(C), (D), and (E).
3. V olumetric Ratio for Confinement. The volunsetric
ratio of transverse reinforcement to the distance speci-
fied in (2) shall be as required for columns in Article
7.6.2(D).
4. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal steel
shall be provided for cast-in-place concrete piles for
the full length of the pile. The upper two-thirds of the
pile shall have a minimum longitudinal steel ratio of
0.0075 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforce-
ment or equivalent ties of Y in. (6 mm) diameter or
larger shall be provided at 9 in. (225 nsrn) maximum
pitch, except for the top 4 ft (1.2 m) where the pitch
shall be 3 in. (75 mm) maximuns, and where the volim-
metric ratio shall conform t(S 7.6.2(D).
5. Precast Concrete Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing
steel shall be provided for each precast concrete pile
with a minimnum steel rati(S of COl provided by at least
four bars. Spiral reinforcement ties in precast, includ-
ing prestressed, concrete piles shall be No. 3 bars or
larger and shall be provided at 9 in. (225 nins) nsaxi-
mum pitch except for the top 4 ft (1.2 m) where the
pitch shall be 3 in. (75 inns) and the volunsetric ratio
shall conform to 7.6.2(D).
6. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-prestressed
piles shall conform to the requirensents of precast piles.
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category C
In addition to the provisions outlined in this section,
consideration should be given to the mechanism of trans-
fer of superstructure transverse mnerttal forces to the
bridge abutnsents. Adeqtmate resistance to lateral pressure
should be provided by wing walls or abutment keys to
nsmnimize lateral abutnsent displacements.
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Ahutnments
For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which
may displace horizontally without significant restraint
(e.g., superstructure supported by sliding bearings), the
pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis ms
recommended for computing lateral active soil pressures
during seismic loading. A seismic coefficient equal to
one-half the acceleration coefficient (k
1, = 0.SA) is rec-
ommended. The effects of vertical acceleration may be
omitted. Abutments should be proportioned to slide rather
than tilt, and provisions should be made to accommodate
small horizontal seismically induced abutment displace-
ments when minimal damage is desired at abutment sup-
ports. Abutment displacements of up to IOA in. (250A
mm) may be expected.
The seismic design of free-standing abutments should
take into account forces arising from seismically induced
lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising from wall
inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the
bridge deck through bearing supports which do not slide
freely (e.g., elastomeric bearings).
For free-standing abutnsents which are restrained frons
horizontal displacement by anchors or batter piles, the
magnitudes of seismically induced lateral earth pressures
are higher than those given by the Mononobe-Okabe
method of analysis. As a first approxinsation, it is recom-
mended that the maxinsum lateral earth pressure be cons-
puted by using a seisnsic coefficient k~ = I .SA in con-
junction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis nsethod.
7.4.3(B) Monolithic Ahutme,mts
For monolithic abutments where the abutment forms
an integral part of the bridge superstructure, inaximnuns
earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed
equal to the maximum longitudinal earthqtmake force
transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To
minimize abutment dansage. the abutment should be de-
signed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mo-
bilized by the abutment backfill, which should be greater
than the maximum estinsated longitudinal earthquake
force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that
the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loadimsg is
less than the superstructure earthquake load.
When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted by
piers or columns, it is necessary to estinsate abutnsent
stiffness in the longitudinal direction in order to conspute
the proportion of earthquake load transferred to the abut-
ment.
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations
for Seismic Performance Category D
Foundation design requirements for bridges classified
as SPC D shall meet the requirements of Article 7.4.2 plus
the additional requirements of this section.
The Engineer may require the submission of a written
report which includes, in addition to the requirements of
Article 7.4.2, a site-specific study to investigate the influ-
ence of cyclic loading on the deformation amid strength
characteristics of foundation soils. Potential progressive
degradation in the stiffness andstrength characteristics of
7.4.4(A)
421
saturated sands and soft clays should be given particular
attention. More detailed analyses of slope and/or abut-
ment settlement during earthquake loading should be
undertaken.
7.4.4(B) Foundation Design
The design forces for foundations shall be those spec-
ified in Article 7.2.6.
7.4.5 Additional Requirements forAbutments for
Seismic Performance Category D
In addition to the requirements outlined in Article 7.4.3
consideration should be given to the mechanism of trans-
fer of superstructure longitudinal and transverse inertia
forces to the abutnsents, and also to abutment-soil inter-
action. To mininsize p(Stential loss of bridge access artsmno
from abutnsent damage, monolithic or end diaphragns
construction is strongly reconsrnended for short span
bridges.
Settlensent or approach slabs providing structural sup-
port between approach tills and abutinneists shall be pro-
vided for all bridges classified as SPC D. Slabs shall be
adequately linked to abutments using flexible ties.
7.5.1 General
Desigmi amsd coisstrtictioms ~sf structtmral steel eolumssiss
amsd connections shall eonforms~ to the requireinemsts of Di-
vision I and to the additional requirememsts of this section.
Either Service Load or Load Factor design nsay be used.
If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are
pernsitted to increase by 50 percent. It should be noted that
when Service Load design is used for SPC C and D a con-
servative design mssay result because elastic design forces
will be required for the design of most consponents unless
the forces resulting fmomsi plastic hinging of the e(Slunsmss
are used per Article 7.2.2.
7.5.2 P-delta Effects
Where axial and flexttral stresses are deternsimsed by
e(Snsidering sec(Sndary betsding resulting froisi the design
P-delta effects (tsiomnents induced by the eccentricity re-
stmltin~ fromss the seismuic displacements and the colurms
axial force), all axially loaded metstbers nsay be propor-
tiormed in accordamice with Division I. Article 10.36 or
EXCEPTIONS:
I. The effective length factor, K, in the plane of bend-
ing may be assumed to be unity in the calculation of F~,
F~, Fcr,orF~
2. The coefficient C~, is computed as for the cases
where joint translation is prevented.
7.6.1 General
Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic
reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connec-
tions shall conform to the requirements of Division I and
to the additional requirements of this section. Either Ser-
vice Load or Load Factor design mnay be used. If Service
Load design is used the allowable stresses are pernsitted
to increase by 33Yb percent. It should be noted that when
Service Load design is used for SPC C and D aconserva-
tive design may result because elastic design forces will
be required for the design of nsost components unless the
forces resulting from plastic hinging of the columsmns are
used per Article 7.2.2.
7.6.2 Column Requirements
For the purpose of these provisions, a vertical support
is consideredto be acolunsn if the ratio of the clear height
to the nsaximumss plan dinsensiomss of the stmpport is equal
to or greater thais 2.5. Note that the niaxinsuns plan di-
mnensmon is taken at the minimuns sectioms of the flare for a
flared columssn. For stmpports with a rati(S less than 2.5, the
provisions for piers of Article 7.6.3 shall apply. For
columns the provisions of this section are applicable. Note
that a pier nsay be designed as a pier in its strong direction
and a colunsn in its weak direction.
7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinfor eme?mt
The area of longitudimsal reinforcemisemst shall not be less
thams 0.() I ~Srnsore than 0.06 tinses the gross cr(Sss-sectm(Sn
area A,.
EXCEPTION:
Division I, Article 8.18.2.1 applies to colunsmss where a
larger cross-sectioms is used for architectural rcas(Sns.
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength
The biaxial strength of colunsmss shall not be less tharm
that required for the bendirme monsents determined in
10.54.
422 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.6.2(B)
Article 7.2.3. The design of the column shall be checked
for both the nsinimnum and maximum axial loads specified
in Article 7.2.3. The strength reduction factors of Divisioms
I. Article 8.16 shall be replaced for both spirally and tied
reinforced columns by the value of 0.50 when the stress
due to the nsaximum axial load for the colunsn exceeds
0.20Ej. The value of 4) may be increased linearly from
0.50 to the value for flexure (0.90) when the stress due to
the maximum axial load is between 0.20f. and 0.
Moment mnagnification for slenderness effects (Divi-
sion I. Article 8.16.5) shall be considered in the design of
the coltmmn.
7.6.2(C) Column Shearand Transverse
Reinforcetnent
pected plastic hinge regions, generally located at the t(Sp
and bottom of columns and pile bents, as specified in this
subsection. The largest of these requirements or those of
r\rticle 7.6.2(C) shall govern; these requirements ~~renot
in addition to those of Article 7.6.2(C). The transverse re-
inforcement for confinement shall have a yield strength
not more than that of the longitudinal reinforcement and
the spacing shall be as specified in Article 7.6.2(E).
The volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (p~) for a
circular colunsn shall be either that required in Divisioms I.
Article 8.18 or,
P..
(7-4)
The factored design shear force V ~ of Division I, Eq. 8-
46 on each principal axis of each column and pile bent
shall be the value determined in Article 7.2.3.
The factored shear stress v~ shall be computed using V ~
specified above and the strength reduction factor for shear
of Division I, Article 8.16.1.2.
The amount of transverse reinforcensent shall be at
least that specified by Division I, Article 8.16.6. In the end
regions of the top and bottom of the column and pile bents,
the following provisions shall apply in addition to those of
Division I:
I. The shear strength of the concrete, V ,, shall be in
accordance with Division I, Article 8.16.6.2 when tlse
axial load associated with the shear produces an aver-
age compression stress in excess of 0.1 f over the core
concrete area of the support members. As the average
compression stress increases from 0 to 0.1 f the
strength V , increases linearly from 0 to the value given
by Division I, Article 8.16.6.2.
2. The end region shall be asstmnsed to extend finns
the soffit of girders or cap beams at the top of columns,
or the top of foumsdations at the bottom of columns,
a distance not less than the minimssum of (a) the misaxi-
mnutss cross-sectiomsal dimension of the column.
(b) one-sixth of the clear height of the coltimsrn, or (c)
18 in. (450 nsns).
3. The end region of a pile bent shall be the sanse as
specified for c(Slumflns at the top of the pile bent, and
three pile diameters below the calculated poimst of mo-
nsent fixity to omse pile diameter, but not less than 18 in.
(450 mm) above the nsud line at the bottom of the pile
bent.
7.6.2(D) Tra;msverse Reinforcement for Conjirmeme,mt
at Plastic Hinges
The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled shafts
shall be confined by transverse reinforcensent in the cx-
or.
Pb:::O.l2
(7-5)
The total cross-sectional area (A~) of rectangular hoop
(stirrup) reinforcement for a rectangular column shall be
either,
(7-6)
(Sr.
I.,
A~ =0. l 2 a h (7-7)
whichever is greater, where:
a = v er t i c a l s p a c i n g o f ho o p s ( s t i r r u p s ) ii] i n c Is es
(millimsleters) with a maxinsurn(Sf4 in. ( 1 00 r n ] ) .
A, = area of colunsn c(Sre mneasured to the outside of
the transverse spiral reinforcemnent.
Ar = gross area of colunsn.
A~h =total cross-sectional area in square incIses
(square millinseters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforce-
mssent includimsg supplemnentary cross-ties having
a v er t i c a l s p a c i n g o f a m s i n . ( m m ) a n d er o s s i m s g a
section having a core ditneission of Is, its. (mm]]).
Note that this should be calculated for both
principal axes of a rectangular colunsms.
1 7 =specified compressive strength of concrete in
psi (MPa).
=yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in
psi (MPa).
=core dimension of tied column in inches (nsil-
7.6.2(1))
4 2 3
limeters) in the direction under consideration.
p. =ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total
volume of concrete core (out-to-out of spirals).
Transverse hoop reinforeemsent may he provided by
single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same
bar size as the hoop nsay be used. Each end of the cross-
t i e s ha l l en ga ge a p er i p her a l l o n gi t u d i n a l r ei n f o r c i n g b a r .
A crosstme ts a continuous bar having a hook of not less
than 135 deg with an extension of not less tlsan six-dians-
eter. bttt not less than 3 in. (76 mm), at one end and ahook
(Sf not less than 90 deg with an extension of not less than
six-diameter at the (Sther end. The hooks shall engage pe-
ripheral longitudinal bars. The 90-deg hooks of two suc-
cessive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars shall
be alternated end for end.
A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
closed tie nsay be nsade up of several reinforcing elements
with I 35-deg hooks having a six-diatsseter. but not less
than 3 in. (76 mnns. extension at each end A continuously
woutirl tie shall have at each end a 135-deg hook with a
smx-diamsseter. but not less than 3 in. (76 mm), extensiots
tlsat engages the longitudinal reinforcensent.
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Tratmsverse Reinforcentent
for Coimfi;mement
Transverse reinforcemnent for c(Stsfinetssent shall be
provided at the top and bottom of the colunsms over a
l en gt h equal to the muaxinsum cross-sectional colunsis
dimnensiots or (Smse-sixth of the clear height of the col-
tmmsin. whielsever is the larger. but not less than 18 in.
(450 mm). Transverse reinforceissent shall be extended
into the top and bottom c o m s n ec t i O n s a s specified in Ar-
ticle 7.6.4.
2. Transverse reinforeemeist for confinemsseist shall be
provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same
length as specified for colutnns. At the bottons of piles
in pile bents. transverse reinforcement for confinetssent
shall be pr(Svided over a length extemsding from three
pile diameters below the calculated point of nioment
fixity to one pile diatneter but not less than 18 its. (450
mm) above the mud line.
3. The maxitTium spacimsg for reinforcement shall n(St
exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the minimuns
member dimension or 4 in. (100 mmn).
4. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse
cssnlinement regions specified in I and 2 shall not be
pernsitted. Connections of spiral reinforcement in this
region nsust be full strength lap welds.
7.6.2(F) Splices
Splices shall be us accordance with those specified in
Division I, Article 8.32 and the additional requirements of
this Article. Lap splices shall be pernsitted only within the
center half of column height, and the splice length shall
n(St be less than 16 in. (400 rn]) or 60 bar dianseters,
The maximum spacing (Sf the tramssverse reinforcemetit
over the length of the splice shall not exceed the snialler
of 4 in. (100 mmn) or one-quarter of the nsinimsstmm issensher
dimension.
Welded splices and approved niechanical splices that
conform to the current provisions of ACI 318 may be used
for splicing provided that splices shall not be used on any
two adjacent bars in the sanse layer of longitudinal rein-
forcement at the same sectm(Sn and that the distance
between splices of adjacent bars is greater thams 24 in.
(600 mm) as measured along the longitudinal axis of the
col unsins.
7.6.3 Pier Requirements
The provisions of this Article are applicable to the de-
sign for the strong direction of a pier. The weak direction
of a pier may be designed as a column amsd the provisions
of Article 7.6.2 are then applicable. Its tlsis ease, the Re-
s p o n s e Mo d i f i c a t i o m s F a c t o r f o r c o l u m n s m i s a y b e u s ed t o
d et er m i n e t he d es i gn f o r c es i n Ar t i c l e 7 . 2 . 1 . If t he p i er i s
n(St d es i gn ed a s a c o l u m n n i n i t s wea k d i r ec t i o n , t he l i m n i t a -
ti(Sns for shear stress in this Article are applicable.
The mininsum reinforcensent ratio both horizontally.
p,. and vertically p,, in any pier shall not be less than
0.0025. Reinforcememit spacimsg either horizontally or ver-
tically shall not exceed 18 its. (457 mnin). The reinforce-
ment required for shear shall be coistinimous and shall be
distributed uniformly.
Ph = the ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area
to gross c(Sncrete area (Sf a vertical secti(5m1.
p = the ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to
the gross comicrete area of a horizontal sectiom].
The allowable slsear stress, v,,. its the pier shall be de-
termimsed in aceordamsce with the following equation:
v =2Jf +Ph~~ (7-8)
The allowable shear stress shall not exceed 8\~ f. For
liglstweight ageregate concrete, the limiting shear stress.
v,,, calculated fromss Eq. 7-8. shall be mssultiplied by 0.75.
Two curtaimss of reinforcensent shall be used and the rein-
forcement ratios p. and Ph shall be equal. The reinforce-
ment required by shear shall be uniformly distributed.
Splices in horizontal pier reinforcement shall be staggered
and splices in the two curtains shall hot occur at the samne
location.
424
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.4
7.6.4 Column Connections
A c o l u m n c o n n ec t i o n a s r ef er r ed t o i n t hi s s ec t i o n i s t he
v er t i c a l ex t ei s s i o n o f t he c o l u m n a r ea i n t o t he a d j o i n i n g
m em b er .
The d es i gt s f o r c e f o r t he c o n n ec t i o n b et ween t he c o l -
u n s n a n d t he c a p b ea n s s t m p er s t r u c t u r e, p i l e c a p , o r s p r ea d
footing s ha l l b e tlsat specified in Article 7.2.5(C). The d e-
velopmnent length for all longitudinal steel shall be that re-
q i m i r ed f o r a s t eel s t r es s o f I . 2 5 & a s gi v en in Division I, Ar-
t i c l es 8 . 2 4 t hr o u gh 8 . 3 2 .
Column transverse reinforcement required by Article
7 . 6 . 2 ( D) s ha l l b e c o n t i n u ed f o r a distance eqimal to (Sne-
ha l f t he m a x i m r m m c o l u n s m s d i m s m em s s i o n b u t n o t l es s t ha n 1 5
i n . ( 3 7 5 m m n ) f r o m t he f a c e o f t he c o l u n s n c o n n ec t i o n i n t o s
t he a d j o i n i n g t s s em b er .
The s hea r s t r es s i t s t he j o i m i t o f a f r a m n e o r b en t , i n t he
d i r ec t i o n u n d er c o n s i d er a t i o n , shall n o t ex c eed PV T 7 for
normnal-weight aggregate coiscrete or 9\~ f~ for l i ght -
wei ght a ggr ega t e c o n c r et e.
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns
Constructioms joints in piers and columns resisting sets-
mssie forces shall be designed a n d c o n s t r u c t ed t o r es i s t t he
design forces at the joint.
Where shear is resisted at aconstruction joint s(Slely by
dowel action and friction on a roughened cotscrete sur-
face, the total shear force across the joint shall not exceed
V ~ determimied finns the following fortuola:
= 4)(A~f, + 0.75P,,)
(7-9)
where A~ is the total area of reinforcement (including
flexural reinforcemnent), P is the mininsuns axial load
specified in Article 7.2.3 for columssmss and Article 7.2.4 for
piers, and 4) is the strength reduction factor for shear of
Division I, Article 8.16.
.5 -
N CU
NC,
U-
NV
*
+
~11
0
C
r,1
Cl,
\L.
Division II
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
This Division of the Statmdard Specmjication.s for Higim-
wayBridges includes the basic technical construction spec-
ifications needed for the constrtmction of bridges amid (Sther
niajor transp(Srtation structures. They generally represent
current practices in the United States and are conststent
with the AASHTO Design Specifications for Bridges
whichare contained in Division I. They are provided to be
used either as part of the specifications for projects or as
a guide for agencies in developing their own standards.
When so used, uniformity and the efficienemes associated
therewith may be realized.
These technical specifications do not include the
clauses needed for the administration of a contract and
were written to be used in conjunction with general pro-
vmsions such as those its the AASHTO Guide SpecUica-
tions for Higlmwav Construction. Other comparable sets
of general provision clauses currently in use by many
States can also be used to cover the administration re-
quirements for construction contracts. The Guide Speci-
fications and these Standard Specifications are intended
to be complementary and to pr(Svide for the principal atsd
most widely used items of work required for the con-
struction of major transportation structures. Note that
t hes e s p ec i f i c a t i o n s d o n o t i d en t i f y t he d a t e ~Sfspecifica-
tions, which a r e included by reference, such as the
AASHTO Specifications for Materials or Tests. As re-
quired by the AASHTO Guide Specification, the edition
of such specifications incorporated by reference will be
the edition in effect on the date of advertisement for pro-
posals for the project.
Sufficient detail mnay not be included in these specifi-
cations to suit local or unusual conditions or uniqtme de-
signs. The many differences in climnate, geology, custonss.
statutes and regulations prevent the writing of a mnore de-
tailed national construction specification. Therefore, the
user is expected to stmpplement or alter the requirements
of these specifications. as needed, in the pr(Sject special
provisions. A Commentary is provided to assist the user
in developing such special provistons.
These specifications were extensively revised rmnder
NCHRP 12-34 in 1989 and approved by AASHTO HiTh-
way Subcomnsittee on Bridges and Structtmres in 1990.
426
Section 1
STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL
1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS
Structure exeavatioti shall consist of the removal of all
nsaterial, of whatever nature, rmecessary for the construe-
ti(Sn of foundatiomis for bridges, retaimuing walls, and (Sthcr
tnajor structures in accordance with the plans or as di-
rected by the Engineer.
If not (Stherwise provided for in the contract, strtmc-
ture excavation shall imscltmde the furnishing of all neces-
sary equipmnent and the construction and subsequemit
removal of all cofferdams, shoring, and water control
systemns which may be necessary for the execution of
the work.
It shall also include, if not otherwise specified, the
placensent of all necessary backfill, including any neces-
sary stockpiling (Sf excavated material which is to be used
mn backfill, and the disposing of excavated material, which
ms not required for backfill, in roadway embanktnents or as
provided for excess amid unsuitable material in Subsection
203.02, AASHTO Guide Specifi atio,ms forHiL~lmw~ Coim
StflictiO,?.
If the contract does not include a separate pay iteni
(S~ items for such work, structure excavation shall
mrtclude all necessary clearing and grubbing amid the re-
tsmoval of existing structures within the area to be exca-
vated.
Classificatiots, if any. of excavation will be indicated oms
the plamis and set forth in the proposal.
The removal aisd disposal of buried natural or
mnanmnade (Sbjects are iiscluded its the class (Sf excavation
in wlsich they are located. tmmsless such retn(Sval and
disposal are included us (Sther itetns of w(Srk. However. mn
the case of a buried nsannsade object. if (I) its rem(Sval
requires the use of methods (Sr eqmiipmssemit miot used for
other excavatiomi on the project. (2) its presence was
tiot indicated on the plans or its the special pr(svisi(Smis.
(3) its presemice could n(st have beemi ascertained by site
investi oatioms. imich.mding c(Sntact with identified titilities
withims the area, amid (4) the Contractor so requests iti
writing prior to its rensoval. the removal ami(l disposal
of stich object will be paid for as extra work, and its
v(Slunse will not be imicluded in the msseasured quamitity of
excavatmomi.
Whenever specified, the Comitractor shall provide
workimsg drawings, accomnparmied by calculations where
appropriate, of excavation procedures, ensbankment con-
struction and backfilling operations. This plan shall show
the details of shoring, bracing. slope treatment or other
proStective system proposed for use and shall be acconspa-
nied by design calculations and supporting data in suffi-
cient detail to permit an engineering review of the pro-
posed design.
The working drawitsgs amid plaiss for IsrotectirSti fromn
caving shall be subnsitted sufficiently in advance of pro-
posed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed,
and approval without delay to the work.
Workimig drawings must be approved by the Engineer
prior to performance of the work involved and such ap-
proval shall not relieve the Contractor (Sf amiy respomisibil-
ity under the contract for the successful completioms of the
work.
1.3 MATERIALS
Material used for backfill shall be free of frozemi lumislSs.
wood or other degradable niatter and shall be of a gradimig
such that the required conspactioms can be consistently ob-
tamed using the cotnpaction msiefhods selected by time Comi-
tractor.
Pernicable material for tmndeindrains shall conform to
AASFIT() Guide Specification.s for Higlm vav Co,m.strnc-
tion, Subsection 704.1)1.
1.4 CONSTRUCTION
1.4.1 I)epth of Footings
The elevation of tlse bottonts of footings. as shown on
the plans. shall be comssidered as approx mate omsly and the
Fngimicer may order, its writing. stmch chamiges its dinsen
5t(5fl5 (Sr elevatiomi of footings as may be necessary t(S se-
citing a satisfactory foundatioms.
p7
428 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1.4.2
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water
1.4.2.1 General
All substructures, where practical, shall be constructed
in open excavation and, where necessary, the excavation
shall be shored, braced, or protected by cofferdams con-
structed in accordance with the requirements contained in
Article 3.3, Cofferdams and Shoring. When footings
can be placed in the dry without the use of cofferdams,
backforms may be omitted with the approval of the Engi-
neer, and the entire excavation filled with concrete to the
required elevation of the top of the footing. The additional
concrete required shall be furnished and placed at the ex-
pense of the Contractor. Temporary water control systems
shall conform to the requirements contained in Article 3.4,
Tensporary Water Control Systems.
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels
When excavation encroaches U~(Sti a live stream bed or
channel, unless otherwise permitted, no excavatioms shall
be made (Sutside of caissons, cribs, cofferdants, steel pil-
ing. or sheeting, amid the natural streans bed adjacent to the
structure shall msot be disttmrbed without permission fromn
the Engitteer. If any excavatioms or dredging is nsade at the
site of the structure before caissomis, cribs, or c(Sfferdatsis
are stmnk or are its place, tlse Coistractor shall, without extra
charge, after the foumidation base is its place, backfill all
such excavati(Sts to the (Srigimsal gr(Sumsd stirface oin river bed
witls material satisfact(Sry to the Engimiecin. Material temn
p(Srarily deposited withimi the flow area of streams fromn
foumsdatiomi ~srotlser excavatioms shall be rensoved amid the
streamn flow area freed from obstructioms thereby.
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock
When a fontsdatiorm is to rest ois r(Sck. the rock shall be
freed fromn all loose mss atem~i al , clea mscd amsd cut to a firms] sum.
face, either level. stepped. (Sin r(Stmglsemsed, as may be di-
rected by tlse Emsgimseer. All seamsss shall be cleamsed otmt and
tilled with cotterete. mssortar. or grotmt before the footing is
lSlaLe(f.
Where lSlastimsg is reqinmired to reads f~ootimsg lex el, any
loose. fracttmred rock catmsed by overbreak below bearing
Ics el sIsal I be removed and relSlaced with comscrete or
grouted at the Comstractor~s expeisse.
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations
Wlie mi a tk ~mndat tomi m s to rest on as excavated stm rIace
other tlsams rock. sISecial care sIsall be takems sot to distintrlS
the ISottomis of the excas atioms. amid the final remisoval of~ tlse
foundation material to grade shall not be made until just
before the footing is to be placed.
Where the material below the bottom of footings not
supported by piles has been disturbed, it shall be removed
andthe entire space filled with concrete or other approved
material at the Contractors expense. Under footings sup-
ported on piles, the over-excavation or disturbed volumes
shall be replaced and compacted as directed by the Engi-
neer.
1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation
After each excavation is completed, the Contractor
shall notify the Engineer, and no concrete or other footing
material shall be placed until the Engineer has approved
the depth of the excavation and the character of the foun-
dation material.
1.4.3 Backfill
Backfill material shall conforns to the provisions of Ar-
tide 1.3. If sufficient nsaterial of suitable quality is ms(St
available from excavation within the project linsits, the
Contractor shall imssport such material as directed by the
Engineer.
All spaces excavated and not (Secupied by abntmemsts,
piers. or (Sther perusanent work shall be refilled with earth
up to the surface of the surrounding ground, with a stmffi-
ciemit allowance for settlememst. Except as (Stherwisc pr(S-
vided, all backfill shall be thorotmghly compacted to the
detssity of the snrroumsdimsg ground, and its t(Sp stmrface
shall be neatly graded. Fill placed arom.mnd piers shall be
deposited oms both sides to appr(Sxinsately time samise eleva-
tm(Sn at the samise time. Rocks larger thiamS 3 incIses msiaxm-
muni ditssemision shall miot be placed agaimist the cormerete
surfaces.
Embankment constrimetion shall confortss to the re-
quiremssemsts (Sf Stmbsection 203.02, AASHTO Goide Spec-
ifications for Highway Construction. The fill at retaims ing
walls. abutnsemsts, witsgwalls, amid all bridge bemsts its emit-
bamikmnemit sIsall be dep(Ssited its wcllcomsspacted. hsorizoms
tal layers isot to exceed 6 imsches its thickmsess amsd shall be
brotight up unifornsly (Sm] all sides of thme structure or facil-
ity. Backfill withims or bemscaths emstbamskmssemsts. withsin the
roadway its excavated areas, or in f~ront of abutmisents amid
rctaimsimsg walls oin wmrmgwalls shall be comnpacted to tIme
samsse density as reqtiired for cissbamskinemsts.
No backfill sIsall be ISlacerI agaimsst amsv comicrete strrmc
ttmre umstil lSe~mis~~~ has beets given b\ the Fngimseer. TIse
placiisg of such backlill sIsal I al so comsform t(S thse require
merits of .-\rt ide 8. 15.2. ~EarthsLoads. TIse backfill its
front of abmtmeists ami(l wimsgwalIs slsah I bc IShaced first to
pre\emst the p(Sssibihitv of forss aid tii(S\ emsient. Jettimig of
1.4.3 DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION 429
the fill behind abutments and wingwalls will not be per-
mitted.
Adequate provision shall be made for the thorough
drainage of all backfill. French drains, consisting of at
least 2 cubic feet of permeable material wrapped in filter
fabric to prevent clogging and transmission of fines from
the backfill, shall be placed at weep holes.
Backfilling of metal and concrete culverts shall be
done in accordance with the requirements of Sections 26,
Metal Culverts, and 27, Concrete Culverts.
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
1.5.1 Measurement
The quantity to be paid for as structure excavationshall
be tncasured by the cubic yard. The quantities for payment
will be determssined front linsits shown on the plans, in-
cluded in the specifications. or ordered by the Engineer.
No deduction in structure excavation pay quantities will
be misade where the Contractor does not excavate material
whiels is outside the limits (Sf the actual structure but
withims the huts of payment for structure excavation.
In the absence of plans or special provisions indicating
pay limits for structure excavation, the horizontal limits
will be vertical planes 18 inches outside of the neat lines
of footings (Sin structures withottt footings: tlse top limnits
sIsall be the (Sriginal grottnd or the top of the required grad-
ing cross secti(Sn, whichever is lower: and the lower lim-
its shall be the bottom of the footimig or base of structtmre,
or the lower limit of excavation ordered by the Engineer.
When foundations are located within ensbankments amid
the specifications require the embanknsent t(S be con-
structed to aspecified elevation which is above the bottom
(Sf the footing or base of stnmcture pri(Sr t(S c(Stsstrtmcti(Smi of
the foumsdatioms. thets such specified elevatioms will be con-
sidered t(S be tlse orieitsal ground.
Wheti it is necessary, iii the olSitsi(Smi of the Emseimseer. to
carry the foundations below the elevations showms ~Snthe
lSlatss. the excavation for tlsc tirst 3 feet of additional depths
will be included in the quantity for whichpayment will be
made under this item. Excavation below this additional
depth will be paid for as extra work, unless the Contrac-
tor states in writing that payment at contract prices is ac-
ceptable.
1.5.2 Payment
Unless otherwise provided, structure excavation, mea-
sured as provided in Article 1.5.1, will be paid for by the
cubic yard for the kind and class specified.
Payment for structure excavation shall include full
compensation for all labor, material, equipment, and other
items that may be necessary or convenient to the success-
ful completion of the excavation to the elevation of the
bottom of footings or base of structure.
Full compensation for controlling and removing water
front excavations and for furnishing and installing or con-
structing all cofferdams, shoring, and all other facilities
necessary to the operations, except concrete seal courses
which are shown on the plans. and their subsequent re-
moval. shall be considered as included in the contract
price for structure excavation, unless the contract provides
for their separate payment.
The contract price for structure excavation shall in-
clude full payment for all handling and storage of exca-
vated materials which are to be used as backfill, including
anynecessary dr~ing, andthe disposal of all surplus (Sr un-
suitable excavated mnaterials. unless otherwise provided
for ims the contract. Any clearimig, grubbing, or structitre re-
royal which is required. btmt not paid for under other
items of the contract, will be considered to be included in
the price paid for strtmcttmre excavatmoms.
Unless tlse contract provides for its s.parate paynsemut.
the contract price for strtmcture r.xc ixatmoms shall imsclnde
full conspensatiots for the placmn~ md compacting (Sf
structure backtihl. The furnisliimug of b mc kImlI material front
sotmrces other than excavation wmlh b. p mmd for at the con
tract umsit price for the mssaterial bemno used. (Sin as extra
svork if tin umsit price lsas beets est mblmshLd
Section 2
REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION
This work shall coissist of the retsioval, wholly or its
part, and satisfactory disposal, or salvage, of all bridges,
retaining walls aisd other mssajor structures which are des-
mgnated on the plans or in the special pr(Svisi(Sns to be re
iis(Sved. TIse work also includes, unless (Stherwise speci-
lied, atty isecessary excavation amid the backfilling of
trenches, holes or pits that result front suds rensoval.
Workimsg drawings showing nsethods and sequence of
remisoval shall be prepared: (I) when structtmres (Sr portiomss
(Sf structure are specified t(S be rettioved amsd salvaged, (2)
when removal (Speratiomss will be pcrformned over or adja-
cemst t(S public tral~fic or railroad property, or (3) when
called for by the plans or special pr(Svisi(Sns. At least 10
days prior to the proposed start of removal operati(Sns, the
working drawings shall be submnitted t(S the Engineer for
appr(Sval. Remnoval work shall msot beginuntil the drawings
have been approved. Such approval shall not relieve the
Contractor (Sf any resp(Snsibility under the comstract for the
successftmh completioms of the work.
Wheis salvage is required, the drawimigs sIsall clearly imi-
dicate the mnarkimsgs proposed to designate individual seg-
mnermts of the structure.
2.3 CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1 General
Except for utilities amid otlser items thai the Finmomneer
C-
risay direct the Coistractor to leave intact, the Comstractor
shall raze, rensove aisd dispose of cads structure. Or COin-
tiol] of structure. desicriated to he rensoved. All c(Sncrcte
amid other fotmndatioiss shall be removed to a depth (Sf at
leist feet below gr(Sund elevatiorm or 3 feet below stmb-
grade ehevatiomi. whiiclsever is lower. Unless (Stherwise
specitied. the Cotstractor has the optioms to either pull piles
(Sr cut thens off at a point isot less than 2 feet below groummd
line. Cavities left Iromis strtmcture remss(Svah shall be back
filled to the level of the surroumiding groumid aisd, if withimi
the area of roadway c(Snstructi(Sn. shall be compacted to
niect the requiremneists of the contract for embanknsent.
Explosives shall not be used except at locations and
immider conditions cited by the project specifications. All
blasting shall be conspleted before the placemmsent of new
work.
2.3.2 Salvage
Materials which are desigmiated to be salvaoed under
C-
the contract, for reuse in the project or for fitture use by
the Department, shall remnain the property of the Depart-
ment and shall be carefully rensoved imi transportable sec-
tions and stockpiled near the site at a location designated
by the Engineer. The Comstractor shall restore or replace
damaged or destroyed mnaterial witlsout additional com-
pensation.
Rivets andbolts that must be remstoved fromn steel struc-
tures t(s be salvaged sIsall be retsi(Sved by cutting the heads
with a chisel, thems punched or drilled front the hole, or by
a method that will not injure the members for reimse and
will meet the approval of the Engineer All nsensbers or
sections of steel structures shall be nsatch-mmsarkcd with
paint in accordance with the diagratsi or plan approved by
the Engineer prior to dismsiantling.
All bolts and nails shall be rensoved fromn luniber
deemed salvageable by tlse EngimSeeras part of the salvage
of timber structures.
2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures
When structures are to be widened or modified and
(Snly porti(Smis (Sf the existmn structtmrc arc to be removed.
- C-
these portions shall be removed in stmch a manmier as to
heave the remsmammimno structure undansaged and in proper
d(SnditiOts for the imse contemssplated. Methods irmyohving
the use of blastimsg or wreckimso balls shall isot be usc(l
C-
withims any span or pier tmnless the entire spats or pier is to
be rem(Sved. Any damssage t(S the portions remnamnmmso imi ser-
C-
vice shall be repaired by the Contractor at his or her cx-
ms se.
431
432
Before beginning concrete removal operations involv-
ing the removal of a portion of a monolithic concrete ele-
ment, a saw cut approximately one-inch deep shall be
madeto a true line along the limits of removal on all faces
of the element which will be visible in the completed
work.
Old concrete shall be carefully removed to the lines
designated by drilling, chipping, or other methods ap-
proved by the Engineer. The surfaces presented as a re-
sult of this removal shall be reasonably true and even,
with sharp straight corners that will permit a neat and
workmanlike joint with the new construction or be satis-
factory for the purpose intended. Where existing rein-
forcing bars are to extend from the existing structure into
new construction, the concrete shall be removed so as to
leave the projecting bars clean and undamaged. Where
projecting bars are not to extend into the new construc-
tion, they shall be cut off flush with the surface of the old
concrete.
During full depth removal of deck concrete over steel
beams or girders which are to remain in place, the Con-
tractor shall exercise care so as not to notch, gouge, or dis-
tort the top flanges withjackhammers or other tools. Any
damage shall be repaired at the Contractors expense. Re-
pairs will be done as directed by the Engineer and may in-
clude grinding, welding, heat straightening, or member
replacement, depending on the location and severityof the
damage.
2.3.4 Disposal
Any material not designated for salvage will belong to
the Contractor. Except as provided herein, the Contractor
shall store or dispose of such material outside of the right
of way. If the material is disposed of on private property,
the Contractor shall secure written permission from the
property owner and shall furnish a copy of each agree-
ment to the Engineer. Waste materials may be disposed of
in Department-owned sites when such sites are described
in the special provtstons.
Unless otherwise provided in the special provisions,
removed concrete may be buried in adjacent embank-
ments, provided it is broken into pieces which can be
readily handled and incorporated into embankments and
ts placed at a depth of not less than 3 feet below finished
grade and slope lines. The removed concrete shall not be
buried in areas where piling is to be placed or within 10
feet of trees, pipelines, poles, buildings, or other perma-
nent objects or structures, unless permitted by the Engi-
neer. Removed concrete may also be disposed of outside
the right-of-way as provided above.
The work as prescribed for by this item shall be mea-
sured as each individual structure, or portion of a struc-
ture, to be removed. Payment will be made on the basis of
the lump sum bid price for the removal of each structure,
or portion of structure, as specified.
The above prices and payments shall be full compen-
sation for all work, labor, tools, equipment, excavation,
backfllling, materials, and incidentals necessary to com-
plete the work, including salvaging materials not to be
reused inthe project when such salvaging is specified and
not otherwise paid for.
Full compensation for removing and salvaging materi-
als that are to be reused in the project shall be considered
as included in the contract prices paid for reconstructing,
relocatingor resetting the items involved, or in such other
contract pay items that may be designated in the contract,
and no additional compensation will be allowed therefore.
Section 3
TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of the construction and removal
of temporary facilities which are generally desigmied
by the Contractor and employed by the Contractor in the
execution of the work and whose failure t(S perforns
pr(Sperly could adversely affect the character of the
contract work or endanger the safety of adjacent facil-
ities, property. or the public. Appropriate reductions mn
allowable stresses or loads shall be used for design
when other than new or undamaged materials are
to be used. Such facilities incltmde, but are not limited
t(S, falsework. fortns and form travelers, coffer-
dams, shoring, water control systems, and temporary
bridges.
The following publications are tiseful reference doen-
nsents its the preparation tsf specifications for the design,
review amid inspedti(5m5 of tetssporary w(Srks:
Synthesis of 14i Isework, koemwork, and Scaffolding
for Hi i~hi. ay Bridge Structures, Novetssber 1991
(Fl-I WA-RD-9 1-062)
Go ideStandard Specifications for Bridge Teinporacv
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-03 I)
Guide t)e.sign Specifi atioli Jar Bridge Temporary
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-032)
Certification Progr(on ~r Bridge Temporary Works,
November 1993, (Fl-I WA-RD-93-033)
Co,mstruction Handbook for Bridge Temporary
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-034)
3.1.2 Working Drawings
Whem i ev er s p ec i f i ed o r r eq t m c s t ed b y t he E n gi n eer , t he
Contractor shall provide workimig drawings with design
calculatiomss amsd supporting data in sufficient detail to per-
mit a structural review of the prop(Ssed desigmi of a temn-
porarv work. When comicrete is involved, such data shall
mmichmde the seqtmence amsd rate of placement Sufficient
copies slsall be furnished to issect the iseeds of the Emsei-
micer atsd other emitities with review atithority. The working
drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of
proposed use to allow for their review, revmsmon, if needed.
The Contractor shall not start the construction of
any temporary work for which working drawings are
required until the drawings have been appr(Sved by the
Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor
of responsibility for results obtained by use of these
drawings or any of his other responsibilities under the
contract.
3.1.3 Design
The design of tetssporary works, imicluding allowable
stresses, shall conforns to ams established amsd generally ac-
cepted desigms code or specification for such work. Whets
manufactured devices are to be ensployed, the design shall
not result its loads on such devices imi excess of the load
ratings recommsiemsded by their manufactintrer.
The load rating used for special equipnsent. such as
erection trtmsses, shall conforns to the requiremisemits of
OSHA and in no case shall the rating exceed 80 percemit
of the maxinsuns load sustained during load testing of the
equipment.
or the When required by statute specified, desi~ms shill
be prepared and the drawimsgs sigmied by a registered engi-
neer.
3.1.4 Construction
Temporary works shall be constructed imi conformatmee
with tlse appr(Sved w(Srkimsg drawings. The Contractor sIsall
verify tlsat the qtmality of the nsateriahs amsd workmnammship
employed are consistemst with that assumned its the design.
3.1.5 Removal
U n l es s o t her wi s e p er m i s i t t ed . a l l t em p o r a r y w( S r ks s ha l l
be removed amsd shall remssaims the property of the Comstrac
tor upoti comsspletioms of their use. The area shall be re-
stored to its origiisah (S~ planned d(Snditioms amsd cleamsed of
all debris.
433
434 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.2
3.2 FALSEWORK ANI) FORMS
3.2.1 General
Falsework is c(Snsidered t(S be amsy temssp(Srary structinmine
which supports structural elensents of concrete, steel. mna-
soisry. or o t her m n a t er i a l s d u r i n g t hei r c o m s s t r u c t i o n o r er ec -
t t o n . F o r n s s a r e c o t s s i d er ed t o b e t he em i c l o s u r es (Sr pattels
whi c h c o n t a i n t he f l u i d c o n c r et e a n d wi t hs t a t s d t he f o r c es
due to its placensent and c o n s o l i d a t i o n . F o r t s i s m s i a y i n t t m r m i
be supported on falsework. Fortss travelers, as used in seg-
mneistal cantilever construction, are considered to be a
cottibimiation of falsework amid fornss.
Whenever the height of falsewoink exceeds 14 feet oin
wlsetmever traffic, other than worknsen imivolved its c(Sn-
structing the bridge, will travel umider the bridge, the work-
ing drawitigs for the falsework shall be prepared and
sealed by a Registered Engimseer.
Falsework and forms shall be of stifficient rigidity and
stremsgthi to safely support all loads insposed, and produce
us the finished structure the himses armd grades itidicated on
the plamms. Fornis shall also inspart the required surface tex-
ture and rustication, and shall not detract from the umsifor-
nsity of color of formed surfaces.
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction
3.2.2.1 Loads
The design load for falsework shall consist of the
sutti of dead and live vertical loads, amsd atty horizontal
loads.
As a tsttntnsum. dead loads shall inchtide the weight of
the falsework and all constrnmetion misaterial to be sup-
porte(l. The comisbined weight of concrete, reinlorcimig and
prestressing steel and fortns shall be assunied to be not
less than 160 pounds per cubic foot of normnal weiglst cots-
crete or 130 p(Sunds per cubic foot of lightweight comscrete
that is supported.
Live loads shall consist of the actual weiglst of any
equipnsemst t(S be supp(Sinted applied as comscentrated loads
at the poitsts of comitact and a tmniforrts load of n(St less thams
20 p(Sunds per square foot applied over the area supported,
plus 75 pounds per linear foot applied at tlse outside edee
of deck overhangs.
The horizontal load used for the design of the
falsework bracing systens shall be the sumss of the horizots-
tal loads due to equipmnemit. construction seqtmemice. mn-
eluding unbalanced Isydrostatic forces frotti fltm id
c(Sncrete, stream flow when applicable, and an allowance
for wind. However, in no case shall the horizontal load to
be resisted in any direction be less than 2 percent of the
t(Stal dead load.
For posttetssiomsed structures. the falsework slsahl also
be designed to support any ittereased or redistribution (Sf
loads caused by prestressing of the struettire.
Loads imposed by falsework Onto existing. new (Sr par-
tmally cotsspleted struettires shall msot exceed those perns it-
ted in Section 8.15, Application (Sf Loads.
3.2.2.2 Foundations
Falsework shall be founded on a solid footing safe
agaimsst underissimsing. protected from softening. amsdcapa-
ble of supportitig the loads insposed on it. When reqtmested
by tlse Engineer. tlse Comitractor sIsall (lemssotsstratc by suit-
able load tests tlsat the soil bearing values asstmnscd for the
desigms of the falsework footings do mi(St exceed the sup-
p(Srtimig capacity (Sf the soil.
Falsework which cannot be fourmded oms a satisfactory
footimsg shall be supported (Sn piling which shall be
spaced, driven, amid removed imi an approved manner.
3.2.2.3 Defiections
For casti nlslace c(Sm]crete struettires. the caletmhated de-
flection of falsework hiexural members shall not exceed
1/240 of their spami irrespective of the fact that the deflec-
tioms may be eomnpemisated for by cansher strips.
3.2.2.4 Clearances
Unless otherwise jsrovided. the nsi msimsmimmn dirmsemssmons
of clear opemsitigs to be provided thiroughs falsework for
roadways which are to r em s s a i r m opems to traffic duriiio comm-
struction shall be at least 5 feet greater than the width of
the approach traveled way, mneasured betweemi barriers
wlsems used, and 14 feet high. except that tlse mssinimtmmsm ver-
tical clearance over interstate r(Stites amsd freeways shall be
14.5 feet.
Falsework shall be constructed and set t(S grades wlsiels
allow for its amsticipated settlemisent amid deflection. amsd for
the vertical aligmsmsseist atsd camssber indicated ~sntlse ISlaiss
or ordered by the Engimseer for the pernsamsemst strtmcturc.
V ariable depth camber strips sIsall be used between false-
work beams and soffit forts to accomplish this whets di-
rected by the Emsgineer.
Suitable screw jacks. pairs of wedges or othser devices
shall be tised at each post t(S adjust falsework to grade. t(S
lsernsit mninor adjustnsents during the placensent (Sf d(Sii-
crete or structural steel slsould observed settlements de-
~mate from those anticipated. and to allow for the gradual
release of the falsework. Tell-tales attached to the forms
3.2.2.5 DIV ISION IlCONSTRUCTION
435
and extending to the grtsumid, or other mneans, shall be
pr(Svided by the Contractor for accurate nseasurememst (Sf
falsework setthement during the placing and ctmring (Sf the
c(Sncrete.
Falsework (Sr formsswork for deck slabs on girder
bridges shall be supported directly on the girders so that
there will be no appreciable differential settlensent durimsg
placing of the concrete. Girders shall be braced and tied
t(S resist any forces that w(Suld cause r(Stati(Sn tsr torsion in
the girders caused by the placimsg (Sf coiscrete for di-
aphragmns or deck. Welding of falsework supp(Srt brackets
or braces t(S structintral steel mnemsibers (Sr reimsforein steel
C-
will msot be allowed unless specifically permmsitted.
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction
3.2.3.1 General
Formiss shall be tsf wood, steel, or other approved issate
rtal amid shall be issortar tight and of sufficient rigidity to
preveist (Sbjectional dist(Srtioms (Sf the fornied c(Smicrete sur-
face due t(S pressure of the c(Smscrete atsd (Sther loads mci-
dcmstal to the eomistrtmcti(Smi (Sperati(Sns.
Formiss for comicrete sttrfaces exp(Ssed t(S view shall pro-
duce a smooth surface of umiiform textitre and color sub
stamstiallv eqtmal to thsat whsichs would be obtaimsed with tlse
use of plywood comiformssimsg to the Natiottal lmsstittmte of
Stainmdards atsd Teebmiology Prodtmct Standard PSI for lix-
tenor BB Class I Plywood. Pamiels I imiing stmch fomnss shall
be arratsged so tlsat tlse joimst lines fort a syttimetrical fS~5t
terms e(Stif(Srmssimig to the geiseral lutes of the strtmctimrc. The
samsse type of formii limsimsg nsaterial shall be tmsed throuch
otmt cads elemmsent of a structure. Stmch formsss shall be stiffi
ciemstl\ rigid so that thse m.mndulation of the comscrete surface
shall mint exceed m ~ inch whems elseeked with a 5-foot-long
straightedge ~srtemisplate. All sharlS corners shall be filleted
with approxi msiatelv inchelsaissfer strips.
Cormerete shall not be deposited its the forts umstil all
w(Srk comimiected with constrimetin the formiss lsas beets
C-
c o n s p l et ed . a l l d eb r i s ha s b een r em o v ed , a l l m a t er i a l s t o
be emmsbeddcd imi the comicrete have been placed for the umnit
to he cast, and the Engineer has inspected the fornss and
nsaterials.
3.2.3.2 Design
The structural design of forisiwork shall confornt to
ACI Standard. Recomtssended Practice for Concrete
Formwork, (ACI 347) or some other generally accepted
standard. In selecting the hydrostatic pressure to be used
mn the design of foruss, consideration shall be given to the
maximum rate of concrete placement to be used, the ef-
fects of vibration, the tetnperature of the concrete and any
expected use of set-retarding admixtures or pozzolanic
materials in the concrete nsix.
Fornss shall be set and held true to the dmmssemssmorms,
l i n es a n d gr a d es o f t he s t r u c t u r e p r i o r t o a n d d u r i n g t he
placement of concrete. Forms nsay be given a bevel or
draft at projectiomss, such as eopimsgs. to ensure easy re-
usoval. Prior to reuse. formtss shall be cleamsed. inspected
for damssaee and, if necessary, repaired. When formiss ap-
pear to be defective in any manner, either before (Sin dtmring
the placensent of c(Snerete, the Emsgineer may (Srder the
work st(Spped until defects have been corrected.
Fornss shall be treated with formss oil or other approved
release agent before the reinforcing steel is placed. Mate-
rial which will adhere to or discolor the c(Sncrcte shall mi(St
be used.
Except as provided herein, metal ties (Sin anchorages
within the fornss shall be 5L5 c(Smistrtmete(h as to permssit their
rensoval to a depth of at least I imschs fromis the face withomt
imsjury to the eomscrete. Ordimsary wmre tines nsay be used
only when the c(Sncrete will not be exposed to view and
where the concrete will not conse its comstaet with salts or
stilfates Such wire ties, upon remssoval of tlse formsss, slsahl
be crmt back at least 7~ imsch fromss the face of the coiscrete
with chisels or nippers for oreen cotterete. nippers sIsall
be rinsed. Fittimsgs for mnetal ties shall be of suds desigms that.
upoms their remssoval. tlse cavities thsat are left will be of tlse
smnallest possible size. The cavities shall be tilled with ce-
misent nsortar and the stmrface left s(Stmmid. smooths. exems. amid
tmniforrn in color.
Whemi epoxy-coated remnforcimsg steel is reqinmired. all
metal ties. anelsorages (Sin spreaders which will remssaims its
the e(Sncrcte shall be of corrosion resmstammt misaterial or
coated with a dielectric nsateriah.
For narrow walls and colunstis. where the bottomis (Sf the
formis is inaccessible. an access openimsg shall be provided
its the fornss for eleanin~ or mt cxtrane(Slms misaterial immise-
diately before placing the d(Sncrete.
3.2.3.4 Tube Forms
Tubes used as fornss to prodtmce voids in concrete slabs
shall be properly designed and fabricated or (Stherwise
treated to make the outside surface waterproof. Prior t(S
concrete placement such tubes shall be protected fromn the
weather and stored and installed by methods that prevemit
distortion or damage. The ends of tube fornss shall be dtiv-
ered with caps that shall be made tss(Srtar tight and water-
proof. If w(S(Sd or otlser material that expands when nioist
is used for capping tubes, a premolded rubber joint filler
1/4 inch in thickness shall be used around the perimeter of
436 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.2.3.4
the caps to permit expansion. A PV C vent tube shall be
provided near each end of each tube. These vents shall be
constructed to pr(Svide positive venting of the v(Sids. After
exterior form removal, the vent tube shall be trinsnsed to
within 1/, inch of the bottomn surface of the finished con-
c r et e.
Anchors amid ties for tube forms shall be adeqtmate to
prevent displacemisent of the tubes during concrete place-
rnent.
3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms
Stay-in-place deck soffit formns, sitch as corrugated
issetal or precast concrete panels, may be used if
s ho wn o n t he p l a n s o r a p p r o v ed b y t he E n gi n eer . Pr i o r t o
the use of such fornss the Contractor shall provide a comss-
plete set of details to the Engineer for review and
approval. The detailed plans for structures, unless other-
wmse noted. are ditnermsioned for the use of rensovable
fortns and any changes necessary to aeeonsmssodate
stay-in-place fornss. if approved, shall be at the expemsse
of the Comitractor.
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms
3.2.4.1 General
Falsework or formiss shall tint be retssoved without ap-
proval of tlse Engimseer. Imi the determninatioms (Sf the tinse for
the remss(Sval of falsework aisd formiss, consideration shall
be giveti to the locatioms and character of the structure, tlse
weather, the mssaterials tised its the msiix, and (Sther comsdi
tiomss imifluencing the early strength of the concrete.
Methods of rensoval likely to cause overstressimig of thse
concrete or datssage to its surface sIsall not be tised Sup-
ports shall be rertsoved in suds a misaminer as t(S permssit the
structure to unifornsly and gradually take the stresses dtme
to tts owms weight. For arch structures of tw(S or 1TI(S~d
spans, the sequence of falsework release shall be as spec-
i t i ed o r a p p r o v ed .
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal
If field (Speratiomss are msot controlled by beaus or cylin-
der tests, the followitig mninimss umss periods of timne. exehim-
sive of days whemi the tensperature is below 40F, shall have
elapsed after plaeemsiemit of concrete before falsework is re-
leased or forms are remssoved:
Falsework for:
Spans over 14 feet
Spans of 14 feet or less
Bemst caps not yet supportimsg girders
14 days
10 days
10 days
F o r m s :
Not supporting the dead
weight of the concrete
For interior cells of box
girders and for railings
24 hours
12 ho u r s
If high early strength is obtained with Type III cemssemst
or by the use of additional cement, these periods msiay be
reduced as directed.
When field operatiomss are controlled by cylinder tests.
the removal of supportimsg forms or falsework shall n(St
begin until the concrete is found to have the specified
c(StTipressive strength, provided further that in no case
shall supports be remnoved in less than 7 days after phac-
mng the concrete.
In addition to the above timsse requirensemsts:
Formns shall mint be remssoved umitil the concrete has suf-
ficient strength to prevemst damssage to the surface.
Falsework for post-tensioned portions of strtmctures
shall miot be released rmntil the prestressing steel has
been tensioned.
Falsework supporting any span (Sf a continuous or
r i gi d f r a m e b r i d ge s ha l l n o t b e r el ea s ed u n t i l t hs e
aforensentioned requirements have been satisfied
for all of the struettmral eomscrete in that span and imi
the adjacent portions of each adjoining span loin a
length equal to at least otte-haff the length of the
spats where falsework is t(S be released.
Unless otlserwise specified or approved. falsework
shall be released before the railings, copings or barriers
are placed for all types of bridges. For arch bridges. the
t i m n e (Sf falsework release relative to the c(Smistructioms of el
emssents of tlse bridge above the arch sIsall be as slsown ois
tlse plans or directed by the Engineer.
3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal
All falsework and fornss shall be removed except:
Portions of driven falsework piles issore thati I foot
below subgrade within roadbeds, or 2 feet below
the original grourmd or finished grade oimtside of
roadheds. or 2 feet below the establislsed hints its (Sf
any msavigatiomi channel.
Footimsg forms where their remssoval would emsdamsger
the safety of cofferdams oin (ither work.
Forms from enclosed cells where access is miot
pr(Svided.
Deck forms in the cells of box girder bridges that do
msot imiterfere with the future installatioms of ittilities
shown on tlse plans.
3.3 DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION 437
3.3 COFFERDAMSAND SHORING
3.3.1 General
Cofferdatsss and shormng eonsmst of those structures
used to temporarily hold the surrounding earth and water
out of excavations and to protect adjacent property and fa-
cilities during construction of the pernsanent work.
Cofferdams shall be constructed to adequate depths,
gemierally well below the bottom of the excavation, and to
adequate heights to seal off all water. They shall be safely
designed and constructed, and be made as watertight as is
necessary for the proper performance of the work which
must be done inside them. In general, the interior dinsen-
sions of cofferdams shall be such as to give sufficiermt
clearance for the construction of fornss and the inspection
(Sf their exteriors, and to pernsit punsping fromsi outside the
forms. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved laterally
durimig the process of sinking shall be righted, reset, or en-
larged so as to provide the necessary clearamice. This shall
be solely at the expense of the Contractor.
When water cannot be controlled so that footing eon-
crete can be placed imi the dry, a c(Sfferdatls shall be emn-
ployed. and a concrete seal conforming to the require-
nsents of Section 8, Concrete Structures placed
underwater below the elevation of the footing. Whets such
a seal is showmi on the plans, the Engineer will determisimie
if acofferdam and seal is required, the depthof the seal to
be used, and the required cure timne. Such deternsimsatioms
will be based ott conditions existing at the tinse of con-
structioms. When a cormerete seal is not shown on the plans,
the Contractor shall make these determimiations, and shall
be fully responsible for the performance of the seal. After
the seal has ctmred. the cofferdans shall then be puttiped otmt
and the balance of the msiasonry placed us the dry. Whets
weighted cofferdamns are employed and the weighst is tmti-
hited to partially overeomne the hydrostatic pressure adtimig
against the bottom of the foundatioms seal, special anchor-
age such as dowels or keys shall be provided to trammsfer
the emstire weight of the cofferdans into the foundation
seal. During the placing and curing of a foutsdation seal.
tlse elevation of the water inside the cofferdam shall be
cotitrolled to prevent any flow through the seal, and if the
e(Sfferdam is to remain in place, it shall be vemited or
ported at or below low water level.
Shoring shall be adequate to stmpport all loads insposed
and shall comnply with any applicable safety regulations.
3.3.2 Protection of Concrete
Cofferdatsss shall be constructed so as to protect green
concrete against damage from a sudden rising of the
streans and to prevent damage to the foutidation by cr0-
sion. No struts or braces shall be used in cofferdams or
shoring systems in such a way as to extend into or through
the permanent work, without written permission from the
Engineer.
3.3.3 Removal
Unless otherwise provided or approved, cofferdanss.
and shoring with all sheeting andbraeimsgshall be remnoved
after the completion of the substructure, with care being
taken not to disturb or otherwise injure the finished work.
3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.4.1 General
Tensporary water contr(Sl systenss coissist of dikes, by-
pass channels, flunses and other surface water diversion
works, cut-off walls and pumnping systems, including
wellpoint and deep well systemns. used to prevemit water
frons entering excavations for structures.
3.4.2 Drawings
Working drawimsgs for temssporary water c(Sntr(Sl sys-
tems, when required, shall include details of the design
and the eqlmipment, operating procedures to be employed,
and location of p(Sitit or poimsts of discharge. The design
and operatiorm shall eonformsm to all applicable water pollu-
tion contr(sl requirements.
3.4.3 Operations
Punspimsg frons the interior of any foundatiorm emiclosuine
sIsall be done in suds mssanrmer as to preclude the possibil-
ity of the movensemst of water tlsrough any fresh d(Sncrete.
No pumsspimig will be permssitted during the placimig of con-
crete or for a peri(Sd of at least 24 hours thereafter, umiless
it be done from a suitable sumssp separated fromss the con-
crete work by a watertight wall or (Sther effective mneamis
subject t(S appin(Sval of the Emigineer.
Pumssping to rmnwater a sealed cofferdans shall not cons-
nsence until the seal has set sufficiently to withstand the
hydrostatic pressure.
Pumnping frons wellpoints or deep wells shall be regtm-
hated so as to avoid daniage by subsidence to adjacemst
property.
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES
3.5.1 General
Tensporary bridges include detour bridges for use by
the public, haul road bridges and other structures, such as
438
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.5.1
conveyor bridges, used by the Contractor. Temporary
bridges shall be constructed, maintained and removed in
a manner that will not endanger the work or the public.
3.5.2 Detour Bridges
When a design is furnished by the Departnietst, detour
bridges shall be constructed and maintained to conform to
such design or an approved alternative design. When per-
mitted by the specifications. the Contractor may submit a
proposed alternative design. Any alternative design must
be equivalent in all respects to the design and details fur-
nished by the Department amsd is subject to approval by the
Engineer. Tlse working drawings and design calculations
for any alternative design must he signed by a Registered
Professional Engitteer.
When a design is not furnished by the Department, the
Contractor shall prepare the design and furnish working
drawings to the Engineer for approval. The design shall
provide the clearances, alignment, load capacity and other
design parameters specified or approved. The design slsall
conforns to the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges adopted by AASHTO. Ifdesign live loads are not
otherwise specified, ams HSIS-44 loading shall be used.
The working drawings and design calculations shall be
signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
3.5.3 Haul Bridges
When haul road bridges or other bridges which are msot
for public use are pr(Sposed for construction over any
right-of-way which is open to the public or over any rail-
road, working drawimigs showing complete design and de-
tails, includimsg the nsaxinsumss loads to be carried, shall be
submitted to the Engimseer for approval. Such drawings
shall be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
The design shall conform to AASHTO design standards
when applicable or to other appropriate standards.
3.5.4 Maintenance
The maintenance of temporary bridges for whiels
working drawings are required shall include their re-
placement in case of partial or complete failure. The De-
partment reserves the right, in case of the Contractors
delay or inadequate progress in making repairs and re-
placement. to furnish such labor. materials~, and supervi-
smon of the work as may be necessary to restore the struc-
ture for proper movement of traffic. The entire expense of
such restoratioms and repairs shall be considered a part of
the cost of the temssporary structure and where stich ex-
penditures are incurred by the Department, they shall be
charged to the Contractor.
Unless otherwise provided, payment for temporary
works shall be considered to be included in the payment
for the various itemns of work for which they are used amid
no separate payment will be made therefore.
When an item for concrete seals for cofferdanss ms in-
eluded in the bid schedule, such concrete will be mnea-
sured and paid for as provided in Section 8, Concrete
Structures.
When an item or itents for temporary bridges, coffer-
dams, shoring systems or water control systems ms mn-
eluded in the bid schedule. payment will be the lunsp sum
bid for each such structure or system which is listed omi the
bid selsedule and which is constructed and rensoved in ac-
cordance with the contract requirememits. Such paymstemst
imscludes full c(Smpensati(Sts for all costs involved with the
furnishing of all materials and the construetmon. nsamnte-
nanee, and removal of such temporary works.
Section 4
DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION
This w(Sink shall consist of furisishing and driving foun-
datioms piles of the type and dinsensions designated on the
plans or in the special provisions ineludimsg cutting off or
buildimig tmp foundation piles when required. This speciti-
catioms also covers providitig test piles and perforniing
loading tests. Piling shall coisform to and be installed in
acc(Srdamsee with these specificatiomss, and at the location,
and t(S the elevation, penetrati(Sn, amid bearing capacity
showms on the lshamss or as directed by the Engimseer.
Amiy inspr(Sperly driven, brokems, or otherwise defective
pmle shall be corrected to the satisfaction of the Engiiseein
by retss(Sval and replacensent, or the driviisg of an addi-
tioisah pile. at no extra cost.
Except when test piles are required. the Contractor
shall ftmrnish the piles imi accordance with the dimensmotss
shown on the plans oin special provisions. Wheti test piles
are required. the pile lengths shown on the plans are for
estimating purposes (Sisly and the actual lengths to be fur-
mitshed for productinis piles will be detertsiined by the Ems-
gmmicer after the test piles have been driven. The lengths
given in the Emmgineers order list xvill include (Silly the
lemsgths anticipated for tise in the cotsspleted structure. The
Contractor shall, without added conspensation, increase
the lengths shown or ordered to provide for fresh headiisg
amid for suds additional length as nsay be necessary to suit
his or her inmsethod of operation.
4.2 MATERIALS
4.2.1 Steel Piles
The structural steel used for foundatiomi pilimsg shall
domsf(Srns t(S the Speciticatiomi for Structiminal Steel for
Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50.
oin SOW, or to the Specification for Piling for Use in Ma-
rmne Ermvironnsent. ASTM A 690.
4.2.1.1 Painting
Unless otherwise provided, when steel piles or steel
pile shells extend above the ground stirface or water sur-
face they shall be protected by the paint system specified
for painting new steel in a high pollution or coastal envi-
ronnsemst as described in Section 13.,Painting. This pro-
tection shall extend from an elevation 2 feet below the
water or ground surface to the top of the exposed steel.
4.2.2 Timber Piles
Timber piles shall conforns to the requiremisents of tlse
Specificatiois for Wood Prodtmcts, AASHTO M 168. Titti-
her piles shall be treated or untreated as imsdicated on the
plans or in the special provisions. Preservative treatnsent
shall conforns to the requirements of Section 17. Preserv-
ative Treatnsent of Wood.
The method of storing and handling sIsall be such as to
avoid injury to the piles. Special care shall be taken to
avoid breakimig the sutinface of treated piles. Canthooks.
dogs, (Sin pike-poles shall miot be used. Cuts or breaks in the
surface of treated pilimig and bolt Isoles shall be treated as
specified in Article l6.3.3, Treated Timssber.
4.2.3 Concrete Piles
Concrete piles shall coissist of either precast concrete
piles or cast-in-place concrete piles cast in steel shells.
Portland cememit comscrete sIsall conformis t(S the require-
memits its Section 8. Concrete Structures. amid umnless an-
other class is shown om] the plans or specified, concrete
shall be Class A. Reinforcing steel shall conforni to the re-
quirements (Sf Section 9, ~Rcinforcing Steel and pre-
stressing shall conforns to the requirements of Section 10,
Prestressing.
Steel shells for cast-in-place concrete piles shall be (Sf
not less than the thickness shown on the plans. The Con-
tractor shall furnish shells of greater thickness ifnecessary
to provide sufficient strengthand rigidity to permit driving
with the equipment selected for umse without damage, and
to prevent distortion caused by soil pressures or the driv-
ing of adjacent piles.. The shells shall also be watertight to
exclude water during the placing of concrete. The shells
may be cylindrical or tapered, step-tapered, or a conshi-
nation of either, with cylindrical sections.
439
440
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.3
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles
4.3.1.1 Forms
Forms for precast concrete piles shall conform to the
general requirements for concrete form work as provided
in Section 3, TemporaryWorks. Forms shall provide ac-
cess for vibration and consolidation of the concrete.
4.3.1.2 Casting
Handling and placing of concrete shall conform to the
requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures, and
these specifications Special care shall be taken to place
the concrete so as to produce satisfactory bond with the
reinforcement and avoidthe formation of stone pockets,
honeycomb, or other such defects.
To secure uniformity, the concrete in each pile shall be
placed continuously and shall be compacted by vibrating
or by other means acceptable to the Engineer. The forms
shall be overfilled, the surplus concrete screeded off, and
the top surfaces finished to a uniform, even texture stri-
lar to that produced by the forms.
4.3.1.3 Finish
Portions of piling exposed to view shall be finished in
accordance with the provisions governing the finishing of
concrete colunsns. Other piling shall not be finished ex-
dept as set forth above.
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection
Concrete piles shall be cured as provided its Section
8. Comierete Structures. amid tlsese specifications. As
soon as the piles have set stmfficiently to avoid dansage,
they shall be removed from the forms and stacked in a
eurimig pile separated finns each other by wood-spacing
blocks.
No pile shall be driven tmmstil at least 21 days after
castimsg and, its cold weather, for a longer peri(Sd as
deternsimsed by the Engineer. Comscrete piles for use its sea
water or sulfate soils shall be cured for not less than
30 days before being used. Comierete shall be protected
from freezimie until tlse conspinessive strength reaches at
least 0.8 f.
4.3.1.5 Prestressing
Prestressimsg of comicrete piles shall c(Snformss to the pro
vmsiomss of Section 10, Prestressimsg.
4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings
The Contractor shall submit two sets of working
drawings to the Engineer at the job site for prestressed
concrete piles. Said drawings shall show the pile dimen-
smons, materials, prestressing methods, tendon arrange-
ment and prestressing forces proposed for use and, any
addition or rearrangement of reinforcing steel from that
shown on the plans. Construction of the piles shall msot
begin until the drawings have been approved by the
Engineer.
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling
Removal of forms, curing, storing, transporting, and
handling of precast concrete piles shall be done in such a
manner as to avoid excessive bending stresses, cracking,
spalling, or other injurious results.
Piles to be used in sea water or in sulfate soils shall be
handled so as to avoid surface abrasions or other injuries
exposing the interior concrete.
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells
At all times prior to the placing of concrete in the driv-
en shells, the Contractor shall have available a suitable
light for the inspection of each shell throughout its entmre
length.
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete
No concrete shall be placed until all driving within
a radius of 15 feet of the pile has been eomnpleted, or
all driving within the above limits shall be discontinued
imntil the comierete in the last pile east has set at least
5 days.
Concrete for cast-in-place piles shall be deisse amsd
homogeneous. In lieu of the provmsmons comscermsino
C-
vibration of concrete as specified in Article 8.7.4. vibra-
tion or r(Sdding of e(Snerete for east-in-place piles will
only be required to a depth of 5 feet below the groumsd
surface.
Concrete shall be placed for each pile its a simsgle
e(Ststintmous operati(Sn with the flow of comscrete directed
down the ceister of the pile so as to consolidate the
comscrete by itsspact. Acetmmssulatiomss of water its shells shall
be remsi(Sved before the eomscrete is placed. After the
concrete has hardened. thse top surface shall be cut back t(S
rens(Sve laitanee and t(S expose the aggregate as specified
in Article 8.8.
4.4 DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION
441
4.4 DRIVINGPILES
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment
Driving equipment that damages the piling shall not be
used.
All pile driving equipment, including the pile driving
hammer, hammer cushion, drive head, pile cushion and
other appurtenances to be furnished by the Contractor
shall be approved in advance by the Engineer before any
driving can take place. Pursuant to obtaining this ap-
proval, the Contractor shall submit, at least 2 weeks be-
fore pile driving is to begin, a description of pile driving
equipment to the Engineer.
Whenever the bearing capacity of piles is specified to
be determined by Method B, Wave Equation Analysis,
the Contractor shall also submit calculations, based on a
wave equation analysis, demonstrating that the piles can
be driven with reasonable effort to the ordered lengths
without damage.
The following hammer efficiencies shall be used in a
wave equation analysis:
Hammer Type
Single acting air/steam
Double acting air/steam
Diesel
Efficiency in Percent
67
50
72
During pile driving operations, the Contractor shall use
the approved system. Any change in the driving system
will only be considered after the Contractor has submitted
revised pile driving equipment data and calculations. The
Contractor will be notified of the acceptance or rejection
of the driving system changes within 7 calendar days of
the Engineers receipt of the requested change. The tinse
required for submission, review, and approval of a revised
driving system shall not constitute the basis for a contract
time extension to the Contractor.
Approval of pile driving equipment shall not relieve
the Contractor of his responsibility to drive piles, free of
damage, to the bearing and tip elevation shown on the
plans or specified in the special provisions.
4.4.1.1 Hammers
4.4.1.1.1 General
Piles may be driven with a drop hammer, an air/steamis
hammer, or diesel hammer conforming to these specifica-
tmons.
Pile driving hammers, other than drop hammers, shall
be of the size needed to develop the energy required to
drive piles at a penetration rate of not less than 0.10 inch
per blow at the required bearing value.
4.4.1.1.2 DropHammers
In addition to the other requirements of these specifi-
cations, the criteria which the Engineer will use to evalu-
ate the driving equipment consists of both the required
number of hammer blows per inch and the pile stresses at
the required ultimate pile capacity. The required number
of hammer blows indicatedby ealeulatiomss at the required
bearing capacity shall be between 3 and 10 per inch for
the driving equipment to be acceptable.
In addition, for the driving equipmssent to be acceptable,
the pile stresses, which are indicated by the calculations,
to be generated by the driving equipment shall not exceed
the values where pile damage impends. The point (Sf im-
pending damage in steel piles is defined herein as aconi-
pressive driving stress of 90 percent of the yield point of
the pile material. For concrete piles, tensile stresses shall
n(St exceed 3 misultiphied by the square root of tlse concrete
eotnpressive stremsgth. 17, plus the effective prestress
value. i.e., (3 17 prestress), amid comsipressive stresses
shall not exceed 85 percemst of the compressive stremigth
minus the effective prestress value, i.e. (0.85 17 pre-
stress). For timber piles, the conipressive driving stress
shall not exceed three timstes the allowable static desigmi
strength listed on the plans. These criteria will be used imi
evaluating calculated results to detertnine acceptability of
the Contractors proposed drivimsg system.
Drop (gravity) hammers shall not be used for concrete
piles or for piles whose design load capacity exceeds 30
tons. When gravity hammers are permitted, the ram shall
weigh not less than 2,000 pounds and the height of drop
shall not exceed 15 feet. In no ease shall the rain weight
of gravity hammers be less than the combined weight of
the drive cap and pile. All gravity hansmers shall be
equippedwith hammer gtmides to insure comicentrid impact
on the drive head or pile cushion.
4.4.1. 1.3 Air Steanm Hamomers
The weight of the striking part of air/steam hamssmners
used shall not be less than the weight of pile and drive
cap, and in no case shall the striking part weigh less thams
2,750 pounds. The plant and eqtmipnsent furisished for
air/steam hansnsers shall have sufficient capacity to nsaims-
tam. under working conditions, the pressure at the Isans-
mer specified by the mssamstmfacturer.
4.4.1. 1.4 Diesel Hanmniers
Open-end (single acting) diesel hiamssmsiers shall be
equipped with a device to perissit the Emsgimseer to deter-
mimic hamnser stroke at all times during pile driving (Sper-
atmomss. Closed-end (double acting) diesel hamntners slsall
442
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4. 1.1.4
be equipped with a bounce chamber pressure gauge, in
good working order, mounted near ground level so as to
be easily read by the Engineer. A correlation chart of
bounce chamber pressure and delivered hammer energy
shall be provided by the Contractor.
4.4.1. 1.5 Vibratory Hammers
V ibratory or other pile driving misethods misay be used
only when specifically allowed by the Special Provisions or
its writing by the Engirmeer. Except when pile lengths have
been determined from load test piles, the bearing capacity
of piles drivems with vibratory hamismers shall be verified by
redriving the first pile driven us each group of 10 piles with
an itsipact hansmer of suitable energy to nseasure the pile
capacity before driximsg the remainimsg piles in the gr(Sup.
4.4. 1.1.6 Additional Equipoment or Methods
In case the required lSemietnttion is not obtained by the
use (Sf a hanimer comsiplyimsg with the above minimsstmni re-
quirensents. the Contractor mnay be required to provide a
hansmer of greater eiiergy or. when pernsitted, resort to
supplemuental mnethods such as jetting or preboring.
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances
4.4.1.2. 1 1lanimer Cuslmion
All itsspact pile driving equipmsseist except gravity hans-
misers shall be equipped with a simitable thickness of hamis-
msser cushioms nsateriaf to lSre\emst damage t(s the hansnier (Sin
pile and to insure uniformss driving behavior. Hamssmner cush-
ions shall be msiade of durable. misanufactitred misaterials.
which will retaims umsiformss properties during driving. Wood,
wmre rope. and asbestos hanimner etishiomss shall not be
used. A striker plate shall be placed on the hansnscr cush-
ion to instmre uniform e(Snspressionof the ctmshion tTiaterial.
The hanimiser eushioms shall be inspected in the presence of
the Engineer whets begimsning pile driving and after each
100 hotmrs (Sf pile driving. TIse hamssnser cushion shall be re-
placed by the Cotstraetor before drivimsg is permnitted to
c(Sntinue whemsever there is areduction of hammer etmshioms
thickness exceeding 25 percent of the original thickness.
4.4.1.2.2 Pile i)rive Head
Piles driven with imsspact haissmisers shall be fitted with
an adequate drive head t(S distribute the hainmsnsein blow to
the pile head. The drive head shall be axially aligned with
the hamssnser amsd the pile. The drive head shall be ouided
by the leads atsd not be free-swinging. The drive head
shall fit around the pile head in such a manner as to pre-
vent transfer of t(Srsi(Snal forces during driving while
maintaining proper alignnsemst of hansnser and pile.
For steel and tinsher piling, the pile heads shall be cut
squarely and a drive head provided to hold the longitudi-
nal axis of the pile in line with the axis of the hammer.
For precast concrete and prestressed concrete piles, the
pile head shall be plane and perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal axis of the pile to prevent eccentric impacts from the
drive head.
For special types of piles. appropriate driving heads,
mandrels or other devices shall be provided so that the
piles may be driven without damage.
4.4. 1.2.3 Pile Cushion
The heads (Sf e(Sndrete piles shall be protected by a pile
euslsion when the nature of the drivimsg is such as to un-
duly injure them. When plywood is tmsed, the nsinimuns
thickness placed on the pile head prior to driving shall not
be less than 4 inches. A nexv pile cushion shall be provided
if. during driving, the cushion is either conspressed tssore
than one-half the original thickmsess or begins to burn.
The pile cushion dimssensions shall be such as to distribitte
the blow (Sf the lsamssmsser throughout the cross seetioms of
the pile.
4.4. 1.2.4 Leads
Pile driving leads which support the pile amsd the hamss-
mer in proper p(Ssitions throughotit the driving operati(Sn
shall be used. Leads shall be constrtmcted in a manner that
affords freedons (Sf movement of the hansmer while main-
taming alignnsent of the hammiser and the pile to instmrc
concentric inspact for each blow. The leads shall be of stmf-
ficient length to misake the use of a follower unnecessary
and shall be 5(S designed as to permit proper alignmssent (Sf
battered piles.
4.4.1.2.5 Followers
Followers shall only be used wheisappr(Sxed its writimsg
by the Engineer, or whets specifically allowed in the spe-
cial provisions. When a follower is permisitted, its (Srder to
vermfy that adequate pile penetratiots is being attained to
develop the desired pile capacity. the first pile in each bemst
and every 10th pile driven thereafter shall be furmsislsed
sufficietstly long and shall be driven full length withom.mt a
follower. The follower and pile shall be held and mssaims-
tamed its equal and proper alignmisent during (Iniving. The
follower shall be of such material and dmmnensmons t(S per-
mnit the piles to be driven t(S the length deternsined iseces-
sary from the driving of the full length piles. The final p(S-
sition and alignment of the first two piles installed with
followers in each substnmcture unit shall be verified to be
in accordance with the location tolerances specified in Ar-
ticle 4.4.3 before additional piles are installed.
4.4.1.2.6 DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION
443
4.4.1.2.6 Jets
Jetting shall only be permitted if approved in writing by
the Engineer or when specifically allowed in the special
provisions. When jetting is not required, but approved after
the Contractors reqtmest, the Contractor shall determssine the
number of jets and the volume and pressure of water at the
jet nozzles necessary to freely erode the misaterial adjacemit
to the pile without affecting the lateral stability of the final
its-place pile. The Contractor shall be responsible for all
dansage to the site caused by jetting operations. When jet-
ting is specifically required in the special provisions, the
jetting plant shall have sufficient capacity to deliver at all
titTles a pressure equivalent to at least 100 pounds per
square inch at two -inchjet nozzles. In either case unless
otherwise indicated by the Engineer, jet pipes shall be re-
mnoved when the pile tip is a mininsum of 5 feet above pre-
scribed tip elevation and the pile shall be driven to the re-
quired bearing capacity with an inspact hansmer. Also, the
Contractor shall control, treat if necessary, and dispose of
all jet water in a manner satisfactory to the Engineer.
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving
4.4.2.1 Site Work
4.4.2.1.1 Excavation
In general, piles sIsall isot be drivems umstil after the cx-
cavation is complete. Any material forced up betweems the
piles shall be rensoved to the cotTect elevation before eon-
crete for the foundation is placed.
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving
Whets required by the special provisions, the Contrac-
tor shall prebore holes at pile locatioiss to the deptlss showis
on the plans, specified in the special provisions, or allowed
by the Engineer. Prebored holes shall be snsaller than the
diameter or diagonal of the pile cross section and sufficient
to allow penetration of the pile to the specified depth. If
subsurface obstructions, such as boulders or rock layers
are encountered, the hole diatsmeter may be increased to the
least dimension which is adequate for pile installation. Any
void space rensaining around the pile after conspletion of
driving shall be filled with sand or other approved mnater-
ial. The use of spuds (a short strong driven member which
is rensoved to make a hole for inserting apile), shall not be
permisitted in lieu of preboring, unless specifically allowed
by the special provisions or in writing by the Engineer.
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments
Piles to be driven through newly comsstructed enshank-
ments shall be driven in holes drilled or spudded through
the embankment when the depth of the new embankmemst
ms tn excess of 5 feet. The hole shall have a diameter (Sf tsot
less than the greatest dimension of the pile cross sectm(Sn
plus 6 inches. After driving the pile, the space around the
pile shall be filled to ground surface with dry satsd or pea
gravel. Material resulting from drilling holes shall be dis-
posed of as approved by the Engineer.
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling
In addition to squaring up pile heads prior to drivimsg.
piles shall be further prepared for drivimsg as described
below.
4.4.2.2.1 Collars
When timber piles are required to be driven to nsore
than 35 tons bearing or when driving conditions otherwise
require it, collars, bands, or other devices shall be pro-
vided to protect piles agaimsst sphittimsg and broonsimsg.
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing
Timber piles shall be poitsted where soil conditions re-
quire it. When necessary, the piles shall be shod with
metal shoes of a design satisfactory to the Engineer, the
points of the piles being carefully shaped to secure ams
even and uniform bearing on the shoes.
4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Logs
Pile shoes used to protect all types of piles when hard
driving is expectedand pile hugs used to increase the bear-
ing capacity of steel piles shall be of the types. shown on
the plans and shall be used at the locatiomss specified or or-
dered by the Engineer. Steel pile shoes shall be fabricated
from cast steel conforming to ASTM A 27.
Such pile shoes or hugs used at the option of the Con-
tractor shall be of a type approved by the Engitteer.
4.4.3 Driving
Piles shall be drivems to the mininsuns tip elevatiomss amid
bearing capacity showms oms the plans. specified its the sIte-
cial provisions or approved by the Emsgineer. Piles that
heave more than 4 inch upward during the driving of ad-
jacent piles shall be redrivems.
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles
Test piles andpiles for static load tests, when showms oms
the plans, shall be furnished to the lemsgths ordered and driv-
en at the locations and to the elevations directed by tlse
Engineer before other piles in the area represented by the
test are ordered or driven. All test piles shall be drivems
444 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.3.1
with impact hammers unless specifically stated otherwise
in the special provisions or on the plans. In general, the or-
dered length of test piles will be greater than the estimated
length of production piles in order to provide for variation
in soil conditions. The driving equipment used for driving
test piles shall be identical to that which the Contractor
proposes to use on the production piling. Approval of driv-
ing equipment shall conform with the requirements of
these Specifications. Unless otherwise permitted by the
Engineer, the Contractor shall excavate the ground at each
test pile to the elevation of the bottom of the footing be-
fore the pile is driven.
Test piles shall be driven to a hammer blow count es-
tablished by the Engineer at the estimated tip elevation.
Test piles which do not attain the hammer blow count
specified above at a depthof I foot above the estimated tip
elevation shown on the plans shall be allowed to set up
for a period of from 1 2 to 24 hours, as determined by the
Engineer, before being redriven. When possible, the ham-
mer shall be warmed up before redriving begins by ap-
plying at least 20 blows to another pile. If the specified
hammer blow count is not attained on redriving, the En-
gineer may direct the Contractor to drive a portion or all
of the remaining test pile length and repeat the set up
redrive procedure. When ordered by the Engineer, test
piles driven to plan grade and not having the hammer blow
count required shall be spliced and driven until the re-
quired bearing is obtained.
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving
Piles shall be driven with a variation of not i1lore than
1/4 inch per foot from the vertical or from the batter shown
on the plans, except that piles for trestle bents shall be so
driven that the cap may be placed in its proper location
without inducing excessive stresses in the piles. Founda-
tion piles shall not be out of the position shown on the plan
by more than of their diameter or 6 inches, whichever
is greater, after driving. Any increase in footing dimen-
sions or reinforcing due to outof-position piles shall be at
the Contractors expense.
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity
4.4.4.1 General
Piles shall be driven to the bearing capacity shown on
the plans or specified in the special provisions. The bear-
ing capacity of piles will be determined by the Engineer
as provided in the special provisions using one or a com-
bination of the following methods. Method A, Empirical
Pile Formula, will be used in the absence of special pro-
visions to the contrary.
4.4.4.2 Method AEmpirical Pile Formulas
When not driven to practical refusal, the design
bearing capacities of piles will be determined by an
empirical pile formula. Unless otherwise provided in the
special provisions, the following formulas (ENR) will be
used.
2 WH
S+l.0
2E
S+0.l
for drop (gravity) hammers
for all other hammers
(4 - I)
(4-2)
where:
P = bearing capacity in pounds
W = weight, in pounds. of striking parts of the ham-
mer
I-I = height of fall in feet
F = energy produced by the hammer per blow in foot!
pounds. V alue based on actual hammer stroke or
bounce chamber pressure observed (double act-
ing diesel hammer)
S = the average penetration in inches per blow for
the last 5 to 10 blows for gravity hammers
and the last 10 to 20 blows for all other ham-
mers.
The above formulas are applicable only when:
The hammer has a free fall (gravity and single-acting
hammers only).
The head of the pile is not broomed, crushed, or other-
wise damaged.
The penetration is reasonably quick and uniform.
There is no appreciable rebound of the hammer.
A follower is not used.
The penetration per blow may be measured either dur-
ing initial driving or by redriving with a warm hammer
operated at full energy after a pile set period, as deter-
mined by the Engineer.
In case water jets are used in connection with the driv-
ing, the bearing capacity shall be determined by the above
formulas from the results of driving after the jets have
been withdrawn.
4.4.4.3 Method BWave Equation Analysis
When specified, ultimate bearing capacity ofa pile will
be determined by using a wave equation analysis. Soil,
pile, and driving equipment properties to be used in this
analysis will be as shown on the plans, as specified in the
4.4.4.3 DIVISION IlCONSTRUCTION
445
special provisions or as determined by the Engineer using
data obtained from the Contractor, test borings and, when
used, dynamic pile tests (Method C).
The design bearing capacity of a pile shall be 0.364 of
the calculated ultimate bearing capacity as determined
from a wave equation analysis alone. When the ultimate
bearing capacity is determined from a wave equation
analysis that has been calibrated to the results of a dy-
namic pile test, the design bearing capacity shall be 0.444
of the calculated ultimate bearing capacity.
4.4.4.4 Method CDynamic Load Tests
Dynamic measurements will be taken by the Engineer
during the driving of piles designated as dynamic load test
piles. The ultimate capacity of the pile will be determirmed
with the use of pile analyzer instruments.
Prior to placement in the leads, the Contractor shall
make each designated concrete and/or timber pile avail-
able for taking of wave speed measurements and shall
predrill the required instrument attachment holes. Predriv-
mng wave speed measurements will not be required for
steel piles. When wave speed measurements are made, the
piling shall be supported off the ground in a horizomital po-
sition and not in contact with other piling. The Engineer
will furnish the equipment. materials, and labor necessary
for drilling holes in the piles for mounting the instru
ruents.
The Contractor shall either attach the instrumnents to
the pile after the pile is l)laced in the leads, or provide the
Engineer reasonable means of access to the pile for at-
tachin~ instruments after the pile is placed in the leads. A
platform with minimiium size of 4 X 4 feet (16 square feet)
designed to be raised to the top of the pile while the pile
Is located in the leads shall be provided by the Contractor.
The Contractor shall furnish electric power for the dy-
namic test equipment. The power supply at the outlet shall
be 10 amp. 115 volt, 55-60 cycle, A.C. only. Field gener-
ators used as the power source shall be equipped with
meters monitoring voltaoe amid fr
tunctioning for equemicy
levels.
The Contractor shall furmiish a shelter to protect the dy-
namic test equipment from the elements. The shelter shall
have a minimum floor size of 8 X 8 feet (64 square feel)
and minimum roof height of 7 feet. The inside temlipera-
ture of the shelter shall be mnaintained above 45 degrees
The shelter shall be located within 50 feet of the test lo-
cation.
The Contractor shall drive the pile to the depth at
which the dynamic test equipment indicates that the de-
sign bearingcapacity shown in the contract plans has beemi
achieved, unless directed otherwise by the Engineer. If di-
rected by the Engineer, the Contractor shall reduce the driv-
ing energy transmitted to the pile by using additional
cushions or reducing the energy output of the hammer in
order to maintain acceptable stresses in the piles. If non-
axial driving is indicated by dynamic test equipment mea-
surements, the Comitractor shall immediately realign the
driving system.
When directed by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
wait up to 24 hours and, after the instruments are reat-
tached. redrive the dynamic load test pile. The hammer
shall be warmed up before redrive begins by applying at
least 20 blows to another pile. The maximimmn amnount of
penetration required during redrive shall be 6 imiches or the
maximum total number of hammner blows required will be
50, whichever occurs first. After redriving, the Engineer
will either provide the cut-off elevation or specify addi-
tiomial pile pemietration and testing.
4.4.4.5 Method DStatic Load Tests
Load tests shall be performed by procedures set
forth in ASTM D 1143 usimig the quick load compression
test method except that the test shall be taken to plunging
failure or three times design load or 1 .000 tons which-
ever occurs first. Testing equipment and mneasurmmig
systemns shall conform to ASTM 1) 1143. The Contractor
shall subniit to the Engineer for appr~)~~al. detailed plans,
prepared by a licensed professional engineer, of the
proposed loading apparatus. The apparatus shall be
constructed to allow the various increments of the load
to be placed gradually without causing vibration to the
test pile. When the approved miiethod requires the use of
tension (anchor) piles which will later be used as permna-
nent piles imi the work, such tension piles shall be of the
same type and diamneter as the production piles and shall
be driven in the location of permanent piles when
feasible.
The design bearing capacity shall be defined as 50 p~~-
cent of the failure load.
The failure load of a pile tested under axial compres-
sive load is that load which produces a settlemnent at fail-
ure of the pile head equal to:
S, =S +(0.15 +0.0081))
wlie re:
S = Settlement at failure in inches
D = Pile diameter or width in inches
S =Elastic deformatiorm of total unsupported pile
length in inches
The top elevation of the test pile shall be determnined
inimediately after drivimig and again just before load test
446
ing to check for heave. Any pile which heaves more than
/4 shall be redriven or jacked to the original elevation
prior to testing. Unless otherwise specified in the contract,
a minimum 3-day waiting period shall be observed be-
tween the driving of any anchor piles or the load test pile
and the commnencement of the load test.
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles
Full-length piles shall be used where practicable. If
splicing is permitted. the method of splicing shall be as
shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineem~. The
arc method of welding shall be preferred when splicing
steel piles. Welding shall only be performed by certified
welders.
4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles
Concrete piles shall not be spliced, other than to pro-
duce short extensions as permitted herein, unless specifi-
cally allowed by the plans, the special provisions, or by
the Engineer in writing.
Short extensions or build-ups mnay be added to the
lops of reinforced concrete piles to correct for unantici-
pated events. After the drivimig is comnpleted, the concrete
at the end of the pile shall be cut away, leaving the rein-
fore ing steel exposed for a length of 40 diameters. The
final cut of the concrete shall be perpendicular to the axis
of the pile. Reinforcement similar to that used imi the pile
shall be securely fastened to the projectirmg steel and the
necessary f~orm work shall be placed, care being taken to
prevent leakage along the pile. The concrete shall be of
not less than the quality used in the pile. Just prior to plac
mrme concrete. the top of the pile shall be thoroughly
flushed with water, allowed to dry. then covered with a
thirm coating of neat cement, mortar, or other suitable
bonding mnaterial. The forms shall remain in f)lace not less
than 7 days and shall then be carefm.mlly removed and the
entire exposed surface of the pile finished as previously
specified.
Timber piles shall not be spliced Linless specifically al-
lowed by the plans, special provisions, or by the Engineer
in writing.
4.4.6 Defective Piles
The procedure incident to the driving of piles shall not
subject them to excessmve and undue abuse producing
crushing and spalling of the concrete, injurious splitting,
splintering and broomning of the wood, or excessmve defor-
mation of the steel. Manipulation of piles to force them
into proper position, considered by the Engineer to be ex-
cessive, will not be permitted. Any pile damaged by reason
of internal defects or by improper driving or driven out of
its proper location or driven below the butt elevation fixed
by the plans or by the Engineer shall be corrected at the
Contractors expense by one of the following mnethods ap-
proved by the Engineer for the pile in questmon:
The pile shall be withdrawn and replaced by a new
and, if necessary, a longer pile.
A second pile shall be driven adjacent to the defec-
tive or low pile.
The pile shall be spliced or built up as otherwmse
provided herein or a sufficient portion of the l~oot-
ing extended to properly embed the pile. All piles
pushed up by the driving of adjacent piles or by any
other cause shall be driven down agamn.
All such remedial materials and work shall be
furnished at the Contractors expense.
4.4.7 Pile Cut-otT
4.4.7.1 General
All piles shall be cutoff to a true plane at the elevations
required and anchored to the structure, as shown on the
plans.
All cutofflengths ofpiling shall remnain the property of
the Contractor and shall be properly disposed of.
Timber piles which support timber caps or grillage
shall be sawed to eonform to the plane of the bottom of
the superimposed structure. In general. the length of pile
above the elevatiomi of cutoff shall be sufticient to permit
the complete removal of all material injured by driving.
but piles drivemi to very micarly the cutoff elevation shall be
carefully adzed or otherwise freed from all broomed,
splintered, or otherwise injured material.
Immediately after making final cutoff on treated tim-
her foundation piles, the cut area shall be given two lib-
eral applications of preservative followed by a heavy ap-
plication of coal-tar roofing cement or other approved
sealer. Treated timber piles which will have the cutoff
exposed in the structure shall have the cut area treated
with three coats of a compatible preservative material
meeting the requirements of AWPA Standard M4. A mmn-
imum time period of 2 hours shall elapse between each
application.
4.5
DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION
447
4,5.1 Method of Measurement
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished
The quantities of each type of pile to be paid for will
be the smmm of the lengths in feet of the piles, of the types
and lengths indicated on the l)lamis or ordered ml writing by
the Engineer. furnished in compliance with the material
requirements of these specifications and stockpiled or. in
the case of driven cast-in-place concrete piles, installed in
good condition at the site of the work by the Contractor.
and accepted by ihe Engineer. The footage of piles, in-
cluding test piles, furnished by the Contractor to replace
piles which were previously accepted by the Engineer, but
were smmbsequently damaged prior to completion of the
contract will not be included.
When extensions of piles are necessary. the extensmon
length ordered in writing by the Engineer will be included
in the linear footage of piling furnished.
4.5.1.1.2 Piles t)ricen
The quantities of driven piles of each type to be paid
for will be the number of acceptable piles of each type that
were driven.
Preboring. jettimig, or other methods used for facil-
itating pile driving procedures when either required
or permitted will not be measured, and payment will be
considered included in the unit price paid for the Piles
lI)riven.
4.5,1,2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs
When pile splices, protective pile tip shoes or soil shear
lu~s are shown on the plarms. the number of pile splices,
shoes, or lugs measured for payment will be those showmi
on the plans, or ordered in writing by the Engineer, and
actually installed on piles used in the work. No payment
will be made for splices, shoes, or lugs used at the option
of the Contractor. When not shown on the plans or speci-
fied to be used, pile splices, shoes, or linings ordered by the
Engineer will be paid for as extra work.
4,5,1.3 Load Tests
The quantity of load tests to be paid for will be the
nimmber of load tests completed amid accepted. except that
load tests made at the optiomi of the Contractor will not be
included in the quantity measured for payment.
Anchor and test piles for load tests, whether incorpo-
rated into the permanent structure or not, will be measured
as provided for Piles Furnished amid Piles I)riven and will
be paid for umider the appropriate pay item.
4.5.2 Basis of Payment
The quantities, determined as provided, will be paid br
at the contract price per unit of measurement, respect ivelv.
for each of the general pay items listed below for each sue
and type of pile shown imi the bid schedule.
Pay Iteni
Piles, Furnished
Piles, Driven
Test Piles, Eurnished
Test Piles, [)riven
Pile Load Test (Static)
Pile Load Test (Dymiamic)
Splices
Pile Shoes
Pile Lugs
Pay Unit
Linear Foot
Each
Linear Foot
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Each
Payment for furnishing piles includes full compensa-
tion br all costs imivolved in the furnishing and delivery of
all piles. including steel shells for cast-in-place driven
piles. to the project site and all costs involved in the fur-
nishine and placing of concrete and reinforcing steel for
cast-in-place concrete piles.
Payment for driving piles includes lull compensation
for all costs involved in the actual drivine and cutting off
of piles and pile shells, and for all costs for which com-
pensatiomi is not provided for under oilier pay items ml-
volved with the furnishing of labor, equipment. and innate-
rials used to constnmct the piles as shown on the plans amid
as specitied or ordered. Whemi mobilization of plant amid
equipnlent tor the project is not paid for separately, pay-
mnemit for driving piles also inelinmdes full compensation for
the cost of mobilization of all equipment needed for the
handling and driving piles after the piles have been deliv-
ered to the project site.
Payment for load tests includes full compensatiomi for
providing labor, equipment, and materials needed to per-
form the load tests as specitied.
Payment under the appropriate pay items for pile
splices. shoes, and lugs includes full compensation for all
costs involved with furnishing all muaterials and perforni-
ing the work involved with attaching or installing splices.
shoes, or lugs to the piles.
Section 5
DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION
5.3 MATERIALS
This work shall consist of constructing drilled foun-
dation piles and shafts~, with or without bell footings,
including the placing of reinforcing steel and concrete all
in accordance with the plans, these specifications and the
special provisions. The term shafts, as used in this
Section, shall mean either piles or shafts.
When required by the special provisions, at least 4
weeks before work on shafts is to begin, the Contractor
shall submit to the Engineer for review and approval, an
mnstallation plan for the construction of drilled shafts. The
submittal shall include the following:
(a) List of proposed equipment to be used including
cranes, drills.~, augers, bailing buckets, final cleaning
equipmemit, desanding equipment, slurry pumps, sam-
pling equipment, tremies or concrete pumps, casing,
etc.
(b) Details of overall construction operation sequence
and the sequence of shaft construction in bents or
groups.
(c) l)etails of shaft excavation methods.
(d) When slurry is required, details of the method pro-
posed to mix, ciremmlate, and desand slurry.
(e) Details of methods to clean the shaft excavation.
(f~ Details of reinforcement placement including sup-
port and centralization methods.
(g) Details of concrete placement, curing, and protec-
ti on.
(h) Details of any required load tests.
(i) Other information shown on the plans or requested
by the Engineer.
The Contractor shall not start the construction of
drilled shafts for which workimig drawings are required
until such drawings have been approved by the Engineer.
Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsi-
bility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any
of his other responsibilities under the contract.
5.3.1 Concrete
Concrete shall conform to the requiremnents of Section
8. The concrete shall be Class A unless otherwise specified.
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of
Section 9, Reinforcing Steel
5.3.3 Casings
Casings which are required to he incorporated as part
of the permanent work shall conform to the requirements
of Section II, Steel Structures. Steel shall be AASHTO
M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise
specified.
5.4 CONSTRUCTION
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures
All reasonable precautions shall be taken to prevent
damage to existimig structures and utilities. These mea-
sures shall include but are not limited to, selecting con-
struction methods and procedures that will prevent exces-
sive cavmng of the shaft excavation, monitoring, and
controlling the vibrations from the driving of casing or
sheeting, drilling of the shaft, or from blasting. if permnit-
ted.
5.4.2 Construction Sequence
All excavation of the foundation in which drilled shafts
are to be constructed shall be complete before shaft con-
struction begins.
Where drilled shafts are to be installed in conjunction
with embamikment placement, they shall be constructed
after the placement of the fill unless shown otherwise in
the plans.
449
450
HIGHWAY BRII)GES
5.4.3
5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment
Excavations required for shafts and bell footings shall
be performed through whatever niaterials are encounfered,
to the dimensinons and elevations shown on the plans or or-
dered by the Engineer. The methods and equipment used
shall be suitable for the imitended purpose and materials emi-
countered. Generally either the dry method, wet method,
temporary casing niethod, or permanent casing method
will be used as necessary to produce sound, durable con-
crete foundation shafts free of defects. The permamient cas-
ing method shall be used only when required by the plans
or authorized by the Engineer. When a particular method
of comistruction is required on the plans, that method shall
be used. If no particular method is specified for use, the
Contractor shall select and use the method, as deterniined
by site conditions, subject to approval of the Engineer, that
is mieeded to properly accomplish the work.
5.4.4 Dry Construction Method
The dry constructiomi niethod shall be imsed only at sites
where the groundwater table and site comiditiomis are suit-
able to permit construction of the shaft in a relatively dry
excavatiomi, amid where the sides and bottoni of the shaft
are stable and may be visually inspected prior to placimig
the concrete. The dry method consists of drillimig the shaft
excavation, removing accumulated water and loose mate-
rial from the excavation, and placing the shaft comicrete in
a relatively dry exeavatmon.
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method
The wet constrimetiomi method shall be imsed at sites
where a dry excavation cannot be maintained for place-
ment of the shaft concrete. This method consists of usin~
water or miiumieral slurry to maintain stability of the hole
perimeter while advancing the excavation to final depth,
placing the reinforcing cage amid shaft concrete. This pro-
cedure may require desanding and cleamiing the slurry:
final cleaning of the excavation by means of a bailing
bimeket, air lift, submersible pump or other devices; and
phacimig the shaft concrete with a treniie or concrete pmmmp.
Temporary surface casings shall be provided to aid shaft
ahigmiment and position, and to prevent sloughing of the
top of the shaft excavation, unless it is demonstrated to the
satisfaction of the Engineer that the surface casing is miot
required.
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method
The temnporary casing construction niethod shall
be used at all sites where the dry or wet construction
methods are inappropriate. This method consists of
advancing the excavation through caving material by
the wet method as described iii Article 5.4.5. When a
nearly impervious formation is reached, a casing shall be
placed in the hole and sealed in the nearly imperviorms
formation. After the drilling fluid is removed from the
casing, drilling may proceed as with the dry miiethod
except that the casing shall be withdrawn when the
shaft concrete is placed. If seepage conditions prevent
use of the dry method, excavation shall he completed
usmng the wet method. Slurry may he omitted if the
casing can be installed with only minor caving of
the hole.
As an alternative to use of the wet excavation method,
temporary casing niay be installed by driving or vibratory
procedures in advance of excavation to the lower liniits of
the caving material.
Before the casing is withdrawn and while the casing is
being withdrawmi, the level of fresh concrete in the casing
shall be at such a level that all the fluid trapped behimid the
casing is displaced upward without contaminating the
shaft concrete.
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Constrimction Method
The permilanemit casing construction method shall be
used when required by the plamis. This method consists of
driving or drilling a casing to a prescribed depth before
excavation begins. If full penetration cannot be attained.
the Engineer may require either excavation of material
within the embedded portion of the casine or excavation
of a pilot hole ahead of the easing until the casing reaches
the desired penetration. In some cases, overreanling to the
outside dianieter of the casing may be re(luired in order to
advance the casing.
The casimig shall be comitinuous betweemi the elevations
shown on the plans. Unless shown omi the plamis. the use of
temporary casing in lieu of or in addition to the permiianmemit
casing shall not be used except when authorized by the
Engineer in writing.
After the imistallatiomi of the casumig amid the excavation
of the shaft is complete, the casing shall be cutoff at the
prescribed elevation amid the reimiforcing steel and shaft
concrete placed within the portion of the casing left in
place.
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods
The Comitractor niay propose alternative methods to
prevent caving and control ground water. Such proposals.
accompanied by supporting technical data, shall be sub-
miiitted iii accordance with Article 5.2.
5.4.9
451
5.4.9 Excavations
The bottom elevation of the drilled shaft shown on the
plans may be adjusted during construction if the Engineer
determines that the foundation material encountered dimr-
ing excavation is unsuitable or differs from that antici-
pated in the design of the drilled shaft.
The Contractor shall take soil samples or rock cores
when shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer to
determine the character of the material directly below the
shaft excavation. The Engineer will inspect the samples or
cores and determine the final depth of required shaft ex-
cavation.
Excavated materials which are remiioved from the shaft
excavation and any drilled fluids used shall be disposed of
in accordance with the special provisions or as directed by
the Engineer.
When bell footings are shown in the plans they shall be
excavated to form a bearing area of the size and shape
shown. The bell shall be excavated by mechanical
methods.
5.4.10 Casings
Casings shall be metal, smooth, clean, watertight, and
of ample strength to withstand both handling and driving
stresses and the pressure of both concrete and the sur-
rounding earth materials. The outside diameter of casing
shall not be less than the specified size of the shaft.
Temporary casings shall be removed while the con-
crete remains workable. Generally the removal of tempo-
rary easing shall not be started umitil concrete placement in
the shaft is at or above ground surface. Movement of the
casing by rotating, exerting downward pressure and tap-
ping to facilitate extraction or extraction with a vibratory
hammer will be permitted. Casing extraction shall be at a
slow, uniform rate with the pull in line with the shaft axis.
A sufficient headof concrete shall be maintained above
the bottomn of the casing to overcome the hydrostatic pres-
sure of water or drilling fluid outside of the casing.
5.4.11 Slurry
Slurry used in the drilling process shall be a mineral
slurry. The slurry shall have both a mineral grain size that
will remain in suspension and sufficient viscosity and gel
characteristics to transportexcavated material to a suitable
screening system. The percentage and specific gravity of
the material used to make the suspension shall be suffi-
cient to maintain the stability of the excavation and to
allow proper concrete placement. The level of the slurry
shall be maintained at a height sufficient to prevent cav-
ing of the hole.
The mineral slurry shall be premixed thoroughly with
clean fresh water and adequate time allotted for hydration
prior to introduction into the shaft excavation. Adequate
slurry tanks will be required when specitied. Noexcavated
slurry pits will be allowed when slurry tanks are required
on the project without written permission of the Engineer.
Adequate desanding eqlmipment will be required when
specified. Steps shall be taken as necessary to prevent the
slurry from setting up in the shaft excavatiomi, such as,
agitation, circulation, and adjusting the properties of the
slurry.
Control tests using suitable apparatims shall be carried
out by the Contractor on the mineral slurry to determine
density, viscosity, and pH. An acceptable range of values
for those physical properties is shown in the following
table:
Range of V alues (at 68
0E)
Time of Time of
Property Slurry Concreting Test
(Units) Introduction (In Hole) Method
Density
(pef)
V iscosity
(sec. per
quart)
pH
64.3 to
69.1
64.3 to Density
75.0 Balance
28 to 45 28 to 45 Marsh
Cone
8to II 8to II pHpaperor
meter
Notes:
(a) Increase density values by 2 pef in salt water.
(b) If desanding is required; sand contemit shall not ex-
ceed 4 percent (by volume) at any point in the shaft ex-
cavation as determined by the American Petroleum In-
stitute sand content test.
Tests to determine density, viscosity, and pH values
shall be done during the shaft excavation to establish a
consistent working pattern.
Prior to placing shaft concrete, sltmrry samples shall be
taken from the bottom and at intervals not exceeding 10
feet for the full height of slurry. Any heavily contaminated
slurry that has accumulated at the bottom of the shaft shall
be eliminated. The mineral slurry shall be within specifi-
cation requirements immediately before shaft concrete
placement.
5.4.12 Excavation Inspection
The Contractor shall provide equipment for checking
the dimensions and alignment of each shaft excavation.
The dimensions and ahigmimnent shall be determined by the
Contractor under the direction of the Engineer. Final shaft
depth shall be measured after final cleaning.
The shaft excavation shall be cleaned so that a mini-
mum of 50 percent of the base will have less than /2 inch
of sediment and at no place on the base more than 1/2
inches of sediment. Shaft cleanliness will be determined
by the Engineer.
5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and
Placement
The reinforcing steel cage cormsisting of the steel showmi
on the plans plus cage stiffemier bars, spacers, centralizers,
and other necessary appurtenance shall be completely as-
sembled and placed as a unit immediately after the shaft
excavatiomi is inspected and accepted and prior to shaft
concrete placement.
The reinforcing steel in the shaft shall be tied and sup-
ported so that the reinforcing steel will remain within al-
lowable tolerances until the concrete will support the re-
inforcing steel. When concrete is placed by tremie
methods, temporary hold-down devices shall be used to
prevent uplifting of the steel cage during concrete place-
ment. Comicrete spacers or other approved miomicorrosmve
spacing devices shall be used at sufficient imitervals not ex-
ceeding 5 feet along the shaft to imisure concentric location
of the cage within the shaft excavation. When the size of
the longitudinal reinforcimig steel exceeds I inch, such
spacing shall not exceed 10 feet.
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing,
and Protection
Concrete shall be placed as soon as possible after rein-
forcing steel cage placement. Concrete placememit shall be
continuous in the shaft to the top elevation of the shaft.
Placemnent shall continue after the shaft is full until good
quality concrete is evident at the top of the shaft. Concrete
to be placed in water or slurry shall be placed through a
tremie or concrete pump using methods specified in Arti-
cle 8.7.5, Underwater Placement.
Concrete to be placed in dry shafts shall be placed and
consolidated as specified in Article 4.3.2, Cast-in-Place
Concrete Piles, and these specifications.
For shafts less than 8 feet in diameter, the elapsed time
from the beginning of comicrete placement in the shaft to
the completion of placement shall not exceed 2 hours. For
shafts 8 feet and greater in diameter, the concrete placing
rate shall be not less than 30 feet of shaft height per each
2-hour period. The concrete mix shall be of such design
that the concrete remains in workable plastic state
throughout the 2-hour placement limit.
When the top of shaft elevation is above ground, the
portion of the shaft above groumid shall be formed with a
removable form or permanent casing when specified.
The shaft concrete shall be vibrated or rodded to a
depthof 5 feet below the ground surface except where soft
uncased soil or slurry remaining in the excavation will
possibly mix with the concrete.
After placement, the temporarily exposed surfaces of
the shaft concrete shall be cured in accordance with the
provisions in Article 8.11, Curing Concrete:
For at least 48 hours after shaft concrete has beemi
placed, no construction operations that would cause soil
mnovement adjacent to the shaft, other than mild vibratiomi,
shall be conducted.
Portions of drilled shafts exposed to a body of water
shall be protected from the action of water by heaving the
forms in place for a minimum of 7 days after concrete
placement.
5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells
Test shafts shall be constructed when required in the
contract. The construction of test shafts will be used to de
termimie if the methods, equipment, amid procedures used by
the Contractor are sufficient to produce ashaft excavation
which meets the requirenients of the plans and specifica-
tiOn 5.
The Contractor shall revise his methods and equip-
miient as necessary at any time during the construction of
the test shaft hole to satisfactorily complete the exca-
vation.
The location of the test shaft shall be as shown omi the
plans, or as directed by the Engineer. The diameter and
depth of the test shaft hole or holes shall be the same di-
anieter and depth as the production drilled shafts shown
on the plans or directed by the Engineer. The test shaft
holes shall be filled with unreinforced concrete imi the
same manner that production shafts will be constructed
unless a different backfill material is shown on the plans
or specified by the Engineer.
When the Contractor fails to satisfactorily demomistrate
the adequacy of his methods, procedures or equipment,
additional test shafts shall be provided at no cost to the
Department.
When shown omi the plans or when ordered by the Emi-
gineer in writing, the reaming of bells at specified test
shaft holes will be required to establish the feasibility of
belhing in a specific soil strata.
5.4.16 Construction Tolerances
The followimig construction tolerances shall be main-
tained in constructing drilled shafts.
5.4.16 DIVISION ITCONSTRUCTION
453
(a) The drilled shaft shall be within 3 inches of the
plan position in the horizontal plane at the plan eleva-
tion for the top of the shaft.
(b) The vertical alignment of the shaft excavation shall
not vary from the plan alignment by more than /4 inch
per foot of depth.
(c) After all the shaft concrete is placed, the top of the
reinforcing steel cage shall be no more than 6 inches
above and no more than 3 inches below plan positmon.
(d) When casing is used, its outside diameter shall not
be less than the shaft diameter shown on the plans.
When casing is not used, the mininium diamiieier of the
drilled shaft shall be the diameter shown on the plans
for diameters 24 inches or less, and not more than I
inch less than the diamneter shown omi the plamis for di-
ameters greater than 24 inches.
(e) The bearing area of bells shall be excavated to the
plan bearing area as a minimum. All other plan dinien-
sions shown for the bells may be varied, when ap-
proved, to accommodate the equipment used.
(f) The top elevation of the shaft shall be within 1 inch
of the plan top of shaft elevation.
(g) The bottom of the shaft excavation shall be nornial
to the axis of the shaft within 3/4 inch per foot of shaft
diameter.
Drilled shaft excavations constructed in such a manner
that the concrete shaft cannot be completed within the re-
quired tolerances are unacceptable. Correction methods
shall be submitted by the Contractor for the Engineers ap-
proval. Approval will be obtained before continuing with
the (Irilled shaft construction.
Materials and work necessary to effect correction for
out-of-tolerance drilled shaft excavations shall be fur-
nished at no cost to the Department.
5.4.17 Integrity Testing
When shaft concrete is placed by the wet construction
method, and when called for in the special provisions, the
completed shaft will be subjected to nondestructive test-
ing to determnine the extent of any defects that may be pre-
sent in the shaft.
Work and materials required for testimig which are to be
furmiishcd by the Contractor shall be as shown on the plamis
or special provisions.
Imi the event testing discloses voids or discontinuities in
the concrete which, as determimied by the Engineer, imidi-
cate that the drilled shaft is not structurally adequate, the
shaft shall be relected and construction of additional
drilled shafts shall be suspended until the Contractor re-
pairs, replaces or supplememits the defective work, and the
Engineer approves the remedial work. Suspension of
drilled shaft constnmction shall remain in effect until writ-
ten changes to the methods of drilled shaft construction
are approved by the Engineer.
5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS
When the contract documents include load testing, all
tests shall be completed before construction of any pro-
duction drilled shafts. The Contractor shall allow 2 weeks
after the last load test for the analysis of the load test data
by the Engineer before specified drilled shaft tip eleva-
tions will be provided for production shafts.
The locations of load test shafts andreaction shafts, the
maximum loads to be applied, the test equipmemit to be
furnished by the Contractor, and the actual performiiaiice
of the load testimig shall be as shown omi the plans or spec-
ified in the special provisions.
After testing is completed, the test shafts andany reac-
tion shafts, if not also to be used as production shafts, shall
be cutoff at an elevatiomi 3 feet below the finished ground
surface. The portion of the shafts cutoff shall be disposed
of by the Contractor.
5.6.1 Measurement
5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft
Drilled shafts, coniplete in place, will be measured
by the linear foot for each size of shaft listed in the
schedule of bid items. Measurememit will be along the
center line of the shaft has~~~ed on the tip and shaft cut-
off elevations shown on the plans or ordered by the
Engineer.
5.6.1.2 Bell Footings
Bell footings will be measured by the cubic yard,
computed by using the diniensiomis and shape specified
on the plans or as revised iii diameter by the F.ngineer.
The bell shall consist of the volume outside the plan
or authorized dimensions of the shaft, which will
extend to the bottomii of the bell for the purpose of nica-
surement.
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts
Test shafts of the specified diameter will be nica-
suired from the elevation of the ground at the timiie drill-
ing begins, by the linear foot of acceptable test shaft
drilled.
5.6.1.4 Test Bells
Test bells will be measured by the cubic yardcomputed
by using the dimensions specified in Article 5.6. 1.2.
5.6.1.5 Exploration
Exploration holes will be measured by the linear foot
mneasured from the bottom of shaft elevation to the bottom
of the exploration hole, for each authorized hole drilled.
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing
Permanent casing will be measured by the linear foot
for each size of casing authorized to be used. Measure-
ment will be along the easing from top of casing or top of
shaft, whichever is lower, to the bottom of the casing at
each shaft location where permanent casing is authorized
and used.
5.6.1.7 Load Tests
Load tests will be measured by the number ofload tests
performed f~or each designated pile load capacity.
5.6.2 Payment
5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft
Drilled shafts will be paid for at the contract price per
lineal foot for drilled shaft of the dianieter specified. Such
paynient shall be considered to be full compensation for
all costs involved with shaft excavation, disposal of exca-
vated material, and the furnishing and placing of concrete
and reinforcing steel, inclumding all labor, materials. equmip-
ment, temporary casimig. andincidentals necessary to com-
plete the drilled shafts.
5.6.2.2 Bell Footings
Bell footings constructed to the specified or authorized
dimensions will be paid for at the contract unit price per
cubic yard for bell footings. Such payment shall be full
compensation for excavation, and concrete beyond the di-
ameter of the drilled shaft including all labor, materials.
equipment, and incidentals necessary to complete the bell
footings.
5.6.2.3 Test Shafts
Test shafts of the specified diameter will be paid for at
the contract unit price per linear foot for test shafts. Such
payment shall be full compensation for excavation and
concrete or backfill material including all labor, materials.
equipment, and incidentals necessary to complete the test
shafts.
5.6.2.4 Test Bells
Test bells of the diameter and shape specified or au-
thorized and approved will be paid for at the contract unit
price per cubic yard for test bells. Such payment shall be
full compensation for excavation and concrete or backfill
material including all labor, materials, equipment, and in-
cidentals necessary to complete the test bells.
5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes
Exploration holes will be paid for at the contract unit
price per linear foot for exploration holes. Such payment
shall be full compensation for drilling or coring the holes.
extracting and packaging the samples or cores and deliv-
ering them to the Department and all other expenses nec-
essary to complete the work.
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing
Permiianent casimig will be paid for at the contract unit
price per linear foot for permanent casing. Such paymiiemit
shall be full compensation for furnishing and placing the
casing above the costs attributable to the work paid for
under associated pay items.
5.6.2.7 Load Tests
Load tests will be paid for at the contract unit price for
each load test. Such paynient shall be full compensation
for all costs related to the performance of the load tests.
Section 6
GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DFSCRIPTION
This work shall consist of desigmiimig. furmiishimig, in-
stalling, testing, amid stressi rig permiianent cement-grouinted
gr(iund amichors in accordance with the plamis. these spec-
ifications, and the special provisions.
At least 4 weeks before work is to begin, the Contrac-
tor shall snibmit to the Emigineer for review and approval
comiiplcte workimig drawimigs and design calculations nle
scribing the ground anchor system or systems intended for
use. The submiiittal shall include the following:
(I) A ground anchor schedumle giving:
(a) Ground anchor number,
(b) Ground anchor design load,
(c) Type and size of tendon,
(d) Minimum total anchor length,
(e) Minimum bond lemigth,
(f) Minimum tendon bond length, and
(g) Minimum umibonded length.
(2) A drawing of the ground anchor tendomi and the
corrosion protection system, imicludimig details for the
following:
(a) Spacers separating elements of temidon and
their location.
(b) Centralizers and their location,
(c) Unbomided length corrosiomi protection systeni,
(d) Bond length corrosion protection system,
(e) Anchorage and trumpet,
(f) Anchorage corrosion protection systeni.
(g) Drilled or fornied hole size.
(h) Level of each stage of grouting. amid
(i) Any revisiomis to structure details necessary to
accomiimnodate the ground anchor system intended
for use.
(3) The grout nix design and procedumres for placing
the grout.
The Engineer will approve or reject the Contractors
working drawings within 4 weeks of receipt of a complete
submittal. No work omi ground amichors shall begin until
working drawings have been approved in writing by the
Engineer. Such approval shall not relieve the Comitractor
of any responsibility tinder the contract for the successful
completiomi of the work.
6.3 MATERIALS
Groummid anchor tendons shall consist of single or imil
tiple elememits of prestressing steel, anchorace (levices
and, if required. couplers conforming to the requirements
described in Section 10, Prestressing.
The following materials are acceptable for use as
groumnd anchor tendons:
AASHTO Designation: M 203 (ASTM Designation
A 416- Uncoated, 7-wire strand)
ASTM Designation: A886/A 886M (Indented, 7-wire
strand)
ASTM Designation: A 882/A 882M (Epoxy coated,
7-wire strand)
6.3.2 Grout
Cement shall be Type I, II, or III Portland Cement con-
forming to AASHTO M 85. Cement used for grouting
shall be fresh and shall not contain any lumps or other in-
dications of hydration or pack set.
Aggregate shall conforni to the requirements for fine
aggregate described in Section 8, Concrete Structures.
Admixtures may be used in the grout subject to the ap-
proval of the Engineer. Expansive admixtures may only be
added t(i the grout used for filling sealed encapsulations.
trumpets, and anchorage covers. Accelerators shall not be
used.
Water for mixing grout shall be potable, clean and free
of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful
to Portland cenient or prestressing steel.
455
6.3.3 Steel Elements
Bearimig plates shall be fabricated froin steel comi
forming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 70% Grade 36
miiiiiimnumii. or be a ductile iromi castmno confomnuing to
ASTM A 536.
Trumpets used to provide a transition froni the anchor-
ace to the umibomided length corrosion protection shall be
fabricated from a steel pipe or tube comiforming to the re-
quirements (if ASTM A 53 for pipe or ASTM A 500 for
tubimie. Mimiimumm wall thickmiess shall be 0.20 inches.
Amichorace covers used to enclose exposed anchorages
shall be fabricated froni steel, steel pipe, steel tube or
dtmetile cast iromi conformmne to the requiremiiemits of
AASIITO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 for steel.
ASIM A 53 for pipe ASTM A 500 for tubimic. andASTM
A 536 for ductile east iron. Minimum thickmiess shall he
0.10 imichies.
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements
Corrosion imihiibiting grease shall comiforni to the re
quiremiiemits of the Post Tensioning Instittites Specifica-
tions br Unbonded Simigle Strand Tendons. Section 3.2.5.
Sheath for the unhonded length of a tendon shall con-
sist of omie of the following:
l~ Seamiiless polyethylene (PE) tube having a niini-
miiumn wall thickness of 60 niils plus or miiimius 10 mils.
The polyethylene shall be cell classification 334413 by
ASTM D 3350.
(2) Seaniless polypropylene tube havimig a mimiimum
wall thickness of 60 nuils plus or minus 10 mils. The
polypropylene shall be cell classification
PP2 10B55542- II by ASTM D 4101.
(3) Heat shrimikable tuibe comisisting of a radiatiomi
crosslinked polyolefin tube imiternally coated with an
adhesive sealamit. The nuinumiiumii tumbe wall thickness be-
fore shrinkimig shall be 24 mils. The mimiimum adhesive
sealant thickness shall be 20 mils.
(4) Corruigated polyvirmyl chloride (PV C) tube havimie
a mmnumiium wall thickness of 30 mils.
Emicapsulation for the temidon bomid length shall consist
of one of the following:
I) Corrugated high demisity polyethylene (HDPE)
tube hiavine a miiimiimnum wall thickness of 3(i miiils amid
comilormimig t(i AAS I-ITO M 252 requirememits.
(2) Deformiied steel tumbe or pipe hiavimig a niimiimiiumii
wall thickmiess of 25 mils.
(3) Corrugated polyvimiyl chloride (PV C) tube having
a miiimiimumn wall thiickmiess of 31) mnils.
(4) Fusionbonded epoxy comifornuimig to the require
merits of AASHTO M 284, except that it shall have a
film thickness of 15 nuils.
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements
flondbreaker for a tendon shall consist of simioth plas-
tic tube or pipe that is resistant to aging by ultra-violet
light and that is capable of withstanding abrasiomi.inipact
andbendimie durimig handling and installation.
Spacers for separatiomi of elements of a miiumlti-elennemit
tendon shall permilit the free flow of eront. They shall be
fabricated from lilastic, steel, or material which is not detri
niental to the prestressine steel. Wood shall not be used.
Cemitrahizers shall he fabricated from plastic, steel, or
miiaterial which is miot demrimiiemital to either the prestressing
steel or amiv elemiient of the tendomi corrosiomi protectiomi.
Wood shall miot be used. The cemitralizer shall be able to
maimitain the positiomi of the tendomi so that a mininitim of
0.5 inches of grout cover is obtained on the tendomis, or
over the encapsulatiomi.
6.4 FABRICATION
Tendons for ground anchors may be either shop or field
fabricated froni materials confornuing to the requirenients
of Article 6.3. Tendons shall be fabricated as shown on the
approved workimig drawings. The tendon shall be sized so
that the maximum test load does not exceed 80 percent of
the mmnmmumm guaranteed ultimate strength of the tendon.
6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length
The Contractor shall deterniine the bond length mieces-
sary to satisfy the load test requirements. The minimum
bond lemigth shall be 10 feet in rock, 15 feet iii soil or the
miiininiuni length shown on the plamis. The minimum ten-
don bond length shall be 10 feet.
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon
Spacers shall be placed alomig the tendon bond lcmigthi
of muilti-element tendons so that the prestressimig steel will
bond to the grout. They shall be located at 10-foot nnaxm-
muni cemiters with the upper one located a niaximiium of 5
feet fromii the top of the tendon bond leneth amid the lower
(inc located a maxiniuni of 5 feet froni the bottom of the
tendon bond length.
Cemitrahizers shall be placed along the bond hemigth. They
shall be located at 10foot niaximumii cemiters with the tipper
one located a maxiniumii of 5 feet fromii the top of the b(ind
length amid the lower one located 1 foot fromii the bottom of
6.4.1.1
DIV ISION ILCONSTRUCTION 457
the bond lemigth. Centralizers are not requmired omi tendons
imistalled utilizing a hollowsteni auger if it is grouted
through the auger arid the drill hole is maintained fuill of a
stiff grout (9-imich slumiip or less) dune extractioli of the
auger. A combinatiomi centraliter-spacer may be used.
Centralizers are riot required omi temidoris imistalled nmti-
lizimig a pressure injection systemli in coarse-gramned soils
usimw orouti pressures greater then 150 psi.
ne
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor
Tendon
The temidon bond lcmigth shall be emicapsulated by a
grout filled corrugated plastic or (leforilied steel tube, or
by a fusiomibomided epoxy coatimig. The temidon cami be
groute(l imiside the emicapsulatiomi prior to inserting the ten
don iii the drill hole or after the temidon has been placed iii
the (frill hole. Punching holes in the encapsulation and al-
lowing the grout to flow froni the encapsumlation to the drill
hole, or vice versa, will not be permitted. The tendomi shall
be centralized withimi the encapsulation and the tube sized
to pr(ivide an average of t).20 inches of grout cover for the
prestressimig steel. Spacers and centralizers shall be used
to satisfy the same requmirememits specified iii Article
6.4. 1.1 for grout protected ground anchor temidomis.
The anchorage device of tendons protected with
fusion-bonded epoxy shall be electrically isolated from
the structure.
6.4.2 Unhonded Length
The unbomided length of the tendomi shall be a niinimuni
of IS feet or as indicated oii the plamis or approved work-
ing drawimigs.
Corrosion protection shall be provided by a sheath
coiiipletely filled with corrosiomi inliibitino orease or
t
grout, or aheat shrinkable tube. Ifgrease is used to fill the
sheath, provisions shall be niade to prevemit it froni escap-
ing at the emids. The grease shall conipletely coat the ten-
don and fill the interstices betweemi the wires of seven-wire
strands. Comitinuity of corrosiomi protection shall be pro-
vided at the transition froiii the bonded lcmigth to umi
bonded lemigth of the temidomi.
Ifthe sheath provided is not a smooth tuhie. then a ~cp
arate boridbreaker miiust be provided to prevemit the tendon
from bonding to the amichor grotit surrouiiding the un-
bonded lemigthi.
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet
Nomirestressable anchorages may be used ummiless re-
stressable anchorages are designated on the hilamis or spec-
itied in the special provisions.
Bearimig plates shall be sized so that the bemidinig
stresses mn the plate amid average stress omi the comi-
crete, if applicable, do not exceed the allowable stresses
described in Article 10.3.1.4.3, Anchorace Devices with
Distribution Plates. Time size (if bearinm~ plates shall not
be less than that shown on the hilamis or on the approved
workimig drawimigs.
The trumpet shall be welded to the bearimig plate. The
trumiipet shall have ami inside diamiieter at least 0.25 inches
Creater than the diamiieter of the temidon at the amiehiorace.
The trumpet shall be long enough to accomiimodate mimove-
nients (if the strumetuire duiring tcstiiio amid stressimio For
strand tendons with enicapsulatiomi over the unbominled
lemigth. the trumiipet shall be long emiough to enable the temi
domis to miiake a transition from the diamiieter of the tendon
iii the unbonded lemieth to the diami~eter of the tendomi at the
anchiorhead without damiiaeimie the encapsulatiomi. Trnim
pets filled with corrosiomi-imihibitimie crease shall have a
permilanemit BunaN rubber or ahiproved equal seal pro-
vided betweemi the trumpet amid the nmnbonded length cor-
rosion protectiomi. Trumpets filled with grout shall have a
teniporary seal provided between the truiiipet amid the urn-
bomided length corrosion pr(itection.
6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling
Tendons shall be stored amid handled iii sm.mch a mariner
as to avoid damage or corrosion. Damage to tcndon prL
stressing steel as a resuilt of abrasiomis, cuts. nmLks welds
and weld splatter will be cause for rejection by the Friom
neer. Grounding of welding leads to the prestressmno ski
is not permitted. A slight rusting. provided it is not suffi
cient to cause pits visible to the unaided eye, sh ill miot bc
cause for rejecti(in. Prior to imisertirig a tendon into the
drilled hole, its corrosion protectiomi elemiiemits shall be cx-
amined for damage. Any damage found shall be repaired
in a nianmier approved by the Emigineer.
6.5 INSTALLATION
The Contractor shall select the drilling method, the
orotitimie
procedure amid groutimig pressuire to be used for
the imistallatiomi of the groumid anchor as necessary to sat-
isfy the load test requiremnemits.
6.5.1 Drilling
The drilling miiethod used may be core drilhimig. rotary
drilling, percussion drilling, auger drillimig (ir drivemi cas-
ing. The miiethod of drilhimig used shall prevemit loss of
ground above the drilled hole that miiay be detrimental to
the structure or existing structuires. Casing for amichor
458
holes, if used, shall be removed, unless permitted by the
Engineer to be left in place. The location, irichimiatiomi, and
alignment of the drilled hole shall be as shown on the
plans. Inclination and aligmimnemit shall be within plus on
minus 3 degrees of the plamined angle at the beariiig plate,
and within plus or minus 12 inches of the planned loca-
tion at the grouinrid surface (poimit of entry).
6.5.2 Tendon Insertion
The tendon shall be imiserted into the drilled hole to
the desired depth without difficulty. When the tendon
cannot be completely inserted it shall be remimoved aminl
the drill hole cleaned or rednilled to permit insertion.
Partially inserted tendons shall miot be driven or foiced imito
the hole.
6.5.3 Grouting
A neat cement erout or samidcemnemit grout conforniimig
to Article 6.3.2 shall be used. Adniixtures, if used. shall be
mixed in quamitities not t(i exceed the manufacturers nec
ominenidations.
The groutimig ecluiplilemit shall prodLice a gronit free of
lumps arid umidispersed cenient. A positive displacememit
grout pnmiiip shall be used. The punip shall be equipped
with a pressure gauge to mnomiitor grouit pressuires. The
pressure gauge shall be capable of measuiring pressures of
at least 150 psi or twice the actual grout pressures used,
whichever is greater. The grohiting equipniemit shall be
sized to enable the grout to be pumnped in one contiminous
operation. Fhe nuixer shall be capable of continuously ag-
itating the gronit.
The grout shall he injected from the lowest point (if the
drill hole. The grout may be pumiiped through groumt tumbes.
casing, hollow-stem augers or drill rods. The gronit nay be
placed before or after imisertiomi of the tendon. The quan-
tity of the grout and the grout pressures shall be recorded.
The groumt pressures amid grout takes shall be controlled to
prevent excessive heave of the ground or fracturing of
rock formations.
Except where indicated below, the grout above the top
of the bond length may be placed at the same time as the
bond length gronit, buit it shall miot be placed under pres-
sumre. The grout at the top of the drill hole shall stop 6
inches from the back of the strumetuire or fromii the bottomii
of the trumpet, whichever is lowest.
If the ground anchor is installed in a tine-grained soil
using a drilled hole larger thamm 6 inches in dianieter. then
the grout above the top of the bond length shall be placed
after the ground anchor has been load tested. The entire
drill hole may be grouted at the same timiie if it can be
demonstrated that the ground anchor systeni does riot de-
rive a significant portion of its load resistance froni the
soil above the bond length portion of the groummid anchor.
If grout protected tendons are used for ground anchors
amichored iii rock, then pressure groutimig techniques shall
be utilized. Pressure groutirig requires that the drill hole
be sealed and that the grout be injected until a 50-psi grout
pressure can be maintained ori the grout within the bond
length for a period of 5 minutes.
Upon completion of grouting, the grout tumbe nay re-
main in the drill hole provided it is filled with grout.
After groutimig, the temidoim shall miot be loaded for a
minimum of 3 days.
6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage
The corrosion protection surrounding the unbomided
length of the tendon shall extend imito the trumiipet a miimnmm-
muni of 6 inches beyond the bottom seal in the trumpet.
The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded
length of the temidomi shall not contact the bearing hilate or
the amichiorhead durimig load testimig or stressing.
The bearing plate and anchorhead shall be hilaced per-
pendicular to the axis (if the tendomi.
The trunipet shall be comiipletcly filled with corrosion
inhibiting grease or grout. The grease may be placed amiy
tine during conistruiction. The grout shall be placed after
the ground anchor has been load tested. The Comitractor
shall denionstrate that the procedures selected for place-
miient of either grease or grout will produce a completely
tilled trumiipet.
Anchorages not emicased in comicrete shall be covered
with a corrosion inhibitimig grease-filled (in grout-filled
steel enclosure.
6.5.5 Testing and Stressing
Each gronmnd anchor shall be load tested by the Comi-
tractor. No load greater than 10 percent of the design load
may be applied to the ground anchor prior to load testing.
The test load shall be simnultaneoumsly applied to the entire
tendon.
6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment
A dial gatige or vernier scale capable of mneasurinc dis-
placememits to 0.001 inches shall be used to measure
groumid anchor movenient. It shall have adequate travel so
total groummid anchor miiovemiient can be miieasumred without
resetting the device.
A hydraulic jack amid puimp shall be used to apply the
test load. The jack and a calibrated pressure gauge shall
be used to measure the applied load. The pressure ganige
shall be graduated in 100-psi imicrements or less. Whemi the
6.5.5.1
DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION
459
theoretical elastic elongation of the total anchor length at
the maximum test load exceeds the ram travel of the jack,
the procedure for recycling the jack ram shall be included
in the workingdrawings. Each increment of test load shall
be applied as rapidly as possible.
A calibrated reference pressure gauge shall be avail-
able at the site. The reference gauge shall be calibrated
with the test jack and pressure gauge.
An electrical resistance load cell and readout shall be
provided when performing a creep test.
The stressing equipment shall be placed over the
ground anchor tendon in such amanner that the jack, bear-
ing plates, load cell and stressing anchorage are axially
aligned with the tendon and the tendon is centered within
the equipment.
6.5.5.2 Performance Test
Five percent of the ground anchors or a mmnmmnium of
three ground anchors, whichever is greater shall be per-
formamice tested in accordance with the following proce-
dunes. The Engineer shall select the ground anchors to be
performance tested. The remaining anchors shall be tested
in accordance with the proof test procedures.
The perforniance test shall be made by incrememitally
loading and unloading the ground anchor in accordance
with the following schedule unless a different maximum
test load and schedule are indicatedon the plans. The load
shall be raised from one increment to another ininiediately
after recording the ground anchor movement. The ground
anchor mnovenient shall be nicasured and recorded to the
nearest 0.001 inches with respect to an independent fixed
reference point at the alignment load and at each incre-
ment of load. The load shall be miionitored with a pressure
gauge. The reference pressure gauge shall be placed in se-
ries with the pressure gauge during each perfomniance test.
Ifthe load determined by the reference pressure gauge and
the load determined by the pressure gauge differ by more
than 10 percent, the jack, pressure gauge and reference
pressure gauge shall be recalibrated. At load increnients
other than the maximum test load, the load shall be held
juist long enough to obtain the movement reading.
Perforniance Test Schedule
Load
AL
0.25DL*
AL
0.25DL
0.SODL*
AL
0.25DL
Load
AL
0.2SDL
0.5ODL
0.7SDL
l.OODL
I .2ODL*
AL
0.5ODL
0.75DL*
AL
0.25DL
0.5ODL
0.75DL
l.OODL*
0.25DL
0.5ODL
0.75DL
h.OODL
l.2ODL
I .33DL*
(Max. test load)
Reduce to
lock-off load
(Art. 6.5.5.6)
Where: AL = Alignment load
DL = Design load for ground anchor
* = Graph required. See last paragraph in this
Article 6.5.5.2.
The maximum test load in a performance test shall be
held for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repumnped as nec-
essary in order to maintain aconstant load. The load-hold
period shall start as soon as the maximuni test load is
applied and the ground anchor movement shall be
measured and recorded at 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10
minutes. If the ground anchor movenients between I
minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the
maximum test load shall be held for an additional Sf) niimi-
utes. If the load hold is extended, the ground anchor
movenient shall be recorded at IS minutes, 20. 25, 30, 45,
and 60 minutes.
A graph shall be comistructed showing a plot of ground
anchor movemnerit versus load for each load incremiiemit
marked with an asterisk (5) in the perforniance test sched-
ule and a plot of the residual ground amichor movenient of
the tendon at each ahigrinient load versus the highest pre-
viously applied load. Graph format shall be approved by
the Engineer prior to use.
6.5.5.3 Proof Test
The proof test shall be performed by incremen-
tally loading the ground anchor in accordance with
the following schedule unless a different maximum
test load and schedule are indicated on the plans. The
load shall be raised from one increment to another
immediately after recording the ground anchor move-
ment. The ground anchor movement shall be measured
arid recorded to the nearest 0.001 inches with respect
to an independent fixed reference point at the align-
ment load and at each increment of load. The load
shall be monitored with a pressure gauge. At load
increments other than the maximum test load, the load
shall be held just long enough to obtain the movement
reading.
460 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
6.5.5.3
Proof Test Schedule
Creep Test Schedule
Load
AL
0.25DL
0.SODL
0.7SDL
Load
l.OODL
l.2ODL
l.33DL
(Max. test load)
Reduce to
lock-off load
Where: AL =Ahigrinierit load
DL = Design load for ground anchor
The maximum test load in a proof test shall be held
for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repuinnped as neces-
sary in order to niaintain a constant load. The load-
hold period shall start as soon as the maximuni test
load is applied and the ground anchor movement shall be
measured and recorded at I minute, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10
minutes. If the ground anchor movement between I
minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the maxi-
mum test load shall be held for an additional 50 minutes.
Ifthe load hold is extended, the ground anchor movement
shall be recorded at 15 minutes, 20, 30, 45, arid 60
minutes. A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of
ground anchor niovemnent versums load for each load imicre-
ment in the prooftest. Graph format shall be approved by
the Engineer prior to use.
6.5.5.4 Creep Test
Creep tests shall be performed if required by the plamis
or special provisions. The Engineer shall select the ground
anchors to be creep tested.
The creep test shall be made by incrementally loading
and unloading the ground anchor in accordance with the
performance test schedule used. At the end of each load-
ing cycle, the load shall be held constant for the observa-
tion period indicated in the creep test schedule below un-
less a different maximum test load is indicated on the
plans. The times for reading and recording the ground ami-
chor movement during each observation period shall be I
minute, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 10, IS, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100,
120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, and 300 minutes as appro-
priate. Each load-hold period shall start as soon as the test
load is applied. In a creep test the pressure gauge and ref-
erence pressure gauge will be tised to measuire the applied
load, amid the load cell will be used to monitor small
changes of load during a constant load-hold period. The
jack shall be repumped as necessary in order to maintain
a constant load.
Observation
Period Minutes
AL
0.25 DL
0.5ODL
0.7SDL
l.OODL
l.2ODL
l.33DL
10
30
30
45
60
300
A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of the
ground anchor movement and the residual movement
measured in acreep test as described for the performance
test. Also, a graph shall be constructed showing a plot of
the ground anchor creep movement for each load hold as
a function of the logarithm of time. Graph formats shall
be approved by the Engineer prior to use.
6.5.5.5 GroundAnchor Load Test Acceptance
Criteria
A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor
with a 10-minute load hold is acceptable if the:
(1) Ground anchor resists the miiaximuni test load with
less than 0.04 inches of movement between I nuinute
and 10 minutes; arid
(2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds
80 percent of the theoretical elastic elongation of the
unbonded length.
(3) Total movement at the maximum test load may miot
exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the umi-
bonded length plus 50 percent of the theoretical elastic
elongation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies
only for a performance-tested groumrid anchor in comii-
petent rock.]
A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor
with a 60-minute load hold is acceptable if the:
(1) Ground anchor resists the maximummn test load with
a creep rate that does not exceed 0.08 inches in the last
log cycle of time; arid
unbonded length.
(3) Total movement at the miiaximumn test load may riot
exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the uni-
elongation of the bomided length. [Criterion (3) applies
only for a performance-tested ground anchor in corn-
petent rock.1
6.5.5.5
DIVISION IlCONSTRUCTION
461
A creep-tested ground anchor is acceptable if the:
(I) Ground anchor carries the maximum test load with
a creep rate that does riot exceed 0.08 inches iii the last
log cycle of time; and
unborided length.
(3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not
exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
elongation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies
only for a performance-tested ground anchor in coin-
petent rock.]
Ifthe total movement (if the ground anchor at the max-
mmnum test load does not exceed 80 percent of the theoret-
ical elastic elongation (if the unbonded length, the grotmrid
anchor shall be replaced at the Contractors expense.
A ground anchor which has a creep rate greater than
0.08 inches per log cycle of time can be incorporated into
the structure at a design load equal to one-half of its fail-
ure load. The failure load is the load resisted by the groumnd
anchor after the load has been allowed to stabilize for 10
nuinutes.
When a ground anchor fails, the Comitractor shall mod-
ify the design arid/or the installation procedures. These
modifications may include, but are not limited to, in-
stalling a replacememit ground anchor, reducing the desigmi
load by increasing the number of ground anchors, modi-
fying the installation methods,, increasing the bond length
or changing the ground anchor type. Any modification
which requires changes to the structure shall be approved
by the Engineer. Any modifications of design or constnmc-
tiori procedures shall be without additional cost to the De-
partment and without extension of contract time.
Retesting of a ground anchor will not be permitted, ex-
cept that regrouted ground anchors may be retested.
6.5.5.6 Lock OtT
Upon successful completion of the load testing, the
ground anchor load shall be reduced to the lock-off load
indicated on the plans and transferred to the anchorage de-
vice. The ground anchor may be completely unloaded
prior to lock-off. After transferring the load and prior to re-
moving the jack, a lift-off load reading shall be made. The
lift-off load shall be within 10 percent of the specified lock-
off load. If the load is not within 10 percent of the speci-
fied hock-off load, the anchorage shall be reset and another
lift-off load reading shall be made.This process shall be re-
peated until the desired hock-off load is obtained.
6.6 MEASUREMENTAND PAYMENT
Ground anchors will be measured and paid for by the
miumber of units installed and accepted as shown (in the
plans or ordered by the Engineer. No change in the nun-
ber of ground anchors to be paid for will be made because
of the use by the Contractor of an alternative number of
groumnd anchors.
The contract unit price paid for ground anchors shall
include full conipemisation for furnishing all labor, materi-
als, tools, equipment, arid incidentals, and for doing all the
work involved in imistalhing the ground anchors (imicludino
testing), complete in place, as shown on the plans and as
specified in these specifications and the special provi-
sions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 7
EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION
This work shall consist of furnishing arid imistallimig
earth retaimiimig systenis iii accordance with the plamis. these
speci tication~, and the special provisions.
Earth retainimig systems imiclude concrete amid miiasonry
gravity walls, reinforced concrete retaining walls, sheet
pile and soldier pile walls (with and without ground an-
chors or other anchorage systems), crib and cellumlar walls.
and miiechanically stabilized earth walls.
Working drawiiigs amid desigmi calculatiomis shall be
submitted to the Engimicer for review and approval at least
4 weeks before work is to begin Such smbmittals shall be
required (1) for each alternative proprietary or miomipropri-
etary earth retaimiing systemii proposed as permitted on
specified in the comitract, (2) wheim complete details for the
system to be comistructed are not incluided in the hilamis, and
(3) when otherwise required by the special provisions or
these specifications. Workimig drawings and desigmi calen-
latiomis shall include the following:
(a) Existing ground elevatiomis that have beemi verified
by the Contractor for each location imivolving con
struction wholly on partially in original ground.
b) Layout of wall that will effectively retain the earth
but not less in height or length thami that shown for the
wall system in the plans.
(c) Complete design calculatiomis substamitiatimig that
the proposed design satisfies the design parameters in
the plans and in the special provisions.
(d) Complete details of all elements required for the
proper construction of the systeni, including coniplete
material specifications.
(e) Earthwork requmirements including specifications
for material and compaction of backfill.
(f) Details of revisions or additions to drainage sys-
tems or other facilities required to accomnmuodate the
systeni.
(g) Other information required in the plans or special
provisions or requested by the ~rigineer.
The Contractor shall miot start work on any earth re-
taming system for which working drawings are required
until such drawings have beemi approved by the Engimicer.
Approval of the Contractors working drawings shall not
relieve the Contractor of any of his resp(insibility under
the comitract for the sumccessful comiipletion of the work.
7.3 MATERIALS
7.3.1 Concrete
7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place
Cast-in-place concrete shall conform to the requmire-
mnents of Sectiomi 8. Concrete Strmctmnes. The comicrete
shall be Class A unless otherwise indicated in the contract
documimenits.
7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar
Pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the
requmiremnenits ~mfSection ~4 Pneumatically Applied
Mortar.
7.3.1.3 Precast Elements
The niaterials, manumfactuning, storage, handling, arid
erection of precast comicrete elenients shall comiform t(i the
requirememits in Article 8.13, Precast Concrete Mem-
bers. Umiless otherwise showim omi the plans or on the ap-
proved working drawimigs, Portland cenient concrete used
in precast elemnemits shall conform to Class A (AE) with a
mimiimum conipressive strength at 28 days of 4,000 psi.
Reinforcing steel shall conforni to the requirements of
Section 9. Reimiforcing Steel.
7.3.3 Structural Steel
Struictural steel shall comiforni to AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise specified.
463
464
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.3.4
7.3.4 Timber
Timber shall conform to the requirements of Section
16. Timber Structures and Article 4.2.2, Timber Piles.
7.3.5 Drainage Elements
Sieve Size Percent Passing
3,
No.4
No. 50
No. 200
100
2570
520
0s
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe
Pipe arid perforated pipe shall conform to subsections
708 and 709 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications Jor
Highway Construetio,m.
7.3.5.2 Filter Fabric
Filter fabric shall conforni to subsection 620 of the
AASHTO Guide Specificationsfor HighwayConstruetion.
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
Structure backfill material for mechanically stabilized
earth walls shall conform to the following grading, inter-
nal friction angle, and soundness requirements:
Sieve Size Percent Passing
4
No. 40
No. 200
100
060
015 *
*Plasticity Index (P1), as determined by AASHTO T
90, shall not exceed 6.
Permeable material shall conform to subsection 704 of
the AASHTO Guide Speetlications for Highway Con-
.stru(tion unless otherwise specified in the contract or the
approved working drawines.
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems
Geocomposite drainage systemiis shall conform to the
requirements specified in the special provisions or the ap-
proved working drawings.
7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material
7.3.6.1 General
All structure backfill niatenial shall consist of niatenial
free from organic material or other unsuitable material as
determined by the Engineer. Gradation will be determined
by AASHTO T27. Grading shall be as follows umnless oth-
erwise specified.
Percent Passing
100
35100
20100
0-15
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls
Structure backfill material for crib amid cellular walls
shall be of suich character that it will not sift or flow
through openings in the wall. Eon wall heights over 20 feet
the following grading shall be required:
Sieve Size
3,
No.4
No. 30
No. 200
The material shall exhibit an angle of internal friction
of not less than 34 degrees, as determined by the standard
Direct Shear Test, AASHTO T 236, on the portion finer
than the No. 10 sieve, utilizing a sample of the material
compacted to 95 percent ofAASl-ITOT 99, Methods C (in
D (with oversized correction as otithined in Note 7) at op-
timuni moisture content. No testing is requmired for back-
fills where 80 percent of sizes are greater than 3/4 inch.
The niaterials shall be substantially free of shale or
other soft, poor durability particles. The material shall
have a magnesium sulfate soundness loss of less than 30
percent after four cycles.
Additionally, the backfill material shall meet the
following electrochemical requirements when steel soil
reinforcement is to be used:
pHof5to 10
Resistivity not less than 3,000 ohni centimeters
Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm
Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm
7.4 EARTHWORK
7.4.1 Structure Excavation
Structure excavation for earth retaining systems shall
conform to the requirements of Section 1, Strumeture Ex-
cavation and Backfill, and as provided below.
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment
Foundation treatmiient shall conform to the require-
ments of Article 1.4.2, Foumridation Preparation arid Con-
7.4.2
DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 465
trol of Water umihess otherwise specified or included iii
the approved working drawings. If subexcavatiomi of
foundation material is indicated, the Contractor shall per-
forni the excavation to the linuits shown. Material exca-
vated shall be replaced with structure backfill niaterial
meeting the requirememits for the particular earth retaimi-
imig system to be c(instruicted unless adifferent material is
specified in the special provisiomis. The niatenial shall be
compacted to a density not less than 95 percent of the
maximum density as determimined by AASHTO T 99,
Methods C or D (with oversize correction as outhimied mi
Note 7).
7.4.3 Structure Backfill
Placenient (if strumeture backfill niatenial shall con-
form to the requirements of Articles 1.4.3 and 7.6.
Material used shall conformii to the requirememits of Arti-
dc 7.3.6.
7.5 DRAINAGE
Drainage facilities shall be constructed in accor-
dance with the details shown ori the plans or approved
working drawings, the special provisions, and these
specifications.
7.5.1 Concrete Gutters
Concrete Cuitters shall be constructed to the profile in-
dicated on the plamis or the approved working drawimigs.
Pmieumiiatically applied mortar shall conform to the re
quiremnents of Section 24. Pnenmmnatically Applied Mor-
tar. Outlet works shall be provided at sags in the profile,
at the low ends of the guitter, arid at other indicated loca-
loriS.
7.5.2 Weep Holes
Weep holes shall be constructed at the locations
showmi omi the plamis on the approved working drawimigs.
A miiimiiniumii of 2 enibic feet of permiieahle nnatenial
ericapsumlated with filter fabric shall be placed at each
weep hole.
Joimits betweemi precast concrete retaimiimig wall face
pamiels which function as weepholes shall be covered with
filter fabric. The filter fabric shall be bonded to the face
panels with adhesive confornuimig to Federal Specitication
MMM-A- 121 . The face pamiels which are to receive the fil-
ter fabric shall be dry and thoroughly cleaned of (lust amid
loose materials.
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets
Drainage blankets consisting of perineable miiate-
nial encapsnmlated in filter fabric, collector pipes, ouintlet
pipes and cleariout pipes shall he comistnucted as showmi on
the plans or the approved working drawimigs.
The subgrade to receive the filter fabric shall comi-
form to the compactiomi andelevation toleramice specified
an(l shall be free of loose or extraneoums material and
sharp objects that may daniage the filter fabric durimig
installation. The fabric shall be stretched, ahigmied, and
placed in a wrinkle-free manner. Adjacent borders of the
fabric shall be overlapped from 12 to 18 inches Should
the fabric be damaged, the torn or punctured section shall
be repaired by placing a piece of fabric that is large
enough to cover the damaged area and to nicet the overlap
requiremnemit.
The permeable miiatenial shall be placed iii horizontal
layers amid thoroughly consolidated along with and by the
same methods specified for structure backfill. Pondinc
andjetting of permeable material or structure backfill na-
tenial adjacent to permeable niaterial will not be permit-
ted. During spreading amid compaction of the pernicable
material and structure backfill or embankment material, a
mnininiumii of 6 inches of such material shall be miiaintained
between the fabric amid the Contractors equipniemmt.
The perforated collector pipe shall be placed within the
permeable material to the flow line elevations shown.
Outlet pipes shall be placed at sags in the flow line, at
the low end of the collector pipe, and at other locatiomis
shown or specified. Rock slope protectiomi. when requmired
at the end of outlet pipes. shall comifonni to the (hetails on
the plans or approved wonkimig drawings amid the require-
ments in Section 22. Slope Protection.
Cleanout pipes shall be placed at the high ends (if col-
hector pipes amid at other locations as specified.
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems
Geocomposite draimiage systemiis shall be installed at
the locations showmi (iri the plans or the approved working
drawimigs. The geoconiposite draimiage material shall be
placed andsecured tightly agaimist the excavated face, lag-
ging or back of wall as specified. When concrete is to be
placed against geocomposite (fraimiage material, the
drainage niaterial shall be protected agaimist physical damii-
age and grout leakage.
7.6 CONSTRUCTION
The construction of earth retaimiimig systems shall
conforni to the hues and grades indicated omi the
466
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.6
phamis or working drawings or as directed by the
Engineer.
7,6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
Stone masonry construction shall conforni to the re-
quireniemits of Section 14, Stone Masonry: Concrete
construction shall conform to the requiremnemits of Section
8, Concrete Structures. Reinforced concrete block ma-
sonry shall conform to the requmirements of Section 15.
Concrete Block amid Brick Masonry.
V ertical precast concrete wall elements with cast-in-
place concrete footing support shall he adequately sup-
ported and braced to prevent settlement or lateral dis-
placenient until the footing concrete has been placed and
has achieved sufficient strength to sumpport the wall ele-
ments.
The exposed foce of concrete walls shall receive a
Class I finish as specified in Section 8, Concrete Struc-
tures, unless a special architectural treatment is specified
ori the plans, the special provisions, or the approved work-
ing drawings.
7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walhs
This work shall consist of constructing continuous
walls of timnber, steel or concrete sheet piles, andthe con-
structing of soldier pile walls with horizontal facing ele-
merits of timber, steel or concrete.
7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls
Steel sheet piles shall be of the type and weight indi-
cated on the plans or designated in the special provisions.
Steel sheet piles shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 202 (ASTM A 328), AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grade 50, or to the specifications for Pil-
ing for use in Marine Environmemits in ASTM A 690.
Painting of steel sheet piles, when required, shall conforni
to Article 13.2.
Timber sheet piles, unless otherwise specified or per-
mitted, shall be treated in accordance with Section 17.
Preservative Treatment of Wood. The piles shall be of
the dimensmons, species, and grade of timber shown on the
plans. The piles may be either cut from solid material or
made by building up with three planks securely fastened
together. The piles shall he drift sharpened at their lower
ends 5(3 as to wedge adjacent piles tightly together during
drivimig.
Concrete sheet piles shall conform to the details showmi
on the plans or the approved working drawinos. The man
ufactnmre and imistallation shall e(inforlii. imi general, to the
requirements for precast concrete bearing piles in Section
4, Driven Foundation Piles. Concrete sheet piles de-
tailed to have a tongue and groove joint on the portion
below ground and a double-grooved joint on the exposed
portion shall, after installation, have the upper grooves
cleaned of all sand, mud or debris, and grouted full. Un-
less otherwise provided in the special provisions or ap-
proved in writing by the Engineer, grout shall be con-
posed of one part cement and two parts of samid. The grout
shall be deposited through a grout pipe placed within a
watertight plastic sheath extending the full depth of the
grout slot formed by the grooves in two adjacent pilings
and which, when filled, completely fills the slot.
Sheet piles shall be driven to the specified penetration
or bearing capacity in accordance with the requirements
of Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles.
After driving, the tops of sheet piles shall be neatly cut
off in a workmanlike nianner to a straight line at the ele-
vation shown on the plans, indicated in the special provi-
sions or as directed by the Engineer.
Sheet pile walls shall be braced by wales or other brac-
ing system as shown (in the plans. indicated in the special
provisions or directed by the Engineer.
Timber waling strips shall be properly lapped and
joined at all splices and corners. The wales shall prefer-
ably be in one length between corners and shall be bolted
near the tops of the piles.
Reinforced concrete caps, whemi indicated on the plans
or the approved working drawings, shall be constructed iii
accordance with Section 8. Concrete Structures.
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls
Soldier piles shall be either driven piles or piles con-
structed in a drilled shaft excavation to the specified pemi-
etration or bearing capacity indicated on the plans.
Driven piles shall be furnished and installed in accor-
(lance with the requirements of Section 4, Driven Foun-
dation Piles. The piles shall be of the type indicated on
the plans.
Piles constructed iii a drilled shaft excavation shall
conform to the details shown on the plans. Construmetiomi
of the shaft excavation and placement of concrete or lean
concrete backfill shall be in accordance with Section 5.
Drilled Piles and Shafts. The structural coniponent of
the soldier pile placed in the shaft excavation shall be as
specified on the plans. Reinforced concrete, either cast-
in-place or precast, shall conformn to the requirements of
Section 8. Concrete Structuires. Timber nienibers shall
conform to the requiremnents of Section 16, Timber
Strumetures, and Section 17, Preservative Treatmiment of
Wood. Steel members shall conforni to the requirememits
(if Section II , Steel Structures. Painting of steel
7.6.2.2
DIV ISION IlCONSTRUCTION
467
niembers, if required, shall conform to Section 13.
Painting.
Concrete backfill placed around precast concrete, timn-
ber or steel pile members in the drilled shaft excavatiomi
shall be commercially available Portland ceniemit comicrete
with a cement content not less than five sacks per cubic
yard. Lean concrete backfill shall consist of comnmercial
quality concrete sand, water and not greater than one sack
of Portland cement per cubic yard. The limits for place-
merit (if concrete amid lean concrete shall be as indicated
on the plans.
The facing spanning horizontally between soldier piles
shall comiforni to the materials and details shown on the
plans or the approved working drawings. Timber lagging
shall conform to the requirements in Section l6~,Timber
Structures and Section 17, Preservative Treatmnemit (if
Wood. Precast concrete lagging or facing panels and
cast-in-place concrete facing shall conform to the re-
quirements in Section 8, Concrete Structures. Concrete
anchors, welded connections and bolted connections for
securing facimig elemiients to the soldier piles shall confonni
to the details omi the plans and the requiremnemits in the
special provisions.
The exposed surface (if concrete wall facing shall re-
ceive a Class I finish as specified iii Section 8. Concrete
Structures. umnhess a special architectural treatment ms
specified ori the plans. the special provisions, or the
approved working drawings.
7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile
Walls
7.6.2.3. / c;eneral
The comistruction of amichored walls shall consist of
constructing sheet pile and soldier pile walls anchored
with a tie-rod and concrete anchor system or with gromnd
anchors.
Sheet pile amid soldier pile wall construction shall comi-
forni to the requmireniemits of Articles 7.6.2. 1 and 7.6.2.2,
respectively.
7.6.2.3.2 Wales
Wales comisisting of either timber, steel or comicrete
shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved
working drawings. The aligmiment of wales shall be such
that tie-rods or ground anchors can be installed without
bending. Timber wales shall conform to the requirenients
of Section 16, Timber Structures, and Section 17,
Preservative Treatments of Wood: Steel wales shall con-
form to the requirements of Section II, Steel Structures.
Concrete wales shall conform to the requirements of Sec-
tion 8, Concrete Structures.
7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor System
Concrete anchor systems, consisting of either drilled
shafts or reinforced concrete shapes placed within the lim-
its of soil or rock excavation, with or without pile support,
shall conforni to the details on the plans or the approved
working drawings.
Battered anchor piles shall be driven to the proper bat-
ter shown. The tension anchor piles shall be furnished
with adequate means of anchorage to the concrete anchor
block.
Drilled shaft concrete anchors shall confonmii to the de-
tails on the plans or approved working drawings. and be
construmeted in conformance with Section 5. Drilled Piles
amid Shafts.
7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods
Tie-rods shall be round steel bars conforming to
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless other-
wise specified on the plans or in the special provisions.
Corrosion protection shall be provided as specified iii the
special provisiomis. Care shall be taken in the handling and
backhilling operations to prevent daniage to the corrosmon
protection or bending of the tie-rod itself.
The conmiectiomi of the tie-rods to the soldier piles.
wales, wall face and concrete amichor shall conform to the
details specified.
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors
Ground anchors shall be constructed in comifonmnanmee
with the requirements of Sectiomi 6, Groumid Amichors.
The connection of ground anchors to soldier piles.
wales, or wall face shall conform to the details oii the
plans or the approved working drawings.
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork
Earthwork shall conforni to the requmiremnents iii
Article 7.4.
Unless otherwise specified or permitted. excavation in
front of the wall shall not proceed more thami 3 feet below
a level of tie-rods or ground anchors until suich tie-rods
andanchors or groumnol anchors are complete and accepted
by the Engineer.
Placement of lagging shall closely follow excavation in
front of the wall such that loss of ground is mimmimized.
7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls
This work shall consist of constructing timber, comi-
crete or steel crib walls, andconcrete monolithic cell walls
complete with backfill material within the cells formed by
the members.
468
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.3.1
7.6.3.1 Foundation
7.6.3.4 Member Placement
In addition to the requirements of Article 7.4.2, the
foundation or bed course material shall be finished to
exact grade and cross slope so that the vertical or battered
face alignment will be achieved.
When required, timber mud sills, concrete leveling
pads or concrete footings shall conform to the details omi
the plans. Timber mud sills shall be firmly andevenly bed-
ded in the foundation material. Concrete for leveling pads
or footings shall be placed against the sides of excavation
in the foundation material.
7.6.3.2 Crib Members
Timber header and stretcher members shall confonni to
the requireniemits of Section 16, Timber Structures, and
unless otherwise specified shall be the same as for caps,
posts, and sills. Preservative treatment shall conform to
the requirements of Section 17, Preservative Treatment
of Wood. The size of the members shall be as shown on
the plans.
Concrete header amid stretcher niembers shall comi-
fonmii to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete
Structures, for precast concrete miienibers. The dimnen-
smons of the members and minimuni concrete stremigth
shall be as indicated on the plans or the approved work-
ing drawings.
Steel crib mnembers consisting of base plates, columns,
stretchers and spacers shall be fabricated fromii sheet steel
conforniing to AASI]TO M 218. Thickness of menibers
shall be as specified. Crib inembers shall be so fabricated
that members of the same miomnimial size amid thickness
shall be fully interchangeable. No drilling, pumiching, or
drifting to correct defects iii mimanufacture shall be per-
rutted. Amiy menibers havimig holes iniproperly punched
shall be replaced. Bolts, nuts, and miscellamicous hard-
ware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM
A 153.
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members
Concrete niomiohithic cell niembers consisting of four-
sided cells of umnifonmii height amid various depths shall be
cast in coniforniance with the requmirenients set forth for
precast nienibers in Sectiomi 8, ~Concrete Structures. The
miiininiumii concrete comiipressive strength shall be 4,000
psi. The exposed cell face shall have a Class I finish; faces
not exposed to view shall have a umniform sumrface fimiish
free of open pockets of aggregate or surface distortiomis in
excess of inch. The protruding keys and recesses for
keys on the tops and bottoms of the side walls of the cells
shall be aecumnately located.
Timber and concrete crib members shall be placed in
successive tiers at spacings conforming to the specified
details for the particular height of wall beingconstructed.
Drift bolts at the intersection of timber header and
stretcher members shall be accurately installed so that
minimum edge distances are maintained. At the intersec-
tion of concrete header and stretcher members asphalt felt
shims or other approved material shall be umsed to obtain
uniform bearing between the menibers.
Steel column sections, stretchers and spacers shall con-
form to the proper length and weight as specified. These
members shall be accurately aligned to permit completing
the bolted connections without distorting the members.
Bolts at the connections shall be tonqued to not less than
25 foot-pounds.
Concrete monolithic cell members of the proper sizes
shall be successively stacked in conformance with the lay-
out shown on the plans or the approved workingdrawings.
Care shall be exercised in placing the members to prevent
damage to the protruding keys. Damaged or ill-fitting keys
shall be repaired uinsing a method approved by the
Engineer.
7.6.3.5 Backlilling
The cells formed by the wall menibers shall be back-
filledwith structure backfill miiaterial conforming to the re-
quirements in Article 7.3.6. Backfihhing shall progress sin-
multaneously with the erection of the members forniing
the cells. Backfill material shall be so placed and corn-
pacted as to not disturb or damage the members. Place-
ment of backfill shall be in uniform layers not exceeding
1 foot in thickness unless otherwise proposed by the Comi-
tractor and approved by the Engineer. Compaction shall
be to a density of at least 95 percent of the maximiiumii den-
sity as determined by AASHTO T 99, Method C. Back-
filling behind the wall to the limits of excavation shall
conforni to the same requirements unless otherwise indi-
cated or approved.
7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
The construction of niechanically stabilized earth walls
shall consist of constructing a facing systeni to) which steel
or polynieric soil reinforcement is conmiected and the plac-
ing of structure backfill material surroumidimig the soil me-
inforcemiient.
7.6.4.1 Facing
Facing consisting of either precast concrete panels,
cast-in-place concrete or welded wire fabric shall conform
7.6.4.1 DIVISION IlCONSTRUCTION
469
to the details and materials indicated on the plans, in the
special provisions, or on the approved working drawings.
Precast concrete panels shall be cast in conformance
with the requirements set forth for precast members in
Section 8, Concrete Structures. The comicrete compres-
sive strength shall be that specified or 4,000 psi,
whichever is greater. The exposed face shall have a Class
I finish or the architectural treatmemit indicated on the
plans. in the special provisions. or the approved workimig
drawings. The face not exposed to view shall have a mmmii-
form surface finish free of open pockets of aggregate or
surface distortions in excess of m 4 inch. Soil reinforcement
connection hardware shall be accumrately located and se-
curedduring concrete placemiient amid shall not contact the
panel reinforcing steel. Joint filler, bearing pads, amid joimit
cover niatenial shall be as specified.
Cast-in-place concrete facing shall be constructed in
coinmlonmnamice with the requirements in Section 8,Con-
crete Strmmctumres. Soil reimiforcement extending beyond
the temiip(irary facimig shall be embedded in the facino con-
crete the miniiiiuimn dimnemisioinis shown on the plamis or the
approved working (Irawi ngs.
Welded wire facing, either teniporary or penmiinamient,
shall be formed by a 90-degree bemid of the horizontal soil
reinforcement. The vertical portion of the soil reinforce-
remit forming the face shall be comimiected to the succeed-
mug tipper level of soil reinforcement. A separate backing
mat and hardware cloth shall be placed inimediately be-
himid the vertical portion of soil reinforcement. Its wire
size and spacing shall be as specified.
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement
All steel soil reinforcement and amiy steel conmiection
hardware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM A
123.
Steel strip reinforcememit shall be hot rolled to the re-
quired shape and diniensions. The steel shall conform to
AASIITO M 223 (ASTM A 572) Grade 65 unless other-
wise specified.
Welded wire fabric reinforceniemit shall be shop fabri-
cated fromii cold-drawn wire uif the sizes amid spacings
shown on the plans or the approved working drawings.
The wire shall conform to the requiirements of ASTM A
82. fabricated fabric shall conforiii to the requmireniemits of
ASIMA 185.
Polymeric reinforcement shall be of the type amid size
designated on the plans or the approved workingdrawings
and shall conforni to the specified material and mnantifac-
turing requirements.
connectiomi hardware shall conform to the details on
the plans amid the requirenienits in the special provisions or
the approved working drawings.
The installation of instrumentation for nionitoring cor-
rosion shall conform to the requirements specified.
When required, a precast reinforced or a cast-in-place
concrete leveling pad shall be provided at each panel
foundatiomi level. Prior to placing the leveling pads, the
foundation material shall conform to the requirenients of
Article 7.4.2.
Precast c(increte panels and welded wire fabric facimig
shall be placed amid supported as necessary so that their
final position is vertical or battered as shown on the plans
or the approved working drawings within a tolerance ac-
ceptable to the Engineer.
Joint filler, bearing pads and joimit c(ivering material
shall be installed concumrrent with face pamiel placement.
Backfill niaterial conformiming to the requmimement in Ar-
ticle 7.3.6 shall be placed and compacted simultaneously
with the phacenient of facing and soil reinforcement.
Placement andcompaction shall be acc(iniplishcd witliomit
distortion or displacememit of the facing or soil reinforce-
ment. Sheepsfoot or gridtype rollers shall not be used for
compacting backfill within the limits of the soil rein-
forcement. At each level of soil reinforcememit, the back-
fill niatenial shall be roughly leveled to an elevation ap-
proximately 0. 1 foot above the level of connection at the
facing before placing the soil reinforcement. All soil mciii-
foreement shall be mmmiifornily temisioned to remove ammy
slack in the connection or material.
Unless otherwise designated in the special provisiolis.
earth retaining systems will be measured amid paid for by
the square foot. The squmare foot area for paymiiemit will be
based on the vertical height and lemigth of each section
built except in the case when alternative earth retaimiimig
systems are perniitted in the contract documemits. When
alternative earth retaining systemiis are pennuitted, the
square foot area for payniemit will be based on the vertical
height and length of each section of the system type des-
ionated as the basis of payment whether or fl(it it is aetu-
C
ally constructed. The vertical height (if each section will
be taken as the difference iii elevation on the otiter face
froni the bottoni of the lowerniost face element for sys-
tenis without footings, and froni the top of footing for sys
tems with footimigs. to the top of the wall. exelniding amiy
barrier.
The comitract price paid per square foot for earth
retaimiing systems shall inchuide full conipemisatiomi for
furnishing all labor. inatenials. tools, equipment. amid
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in
constructing the earth retaining systems includingbut
not limiiited toearthwork, piles, footings, and drainage
systenis, coniplete in place as shown on the plans. as
specified in these specifications and as directed by the
Engimicer.
Full compensation for revisions to drainage system. or
other facilities made necessary by the use of an alternative
earth retaining system shall be considered as incluided in
the contract price paid per square foot for earth retaimiing
system and no adjnmstmemit in compensation will be made
therefore.
470
7.7
Section 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8 .2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE
8 .1.1 Description 8 .2.1 General
This work shall consist of furnishing, placing,
finishing, and curing concrete in bridges, culverts, and
miscellaneous structumnes in accordance with these
specifications and conforming to the lines, grades, and
dimensions shown on the plans. The work includes
elements of structures constructed by cast-in-place and
precast methods using either plain (unreinforced),
reinforced, or prestressed concrete or any combination
thereof.
The class of concrete to be used in each part of the
structuire shall be as specified or shown on the plans. Ifnot
shown or specified, the Engineer will designate the class
of concrete to be tised.
8 .2.2 Normal Weight Concrete
Eight classes of normal weight concrete are provided
for in these specifications as listed in Table 8.2.
8 .2.3 Lightweight Concrete
8 .1.2 Related Work
Other work involved in the construction of concmete
structures shall be as specified in the applicable sections
of this specification. Especially applicable are Section 3
for forms and falsework, Section 9 for reinforcing steel.
and Section 10 for prestressing.
8 .1.3 Construction Methods
Whenever the specifications permit the Contractor
to select the method or equipment to be umsed for any
operation, it shall be the Contractors responsibility to
employ methods and equipment which will produce
satisfactory work under the conditions encountered amid
which will not daniage any partially completed portions
(if the work.
Falsework amid forms shall conform to the requirements
(if Section 3. Temporary Works.
Generally, all concrete shall be fully supported until
the required strength and age has been reached. However,
the ship form method will be permitted for the construc-
tion of pier shafts amid railings providing the Contractors
plan assures that: (I) the results will be equal in all respect
to those obtained by the use of fixed forms, and (2) ade-
quate arrangememits will be providedfor curing, finishing,
and protecting the concrete.
Lightweight concrete shall conform to the require-
ments specified in the special provisions or shown on the
plans. When the special provisions require the use of nat-
ural sand for aportion or all of the fine aggregate, the nat-
ural sand shall conform to AASHTO M 6.
8 .3 MATERIALS
8 .3.1 Cements
Portland Cements shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C 150) and Blended Hydraulic
Cements shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO
M 240 (ASTM C 595). For Type I P Portland-pozzohan cc-
rent, the poizolan constituent shall not exceed 2() percent
of the weight of the blend and the loss omi ignition of the
pozzolan shall not exceed 5 percent.
Unless otherwise specified, only Type I. II, or III Port-
land Cement, Types IA, hA, or lilA Air Entrained Portland
Cement, or Types IP or IS Blended Hydraulic Cements
shall be used. Types IA, IIA, and lIlA cements may be
used only in concrete where air entrainment is required.
Low-alkali cements conforming to the requirements of
AASHTO M 85 for low-alkali cement shall be used when
specified or when ordered by the Engineer as a c(inditiomi
of use for aggregates of limited alkali-silica reactivity.
8 .1 GENERAL
471
TABLE 8 .2
Minimum
Cement
Content
Maximum
Water/Cement
Ratio
Air
Content
Range
Size of Coarse
Aggregate
Per AASHTO M 43
Specified
Compressive
Strength
(28 Days)
Class of
Concrete
Pounds
Per CY Lbs Per Lb Percent Square Openings (lb/in.
2)
A
A(AE)
611
611
0.49a
0.45 61-1/2
I in. to No. 4
I in. to No.4
4,000
4,000
B 517 0.58
2 in. to No. 3
and
in. to No.
4b
2,400
B(AE) 517 0.55 51-1/2
2 in. to No. 3
and
1 in. to No. 4b
2,400
C
C(AE)
658
658
0.49
0.45
7
7 1-1/2
I/2in.toNo.4
1/2 in. to No. 4
4,000
4,000
P 564 0.49a As specified
elsewhere
1 in. to No. 4
or
3/4 in. to No. 4
As specified
elsewhere
5 658 0.58 1 in. toNo.4
aFor concrete in or over saltwater or exposed to deicing chemicals, the maximum wamer/cemeni ratio shalt he 045.
Coarse Aggregate for Ctass B and Ctass B(AE) shatt be furnished in two separate sizes as shown
Unless otherwise perniitted, the product of only one
mill of any one brand and type of cement shall be used for
like elenients of a structure that are exposed to view, ex-
cept when cements muist be blended for reduction of any
excessive air-emitrainment where air-entraining cement
is used.
8 .3.2 Water
Water used in mixing and curing of concrete shall
be subject to approval and shall be reasonably clean
and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar, vegetable, or
other injurious substances. Water will be tested in ac-
cordainice with, amid shall miieet the suggested requmire-
ments of AASIIT() T 26. Water knowmi to be of potable
qumality inay be used without test. Where the source
of water is relatively shallow, the imitake shall be 5(i
enclosed as to exclude silt. miiud. grass. or other forcion
niaterials.
Mixing water for commerete iii which steel is embedded
shall not comitain a chloride ion comicenitratmon mu excess
of I .00(1 ppmim or sumlphates as S04 iii excess of 1.300
PPiii.
8 .3.3 Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate for concrete shall conforni to the re-
quirements of AASHTO M 6.
8 .3.4 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate for comicrete shall c(infonni to the re-
quirements of AASHTO M 80.
8 .3.5 Lightweight Aggregate
Lightweight aggregate for concrete shall conform to
the requirements of AASIITO M 195 (ASTM C 330).
8 .3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures
Air-entraimiimig adniixtures shall comiform to the re
quirenients of AASHTO M 154 (ASTM C 260).
Chemical admiiixtures shall confonin to the require-
memits of AASHTO M 194 (ASTM C 494). Unless other-
wise specified, only Type A (Water-reducing). Type B
(Retardimig), Type D (Water-reducing and retardimig). Type
F (Water-reducimig. high range) or Type G (Water-reduc-
imig, high range and retarding) shall be umscd.
8.3.6
473
Adniixtures containing chloride ion (Cl) iii excess of
1 percent by weight of the admnixture shall not be used iii
reinforced concrete. Admiiixtures in excess of 0. 1 percent
shall not be uised in prestressed concrete.
A Certificate of Compliance signed by the nianumfac-
tuner of the admixture shall be furnished to the Engineer
for each shipnient of admixture used in the work. Said
Certificate shall be based upon laboratory test results froni
ami approved testing facility and shall certify that the ad-
inixture meets the above specifications.
If more than one admixture is tised, the admixtures
shall be compatible with each other and shall be imicorpo-
rated into the concrete mix in correct sequence so that the
desired effects of all adniixtures are obtained.
Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be incor-
porated into the concrete mix in a water solution. The
water 50 incluided shall be considered to be aportion of the
allowed mixing water.
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures
Fly ash pozzolans and calcined natural pozzolans for
use as mineral adniixtures in concrete shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618).
The use of fly ash as produced by plants that utilize the
limestomie injection process or use compounds of sodium,
ammonmuin or sulphur, such as soda ash, to control stack
emissions shall not be used in concrete.
A Certificate of Conipliance, based on test results and
signed by the producer of the mineral admixture certify-
ing that the material confornis to the above specifications.
shall be furnished for each shipment used in the work.
8 .3.8 Steel
Materials and installatiomi of reinforcing and pre-
stressing steel shall conforinmi to the requiremnents of
Sections 9, Reinforcing Steel, and 10, Prestressing,
respectively.
8 .4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
8 .4.1 Mix Design
8 .4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria
The Comitractor shall design andbe responsible for the
performiiance of all concrete miiixes used in structures. The
nix proportions selected shall produce concrete that is
sufficiently workable and finishable for all uses intended
and shall comiformn to the requiirements iii Table 8.2 amid all
other requirenients of this Section.
For normal weight concrete the absolute volumne
method, suich as described in American Concrete Institnite
Publicatiomi 211.1 . shall be used in selecting mix propor-
tions. For structural lightweight comienete. the mix propor-
tions shall be selected on the basis of trial niixes with the
cememit factor rather than the water/cement ratio being de-
termined by the specified strength using methods such as
those described iii American Concrete Institute Pubhica-
tiomi 211.2.
The mix design shall be based upon obtaining an aver-
age concrete stremigth sufficiently above the specified
strength so that, considering the expected variability of the
concrete and test procedures. no more than I in 10
strength tests will be expected to fall below the specified
strength. Mix designs shall be modified during the course
of the work when necessary to ensure compliance with
strength and consistency requirements.
8 .4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests
For classes A, A(AE) and P concrete, for lightweight
concrete, and for other classes of concrete when specified
or ordered by the Engineer, satisfactory perfomiance of the
proposed mix design shall be verified by laboratory tests
on trial batches. The results of such tests shall be furnished
to the Engineer by the Contractor or the manufacturer of
precast elements at the time the proposed mix design is
submitted. For mix design approval, the strengths of amiii-
mum of five test cylinders taken from a trial batch shall
average at least 800 psi greater than the specified strength.
If materials and a nix design identical to those pro-
posed for use have been used on other work within the
previous year, certifiedcopies of concrete test results from
this work which indicate full compliance with these spec-
ifications may be substituted for such laboratory tests. If
the results of more than 10 such stremigth tests are avail-
able from historical records for the past year, average
strength for these tests shall be at least 1.28 standard de-
viations above the specified strength.
8 .4.1.3 Approval
All mix designs, and any modifications thereto, shall
be approved by the Engimicer prior to use. Mix design data
provided to the Emigineer for each class of concrete re-
quired shall include the name, source, type. and brand (if
each of the materials proposed for use amid the qumantity to
be used per cubic yard of comicrete.
8.4.2 Water Content
For calculating the water/cenient ratio of the inix. the
weight of the water shall be that of the total free water in
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
the mix which includes the mixing water, the water in any
a d m i x t u r e s o l u t i o n s a n d a n y wa t er i n t he a ggr ega t es i n ex -
c es s o f t ha t n eed ed t o r ea c h a s a t u r a t ed -s u r f a c e-d r y c o n -
dition.
The a m o u m n t o f wa t er u s ed s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he l i m i t s
listed iii Table 8.2 and shall be further redumeed as neces-
sary to produce concrete of the consistencies listed iii
Table 8.3 at the tune of phacenient:
TABLE8 .3
Typ e o f Wo r k
Nominal
Slump
Inches
Maximum
Slump
Inches
Formed Elements:
S ec t i o n s O v er 1 2 i n . Thi c k 1 -3 5
S ec t i o n s 1 2 i n . Thi c k o r
L es s 1 -4 5
Cast-in-place Piles and
Dr i l l ed S ha f t s n o t V i b r a t ed 5 -8 9
Concrete Placed Under Water 5-8 9
Filling for Rip-rap 3-7 8
When Type F or G high range water reducing admix-
tures are used, the above listed slump limits may be ex-
c eed ed a s p er m i t t ed b y t he Engineer.
When the consistency of the concrete is found to ex-
ceed the nominal slump~, the mixture of subsequent
batches shall be adjusted to reduce the slump to a value
within the nominal range. Batches of concrete with a
slump exceeding the innaximum specified shall not be used
i n t he wo r k.
If concrete of adequate workability cannot be obtained
b y t he u s e o f t he m i n i m u m c em en t c o n t en t a l l o wed , t he
c em en t a n d wa t er c o n t en t s ha l l b e i n c r ea s ed wi t ho u t ex -
c eed i n g the specified water/cement ratio, or an approved
a d m i x t u r e s ha l l b e u s ed .
8 .4.3 Cement Content
The i n i n i n i u m c em en t c o n t en t s ha l l b e a s l i s t ed i n
Ta b l e 8 . 2 o r o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed . The m a x i m u m c em en t o r
c em n en t p l u s n i i n er a l a d m i x t u i r e c o n t en t s ha l l n o t ex c eed
8 00 p o u n d s p er c u b i c ya r d o f c o n c r et e. The a c t u a l c em em i t
c o n t en t u s ed s ha l l b e wi t hi n t hes e l i m i t s a n d s ha l l b e s u f -
f i c i en t t o p r o d u c e c o n c r et e o f t he r eq u i r ed strength and
consistency.
8 .4.4 Mineral Admixtures
Mi n er a l a d m i x t u r es s ha l l b e u s ed i n t he a m o u n t s s p ec -
ified. In addition, when either Types I. II, IV . or V
(AASHTO M 85) cements are used and mineral admix-
tures are neither specified nor prohibited, the Contractor
will be permitted to replace up to 20 percent of the required
Portland cement with a mineral admixture. The weight of
the mineral admixture used shall be equal to or greater than
the weight of the Portland cement replaced. In calculating
the water/cement ratio of the mix, the weight of the cement
shall be considered to be the sum of the weights of the
Portland cement and the mineral admixture.
8 .4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures
Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be used
a s s p ec i f i ed . O t her wi s e, s u c h a d m i x t u r es m a y b e u s ed , a t
t he o p t i o n a n d ex p en s e o f t he Co n t r a c t o r when p er m i t t ed
b y t he E n gi n eer , t o i n c r ea s e t he wo r ka b i l i t y o r a l t er t he
t i m e o f s et o f t he c o n c r et e.
8 .5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
The p r o d u c t i o n o f ready-mixed concrete shall conforni
t o t he r eq u i r em en t s o f AAS HTO M 1 5 7 ( AS TM C 9 4 ) a n d
t he r eq u i r em en t s o f t hi s Ar t i c l e 8 . 5 . The p r o d u c t i o n o f
concrete with stationary mixers shall conform to the ap-
p l i c a b l e r eq u i r em en t s o f AASHTO M 157 (ASTM C 94t
a n d t he r eq u i r em en t s o f t hi s Ar t i c l e.
8 .5.1 Storage of Aggregates
The ha n d l i n g a n d s t o r a ge o f c o n c r et e a ggr ega t es s ha l l
b e s u c h a s t o p r ev en t s egr ega t i o n o r c o n t a m i n a t i o n wi t h
f o r ei gn m a t er i a l s . The m et ho d s u s ed s ha l l p r o v i d e f o r a d -
equate drainage so that the moisture content of the aegre-
gates is uniform at the time of batching. Different sues of
a ggr ega t e s ha l l b e s t o r ed i n s ep a r a t e stock piles suffi-
c i en t l y r em o v ed f r o m ea c h o t her t o p r ev en t t he m a t er i a l a t
the edges of the piles from becoming intermixed.
When specified in Table 8.2 o r i n t he s p ec i a l p r o v i -
smons, the coarse aggregate shall be separated into two or
m o r e s i z es i n o r d er t o s ec u r e gr ea t er u n i f o r m i t y o f t he
concrete mixture.
8.5.2 Storage of Cement
The Contractor shall provide suitable means for stor-
ing amid protecting cement against dampness. Cememit
which for any reason has become partially set or which
c o n t a i n s l u m p s o f c a ked c em en t wi l l b e r ej ec t ed . Cem en t
held in storage for a period of over 3 months if bagged or
6 months if bulk, or cement which for any reason the
Engineer may suspect of being damaged. shall be subject
to a retest before being used in the work.
474 8.4.2
8.5.2
475
Co p i es o f c em en t r ec o r d s s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed t o t he E n -
gimicer. showino in such detail, as lie inay reasomiably ne-
C
quire. the quantity umsed dunimig the day or run at each part
of the work.
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials
Materials shall be measured by weighing. except as
otherwise specified or where other methods are specifi-
c a l l y a u t ho r i z ed . The a p p a r a t u s p r o v i d ed f o r wei ghi n g t he
aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed and con-
structed for this purpose. Each size of aggregate and the
cement shall be weighed separately. The accuracy of all
weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities
can be measured to within 1 p er c en t o f t he d es i r ed
a m o u n t . Cen i en t i n s t a n d a r d p a c ka ges ( s a c k) n eed n o t b e
wei ghed , b u t b u l k c em n en t s ha l l b e wei ghed . The m i u x i n g
water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The ac-
curacy of measuring the water shall be within a range of
error of not over I percemit. All measuring devices shall be
subject to approval and shall be tested, at the Contractors
expense. when deenied necessary by the Engineer.
When volumnietric nieasuremiients are authorized for
projects. the weight proportions shall be converted to
equivalent vohunietnic proportions. Iii such cases, suitable
allowance shall be made for variations in the moisture
comidition of the aggregates. includimig the hulking eff~ect
iii the tine aggregate.
When sacked cement is used, the quantities of aggre-
gates for each batch shall be exactly sufficient for one or
more full sacks of cemnent and no batch requmiring frac-
tiommal sacks of cement will be permitted.
8 .5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete
8 .5.4.1 Batching
The si/c of the batch shall not exceed the capacity of
the miiixer as guaranteed by the manufacturer or as deter-
inined by the Standard Requmirements of the Associated
General (Iontractors of America.
The measured inaterials shall be batched amid charged
into tIme mixer by means that will prevent loss of amiv ma-
terials due to effects of wimid or other causes.
8 .5.4.2 Mixing
The concrete shall be niixed only iii the quantity re-
quired for imuniediate Mixino shall be suifficiemit to
mse. C
thoronmghly imitenmuingle all nuix imigrediemits imito a umnifonmn
mixture. Comicrete that has developed an initial set shall
riot be used. Retemiiperimig concrete by adding water will
not be permiiitted.
For other than transit mixed concrete. the first batch of
concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a suf-
ficient excess of cement, sand. and water to coat the inside
of the drum without reducing the required mortar content
of the mix.
When mixer perforniance tests, as described iii
AASHTO M 157. are not made, the required mixing time
for stationary mixers shall be not less than 90 seconds nor
more than 5 minutes. The minimum drum revolutions for
transit mixers at the mixing speed recomniended by the
manufacturer shall not be less than 70 and not less thami
that recommended by the manufacturer.
The timing device on statmonary mixers shall be
equipped with a bell or other suitable warning device ad-
justed to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock
is released. In case of failure of the timing device, the
Contractor will be permitted to operate while it is beimig
repaired, provided he furnishes an approved timepiece
equipped with minute and second hands. If the timing
device is not placed in good working order within 24
houmrs. further use of the mixer will be prohibited until
repairs are made.
For small quantities of concrete needed in eniergenemes
or for small noncritical elememits of the work, concrete
may be hand-mixed using muethods approved by the
Engimicer.
Between uses, any niortar coating inside of miximig
equipment which sets or dries shall be cleaned from the
mixer before use is resumed.
8 .5.5 Delivery
The organizatiomi supplying concrete shall have
sufficient plant capacity and transporting apparatus to
ensure continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate
of delivery of comicrete during concreting operations
shall be suich as to provide for the proper handling,
placimig, and finisliimig of the comierete. The rate shall be
such that the interval between batches shall not exceed
20 niinutes amid shall be snifficiemit to prevent joints within
a monolithic pour caused by placing fresh concrete
against concrete in which imiitial set has occurred. The
miiethods of deliverimig amid handling the concrete shall
be suichi as will facilitate placimie with the niimiimnumn of
rehamidling and withotit damage to the strnmeture or the
concrete.
8 .5.6 Sampling and Testing
Coniphiance with the requirements imidicated in this
Section shall be deternnimied iii accordance with the fol-
lowimie standard methods of AASHTO or ASTM:
476 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.5.6
Sampling Fresh Concrete AASHTO T 141 (ASTM
C 172)
Weight per Cubic Foot, Yield and Air Content
(Gravimetric) of Concrete AASHTO T 121 (ASTM
C 138)
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate
AASHTO T 27
Slump of Portland Cement Concrete AASHTO T 119
(ASTMC 143)
Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the
Pressure Method AASHTO T 152 (ASTM
C 231)
Specific Gravity amid Absorption of Fine Aggregate
AASHTOT 84 (ASTM C 128)
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggre-
gate AASHTO T 85 (ASTM C 127)
Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight Concrete
ASTM C 567
Making and Cuiring Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory AASHTO T 126 (ASIM C 192)
Making and Cutring Concrete Test Specimens in the
Field. AASHTO T 23 (ASTM C 31).
Compressive Strength of Cylimidrical Concrete Spec-
imens AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39).
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength
8.5.7.1 Tests
A stremigth test shall consist of the average strength
of two compressive strength test cylinders fabricated
froin material taken from a single randomly selected
batch of concrete, except that, if any cylinder should
show evidence of iniproper sampling, niolding, or test-
ing, said cylinder shall be discarded and the strength
test shall consist of the strength of the remaimiing
cylinder.
8 .5.7.2 For Controlling Construction
Operations
For determuining adequacy of cure and protection, and
for determining whemi loads or stresses can be applied to
concrete structures, test cylinders shall be cured at the
structure site under conditions that are not niore favorable
than the niost unfavorable conditions for the portions of
the structure which they represemit as described in Article
9.4 of AASHTO T 23. Sufficient test cylinders shall be
made and tested at the appropriate ages t(i deteninine when
operations such as release of falsework, application of
prestressing forces or placing the structure in service cami
n)ccumr.
8 .5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete
For determining compliance of concrete with a speci-
fled 28-day strength, test cylinders shall be cured under
controlled conditions as described in Article 9.3 of
AASHTO T 23 and tested at the age of 28 days. Samples
for acceptance tests for each class of concrete shall be
taken not less than once a day nor less than once for each
150 cubic yards of concrete or once for each major
placement.
Any concrete represented by a test which indicates a
strength which is less than the specified 28-day comnpres-
sive strength by more than 500 psi will be rejected and
shall be removed and replaced with acceptable concrete.
Such rejection shall prevail unless either:
(I) The Contractor, at his or her expense, obtains and
submits evidence of a type acceptable to the Enoineer
C
that the strength and quality of the rejected concrete is
acceptable. If sumeb evidence consists of cores takemi
from the work, the cores shall be obtained and tested iii
accordance with the standard methods of AASHTO
T 24 (ASTM C 42) or,
(2) The Engineer determines that said concrete is lo-
cated where it will not create an intolerable detninien-
tal effect on the structure and the Contractor agrees to
a reduced payment to compensate the Departnient for
loss of durability and other lost benefits.
8 .5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design
Whenever the average of three consecutive tests, which
were made to deterniimie acceptability of concrete, falls to
less than 150 psi above the specified strength or amiy simi-
gle test falls more thami 200 psi below the specified
stremigth, the Contractor shall, at his or her expense, make
corrective changes in the materials, mix proportions or in
the concrete manufactuiringprocedures before placing ad-
ditional concrete of that class. Such changes nitist be ap-
proved by the Engineer prior to umse.
8 .5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured
Concrete
When a precast concrete nieniber is steamn or radiant
heat-cuired. the compressive stremigth test cylimiders niade
for any of the above purposes shall be cured nmnider condi-
tions similar to the mnember. Such concrete will be con-
sidered to be acceptable whenever a test indicates that the
concrete has reached the specified 28-day conipressive
strength provided such strength is reached miot niore than
28 days after the meniber is cast.
8.6 DIV ISION LICONSTRUCTION 477
8 .6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
8 .6.1 General
concrete shall be maintained at a temperature of not less
than 45
0F for the first six days after-place nient except that
when pozzolan cement or fly ash cement is used, this pe-
nod shall be as follows:
Precautions shall be taken as needed to protect con-
crete from daniage due to weather or other environmental
conditions during placing andcuringoperations. Concrete
that has been frozen or otherwise damaged by weather
conditions shall be either repaired to an acceptable condi-
tion or removed and replaced.
The temperature of the concrete mixture immediately
before placement shall be between 500F and 900F, except
as otherwise provided herein.
8 .6.2 Rain Protection
Under conditions of rain, the placing of concrete shall
not commence or shall be stopped unless adequate pro-
tecti()n is provided to prevent damage to the surface mor-
tar or damaging flow or wash of the concrete surface.
8 .6.3 Hot Weather Protection
Whemi the ambient temperature is above 900F, the
forms, reinforcing steel, steel beam flanges. and other sur-
faces which will come in contact with the mix shall be
cooled to below 900F by means of a water spray or other
approved niethods.
The temperature of the concrete at time of placement
shall he maintained within the specified temperature range
by any conibimiation of the following:
Shading the materials storage areas or the produc-
tion equipment.
Cooling the aggregates by sprinkhimig with water
whichconforms to the requirements of Article 8.3.2.
Cooling the aggregates or water by refrigeration or
replacing a portion or all of the mix water with ice
that is flaked or crushed to the extent that the ice will
completely miielt during niixing of the concrete.
Liquid nitrogen injection.
8 .6.4 Cold Weather Protection
8 .6.4.1 Protection During Cure
When there is a probability of air teniperatures below
35F during the cure period, the Contractor shall submuit
for approval by the Engimicer prior to concrete placement,
a cold weather concreting and curing plan detailing the
niethiods and equipremit which will be used to assure that
the required concrete temperatures are niaintained. The
Percentage of Cement
Replaced, by Weight,
With Pozzolans
10%
11-15%
16-20%
Required Period of
Controlled Temperature
8 days
9 Days
10 Days
The above requirement for an extended period of con-
trolled temperature may be waived if a compressive
strength of 65 percent of the specified 28-day design
strength is achieved in 6 days.
If external heating is employed, the heat shall be ap-
plied and withdrawn gradumally and uniformly so that no
part of the concrete surface is heated to more than 900F or
caused to change temperature by more than 200F in 8
hours.
When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
provide and install two maxmmum-mmnmmum type timer-
monleters at each structure site. Such thermometers shall
be installed as directed by the Engineer so as to monitor
the temperature of the concrete and the suirrounding air
during the cure period.
8 .6.4.2 Mixing and Placing
When the air temperature is below 350F. the tempera-
ture of the concrete at the time of placement in sections
less fhan 12 inches thick shall be not less than 600F. Re-
gardless of air temperature. aggregates shall be free of ice,
frost and frozen lumps when batched and concrete shall
not be placed against any niatenial whose temperature is
320F or less.
8 .6.4.3 Heating of Mix
When necessary in order to produce concrete of the
specified temperature, either the niix water or the aggre-
gates, or both, shall be heated prior to batching. Heatimig
shall be done iii a nianner which is not detrimental to the
mix and does not prevemit the entraininent of the requmired
amnount of air. The niethods used shall heat the materials
umiiformly. Aggregates shall not be heated directly by gas
or oil flame or on sheet metal over fire. Neither aggregates
nor water shall be heated to over 1500F. If either are
heated to over lOOT, they shall be mixed together prior to
the addition of the cement so that the cement does not
conic into contact with inatenials which are in excess of
I 000F.
478
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.6.5
8 .6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks
During periods of low humidity. wind or high temnper-
atures and prior to the application of curing materials.
concrete being placed and finished for bridge decks shall
be protected froin daniage dume to rapid evaporation. Such
protection shall be adequate to prevent premature crustino
C
of the suirface or an increase iii drying cracking.,Such pro-
tectiomi shall be provided by raising time humidity of the
surrounding air with fog sprayers operated upwind of the
deck. the use of wind-breaks or sun-shades, additionally
reducing of the teinperature of the concrete, scheduling
placemnent during the cooler tinies of days or nights. or
any combinatiomi thereof.
For bridge decks that are located over or adjacent to
salt water or wimemi specified, the mnaximumn temperature of
the concrete at time of placenient shall be 80
0F.
8 .6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water
Unless otherwise specifically provided, c(imicrete for
strumetumres exposed to salt or brackish water shall be Class
S for concrete placed under water amid Class A for other
w(irk. Such comicrete shall be mixed for aperiod of not less
thami 2 ininuites and the water content of the niixture shall
be carefuilly controlled and regulated 5(i as to produce comi-
crete of inaximuni imnpermeabihity. The concrete shall be
thoroughly consolidated as necessary to produce miiaxi-
mum density amid a coniplete lack of rock pockets. Unless
otherwise indicated omi the plans, the clear distamice froin
time face of the concrete to the reinforcing steel shall be miot
less than 4 inches. No construction joints shall be formed
between levels of extrenie low water and extremne high
water or the upper limnit of wave actiomi as determined by
the Engineer. Betweemi these levels the forms shall miot be
remmioved. (ir other means provided, to prevent salt water
from coming in direct contact with the concrete for a pe-
riod of not less than 30 days after placement. Except for
the repair of army rock pockets and the pluigging of form tic
holes, the (iriginal surface as the comicrete comes froni the
forms shall be left undisturbed Special handling shall be
provided for precast members to avoid even slight defor-
mation cracks.
8 .6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water
When the special provisions identify the area as con-
taining sulfate soils or water, the concrete that will be in
contact with such soil or water shall be mixed, placed, and
protected from contact with soil or water as required for
concrete exposed to salt water except that the protection
period shall be not less than 72 hours.
8 .7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE
8 .7.1 General
Concrete shall be handled, placed. amid consolidated by
methods that will not cause segregation of the mix and
will result in a dense homogeneous concrete which is free
of voids and rock pockets. The methods used shall not
cause displacement of reinforcing steel or other materials
to be embedded in the concrete. Comicrete shall be placed
amid consolidated prior to initial set and in no case more
than 1 /2 hours after time cemnent was added to the mix.
Retempering the concrete by adding water to the mix shall
n~it be done.
Concrete shall not be placed tmnitil the forins. all mate-
rials to be enibedded and, for spread footimigs, the ade-
quacy of the foundation inatenial have been inspected amid
approved by the Engineer. All mortar from previous place-
nients, debris, and foreign material shall be remiioved from
the forms and steel prior to coinmenemmig placemnent. The
forms and subgrade shall be thoroughly moistened with
water imiimiiediately before concrete is placed against thein.
Temporary form spreader devices may be left in place
umitil concrete placement precludes their need, after which
they shall be removed.
Placenient of concrete for each section of time struicture
shall be done continuously without interruptiomi betweemi
planned construction or expansion joinits. The delivery
rate, placing sequence amid methods shall be such that
fresh concrete is always placed and consolidated against
previously placed concrete before initial set has occuirred
in the previoumsly placed concrete.
During and after placement of concrete, care shall be
taken not to injumre the comicrete or break time bond with re-
inforcimig steel. Workmemi shall miot walk in fresh comienete
Platforms for worknien and equipment shall miot be sup-
ported directly on any reinforcing steel. Omice time concrete
is set, forces shall not be applied to the forms (in to rein-
forcing bars, which project from the concrete. nmntil time
concrete is of sufficient strength to resist daniage.
8 .7.2 Sequence of Placement
Whenever a concrete placement plan or schedule is
specified or approved, time sequence of placenient shall
conform to the plan. Unless otherwise specifically per-
mitted by such a placenient plan. the requirenients of the
following paragraphs shall apply.
8 .7.2.1 Vertical Members
Concrete for columns., substructure and culvert walls.
andother similar vertical members shall be placed and al-
8.7.2.1 DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION 479
howed to set amid settle fora periodof time before concrete
for integral horizomital members, such as caps, slabs, or
footings is placed. Such period shall be adequate to allow
conipletiomi of settlement due to loss of bleed wafer and
shall be not less than 12 hours for vertical members over
15 feet in height and not less thami 30 mimiutes for members
over 5 feet but not over 15 feet in height. When friction
collars or falsework brackets are mounted on such verti-
cal inemnbers and unless otherwise approved, the vertical
member shall have been in place at least 7 days and shall
have attained its specified strength before loads from hor-
izontal members are applied.
8 .7.2.2 Superstructures
Unless otherwise permitted, no concrete shall be
placed in the superstructure umitil substructure forms have
been strippedsuifficiently no determine the character of the
supporting substructure concrete.
Concrete for T-beam or deck girder spans whose depth
is less than 4 feet niay be placed in one continuous oper-
ati(in or niay be placed in two separate operations; first, to
the top of the girder stems, and second, to completion. For
T-beam or deck girder spans whose depthis 4 feet or more
and, unless the falsework is non-yielding, such concrete
shall be placed in two operations and at least 5 days shall
elapse after placement of stems before the top deck slab
ms placed.
Concrete for box girders may be placed in two or three
separate operations consisting of bottom slab, girder
stems and top slab. In either case the bottom slab shall be
placed first and, unless otherwise permitted by the Engi-
neer, the top slab shall not be placed until the girder stems
have been in place for at least 5 days.
8 .7.2.3 Arches
The concrete in arch rings shall be placed in such a
manner as to load the centering uniformly and symnietri-
cally. Arch rings shall be cast in transverse sections of
such size that each section can be cast in acontinuoums op-
eration. The arrangement of the sections and the sequence
of placing shall be as approved and shall be sumeb as to
avoid the creation of initial stress in the reinforcement.
The sections shall be bonded together by sumitable keys or
dowels. Arch barrels for culverts and, unless prohibited by
the special provisions, other arches may be cast in a sin-
gle continuous operation.
8 .7.2.4 Box Culverts
In general, thie base slab on footings of box culverts
shall be placed and allowed to set before the remainder of
the culvert is constructed. For culverts whose wall height
is 5 feet or less, the sidewalls and top slab may be placed
in uimie continuous operation. For higher culvert walls the
requirements for vertical niembers shall apply.
8 .7.2.5 Precast Elements
The sequence of placement for concrete in precast ele-
ments shall be such that sound well-consolidated concrete
which is free of settlement or shrinkage cracks is pro-
duced throughout the member.
8 .7.3 Placing Methods
8 .7.3.1 General
Concrete shall be placed as nearly as possible in its
final position and the use of vibrators for extensive shift-
ing of the mass of fresh concrete will not be permitted.
Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers of a thick-
ness not exceeding time capacity of the vibrator to consol-
idate time concrete and merge it with the previous lift. In rio
case shall the depth of alift exceed 2 feet. The rate of con-
crete placement shall not exceed that assumed for the de-
sign of the forms as corrected for the actual temperature
of the concrete being placed.
When placing operations would involve dropping the
concrete more than 5 feet, the concrete shall be dropped
through a tube fitted with ahopper head, or through other
approved devices, as necessary to prevent segregation of
the mix and spattering of mortar on steel and forms above
the elevation of the lift being placed. This requirement
shall not apply to cast-in-place piling when concrete
placement is completed before initial set occurs in the first-
placed concrete.
8 .7.3.2 Equipment
All equipment umsed to place concrete shall be of ade-
quate capacity and designed and operated so as to prevent
segregation of the mix or loss of mortar. Such equipnient
shall riot cause vibrations that inight damage the freshly
placed concrete. No equipment shall have aluminuin parts
which conic in contact with the concrete. Between uses,
the mortar coating inside of placing cqumipmiient which sets
or dries oumt shall be cleaned from time equipment before
use is resumed.
Chutes shall be lined with smooth watertight niaterial
and, when steep slopes are involved, shall be equipped
with baffles or reverses.
Concrete pumps shall be operated such that a continu-
ous stream of concrete withoumt air pockets is produced.
When pumping is completed. the concrete renaming in
480 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.7.3.2
time pipeline, if it is to be used, shall be ejected iii such a
inanner that there will be no comitamninatiomi of the concrete
or separation of the ingredients.
Comiveyor belt systems shall not exceed a total length
of 550 lineal feet, measured froni end to end of the total
assembly. The belt assembly shall be so arranged that each
seetmon discharges into a vertical hopper arrangememmt to
the next section. To keep segregation to a minimnum,
scrapers shall be situated over the hopper of each section
so as to reniove mortar adhering to time belt and to deposit
it imito the hopper. The discharge end of the conveyor belt
systein shall be equipped with a hopper, and a chute or
suitable deflectors to cause the concrete to drop vertically
to the deposit area.
8 .7.4 Consolidation
All concrete, except concrete placed under water amid
concrete otherwise exempt, shall be consolidated by me-
chanical vibration inumnediatehy after placement.
The vibration shall be internal except that external
form vibrators nay be used for thin sections when time
forms have been designed for external vibration.
V ibrators shall be of approved type and design and of
a size appropriate for the work. They shall be capable of
tramismmtting vibratiomi to the concrete at frequencies of not
less than 4.500 impulses per minute.
The Contractor shall provide a sufficiemit number of vi-
brators to properly coinpact each batch inimnediately after
it is placed in the forms, The Contractor shall also have at
least omie spare vibrator immediately available in case of
breakdown.
V ibrators shall be manipulated sum as to thoroughly work
the comicrete aroumnd time reiniforcemnent and imnimedded fix-
tures amid into time corners and angles of the forms. V ibra-
tion shall be applied at the point (if deposit amid in the area
of freshly deposited concrete. Time vibrators shall be iii-
serted and withdrawn out of time concrete slowly. The vi-
bratiomi shall be of suifficiemit dunatiomi amid intensity to thor-
oughly comisohidate the comicrete, but shall not be comitinued
so as to caumse segregation. V ibration shall not be continued
at any one point to the extent that localized areas of grout
arc funned. Application of vibrators sI-mall be at points uni-
formly spaced and miot farther apart than 1.5 timiics time ra-
dius over which time vibration is visibly effective.
V ibration shall not be applied directly to, or through
the memnforcemnent to sectiomis or layers of concrete which
have hardened to time degree that the concrete ceases to be
plastic tinder vibration. V ibrators shall miot be used to
transport concrete in the fonins.
V ibration shall be suipplemnentenl by such spadimig as is
necessary to ensumne sniooth surfaces and dense concrete
along forni surfaces amid in corners and locations impossi-
ble to reach with the vibrators.
When approved by the Engineer, concrete for small
noncritical elenients may be consolidated by the use of
suitable rods and spades.
8.7.5 Underwater Placement
8 .7.5.1 General
Only concrete used in cofferdains to seal ouit water nay
be placed under water unless otherwise specified or
specifically approved by the Engineer. If other than Class
S concrete is to be placed under water, the ininimum cc-
inemit contemit of the mix shall be increased by 10 percent
to compensate for loss due to wash.
To prevent segregation, concrete placed under water
shall be carefully placed in acompact mass, in its final po-
sition, by means of a tremie, concrete pump. or other ap-
proved method, amid shall not be disturbed after being de-
posited. Still water shall be maintained at the point of
deposit and the forms under water shall be watertight.
Cofferdams shall be vented during the placemnemit andcure
of concrete to equalize time hydrostatic pressumne and thiums
prevent flow of water through the concrete.
Concrete placed under water shall be placed con-
tinuously from start to fimiisim. The sumrface of the concrete
shall be kept as nearly horizontal as practicable. To
ensure thorough bonding, each succeedimig layer of
seal shall be placed before the preceding layer has
taken initial set. For large pours, more than one tremiiie or
pump shall he used to emisure comnphiance with this
requirement.
8 .7.5.2 Equipment
A tremie shall consist of a water-tight tube havimig a di-
ameter of not less than 10 inches amid fitted with a hopper
at the top. The tremies shall be supported so as to perinit
free movement of the discharge end over the emitire top
surface of the work amid so as to pernuit rapid lowering
when necessary to retard or stop the flow of concrete. The
discharge end shall be sealed closed at the start of work so
as to prevent water froin enuerimig time tumbe before the tube
is filled with concrete. After placenient has started the
tremie tube shall be kept full of concrete to time bottoin of
the hopper. If water enters the tumbe after placement ins
started, the tremnie shall be withdnawn, time discharge cud
resealed, and time placement restarted. Whemi a batch is
dumped into the hopper. the flow of concrete shall be in-
duced by slightly raising the discharge cud, always keep-
ing it in the deposited concrete. Time flow shall be contin-
umouts ummitil the work is completed. When cofferdain struits
prevent lateral movement of tremies, omie tremnie shall be
used in each bay.
8.7.5.2
481
Concrete pumps used to place concrete ummider water
shall include a device at the end of the discharge tube to
seal oumt water while the tube is first being filled with con-
crete. Once time flow of concrete is started, the end of the
discharge tube shall be kept fuill of concrete and below the
surface of the deposited concrete until placement is
completed.
8.7.5.3 Cleanup
Dewatening may proceed after test specimens cured
under simnilar conditions indicate that the concrete has suf-
ficient strength to resist the expectedloads. All laitance or
other unsatisfactory materials shall be removed from the
exposed surface by scraping, chippimig, or other meamis
which will not injure the sumrface of the concrete before
placing foundation concrete.
8 .8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
8 .8 .1 General
Construction joints shall be made only where located
on plans, or shown in the pouring schedule, unless other-
wise approved. All planned reinforcing steel shall extend
uninterrupted through joints. In the case of emergency,
constructiomi joints shall be placed as directed by the Eu-
gineer and, if directed, additional reinforcing steel dowels
shall be placed acr(iss the joint. Such additional steel shall
be furnished and placed at the Contractors expense.
8 .8 .2 Bonding
Unless otherwise shown on the plans, horizontal joints
may be miiade without keys and vertical joints shall be con-
structed with shear keys. Surfaces of fresh concrete at hor-
izontal construction joints shall be rough floated suffi-
ciently to thoroughly consolidate the surface and
intentionally left in a roughened condition. Shear keys
shall consist of formed depressions in the surface cover-
ing approximately one-third of the contact surface. The
forms for keys shall be beveled so that remnoval will not
daniage time concrete.
All comistructiomi joints shall be cleaned of surface
haitance, curing comnpoumnd and other foreign muatenials
before fresh concrete is placed against the surface of
the joint. Abrasive blast or other approved niethods shall
be used to clean horizontal construction joints to time
extent that clean aggregate is exposed. All construction
joints shall be flushed with water and allowed to dry to a
surface dry comidition immediately prior to placing
concrete.
8 .8 .3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures
When new concrete is shown on the plans to be
bonded to existing concrete structumnes, the existing con-
crete shall be cleaned and flushed as specified above.
When the plans show reinforcing dowels grouted into
holes drilled in the existing concrete at such construction
joints. the holes shall be drilled by niethods that will not
shatter or daniage the concrete adjacent to the holes. Time
diameters of the drilled holes shall be /4-inch larger thami
the nominal diameter of the dowels unless shown other-
wise on the plans. The grout shall be a neat cemnemit paste
of Portland cement and water. The water content shall be
not more than 4 gallons per 94 pounds of cement. Retem-
pering of grout will not be permitted. Imniediately prior
to placing the dowels, the holes shall be cleaned of dust
and other deleterious materials, shall be thoroughly satu-
rated with water, have all free water removed and time
holes shall be dried to a saturated surface dry condition.
Sufficient grout shall be placed in the holes so that no
voids remain after the dowels are inserted. Grout shall be
cured for a period of at least 3 days or until dowels are
encased in concrete.
When specified or approved by the Engineer, epoxy
may be used in lieu of Portland cement grout for the bond-
ing of dowels in existing concrete. When used, epoxy
shall he mixed and placed iii accordance with the nianu-
facturers recommemidations.
8 .8 .4 Forms at Construction Joints
When forms at construction joints overlap previously
placed concrete, they shall be retightened before deposit-
ing new concrete. The face edges of all joints that are ex-
posed to view shall be micatly fonined with straight builk-
heads or grade strips, or otherwise carefully finished
true-to-line and elevation.
8 .9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS
8 .9.1 General
Expansion and contraction joints shall be c(instructed
at the locations and in accordance with the details shown
omi the plans. Such joints ineluide open joints, filledjoints.
joints sealed with seahants or waterstops, joints reinforced
with steel armor plates or shapes and joints with combi-
nations of these features.
When preformed elastomnenic compression joimit seals
or bridge deck joint seal assemblies are required. they
shall conforni to the requmiremnents of Section 19, Bridge
Deck Joint Seals.
482
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.9.2
8 .9.2 Materials
8 .9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers
Premolded fillers shall conform to one of the following
specifications:
Specilication for Prefornied Expamision Joint Fillers
for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction,
AASHTOM2I3(ASTM 1751).
Specification for Preformed Sponge Rubber and
Cork Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete Pavino
C
and Structural Construction, AASHTO M 153
(ASTM D 1752). Type II (cork) shall not be used
when resiliency is required.
Specification for Preformed Expansion Joint Filler
for Concrete, AASHTO M 33 (ASTM D 994).
8 .9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers
Boardfillers shall be expanded polystyrene with amm-
imum flexural strength of 35 pounds per square inch, as
determined by ASTM C 203, and a compressive yield
strength of between 16 and 40 pounds per square inch at
5-percent compression. When shown on the plans, or re-
quired to prevent damage during concrete placement, the
surface of polystyrene board shall be faced with /s-inch
thick hardboard conforming to Federal Specification
LLL-B-8 10.
8 .9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material
Material placed in contraction joints shall consist of as-
phalt saturated felt paper or other approved bond-break-
ing material.
8 .9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants
Pourable seahants for placenient along the top edges of
contraction or tilled expansion joints shall conform to the
following:
Hot-poured sealants shall conform to ASTM D 3406,
except that when the sealant will be in contact with
asphaltic material, it shall conform to ASTM D
3405.
Cold-poured sealant shall be silicone type conforni-
ing to Federal Specification YF-S-1543. Class A.
The sealant shall be a one-part, how-moduhums sili-
cone rubber type with an ultimnate elongation of
1,2(X) percent.
Polyethylene foam strip, for tise when shown (in the
plans, shall be of comiimnenciah quality with a contimi-
uoums impervious glazed top surface, suitable for me-
taming the liquid sealant at the proper elevation in
the joint while hardening.
8 .9.2.5 Metal Armor
Expansion joint armor asseniblies shall be fabricated
from steel in conformance with the requiremnents of Sec-
tion 23, Miscellaneous Metal. Assemblies shall be ac-
curately fabricated and straightened at the shop after fab-
rication and galvanizing, as necessary to comiforni to the
concrete section.
8 .9.2.6 Waterstops
Waterstops shall be of the type, size, and shape shown
on the plans. They shall be dense, homogeneous. and
without holes or other defects.
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops
Rubber waterstops shall be formed froni synthetic rub-
ben made exclusively froni neoprene. reinforcing carbon
black, zinc oxide, polynierization agents, and softeners.
This compound shall comitain not less than 70 percent by
volume of neoprene. The tensile strength shall not be less
than 2,750 pounds per square inch with an elongation at
breaking of 600 percent. The Shore Durometer indication
(hardness) shall be between 50 and 60. After seven days
in air at temperature of 1580 (2)
0For after 4 days in
oxygen at 1580 (~2)0F and 300 pounds per square inch
pressure, the tensile strength shall not be less than 65
percent of the original.
Rubber waterstops shall be formed with an integral
cross section in suitable niolds, so as to produce a umniform
section with a permissible variation iii dimension of 7,~
inch plus or niinus. No splices will be permitted in straight
strips. Strips and special connection pieces shall be well
cured in a manner such that any cross section shall be
dense, homogeneous. and free from all porosity. Jumnetions
in the special connection pieces shall be full miiohded. Dur-
ing the vulcanizing period, the joints shall be securely
held by suitable clamps. The material at the splices shall
be dense and homogeneous throughout the cross section
8.9.2 .6.2 Polvuinylchloride 1l4zterstop.u
Polyvinyhehloride waterstops shall be manufactured by
the extrusion process froni an elastomenic plastic eomii-
pound, the basic resin of whichshall be polyvimiylehlonide
(PV C). The compound shall contain any additional resimis,
phastmcmzers, stabilizers, or other niaterials needed to en-
sure that, when the material is conipoumnded, it will meet
the performance requirenients given iii this specification.
No reclaimed PV C or (ither material shall be used.
8.9.2.6.2
483
The inaterial shall comply with the followimig physical
requiremnents when tested under the indicated ASTM test
method:
Specific Gravity
Durometer Hardness
Tensile Strength
Elongation
Cold Brittleness
Stiffness in Flexure
ASTM D 792
ASTM D 2240
ASTM D 412
ASTMD4I2
ASTM D 746
ASTM D 747
1.35 Max
.
755
1,800 psi Mm.
350%
-3SF
350 psi Mm.
inatenial shall be cut backto the depth shown or approved
and the surface of the concrete which will be in contact
with the sealant cleaned by light sand blasting. When re-
quired, a polyethylene foam strip shall be placed in the
joint to retain the sealant and isolate it from the filler miia
tenial. The sealant materials shall then be mixed and iii-
stalled in accordance with the manumfacturers directions.
Any material that fails to bond to the sides of time joint
within 24 hours after placement shall be removed and re-
placed.
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Witerstops
Sheet copper shall conform to the Specifications for
Copper Sheet, Strip. Plate, and Rolled Bar. AASHTO M
138 (ASTM B 152) and shall meet the Emnbnittlement Test
of Section If) of M 138.
5.9.2.6.4 Testing ot Waterstop Material
The nianufactumrer shall be responsible for the testmne.
either in his own or mu a recogmiized coinniercial labora-
tory. of all waterstop miiatenials. and shall submit three cer-
tified copies of test resuilts to the Engineer.
8 .9.3 Installation
8 .9.3.1 Open joints
Open joimits shall be comisuructed by the inserti(in and
subsequment renioval of a wood strip, metal plate, or other
approved material. The insertiomi and remnoval of the ten-
plate shall be accomnphished without chipping or breaking
the corners of the concrete. When not protected by nietal
arnior, open joints in decks and sidewalks shall be finished
with an edging tool. Upon completion of concrete finish-
ing work, all mortar and other debris shall be removed
from open joints.
8 .9.3.2 Filled Joints
When filled joints are shown on the plans, premnolded-
type tillers shall be used unless polystyrene board is specif-
ically called for. Filler for each joint shall consist of as few
pieces of material as possible. Abutting edges of filler ma-
terial shall be accurately held in alignment with each other
and tightly fit or taped as necessary to prevent the intrusion
of grout. Joint filler niatenial shall be anchored to one side
of the joint by waterproof adhesive or other methods so as
to prevent it from working out of the joint but not interfere
with the compression of the material.
8 .9.3.3 Sealed Joints
Prior to installation of pourable joint sealants. all for-
eign material shall be removed from the joint, the filler
8 .9.3.4 Waterstops
Adequate waterstops of inetal. rubber, or plastic shall
be placed as shown on the plans. Where niovemnent at time
joint is provided for, the waterstops shall be of a type pen-
miiitting such movement without injury. They shall be
spliced, welded. or soldered, to form continniotis water-
tight joimits.
Precautiomis shall be taken so that the waterstops shall
be neither displaced minor damaged by construmetion opera-
tions or (ither mneamis. All surh~aces of time waterstops shall
be kept free fromn oil, grease, dried niortar, or any other
foreign niatter while the waterstop is beimig enibedded iii
concrete. Means shall be used to insumne that all portions of
the waterstop designed for cmnbedinent shall be tightly cmi-
closed by dense concrete.
8 .9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies
Armor assemblies shall be installed sothat their top stir-
face matches the plane of the adjacemit finished concrete
surface throughout the length of the assenibly. Positive
methods shall be emnployed in placing the assemblies to
keepthem in correct position during the placing of the con-
crete. The opening at expansion joints shall be that desig-
nated on the plans at normal temperature or as directed by
the Engineer for other temperatures, and care shall be
taken to avoid impairment of the clearance in any manner.
8 .10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE
8 .10.1 General
Unless otherwise specified. after concrete has been con-
solidated and prior to the application of cumne, all suinrfaces
of concrete which are not placed against forms shall be
struck-off to the planned elevation or slope and the surface
finishedby floating with a wooden float sufficiently to seal
the surface. While the concrete is still in a workable state.
all construction and expansion joints shall be carefully
tooled with an edger. Joint filler shall be left exposed.
484
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.10.2
8 .10.2 Roadway Surface Finish
All bridge decks, approach slabs, and other concrete
surfaces for use by traffic shall be finished to a smooth
skid-resistant surface in accordance with this Article. Dur-
ing finishing operations the contractor shall provide suit-
able andadequate work bridges for proper performamice of
the work, including time application of fog sprays and cur-
ing compound, and for inspecting the work.
8 .10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating
After the concrete is placed and consolidated ac-
cording to Article 8.7, bridge decks or top slabs of
structures serving as finished pavenients shall be finished
using approved power-driven finishing machimies. Hand-
finishing methods inay be used if approved by the
Engineer for short bridges 50 feet or less in length or for
irregumlar areas where the use of a inachine would be
inipractical.
All surfaces shall be struck-off by equipment supported
by and travelingon rails or headers. The rails, headers, and
strike-off equipmnent shall be of sufficient strength and be
adjusted so that the concrete surface after strike-off will
conform to the planned profile and cross section.
The rails or headers shall be set on non-yielding sup-
ports and shall be completely in place and firnily secured
for the scheduled length for concrete placement before
placing of concrete will be permitted. Rails for finishing
machines shall extend beyond both ends of the scheduled
length for concrete placement a sufficient distance that
will permit the float of the finishing machine to fully clear
the concrete to be placed. Rails or headers shall be ad-
justable for elevation and shall be set to allow for antici-
pated settlement, camber, and deflection of falsework, as
necessary to obtain a finished surface true to the required
grade andcross section. Rails or headers shall be of a type
and shall be so installed that no springing or deflection
will occur under the weight of the finishing equipment and
shall be so located that finishing equipment may operate
without interruption overtime entire surface being finished.
Rails or headers shall be adjusted as necessary to correct
for unanticipated settlenient or deflection that miiay occur
during finishing operations. If rail supports are located
within the area where concrete is being placed, as soon as
they are no longer needed they shall be renioved to at least
2 inches belowthe finished surface and the void filled with
fresh comicrete.
Before the delivery of concrete is begumi. the finishing
machine or, if used, the hand-operated strike-off tool shall
be operated over the entire area to be finished to check for
excessive rail deflections. for proper deck thickness, and
cover on reinforcing steel, and to verify operatiomi of all
equipment. Any necessary corrections shall be made be-
fore concrete placement is begun.
The finishing machine shall go over each area of the
surface as many times as it is required to obtain the re-
quired profile and cross section. A slight excess of con-
crete shall be kept in front of the cutting edge of the screed
at all times. This excess of concrete shall be carried all the
way to the edge of the pour or form and shall not be
worked into the slab, but shall be wasted.
After strike-off, the surface shall be finished with a
float, roller, or other approved device as necessary to re-
move any local irregularities and to heave sufficient inor-
tar at the surface of the concrete for later texturing.
During finishing operations, excess water, laitance. or
foreign materials brought to the surface during the course
of the finishing operations shall not be reworked into the
slab, but shall be removed immediately upon appearance
by means of a squeegee or straightedge drawn from time
center of the slab towards either edge.
The addition of water to the surface of the concrete to
assist in finishing operations will not be permitted.
8 .10.2.2 Straightedging
After tinishimig as described above, the entire surface
shall be checked by the Contractor with a 10-foot metal
straightedge operated parallel to the center line of the
bridge and shall show no deviation in excess of /s inch
from the testing edge of the straightedge. For deck sur-
faces that are to be overlaid with 1 inch or more of another
niaterial, such deviation shall not exceed V s inch in 10
feet. Deviations in excess of these requirements shall be
corrected before the concrete sets.. The checking operation
shall progress by overlapping the straightedge at least
one-half the length of the preceding pass.
8 .10.2.3 Texturing
The surface shall be given a skid-resistant texture by
either burlap or carpet dragging, brooming, tining, or by a
combination of these methods. The method eniployed
shall be as specified or as approved by the Engineer. Sur-
faces that are to be covered with a waterproofing nicin-
brane deck seal shall not be coarse textured. They shall be
finished to a smooth surface, free of mortar ridges and
other projections.
This operation shall be done after floating and at such
time and in such manner that the desired texture will be
achieved while minimizing displacement of the larger ag-
gregate particles.
8.10.2.3.1 Dragged
If the surface texture is to he a drag finish, the surface
shall be finished by dragging a seamless strip of damp
8.10.2.3.1 DIV ISION IlCONSTRUCTION
485
burlap over the full width of the surface. The burlap drag
shall consist of sufficient layers of burlap and have suffi-
ement length in contact with the concrete to slightly groove
the surface and shall be moved forward with a minimnum
bow of the lead edge. The drag shall be kept damp, cleami,
and free of particles of hardenedconcrete. As an alternative
to burlap, the Engineer may approve or direct that carpet
or artificial turf of approved type and size be substituted.
8.10.2.3.2 Broomed
Ifthe surface texture is to be a broom finish, the surface
shall be broomed when the concrete has hardened suffi-
ciently. The broom shall be of an approved type. The
strokes shall be square across the slab, from edge to edge,
with adjacent strokes slightly overlapped, and shall be
made by drawing the broom without tearing the concrete,
but so as to produce regular corrugations not over /~ of an
inch in depth. The surface as thus finished shall be free
froni porous spots, irregularities, depressions, and small
pockets or rough spots such as may be caused by the acci-
dental disturbing of particles of coarse aggregate embed-
ded near the surface during the final brooming operation.
8.10.2.3.3 Tined
If the surface is to be tied, time tining shall be in a
transverse direction using a wire broom, comb or finned
float having a single row of tines or fins. The tining
grooves shall be between m/,~ inch and 3/~4 inch wide and
between /x inch and 3/,~ inch deep, spaced /2 to ~ inch
on centers. Tiring shall be discontinued 12 inches from
the curb line on bridge decks. The area adjacent to the
curbs shall be given a light broom finish longitudinally. As
an alternative, tining niay be achieved using an approved
machine designed specifically for tining or grooving con-
crete pavements.
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction
After the concrete has hardened, an inspection of fin-
ished deck roadway surfaces, which will not be overlaid
with a wearing surface, will be made by the Engineer. Any
variations in the surface which exceed /~ inch from a 10-
foot straightedge will be marked. The Contractor shall
correct such irregularities by the use of concrete planing
or grooving equipment which produces atextured surface
equal in roughness to the surrounding unground concrete
without shattering or otherwise damaging the remaining
concrete.
8 .10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish
After the concrete for sidewalks amid decks of pedes-
tnian structures has been deposited in place, it shall be
consolidated and the surface shall be struck off by nicans
of a strike board and floated with wooden or cork float. If
directed, the surface shall then be lightly broomed in a
transverse direction. An edging tool shall be used on edges
and expansion joints. The surface shall not vary niore thami
/~ imich under a5-foot straightedge. The surface shall have
a granular or matte texture that will not be slippery when
wet.
Sidewalk surfaces shall be laid out in blocks with an
approved grooving tool as shown on the plans or as di-
rected.
8 .10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish
Surfaces which are shown on the plans or specified to
be troweled shall first be finished as specified under
Article 8.10.1 then, after time concrete is partially set, the
surface shall be finished to a smooth surface by troweling
with a steel trowel until a slick surface free of bleed water
is produced. The surface shall then be brushed with a fine
brush using parallel strokes.
8 .10.5 Surface Under Bearings
When metallic masonry plates are to be placed directly
on the concrete or on filler material less than /~inch thick,
t he surface shall first be finished with a float finish. After
t he c o n c r et e ha s s et , t he a r ea whi c h will be in contact with
t he masonry plate shall be ground as necessary to provide
full and even bearing. When such plates are to be set on
f i l l er m a t er i a l b et ween /s a n d /2 -i n c h t hi c k, t he c o n c r et e
s u r f a c e s ha l l b e s t eel -t r o wel f i n i s hed wi t ho u t b r u s hi n g a n d
the flatness of the finished surface shall not vary fromn a
straightedge laid on the surface in any direction within time
limits of the masonry plate by more than V ~s inch. Sur-
f a c es whi c h f a i l t o c o n f o r m t o t he r eq u i r ed f l a t n es s s ha l l
b e ground until acceptable.
Surfaces under elastomeric bearings and under metallic
m a s o n r y p l a t es whi c h a r e s u p p o r t ed o n m o r t a r o r f i l l er
p a d s /2 inch or greater in thickness shall be finished by
wo o d f l o a t i n g t o a f l a t a n d ev en s u r f a c e f r ee o f r i d ges .
8 .11 CURING CONCRETE
8 .11.1 General
Al l n ewl y p l a c ed c o n c r et e s ha l l b e c u r ed s o a s t o p r e-
vent loss of water by use of one or more of the methods
s p ec i f i ed her ei n . Cu r i n g shall commence imnmediately
a f t er t he f r ee wa t er ha s l ef t t he surface and finishing o p -
erations are conipleted. If the surface of the concrete be-
gins to dry before the selected cure method can be applied,
486
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8.11.1
t he s u r f a c e o f t i m e c o n c r et e s ha l l b e kep t n i o i s t b y a f o g
spray applied so as mi(it to damage the surface.
Cu r i n g b y o t her t ha n s t ea m o r r a d i a n t hea t n i et ho d s
s ha l l c o n t i n u e u n i n t er r u p t ed f o r 7 d a ys ex c ep t t ha t when
p o z z o l a n s i n ex c es s o f 1 0 p er c en t , b y wei ght , o f t he Po r t -
l a n d c en i en t a r e u s ed i n t i m e n i x . When s u c h p o z z o l a n s a r e
u s ed , t he c u r i n g p er i o d s ha l l b e I 0 d a ys . F o r o t her t ha n t o p
slabs of surumetures serving as finished pavements. the
a b o v e c u r i n g p er i o d s n i a y b e r ed u c ed a n d c u r i m i g t er n i i -
n a t ed wl i em i t es t c yl i n d er s c u r ed u n d er t he s a m e c o n d i t i o n s
a s t he s t r u c t u r e i n d i c a t e t ha t c o n c r et e s t r en gt hs o f a t l ea s t
7 0 p er c em i t o f t ha t s p ec i f i ed ha v e b eem i r ea c hed .
When d eem ed n ec es s a r y b y t he E n gi n eer d u n i m i g p er i -
o d s o f ho t wea t her , wa t er s ha l l b e a p p l i ed t o c o n c r et e s u m -
f a c es b ei n g c u r ed b y t he l i q u i d m em b r a n e m et ho d o r b y
t he f o r i i i s -i n -p l a c e n i et i m o d , u n t i l t he E n gi n eer d et c r n i i n es
t ha t a c o o hi m i g ef f ec t i s n o l o n ger r eq u i r ed . S u c h a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f wa t er wi l l b e p a i d f o r a s ex t r a wo r k.
8 .11.2 Materials
8 .11.2.1 Water
Water shall comiforni to) the requirenients of Amticle
8.3.2.
8 .11.2.2 Liquid Membranes
Liquid memnbrane-forniing compoumnds for curimig con-
crete shall conforni to the requirements of AASHTO M
148 (ASTM C 309).
8 .11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials
Waterproof paper, polyethylene filni, and white burlap
polyethylene sheet shall conforni to the requiremnents of
AASHTOM 171 (ASTMC 171).
8 .11.3 Methods
8 .11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method
Fornied surfaces of concrete niay be curedby retaining
the fornis in place withouit loosening for the required time.
8 .11.3.2 Water Method
Concrete surface shall be kept continuously wet by
pondimig, spraying or covering with materials that are kept
continuously and thoroughly wet. Such niaterials may
consist of cotton niats, multiple layers of burlap or other
approved materials which doi miot discolor or otherwise
damage the concrete.
8 .11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound
Method
The liquid membrane method shall not be used on sur-
faces where a rubbed finish is required or on surfaces of
construction joints unless it is removed by sand blasting
prior to placement of concrete against the joimit. Type 2,
white pigniented, liquid membranes niay be used only omi
the surfaces of bridge decks, on suirfaces that will not be
exposed to view in the conipleted work or on surfaces
where their use has been approved by time Engineer.
When i n em b r a n e c u r i m i g i s u s ed , t he ex p o s ed c o m i c r et e
shall be thoroughly scaled ininiediately after the free
water has left the surface. Fonmned surfaces shall be sealed
immediately after the forms are renioved amid necessary
f i n i s hi n g ha s b een d o n e. The s o hu t i o m i s ha l l b e a p p l i ed b y
power-operated atomizing spray equipment iii one or two
s ep a r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n s . Ha n d -o p er a t ed s p r a yer s m n a y b e
u s ed f o r c o a t i n g s m a l l a r ea s . Mem b r a n e s o hu i t i o n s c o n -
t a m i n g p i gm en t s s ha l l b e t ho r o u ghl y m n i x ed p r i o r t o u s e
and agitated during application. If the solution is applied
i n t wo i n c r em en t s , t he s ec o n d a p p l i c a t i o n s ha l l f o l l o w t he
f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n wi t hi n 3 0 m i n u t es . S a t i s f a c t o r y eq u m i p -
m en t s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed , t o get her wi t h m ea n s t o p r o p er l y
c o n t r o l a n d a s s u r e t he d i r ec t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t he c u r i n g s o -
lution on the concrete surface so as to result in a umiiforni
coverage at the rate of 1 gallon for each 1 50 square feet
of area.
If rain falls on the newly coated concrete before the
film has dried sufficiently to resist damage, or if the film
m s d a m a ged i n a n y o t her i n a n n er d u r i n g t he c u i r i n g p er i o d ,
a new coat of the solution shall be applied to the affected
portions equal in curing value to that above specified.
8 .11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method
This method shall consist of covering the surface with
a waterproof sheet material so as to prevent moisture loss
f r o m t he c o n c r et e. Thi s m et ho d m a y b e u s ed o n l y when
the covering can be secured adequately to prevent mois-
t u r e l o s s .
The concrete shall be wet at the time the cover is
installed. The sheets shall be of time widest practicable
width and adjacent sheets shall overlap a nuinmniumn of
6 inches and shall be tightly sealed with pressure
sensitive tape, mastic, glue, or other approved niethods to
f o r m a c o m p l et e wa t er p r o o f c o v er o f t he en t i r e c o n c r et e
surface. The paper shall be secured so that wind will not
displace it. Should amiy portion of the sheets be broken or
daniaged before expiration of the curing period, time
b r o ken o r d a m a ged p o r t i o m i s s ha l l b e i m i i m c d i a t el y
repaired. Sections that have lost their waterproof qualities
shall not be used.
8.11.3.5
DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 487
8 .11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method
This method niay be used only for precast concrete
n i en i b er s m a n u f a c t u r ed i n es t a b l i s hed p l a n t s .
Steamcuring or radiant heat curingshall be done under
a suitable enclosuire to contain the live steam or the heat.
Steam shall be low pressure and saturated. Temperature
recording devices shall be employed as necessary to ver-
ify that temuperatures are ummiiformn throughout the enclo-
sure and within the limnits specified.
The imiitiah application of time steani or of the heat shall
be froni 2 to 4 hours after the final placememit of concrete
to) allow the initial set of the concrete to take place. If me
tarders are used, the waiting period before application of
the steani or of the radiant heat shall be imicreased to be-
tweemi 4 and 6 hours after placenient. The timite of initial
set may be deterniined by the Standard Method of Test for
Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtumnes by Penetration Re-
sistance, AASHTO T 197 (ASTM C 403), and the time
limits described above inay thien be waived.
During the waiting period, the teniperatumre within the
curing chaniber shall not be less than 50
0F and live steam
or radiant heat miiay be nised to inaintain the cuiring chain-
her at the proper miiininium temperature. During this pe-
riod the concrete shall be kept wet.
Application of hive steam shall not be directed on time
concrete or on the forms so as to cause localized high teni-
peratures. During the initial application of live steani or of
radiant heat, the ambient temperatumre within the curing
enclosure shall increase at an average rate not exceeding
400F per hour until the curing teinperature is reached. The
maximuim curing temuperature within time enclosure shall
not exceed 1600F. The miiaximumn teniperature shall be
held until the concrete has reached the desired strength. Iii
discontinuing the steani application, the anibient air tem-
perature shall miot decrease at a rate to exceed 400F per
hour umnitil a temnperature 200F above the temperature of
the air to which time concrete will be exposed has been
reached.
Radiant heat may be applied by means of pipes cmreu-
latimig steani, hot oil or hot water, or by electric heating el-
emenmus. Radiamit heat cunimig shall be domie under a suitable
enclosure to) contain the heat, and nioisture loss shall be
mimmimized by covering all exposed concrete surfaces with
aplastic sheetingor by applying an approved liquid meni-
brane-cumning coinpound to all exposed concrete surfaces.
Top surfaces of concrete mnemnbers to be used in conipos-
ite constructiomi shall be clear of residue of the niembrane
curimig comupound so as not to reduce bond below design
limits. Surfaces of comicrete menibers to) which other ina-
tenials will be bomided iii the finished structumre shall be
clear of residue of the niemnbrane curing compound So as
not to reduce bond below design limits.
U n l es s t he a m b i en t t em p er a t u r e i s m a i m i t a i n ed a b o v e
600F, for prestressed members the transfer of the stressimig
force to the concrete shall be accomplished inimediately
a f t er t he s t ea m c u r i n g o r t he hea t c u r i n g ha s b een d i s c o n -
tinued.
8 .11.4 Bridge Decks
The top surfaces of bridge decks shall be cured by a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f t he l i q u i d m en i b r a n e c u r i n g c o m p o u n d
muethod and the water method. The liquid inembrane shall
b e Typ e 2 , whi t e p i gm en t ed , a n d s ha l l b e a p p l i ed f r o n i f i n -
ishitig bridges progressively and inimediately after finish-
ing operations are complete on each portion of the deck.
The water cure shall be applied not hater than 4 hioumrs after
completion of deck finishing or, for portions of the decks
on which finishing is completed after normal working
liours, the water cure shall be applied not later than the fol-
lowing niorning.
8 .12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE
SURFACES
8 .12.1 General
Surface finishes for formed concrete surfaces shall be
c l a s s i f i ed a s f o l l o ws :
Class I. Ordinary Surface Finish
Class 2. Rubbed Finish
Cl a s s 3 . To o l ed F i n i s h
Class 4. Sandblast Finish
Class 5. Wire Brush, or Scrubbed Finish
All concrete shall be given aClass 1, Ordinary Sumrface
Finish, and in addition if further finishing is requmired, such
other type of finish as is specified.
If n o t o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , ex p o s ed s u r f a c es ex c ep t t he
soffits of superstructures and the interior faces and bot-
toms of concrete girders shall also be given a Class 2.
Rubbed Finish.
Class 3, 4, or 5 type surface finishes shall be applied
only where shown on the plans or specified.
8 .12.2 Class IOrdinary Surface Finish
Im m ed i a t el y f o l l o wi m i g t he r em o v a l o f f o r u t s , f i m i s , a n d
irregular projections shall be removed from all surfaces
which are to be exposed or waterproofed. Bulges and off-
sets iii such surfaces shall be removed with carborunduni
stones or discs.
L o c a l i z ed p o o r l y b o n d ed r o c k p o c ket s o r ho m i c y-
c o m b ed c o n c r et e s ha l l b e r em o v ed a n d r ep l a c ed wi t h
488
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
8.12.2
s o u n d c o n c r et e o r p a c ked n i o r t a r a s s p ec i f i ed i n Ar t i c l e
8.14. If rock pockets, in the opinion of the Emigimicer, are
of suich an extent or character as to) affect the strength of
the structure miiatenially or to endanger the life of the steel
reinforceniemit, he or she nmiay declare the comicrete defec-
tive and require the renioval amid replaceniemit of the pun-
tiomis of time structure affected.
Omi all sumrfaces, the cavities produced by forni ties amid
all other holes, broken corners or edges, and other defects
shall be uhoronigimly cleaned, and after having been thor-
ougimly saturated with water shall be carefully pointed and
t r u ed wi t h a n i o m t a r c o m i f o r m i n g t o Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 4 . F o r ex -
posed surfaces, white cement shall be added to) time niortar
in an amount sufficient to result in a patch which, whemi
dry. matches the surroumiding concrete. Mortar used in
pointimig shall be not niore than I hour old. The concrete
shall then be rubbed if required or the cure continued as
specified umider Article 8.10. Construction and expansion
joimits in the conipleted work shall be left carefully tooled
amid free of inortar and concrete. Time joint filler shall be
heft exposed for its full length with clean and true edges.
The resulting surfaces shall be true and uniform. Re-
paired surfaces, the appearance of which is not satisfac-
tory, shall be rubbed as specified under Class 2, Rubbed
Finish.
8 .12.3 Class 2Rubbed Finish
After remitoval of forms, the rubbing of comicrete shall be
started as soon as its condition will permit. Immediately
before starting this work, the comicrete shall be thoroughly
saturated with water. Suifficiemit time shall have elapsed be-
fore the wetting dowii to allow the niortar used in time point-
imig of rod holes and defects to thoroughly set. Surfaces to
be hushed shall be rubbed with a mediuni coarse car-
borunduni stone, usimig a small amount of mortar on its
face. The mortar shall be coniposed of cememit and fine
sand mixed in proportions used in the comicrete being fimi-
ished. Rubbing shall be continued until form niarks, pro-
jections. and irregularities have been renioved. voids have
beemi tilled, and a uniforni surface has been obtained. The
paste produced by this rubbing shall be left in place.
After other work which could effect the surface has
beemi comiipleued, the final finish shall be obtaimied by rub-
bimig with a fine carborumidum stone and water. This rub-
bing shall be eomitimiued umitil time emitire surface is of a
smooth texture and ummiifonmii color.
After the fimial rubbing is comupletedand the surface has
dried, it shall be rubbed with burlap to remove loose pow-
der amid shall be left free fromn all ummisound patches, paste,
powder, and objectionable marks.
Whemi inetal forms, fiber forms, hued forms or ply-
wood fonins in good condition are used, the requirememit
for a Class 2. Rubbed Finish may be waived by the Engi-
neer when the unifoninity of color and textumne obtained
with Class I finishing are essemitially equal to that which
could be attaimied with the application of a Class 2.
R u b b ed F i n i s h. In s u m ei m c a s es , gr i n d i n g wi t h p o wer ed d i s c
grinders or light sandblasting with fine sand or other
means approved by the Engineer may be utilized iii con-
junction with Class I finishing.
8 .12.4 Class 3Tooled Finish
Finish of this character for panels amid other like
work may be secured by the use of a bushimamnnier. pick.
crandall, or other approved tool. Air tools, preferably,
shall be employed. Notooling shall be done nmntil the comi-
crete has set for at least 14 days and as niumch longer as
may be necessary to prevent the aggregate particles froni
being picked out of the surface. The finished surface
shall show a grouping of broken aggregate particles iii a
matrix of mortar, each aggregate particle being in slight
relief.
8 .12.5 Class 4Sandblasted Finish
The thoroughly cured concrete surface shall be saud-
b l a s t ed wi t h ha r d , s ha r p s a n d t o p r o d u c e a n ev en f i n e-
grained surface in which the niortar has been cut away,
leaving the aggregate exposed.
8 .12.6 Class 5Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish
As soon as the forms are removed and while the con-
crete is yet comparatively green, time surface shall be thor-
oughly and evenly scrubbed with stiff wire or fiber
brushes, using a solution of muriatic acid in the propor-
tion of one part acid to four parts water until the cement
film or surface is completely removed and the aggregate
particles are exposed, leaving an even-pebbled texture
presenting an appearance grading froni that of tine oran-
C
ite to coarse conglonierate. depending upon the size amid
gr a d i n g o f a ggr ega t e u s ed . When t he s c r u b b i m i g ha s l ) r o -
gressed sufficiently to produce the texture desired. the en-
t i r e s u r f a c e s ha l l b e t ho r o u ghl y wa s hed wi t h wa t er t o
which a snaIl amnount of ammnomiia has been added, to mc-
niove all traces of acid.
8 .13 PRECAST CONCRETEMEMBERS
8 .13.1 General
Precast concrete nienibers shall be comistructed amid
placed in the work in conformance with the details shown
8.13.1
DIV IS IO N 1 1 CO NS TR U CTIO N
489
o ~n t he p l a m i s . s p ec i f i ed o r s ho wn o n t he a p p r o v ed wo r ki n g
drawings.
If a p p r o v ed b y t he E n gi n eer , t he u s e o f p r ec a s t i n g
niethods may be nised for ehenients of time work which are
otherwise indicated to) be constructed by the cast-in-place
m et ho d . When s u c h p r ec a s t i m i g i s p r o p o s ed , t he Co n t r a c -
ton shall subniit working drawimigs showing comistruction
jo)imit details and any other infonmiiation required by the En-
gineer.
8 .13.2 Working Drawings
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the
Contractor shall provihe workimig drawings for precast
niembers. Such drawings shall include all details not pro-
vided iii the plans for the comistmuctiomi and the erection of
the members and shall be approved before any itienibers
are cast. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of
any responsibility umider the contract for the successful
completion of the work.
8 .13.3 Materials and Manufacture
The materials and manumfacturing processes used for
precast concrete members shall conforni to the require-
rents of the other articles in this Section except as those
requirememits are modified or suppleniented by the provi-
siomis that follow.
Whemi precast members are nianufactured in estab-
lished casting yards, the manufacturer shall be responsi-
ble for the continuous inonitoning of the quality of all mna-
terials and concrete strengths. Tests shall be performed in
accordamice with appropriate AASHTO or ASTM nieth-
ods. The Engineer shall be allowed to observe all sam-
pling and testimig and the resumlts of all tests shall be made
available to the Engineer.
Precast inemitbers shall be cast on unyielding beds or
pallets. Special care shall be used in casting the bearing
surfaces so that they will join properly with other ele-
ments of the structure.
For prestressed precast units, several units niay be cast
in one continuous line amid stressed at one tinie. Sufficient
space shall be left between emids of umminits tot permit access
for cutting of tendomis after the concrete has attained the
required strength.
The side forms mmmv be remnoved as soomi as their re-
moval will not cause distortiomi of the concrete surface.
providing that cumning is miot interrupted. Memiibers shall
not be lifted froni casting beds umitil their strength is suif-
ficient to) prevemit damiiage.
When cast-imi-place concrete will hater be cast agaimist
the top surfaces of precast beanis or girders, these surfaces
shall be finished to a coarse texture by brooniimig with a
stiff coarse broomn. Prior to shipinent, such surfaces shall
b e c l ea n ed o f l a i t a n c e o r o t her f o r ei gn n i a t er i a l b y s a u d -
blasting or other approved miietimods.
When p r ec a s t m em u b er s a r e d es i gn ed t o b e a b u t t ed t o -
gether in the finished work, each mneniber shall be niatch-
cast with its adjacent seginents to ensure proper fit dumnimig
erection. As the segmemits are match-cast they innist be pre-
cisely aligned to achieve time final surumeture geomnetry. Dur-
ing the alignment, adjumstments to comiipensate for deflec-
tions shall be made.
8 .13.4 Curing
Unless otherwise perniitted, precast members shall be
cured by either the water method or the steamn or radiamit
heat niethod.
8 .13.5 Storage and Handling
E x t r em e c a r e s ha l l b e ex er c i s ed i n ha n d l i n g a n d n i o v -
ing precast prestressed concrete members. Precast girders
shall be transported in an upright position and the points
o f s u p p o r t a n d d i r ec t i o n s o f t he r ea c t i o n s wi t h r es p ec t to)
the member shall be approximately the same during trans-
portation and storage as when the member is in its final
position.
Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until
tests on concrete cylinders, manufactured of the samne coin-
crete and cured under the same conditions as the girders.
indicate that the concrete of the particular member has at-
tamed a compressive strength equal to the specified design
compressive strength of the concrete in the member.
Ca r e s ha l l b e t a ken d u r i n g s t o r a ge. ho i s t i n g, a n d ha n -
dhing of the precast units to prevent crackimig or daniage.
Units damaged by improper storage or handling shall be
r ep l a c ed a t t he Co n t r a c t o r s ex p en s e.
8 .13.6 Erection
The Contractor shall be responsible l~or the safety of
precast nicinbers during all stages of construction. Liftine
devices shall be used imi a mitanner that does not canise damn-
aging bendimig or torsional forces. After a niemnimer has
been erected and until it is secured to the struictuire. temii-
porary braces shall be provided as necessary to resist wimid
or other loads.
Precast deck formii panels shall be erected and placed so
that time fit of mating surfaces shall be such that excessive
grout leakage will not occur. If such fit is not provided.
joints shall be dry-packed or sealed with an acceptable
caulkingcompound prior to placimig tIme cast-imi-place comi-
crete. End panels for skewed structures niay be sawed to
fit the skew.
8 .13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast
Segmental Box Girders
8 .13.7.1 Materials
Epoxy bonding agents for match cast joints shall be
thermosetting I Of) percent solid comupositiomis that do not
contain solvent or any nonreactive organic ingredient ex-
c ep t f o r p i gm em i t s r eq u i r ed f o r c o l o r i n g. E p o x y b o n d i n g
a gen t s s ha l l b e o f t wo c o i m p o n en t s , a r es i n a n d a ha r d en er .
The two) comiipo)mients shall be distinctly pigmented, s~i that
mixing proiduces a third color siniilar to the concrete in the
segmuents to be joimied. and shall be packaged in prepor-
t i o n ed . l a b el ed , r ea d y-t o -u s e c o n t a i n er s .
Epoxy bonding agemits shall be forniumlated to provide
application temperature ranges that will permit erection of
niatch cast segmiients at suibsurate temuperatures fromii 40
0F
to I 150F. Iftwo surfaces to be bonded have different sub-
strate temperatumnes, the adhesive applicable at the lower
temperature shall be used.
E p o x y b o n d i n g a gen t s s ha l l b e i n s en s i t i v e t o ) d a m i i p
conditions during application and, after cuiring, shall ex-
hibit high bonding strength to curedcomicrete, good water
resistivity, low creep characteristics, and tensile strength
greater than the concrete. In addition, the epoxy bonding
agents shall fumnetion as a lubricant (luring time joining of
the match cast segmemits, as a filler to accumnately match the
surface of the segments being joined, and as a durable,
watertight bond at the joint.
Epoxy bonding agents shall be tested to) determine
t hei r wo r ka b i l i t y, gel t i m e, o p en t i n i e, b o n d a n d c o m i i p r es -
smon strength. shear, and working temnperature range. The
f r eq u en c y o f t he t es t s s ha l l b e a s s t a t ed i n t he S p ec i a l Pr o -
visions of the Contract.
The Contractor shall furnish the Engineer with samiiphes
of the miiatenial for qumahity assumnance testing, and a certifi-
cation from a reputable independent laboratory indicating
that the material has passed the requmired tests.
Specific properties of epoxy and the test procedures to
be used to measure these properties shall be as described
in the following subartiches.
8.13.7.1.1 Tent 1Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy
Bonding Age;mt
This test nicasuires the applicatiomi workability of the
bonding agent.
Tenting Met/mod: ASTM D 2730 foir the designated tem-
peratuire range.
Specification: Mixed epoxy boinding agemit niust not
sag flow at /~-inch miiinmimummii thickness at the designatetl
ininimum and maximumin application teniperature range
for the class of bonding agents umsed.
8.13.7.1.2 Test 2Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy
Bonding Agent
Gel time is determined on saniples niixed as specified
i n t he t es t i n g m et ho d . It p r o v i d es a gu i d e f o r t he p er i o d tif
time the mixing bonding agent reniains workable iii t he
niixing container during which it niust be applied to) the
match-cast joint surfaces.
Tcstimmg Method: ASTM D 2471 (except that 1 quart
and 1 gallon quantities shall be tested).
Specification: 30 minutes nimnimnum on 1 quart and I
gallon quantities at the maximuni temperature oif the des-
ignated appl icatiomn teinperature range. (Note: Gel tinie is
miot to be comnfused with open time specified in Test 3.)
8.13.7. 1.3 Te.nt 3 Open Time of Bonding Agent
Thi s t es t n i c a s u r es wo r ka b i l i t y o f t he ep o x y b o m n d i m i g
agent for time erection amid post-tensioning operations. As
tested here. open time is defined as time nimninium allow-
able period of elapsed time from the applicatiomi of the
niixed epoxy bonding agent to the precast segments umitil
the two segments have been assembled together and tent-
porarihy post-tensioned.
Testing Met/mod: Open time is determined using test
specimens as detailed in the Tensile Bending Test (Test 4).
The ep o x y b o n d i n g a gen t , a t t he hi ghes t s p ec i f i ed a p p hi -
c a t i o n t em p er a t u r e, i s n i i x ed t o get her a n d a p p l i ed a s i n -
s t r u c t ed i n Tes t 4 t o t he c o n c r et e p n i s n i s . whi c h s ha l l a l s o
be at the highest specified application temperature. The
adhesive coated prisms shall be maintained for 60 mninumues
a t t i m e hi ghes t s p ec i f i ed a p p l i c a t i o n t em p er a t u r e wi t h t he
adhesive coated surface or surfaces exposed amid uncov-
ered befomre joinimig together. The assenmibled prisms are
t hen c u r v ed a n d t es t ed a s i n s t r u c t ed i n Tes t 4 .
Specification: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable
for the specified application teniperature only wimeini es-
sentially total fracturing oif concrete paste and aggregate
occurs with no evidence of adhesive failure.
Co i n s t r u c t i o n s i t u a t i o m i s n a y s o m n et i n i es r eq u i r e a p p l i -
cation of the epoxy bonding agent to the precast sectiomn
prior to erecting, positioning. and assembling. This oper-
ation inay requmire epoxy bonding agents having pmolonged
oipen time. In general, where the erectioni conditiomis are
such that the sectioins to) be bomided are prepositiomnedprior
to epoxy application, the epoxy boinding agent shall have
a niinimum oipen timiie (if 60 ininutes witimimi the tempera-
tuire range specified for its application.
8.13. 7. 1.4 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 4 9 1
8.13.7.1.4 Tent 4Three-Poi,mt Tensile Bendino Tent
This test, perfonined on a pair of concrete pnisnis
bonded together with epoixy bonding agent, determines
the bonding strength between the bonding agent and con-
crete. Time bonded comicrete prisms are comupared to a ref-
erence test beamn of coincrete 6 X 6 X 18 inches.
Testing Method: 6 X 6 X 9 -i n c h c o n c r et e p n i s i n s of
6,000-psi conipressive strength at 28 days shall be sand-
blasted omi one 6 X 6-inch side to remove inold release
agent. haitanec, etc.. and submerged in clean water at time
lower temperature of the specified application tenipera-
tune range for 72 hours. Imniediately on removing the
concrete pnisnis froni the water, time sandblasted surfaces
shall be air-dried for 1 hour at the sanie temperature and
50-percent relative humidity and each shall be coated
with approxiniately a /i~,-inch layer of the mixed
bonding agent. The adhesive coated faces of two prisms
s ha l l t hen b e p l a c ed t o get her a n d hel d wi t h a c l a m p i n g
force ncwmal to the bonded interface of 50 psi. The as-
sembly shall then be wrapped in a damp cloth which is
kept wet during the curing period of 24 hours at the lower
temperature of the specified application temperature
r a n ge.
Af t er 2 4 ho u r s c u r i n g a t t he l o wer t em p er a t u r e o f
t he a p p l i c a t i o n t em p er a t u r e r a n ge s p ec i f i ed f o r t he
epoxy bonding agent, the bonded specimen shall be
unwrapped, remnoved from the clamping assenibly
and immediately tested. The test shall be conducted
using the standard ASTM C 78 test for flexural strength
with third point loading and the standard MR unit. At the
same time the two) prisnis are prepared and cured, a
companion test beam shall be prepared of the same con-
crete, cured for the same period, and tested followimig
ASTM C 78.
Specmficatioim: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable
if the load on the prisnis at failure is greater than 90 per-
cent of time load on the reference test beam at failure.
8.13.7.1.5 Test 5Conmpre.nsion Strength of Cured
Epoxy Bonding Agent
This test measures the compressive strength of the
epoxy bonding agent.
Tenting Method: ASTM D 6 9 5 .
Specification: Compressive strength at 77
0F shall be
2,000 psi minimummn after 24 hours cuing at the miuininiuni
teniperature of the designated application temperatuire
range amid 6,000 psi at 48 imoiurs.
8.13.7. 1.6 Tent 6Temperature Defiectinim of Epoxy
Bonding Agent
This test determines the temperature at which an arbi-
trary deflectiomi occurs under arbitrary testimig coinditions
in the cured epoxy bonding agent. It is a screening test to
establish performance of the bonding agent throughout
t he er ec t i o n t em p er a t u r e r a n ge.
Testing Method: ASTM D 648.
Specification: A minimummn deflection tempenatumre of
1220F at fiber stress loading of 264 psi is required on test
specimens cured 7 days at 770F.
8.13.7.1.7 Tent 7Comprennion and S/tear Strength
of Cured Epoxy Bonding Agent
This test is a measure of the compressive strength and
shear strength of the epoxybonding agent compared to the
concrete to which it bonds. The slant cylinder specinien
with the epoxy bonding agent is conipared to a reference
test cylinder oif concrete only.
Testing Merhod: A test specimen of concrete is pre-
pared in a standard 6 X 12-inch cylinder mold to have a
height at midpoint of 6 inches and an upper surface with
a 30-degree slope from the vertical. The upper and lower
portiomis of the specimen with the slant sumrfaces may be
formed through the use of an elliptical insert or by saw-
ing a full-sized 6 X 12-inch cylinder. If desired, 3 X 6-
inch or 4 X 8-inch specimens may be used. After the
specimens have been nioist cured for 14 days, the slamit
surfaces shall be prepared by light samidhlasting, stoning,
or acid etching, then washing and dryimig the surfaces,
and fimmally coatimig one of the surfaces with a lO-inil.
thickness of the epoxy bonding agent under test. The
s p ec i m en s s ha l l t hen b e p r es s ed t o get her a n d hel d i n p o -
s i t i o n f o r 2 4 ho u r s . The a s s em b l y s ha l l t hen b e wr a p p ed
in a damp cloth which shall be kept wet during an addi-
tional curing period of 24 hours at the minimum teniper-
ature of the designated application temperature ramige.
The specinien shall then be tested at 770F following
ASTM C 39 procedures. At the same time as the slant
cylinder specimens are niade and cured, a compan-
ion standard test cylinder of the samne concrete shall be
made, cured for the sante period, and tested following
ASTM C 39.
Specification: The epoixy bonding agent is acceptable
for the designated application temperature ramige if time
loiad oin the slant cylinder specinien is greater than 90 per-
cent of time load on time compamiionm cyhinder.
4 9 2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8. 13.7.2
8 .13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy
Instructions furnished by the supplier for the safe stoir-
a ge, m i x i n g, a n d ha n d l i n g o f t he ep o x y b o n d i n g a gen t
shall be followed. The epoxy shall be thoroughly niixed
until it is of uniform color. Use of a proper-sized inechan-
ical mixer oiperating at no niore than 600 RPM will be re-
quired. Contents oif damaged or previously opened con-
tainers shall not be used.
Surfaces to which the epoxy material is to be applied
shall be at least 40
0F and shall be free from oil, laitance,
form release agent, or any other material that would pre-
vent the epoxy from bonding to the concrete surface. All
haitance and other contaminants shall be removed by light
sandblasting or by high pressure water blasting with a
minimum pressure of 5,000 psi. Wet surfaces shall be
dried before applying epoxy bondimig agents. The surface
shall be at least the equivalent of saturated surface dry (mio
visible water).
Mixing shall not start until the segnient is prepared for
installation. Application of the mixed epoxy bondimig
agent shall be according to the manufacturers instruc-
tions using trowel, rubber glove, or brush on one or both
surfaces to be joined. The coating shall be smooth and
uniforni and shall cover the entire surface with a mini-
mum thickness of V~
5 inch applied on both surfaces or
inch if applied on one surface. Epoxy should not be
placed within
3/x inch of prestressing ducts to minimize
flow into the ducts. A discernible bead line must be
observed on all exposed contact areas after temporary
post-tensioning. Erection operations shall be coordinated
and conducted so as to complete the operations of apply-
ing the epoxy bonding agent to the segments, erection,
assembling, and temporary post-tensioning of the newly
joined segment within 70 percent of the open time period
of the bonding agent.
The epoxy material shall be applied to all surfaces to
be joined within the first half of the gel time, as shown on
the containers. The segments shall be joined within 45
minutes after application of the first epoxy material placed
and a minimum average temporary prestress of 40 psi over
the cross section should be applied within 70 percent of
the open time of the epoxy material. At no point of the
cross section shall the temporary prestress be less than 30
psi.
The joint shall be checked immediately after erection
to verify uniform joint widthand proper fit. Excess epoxy
from the joint shall be removed where accessible. All ten-
don ducts shall be swabbed immediately after stressing,
while the epoxy is still in the nongelled condition, to re-
move or smototh out any epoxy in the conduit and to seal
any pockets or air bubble holes that have formed at the
joint.
If the jointing is not completed within 70 percent of the
open time, the operation shall be terminated and the epoxy
bonding agent shall be completely removed from the sur-
faces. The surfaces must be prepared again and fresh
epoxy shall be applied to the surface before resuniing
jointing operations.
As general instructions cannot cover all situations, spe-
cific recommendations amid instructions shall be obtained
in each case froni the Engineer in charge.
8 .14 MORTAR AND GROUT
8 .14.1 General
This work consists of the making and placing of mor-
tar and grout for use in concrete structures other than in
prestressing ducts. Such uses include moirtar for filling
under masonry plates and for filling keyways between
precast members where shown on the plans, mortar used
to fill voids and repair surface defects, grout used to fill
sleeves for anchor bolts, and mortar and grout for other
such uses where required or approved.
8 .14.2 Materials and Mixing
Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the re-
quirements of Article 8.3. The grading of sand for use in
grout or for use in mortar when the width or depth of the
void to be filled is less than 3/4 inch shall be modified so
that all material passes the No. 8 sieve.
Type IA, air entraining, portland cement shall be used
when air entrainment is required for the concrete against
which the grout or mortar is to be placed.
Unless otherwise specified or ordered by the Engineer,
the proportion of cement to sand for mortar shall be one
to two and for grout shall be one to one. Proportionimig
shall be by loose volume.
When non-shrink mortar or grout is specified, either a
n o n -s hr i n k a d m i x t u r e o r a n ex p a n s i v e hyd r a u l i c c em en t
conformingto ASTMC 845 of a type approved by the En-
gineer, shall be used.
Only sufficient water shall be used to permit placing
and packing. For mortar, only enough water shall be used
s o t ha t t he m o r t a r wi l l f o r m a b a l l when s q u eez ed gen t l y
in the hand.
Mixing shall be done by either hand methods or
with rotating paddle-type mixing machines and shall
b e c o n t i n u ed u n t i l a l l i n gr ed i en t s a r e t ho r o u ghl y
mixed. Once mixed, mortar or grout shall not be
retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed
wi t hi n 1 ho u r .
8.14.3
493
8 .14.3 Placing and Curing
Concrete areas to) be in contact with the mortar or grout
shall be cleaned of all loose or foreign material that would
mn any way prevent bond and the concrete surfaces and
shall be flushed with water and allowed to dry to a surface
dry condition iminediatehy prior to placing the mortar or
grout.
The mortar or grout shall completely fill and shall be
tmghthy packed into recesses and holes, on surfaces, under
structural members, and at other locations specified. After
placing, all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by
the water method as provided in Article 8.11 for a period
of not less than 3 days.
Keyways, spaces between structural members, holes,
spaces under structural members, and other locations
where mortar could escape shall be mortar-tight before
placing mnortar.
No load shall be allowed on mortar that has been in
place less than 72 hours, unless otherwise permitted by
the Engineer.
All improperly cured oir otherwise defective mortar oir
grout shall be removed and replaced by the Contractor at
his or her expense.
8 .15 APPLICATION OF LOADS
8 .15.1 General
Loads shall not be applied to comicrete structures until
the concrete has attained sufficient strength and, when ap-
plicable, sufficient prestressing has been completed, so
that damage will not occur.
8 .15.2 Earth Loads
Whenever possible the sequence of placing backfill
around structures shall be such that overturning or sliding
forces are minimized. When the placement of backfill will
cause flexural stresses in the concrete, and unless other-
wi s e p er m i t t ed b y t he E n gi n eer , t he p l a c em en t s ha l l n o t
begin until the concrete has reached not less than 80 per-
c en t o f i t s s p ec i f i ed s t r en gt h.
8 .15.3 Construction Loads
Light materials and equipment may be carried on
bridge decks only after the concrete has been in place at
least 24 hours, providing curing is not interfered with and
the surface texture is miot damaged. V ehicles needed for
coinstruction activities and weighing between 1,000 and
4,000 pounds, and comparable materials and equipment
loads, will be allowed on any span only after the last
placed deck concrete has attained a compressive strength
o f a t l ea s t 2 , 4 00 p o u n d s p er s q u a r e i n c h. L o a d s i n ex c es s
of the above shall not be carried on bridge decks until the
deck concrete has reached its specified strength. In addi-
tion, for post-tensioned structures, vehicles weighing over
4 , 5 00 p o u n d s , a n d c o m p a r a b l e m a t er i a l s a n d eq u i p m en t
loads, will not be allowed on any span until the prestress-
ing steel for that span has been tensioned.
Precast concrete or steel girders shall not be placed on
substructure elements until the substructure concrete has
attained 70 percent of its specified strength.
Otherwise, loads imposed on existing, new or partially
completed portions of structures due to construction op-
erations shall not exceed the load-carrying capacity of the
structure, or portioin of structure, as determined by the
Load Factor Design niethods of AASHTO using Load
Group lB. The compressive strength of concrete (f.) to be
used in coniputing time load-carrying capacity shall be the
smaller of the actual compressive strength at the time oif
loading or the specified compressive strength of the con-
crete.
8 .15.4 Traffic Loads
Traffic will not be permitted on concrete decks until at
least 14 days after the last placement of deck concrete and
until such concrete has attained its specified strength.
8 .16 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
8 .16.1 Measurement
Except for concrete in components of the work for
whichpayment is made under other bid items, all concrete
for structures will be measured by either the cubic yard for
each class of concrete included in the schedule of bid
items or by the unit for each type of precast concrete
meniber listed in the schedule of bid items.
When measured by the cubic yard, the quantity of con-
crete will be computed froim the dmniensmons shown on the
plans or authorized in writing by the Engineer with time
following exceptions:
The quantity of concrete involved in fillets, sconings
and chamfers I square inch or less in cross-sec-
tional area will not be included or deducted.
Deductions for the volume of concrete displaced by
concrete and timber piles embedded in the concrete
will be made. Deductions for other embedded
materials including reinforcing, structural and pre-
stressing steel, expansion joint filler material,
wa t er s u o p s a n d d ec k d r a i n s wi l l n o t b e m a d e. The
494
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 8 . 1 6 . 1
volume of tiniber piles will be assumed toi be 0.8
cubic foot per linear foot of pile.
When t her e i s a b i d i t em f o r c o n c r et e t o b e u s ed a s a
seal course in cofferdams, the quantity oif suich comi-
crete to be paid for shall include the actual voihume
o f c o n c r et e s ea l c o u r s e i n p l a c e, b u t i n n o c a s e s ha l l
the total volume to be paid for exceed the cubical
c o n t en t s c o n t a i n ed b et ween t he v er t i c a l s u r f a c es I
foot outside the neat lines oif the seal course as
shown on the plans. The thickness of seal course to
b e p a i d f o r s ha l l b e t he t hi c kn es s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s
oir ordered in writing by the Engineer.
The number oif precast concrete nienibers oif each type
listed iii the schedule of bid items will be the miumiiber of
acceptable mnemubers of each type fuirnished and installed
iii the wnirk.
Expamisiomi joiinu anmnoir asseitibhies will be nicasured
and paid for as provided for iii Section 23, Miscellamicous
Metal
Whenever an alternative oir option is shown (iii the
plans or penmimitued by the specifications, the quantities of
concrete will be coimputed (iii tIme basis of the dimiiensiomns
shown oin the plamis and no change in quantities nicasum-ed
for paymmienu will be made becatise oif the use by the Coin-
tractoir of such alternatives oir options.
8 .16.2 Payment
The cubic yards of concrete and the nuniber of precast
concrete niembers, as measured above for each type or
class listed in the schedule of bid itenis, will be paid for at
the contract prices per cubic yardor the comitract prices per
each meniber.
Paymnemit for coincrete of the varioums classes and f(ir
precast concrete members of the various types shall be
considered to be fuill compensatiomi for time cost of
furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, and incidemitals.
and for doing all the work involved in constructing
the coincrete work complete in place, as shown oin the
plans and specified Such paynient mncluides full comn-
pensatioin for funitishing and placing expansioinm joiimiu
fillers, sealed joints. waterstops. drains, vents. miscella-
neous metal devices and the drillimig of holes for dowels
and the grouting oif dowels in drilled holes, unless
payment for such work is specified toi be inchuided in an-
other bid item.
In a d d i t i o n . p a ym em i t f o r p r ec a s t c o n c r et e n i en i b er s
shall be considered to be full compensation for the coist of
all reinfoircing steel, prestressing niatenials and other
itenis embedded in the member, and foir the erectioimm of the
members.
Section 9
REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION
Thi s wo r k s ha l l c o m n s i s t o f f u r n i s hi n g a n d p l a c i n g r ei n -
forcing steel in accordance with these specifications amid
i n c o n f o r n i i t y wi t h t he p l a n s .
9.2 MATERIAL
All reinfomrcing bars shall be deformed except that plain
bars may be used for spirals and ties.
the foillowing specifications.
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing
Defomrmed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars foir Concrete Re-
inforcenientAASHTO M 31 (ASTM A 615). Grade 60
shall be used unless otherwise shown or specified.
Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars foir Concrete Re-
inforcementAASHTO M 42 including Supplemnentary
Requirement SI (ASTM A 616 including Supplenientary
Requirement SI). Grade 60 steel shall be used unless oth-
erwise shown or specified.
Low Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Rein-
forcementASTM A 706.
l)eformed Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
AASHTO M 225 (ASTMA 496).
Wel d ed S t eel Wi r e F a b r i c f o r Co n c r et e R ei n f o r c e-
memmtAASHTO M 55 (ASTM A 185).
Cold-Drawn Steel Wire for Comicrete Reinforceniemit
AASHTO M 32 (ASTM A 82).
Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Re-
mnforcementAASHTO M 221 (ASTM A 497).
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
When epoxycoating oif reinforcing bars is required, the
coating niate nials and process, the fabrication, handling,
identification of the steel, and the repair of any damaged
coatine muatenial that occurs during fabrication and han-
dlimig shall confoirin to the requmirements of AASHTO M
284 (ASTM D 3963). Epoxy-coated steel wire and welded
wire for reinfoircenient shall conform to the requirememits
of ASTM A 884, Class A. The steel to be epoxy coated
shall conforni to Article 9.2.1.
Each shipment of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall
b e a c c o m p a n i ed wi t h a Cer t i f i c a t e o f Co m p l i a n c e s i gn ed
b y t he a p p l i c a t o r o f t he c o a t i m i g c er t i f yi n g t ha t t he c o a t ed
bars conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 284 or
that coated wire conforms to ASTM A 884, Class A.
9.2.3 Mill Test Reports
Whenever steel bars, other than bars conforming to
ASTM A 706, are to be spliced by welding or when othi-
erwise requested, a certified copy of the null test report
showing physical and cheniical analysis for each heat or
lot of reinforcing bars delivered shall be provided to the
Engineer.
9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS
When the plans do not include detailed bar lists and
bending diagrams, the Contractor shall provide such lists
and diagrams to) the Engineer for review and approval.
Fabrication of material shall not begin until such lists have
been approved. The approval of bar lists and bending dia-
grams shall in no way relieve the Contractor of responsi-
bility for the correctness of such lists and diagranis. Any
expense incident to the revismon of material furnished in
accordance with such lists and diagrams to make it coin-
ply with the design drawings shall be borne by the Coin-
tractor.
9.4 FABRICATION
9.4.1 Bending
Bar reinforcement shall be cut amid bent to the shapes
shown oinm the plans. Fabrication tolerances shall be in ac-
c o r d a n c e wi t h ACI 3 1 5 . Al l b a r s s ha l l b e b em i t c o l d . u n l es s
omtherwise permitted. Bars partially enibedded in concrete
shall miot be field bent except as shown on the plans or
specifically permitted.
495
496 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.4.2
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions
Time diniensioins of hooks and the dianieters oif bends
measured on the imiside of the bar shall be as shown (in the
plans. When the dimensions of hoioks or the diamneter of
bends are noit shown, they shall be in accordamice with Di-
vision I, Article 8.23 or ACI 318, Building Code Re-
quirements for Reinforced Concrete.
9.4.3 Identification
Bar reinforcement shall be shipped in standard bun-
d Ies , t a gged a n d n i a r ked i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he Manual
ol Standard Practice ofthe Cotmcrete Reinforcing Steel In
stitute.
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE
CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT
Steel reinforcemnent shall be stored above the surface of
the groumid on platforms, skids, or other supports and shall
be protected as far as practicable froin mechanical injury
and surface deterioration caused by exposure to condi-
tions producing rust. When placed in the work, reinforce-
nient shall be free froni dirt, loiose rust or scale, inortar,
paint, grease, oil, oir oither materials that would reduce
bond. Reinforcemmient shall be free froin injurioums defects
s u c h a s c r a c ks a n d l a m i i i n a t i o n s . B o n d ed r u s t , s u r f a c e
scains, surface irregumlarities. (in mill scale will not be
cause for rejectiomi, provided the niinimnum diniensiomis,
cross-section area, and temisile properties of a hand wire
brushed speciniemi meet the physical requmirenients foir time
size and grade of steel specified.
Epoxy-coated reimiforcing steel shall be handled and
stored by methods that will not damnage the epoxy coat-
ing. All systems foir handling epoixy-coiated reinforce-
memit bars shall have adequmately padded contact areas
wherever possible. All bundling bands shall be padded
and all bundles shall be lifted with a strong back, multi-
pIe supports, or platform bridge soi as to prevent bar-to-
bar abrasiomi froini sags in the bar bundle. Bars or bundles
shall not be dropped or dragged. Epoxy-coated reinforc-
ing steel shall be transported and stored on wooden or
padded supports.
9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING
9.6.1 General
Steel reinforcement shall be accuirately placed as
shown on the plans and fimnily held in position during the
placing and setting of concrete. Bars shall be tied at all in-
tersections around the perimiieter of each mat and at noit
less than 2-foot centers or at every intersection, whichever
is greater, elsewhere. Bumidled bars shall be tied together
at not inore than 6-feet centers. For epoxy-coiated rein-
forcement, tie wire and nietal clips shall be plastic or
epoxy coated. If fabric reinforcenient is shipped in rolls,
it shall be straightened into flat sheets before beingplaced.
Welding of cross bars (tack welding) will not be permit-
ted for assembly of reinforcement unless authorized in
writing by the Engineer.
9.6.2 Support Systems
Reinforcing steel shall be supported iii its proper poisi-
tio)n by use of mortar blocks, wire bar supports, supple-
mentary bars or other approved devices. Such devices
shall be of such height and placed at sufficiently frequent
intervals so as to maintain the distance between the rein-
forcing and the formed surface or the top surface of deck
slabs within i~ inch of that indicated on the plans.
Platforms for the support of men and equipmnemit dumr-
ing concrete placement shall be supported directly oin the
forms and not on the reinforcing steel.
9.6.3 Mortar Blocks
Mortar blocks shall have a compressive strength
not less thami that of the comicrete in which they are to be
embedded. The face of blocks in contact with fornis
for exposed surfaces shall not exceed 2 inch by 2 inch iii
size and shall have a color and texture that will niatch the
concrete surface. When used on vertical or sloiping
surfaces, such blocks shall have an embedded wine for
securing the block to the reinforcing. When used in slabs,
either such a tie wire or, when the weight of time mcmii-
forcing is sufficient to fimnily hold the blocks in place, a
groove in the top of the block may be used. For epoxy-
coated bars, such tie wires shall be plastic or epoxy
coated.
9.6.4 Wire Supports
Wire bar suppoirts. such as ferrous metal chairs and
bolsters, shall conforni to industry practice as described
in the Manual of Standard Practice f. tIme Concrete Re
inforciimg Steel Institute. Such chairs or bolsters which
bear against the forms for exposed surfaces shall be ei-
ther Class IMaximum Protection (Plastic Protected) or
Class 2, Type B-Moderate Protection (Stainless Steel
Tipped) for which the stainless steel comifoirms toi ASTM
A 493. Type 430. For epoxy-coated reinfoircement, all
wire bar supports and bar clips shall be plastic or epoxy
coated.
9.6.5
497
9.6.5 Adjustments
Reinforcenient used in poist-tensioned concrete shall
be adjusted or relocated during the installation of pre-
stressing ducts or tendons, as required to provide planned
clearances to the prestressing tendons, anchorages and
stressing equipment, as approved by the Engineer.
9.6.6 Repair of Epoxy Coating
In addition to) the requirenients ninf Article 9.2.2, any
dainage to epoxy coating of reinforcing steel that occurs
during shipment and imistallatiomi of the steel shall be
repaired whenever the size of any individual damaged
area exceeds 0.065 square inches or whenever the sum of
the areas of all damages within any I-foot-long portion
of a bar exceeds 2 percent of the surface area of that
portiomi of the bar. Should daniage during shipment and
installation exceed 2 percent of the surface area of an
entire bar, that bar shall be renioved and replaced with an
acceptable bar. The suni of the areas covered with
patching material applied doming repairs at all stages of
the work shall not exceed 5 percent of the toital sumrface
area of any bar. The patching inaterial shall be prequahi-
fied as required for the coating material amid shall be ei-
then identified on the cointamner as nieeting the require-
inents of Annex Al of AASHTO M 284 or shall be
accoimpanied by a Certificate of Compliance certifying
that the niatenial niects the requirements of said Annex
Al. Patching of damaged areas shall be perforined in
accordance with the patching material manufacturers
recomniendatioins.
9.7 SPLICING OF BARS
9.7.1 General
All reinforcement shall be furnished iii the full lengths
indicated on the plans unless otherwise permitted. Except
for splices shown on the plans amid splices for No. 5 or
smaller bars, sphicimig of bars will not be permitted with-
otit written approival. Splices shall be staggered as far as
possible.
9.7.2 Lapped Splices
Lapped splices shall be of time lengths shown nn the
plans. If not shown on the plans. the length of lapped
splices shall be in accordance with Division I, Article
8.32, or as approved by the Engineer.
In lapped splices, the bars shall be placed and wired in
such a nianmier as to niamntain the minimum distance to the
surface of the concrete shown on the plans. Lapped splices
shall not be used for Nois., 14 and 18 bars except as pro-
vided in Divisioin I, Articles 4.4.11.5.7 and 8.32.4.1.
9.7.3 Welded Splices
Welded splices shall be used oily if detailed on the
plans or if authorization is made by the Engineer in writ-
ing. Welding shall conforni to the Structural Welding
Code, Reinforcing Steel, AWS Dl .4 of the American
Welding Society and applicable special proivisions.
Welded splices shall not be used on epoxy-coated bars.
No welding shall be performed close enough toi epoxy-
coated bars to cause any heating of the coating.
9.7.4 Mechanical Coupler Splices
Splices niade with mechanical couplers shall he used
only if preapproved or detailed on the plans or authorized
in writing by the Engineer. Such coumplers shall develop in
tension or compression. as required, at least 125 percent
of the specific yield strength of the bar.
When requested by the Engineer, ump to two field
splices out of each 100. or portion thercoif, placed in the
work and chosen at random by the Emigineer, shall be me-
inoved by the Contractor and tested toi 125 percent of the
specified yield strength by the Engineer.
9.8 SPLICING OF MESH OR MATS
Sheets of mesh or bar mat reinforcenient shall be
spliced by overlappingeach other sufficiently to niaimitainm
a unifoirm stremigth and shall be securely fastened at time
ends and edges. The edge lap shall not be less than one
mesh in width plus 2 inches.
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS
Substitution of different size bars will be permitted
only when authorized by the Engineer. The substituted
bars shall have an area equivalent to the design area, on
larger, and shall conform to the requirements of Division
I, Article 8.16.8.4.
9.10 MEASUREMENT
Steel reinforcenient imicorporated in the concrete will
be measured in pounds based on the total compuited
weight for the sizes and lengths of bars, wire or welded
wire fabric shown on the plaits or authorized for use in the
work.
498
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
9.10
The weight of reinforcing bars will be computed using
the following weights:
Weight lbs. per Ii. feet Bar Size
No.3
No.4
No. 5
No.6
No. 7
No. 8
No.9
No. 10
No. II
No. 14
No. 18
0.376
0.668
1.043
1.502
2.044
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.3 13
7.65
13.60
The weight of reinforcement used in items such as rail-
ings and precast members, where payment for the rein-
forcement is included in the contract price for the item,
will not be included. Threaded bars or dowels placed after
the installation of precast members in the work and used
to attach such members to cast-in-place concrete will be
included.
No allowance will be made for clips, wire, separators,
wire chairs, and other material used in fastening the rein-
forcement in place. If bars are substituted upon the Con-
tractors request and as a result more steel is used than
specified, only the amount specified will be included.
The additional steel required for splices that are not
shown on the plans but are authorized as provided herein,
will not be included.
No allowance will be made for the weight of epoxy
coating in computing the weight of epoxy-coated rein-
forcing steel.
The weight of reinforcing wire, welded wime fabric and
plaimi bars of sizes other than those listed above, will be
conipuited froim tables of weights published by CRSI or
coinipumted using nmomiiinal dimnemisions and ami assumned nmmmit
weight of 0.2833-pound per cubic imich. The cross-see-
tiuimial area oif wire iii hummdredths oif squmare imiches will be
assunied to) be equal toi its W (in D-Size Numiiben. If the
weight per squlame foi(it oif weldenl wire fabric is given on
the hilamis. that weight will be umsed.
9.11 PAYMENT
Paymiiemit for the qumanitity (if remnforcemiiemit detenmmiimied
ummuler nicasurement for each class oif reinforcimig steel
shown in the bid schedule will be niade at the comitract
hinice per poumid. Paynient shall be considered to be fuil I
coniliensal ion foir furnmislii mig. fabnicating. splicimig. amid
~ilacitmgoif the reimiforcing steel imieluidimie all mncidemital
work and itiatenials required.
Section 10
PRESTRESSING
10.1 (;ENERAI.
I0.1.1 I)escription
This xvork slial I consist of piesti-essi mig precast or cast-
I miplace concrete - shine. placine. and tensi bx funimi omii rig of
~ire~nessmhg steel i mt accordance xs tim details simoiwmi on the
hilans. amid ~ shiccificol in these shiecificatiomis and time spe
ial provisiomis. It includes prestressing by either the fire
temisrommm ne ~)i posttemisiomminig methods or by a combina
tiomi oil these methods
this work shall include the fnmmnrisliumie annI installatiomi
o~f anN aphiurtenamit items necessary tow the fiart i C ol am tire
stressing svste mit to lie use(l. including but noit I imnitenl toi
(humeV ancho)nage assemnbhies amid grout umsed for pressure
rouinting duets.
For cast-in-place prestressed comienete. the terin ~memn-
her as used in this Sectiomi shall be considered to miiean
time coincrete which is to he prestressed.
When members are to be constructed with part of the
reinfoircement pretensioned and part post-tensioned. the
applicable requirenient oif this specificatiomi shall apply to
each nietimod.
10.1.2 Details of Design
When the desigmi for the prestressing work is not fully
detailed on time plans, the Contractor shall determine the
details oir type of prestressing system for use and select
materials and details conforming to these specifications as
needed to satisfy the prestressing requirements specified.
The system selected shall provide the magnitude and dis-
tribution of prestressing force and ultimate strength re-
quired by the plans withoumt exceeding allowable tempo-
rary stresses. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, all
design procedures, coefficients and allowable stresses,
friction and prestress losses as well as tendon spacing and
clearances shall be in accoirdance with the Division I, De-
sign, of the AASHTO Sta,mdard Specificationsfor High-
way Bridges.
The prestressing may be performed by either preten-
sioning or post-tensioning methods unless the plans show
oimilv pretenmsioiiinie details. Ifthe lilamis simoiw onIN preten
siomiimig details, mime use of a liosttemismomnmie svstemim will be
al lo~ed omm fy if complete details of any necessary modifi
eatiomis arc approved by the Emigineem.
Whiemi the effective or working force or sumess is
shoss mi on the plaims. it shial I be considered toi lie the Ii ~mcc
oin simess memiiammimne iii time piestressimig steel after all losses
imicluiding creep amid shrinkage oW cuincrete. elastic simon
enimig of comicrete. relaxatiomi oil steel. fnictiomi auuth take up
or seating of anchorages, amid all other losses peculiar to)
the miiethiod (in sysuemii oif firestressimig have taken place or
have beemi firo)vided foir \V imen the jackie force is shown
omn the plans, it shall be coimisidered to be the force ahihilied
t(i time tendomi prior to aneimoirage antI the occuirremmee of amiv
losses. inelnudine the anchoir set loss.
10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS
Whenever the plans doi not immeluide coimnplcte details for
a presuressing systeni and its miiethoid of installatioimi. otr
when complete details are provided in time plans and time
Contractor wishes to propoise any change. the Contractor
shall prepare and submit to the Engineer working draw-
ings of the prestressing system proposed foir use. Fabrica-
tion or installation of prestressing material shall not begin
until the Engimieer has approved the drawings.
The working drawings of the prestressing system shall
show complete details and sumbstantiating calculations oif
the method, niaterials and equipmemit the Contractor proi-
poses to use iii the prestressing operations, including any
additions or rearrangement of reinforcing steel and any re-
vmsmon in concrete diniensions from that shown on the
plans. Such details shall outline the niethod and sequmenee
of stressing and shall include complete specifications and
details of the prestressing steel and anchoring devices.
working stresses, anchoring stresses, tendon elongations.
type of ducts~, and all other data pertaining to the pre-
stressing operation, including the proposed arrangement
of the prestressing steel in the members.
Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in
advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for
499
5(X)
review by the Engineer and correction by the Contractor
of the drawings without delaying the work.
10.2.2 Composite Placing I)rawings
Whemi required by the special provisions, in additioin
to all required woirking drawings, time Contractor shall
prepare comniposite placing drawings to scale and in suf-
ficient detail to show the relative positiomns tif all items
that are to be embedded in the concrete, and their emn-
bednient depth, for time portions oif the structure that are
to be prestressed..Such enibedded items include the pine-
stressing ducts, vents, anchorage reinforcement andhard-
ware, reinforcing steel, anchor bolts, earthqumake restrain-
ers, deck joint seal assemblies, drainage systems, utility
comiduits andother such items. Such drawings shall be ad-
equate to ensure that there will he no coinflict between the
planned Poisitions of any embedded itenis and that con-
crete cover will be adequate. If during time preparation of
such drawings conflicts are discovered, time Contractor
shall revise his or her working drawing for one or mnore
of the enibedded itemiis oir proipose changes in the dinien-
smons of the work as necessary to climate the conflicts
or provide proper cover. Any such revisions shall be ap-
proved by the Engimicer before work omi any affected itein
is started.
All costs mnvolved with the preparation of such
drawings amid with niaking the necessary iiiodifications
to the work resulting therefroni shall be borne by the
Contractomr.
10.3 MATERIALS
10.3.1 Pre-stressing Steel and Anchorages
Pre-stressing reinforcemnent shall be high-strength
seven-wire strand, high-strength steel wire, or high-
strength alloy bars of the grade and type called for on the
plans or in the special provisions and shall conform to the
requirements of the following specifications.
10.3.1.1 Strand
Uncoated seven-wire strand shall conform to the
requirememits of AASHTO M 203 (ASTM A 416).
Suipplemnent SI (Low-Relaxation) shall apply when
specified.
10.3.1.2 Wire
Uncoated stress-relieved steel wire shall conform to
the requirememits of AASHTO M 204 (ASTM A 421).
10.3.1.3 Bars
Uncoated high-strength bars shall confonin to the re-
qumirementsof AASHTO M 275 (ASTMA 722). Bars with
greater minimum ultimate strength, but otherwise pro-
dumeed and tested in accordance with AASHTO M 275
(ASTM A 722), may be used provided they have not prop-
erties that mnake themii less satisfactory thami time specified
niatenial.
10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers
All anchorages and comuphers shall develop at least 95
percent of the actual umhtiniate strength of the pine-stressing
steel, when tested in an unbonded state, withoiut exceed-
ing anticipated set. The coupling of tendons shall not ne-
dtice the elongation at rupture below the requiremiiemits of
the tendon itself. Couplers and/or coupler comnponemits
shall be enclosed in housings long enough to permiiit the
necessary niovements. Couplers foir tendons shall be used
only at locations specifically indicated and/or approved by
the Engineer. Couplers shall not be used at points oif sharp
tendon cumrvature.
10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems
Bond tramisfer lengths between anchorages and the
zone where full prestressing force is required under sen-
vice and ultimate loads shall nominally be sufficient to de-
velop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the pine-
stressing steel. When anchorages or couplers are located
at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate
strength required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed
the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including
the anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
Housings shall be designed so that complete grouting
of all of the coupler components will be accomplished
during grouting omf tendons.
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems
For unbonded tendons, a dynaniic test shall be per-
formed on a representative anchorage and coupler speci-
men and the tendon shall withstand, without failure,
500.00() cycles front 60 percent to 66 percent omf its mini-
mum specified ultimate strength, and also 50 cycles from
40 percent to 80 percent of its mininiuni specified ultimate
strength. Time period of each cycle involves the change
from the lower stress level to the upper stress level and
back to the lower. The specimen used for the second dy-
namic test need not be the sanie used for the first dynamic
test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or bars may
be tested utilizing a test tendon of smaller capacity thami time
10.3.2.2
501
full-sized tendon. The test temidon shall duplicate the be-
havior of the full-sized tendon and generally shall not have
less than 10 percent of the capacityof the fulh-si7ed tendon.
Dynaniic tests are not required on boinded tendons, unless
the amichorage is located our used in such niaminer that re-
peated load applications cami be expected on the anchorage.
Anchorages for unbonded tendons shall not cause a re-
ductioun in the toital elongation tinder ultimate loiad of the
tendon to less than 2 percent measured in a minimum
gauge length of 10 feet.
All the coupling coniponents shall be completely pro-
tected with a coating material prior to final encasement in
concrete.
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device
Acceptance Test
10.3.2.3.1 The test block shall be a rectangular
prisin. It shall contain those anchorage coniponents which
will also be embedded in the structures concrete. Their
arrangement has to comply with the practical applicatioimi
and the suppliers specifications. The test blouck shall con-
tam an empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum
tendon size which can be accommodated by the anchoir-
age device.
10.3.2.3.2 The dimensions of the test block perpen-
dicular to the tendon in each direction shall be the smaller
of the minimum edge distance or the minimum spacing
specified by the anchorage device supplier, with the stip-
ulation that the cover over any confining reinforcing steel
or supplementary skin reinforcement be appropriate for
the particular application and environinent. The length of
the block along the axis of the tendon shall be at least two
times the larger of the cross-section dimensions.
/0.3.2.3.3 The confining reinforcing steel in the local
zone shall be the same as that specified by the anchorage
device supplier for the particular system.
10.3.2 .3.4 In addition to the anchorage device and its
specified confining reinforcement steel, supplementary
skin reinforcement may be provided throughout the spec-
imen. This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be
specified by the anchorage device supplier but shall not
exceed a volumetric ratio of 0.01.
10.3.2.3 .5 The concrete strength at the time of stress-
ing shall be greater than the concrete strength of the test
specimen at time of testing.
/0.3.2.3.6 Either of three test procedures is ac-
ceptable: cyclic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.7,
sustained loading described in Article 10.3 ~ 3 8 or
mnonotonic loading described in Article IC.3. 2.3.9. The
loads specified for the tests are given in fractions of
the ultimate load F~. of the largest tendoun that the
anchorage device is designed to acconimiiodate. The
specinien shall be loaded in accoirdance with miormal
usage of the device in post-tensioining applications except
that hoiad can be applied directly toi time wedge plate our
equivalent area.
10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test
/0.3.2.3.7. / In a cyclic loading test, the loiad shall be
increased to 0. 8F~. The load shall then be cycled between
0. lFro and 0.8F~. until crack widths stabilize, but for nout
less than 10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized
if they do not change by more than 0.001 in. over the last
three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the
specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if lim-
ited by the capacity of the loading equipment. to at least
I. lF~
10.3.2.3.7.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be
recorded at the initial load of 0.8F~O , at least at the last
three comisecutive peak loadings before termination of the
cyclic loading, and at 0.9F
1,> The maximum load shall
also be reported.
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Te.st
/0.3.2.3.8.1 In asustained loading test, the load shall
be increased to 0.
8Fr, and held constant until crack widths
stabilize but for not less than 48 hours. Crack widths are
considered stabilized if they do not change by more than
0.001 in. over the last three readings. After sustained load-
ing is completed, the specimen shall be preferably loaded
to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading
equipment, to at least I. ~
10.3.2.3.8.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be
recorded at the initial load of 0.8F~, at least three tinies at
intervals of not less than 4 hours during the last 12 hours
before termination of the sustained loading, and during
loading to failure at 0. 9F~. The maximum load shall also
be reported.
10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loadiimg Test
10.3.2.3.9.1 In a monotonic loading test, the load
shall be increased to 0.9F~. and held constant for 1 hour.
The specimen shall then be preferably loaded to failure or,
502
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.3.2.3.9.2
if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at
least I .2F~
10.3.2.3.9.2 Crack widths amid crack patterns shall be
recorded at 0.9F~. after the h-hour period, and at I .0F~
0.
The maximuni Ioad shall also be reported.
10.3.2.3.10 The strength of the anchoraoe zoimme must
C
exceed:
Specimens tested ummider cyclic or sustained
loadimig 1~0
Speciniens tested under niomiotonic loading I .2F~.
The niaximum crack width criteria specified below must
be inet for moderately aggressive environments. For
higher aggressivity environments the crack width criteria
shall be reduced by at least 50 percent.
(I) No cracks greater than 0.010 in. at 0.8F~.
after completion otf the cyclic or sustained loading,
or at 0.9F,,. after the I-hour period for monotonic
loading.
(2) No cracks greater than 0.0 16 in. at 0.9F,,. four
cyclic or sustained loading, or at I . OF~. for nionotonic
loading.
/0.3.2.3. / / A test series shall consist of three test
specimens. Each one of the tested specimens must meet
the acceptance criteria. If one of the three speciniens fails
to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional
specimens is allowed. The three additional test specimen
results inust meet all acceptance criteria of Article
10.3.2.3.10.
For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests
are only required for representative samples unless tests
for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are re-
quiredby the engineer-of-record.
10.3.2.3.12 Records of the anchorage device accep-
tance test shall include:
(I) Dimnensions of the test specimen.
(2) Drawings and dimensions of the anchorage device,
including all confining reinfourcing steel.
(3) Amnount and arrangemnent of supplememitary skimi
reinforce miie nt.
(4) Type amid yield strength of reinfoircing steel.
(5) Type amid compressive strength at time oif testing of
comicrete.
(6) Type of testimig procedure and all nicasurememits
required in Articles 10 3.7 through 10.3.2.3.10 for
each specimen.
10.4 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND
ANCHORAGE HARDWARE
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts
Ducts shall be rigidly suppoirted at the proper locatioins
in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel which are adequate
to prevent disphacenient during concrete placemnent. Sup-
plementary support bars shall be used where needed toi
maintain proper alignment of the duct. Hold-down ties to
the forms shall be used when the buoyancy of the ducts in
the fluid concrete would lift the reinforcing steel.
Joints between sections of duct shall be coupled with
positive connections which do not result in angle changes
at the joints and will prevent the intrusion of cement paste.
After placing of ducts, reinforcenient and forming is
complete, an inspection shall be made to locate possible
duct damage.
All unintentional holes or openings in the duct must be
repaired prior to concrete placing.
Grout openings and vents must be securely anchoredtom
the duct and to either the forms or to reinforcing steel to
prevent displacement during concrete placing operations.
After installation in the forms, the ends of ducts shall
at all tinies be covered as necessary to prevent the entry of
water or debris.
10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains
All ducts for continuous structures shall be vented at
the high points of the duct profile, except where the cur-
vature is small, as in continuous slabs, and at additiomial
locations as shown on the plans. Where freezing comidi-
tions can be anticipated prior to grouting. drains shall be
installed at low point in ducts where needed to prevent the
accumulation of water. Low-point drains shall remiiaimi
open until grouting is started.
The ends of vents and drains shall be remouved 1 inch
below the surface of the concrete after grouting has been
completed, and the void filled with niortar.
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning
Prestressing steel shall be accurately installed in the
forms and held in place by the stressimig jack or temnporary
anchors and, when tendons are to be draped, by hold-
down devices. The hold-down devices used at all points of
change in slope of tendomi trajectory shall be of an ap-
proved Iow-fnictioin type.
Prestressing steel shall not be removed froiii its pro-
tective packaging until imnmediately prior to installation in
10.4.2.1
503
the forms and placement of concrete. Openings in the
packaging shall be resealed as necessary to protect the un-
used steel. While exposed, the steel shall be protected as
needed to prevent corrosion.
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning
All prestressing steel preassenibled in ducts and in-
stalled prior to the placement of concrete shall be accu-
rately placed and held in positioin during concrete place-
ment.
When the prestressing steel is installed after the
concrete has been placed, the Contractor shall demon-
strate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that the ducts are
free of water and debris inimediately prior to installation
of the steel. The total number of strands in an individual
tendon may be pulled into the duct as a unmt, or the
individual strand may be pulled or pushed through
the duct.
Anchorage devices or block-out templates for anchor-
ages shall be set and held so that their axis coincides with
the axis of the tendon and anchor plates are normal in all
directions to) the tendon.
The prestressing steel shall be distributed so that the
force in each girder stem is equal or as required by the
plamis, except as provided herein. For box girders with
more than two girder stems, at the Contractors option, the
prestressing force may vary up to 5 percent from the the-
oretical required force per girder stem provided the re-
quired total force in the superstructure is obtained and the
force is distributed symmetrically about the center line oif
the typical section.
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation
Prestressing steel installed in members piniomin to
placing and curing of the concrete, or installed in the duict
but not grouted within the time hit specified below,
shall be continuously protected against rust or other cor-
rosion by means of a corrosion inhibitor placed in the
ducts or directly applied to) the steel. The prestressing
steel shall be so protected until grouted or encased in con-
crete. Prestressing steel installed and tensiomied iii inein-
bers after placing andcuring of the concrete and grouted
within the time hit specified below will not requmire the
use of a corrosiomn inhibitor described herein and rust
which may forni durumig the interval between tendon in-
stallation and grouting will not be cause for rejection of
the steel.
The perinissible interval betweemi tendon instahhatioin
and grotiting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for van-
ious exposure conditions shall be as follows:
V ery DampAtmosphere or
over Saltwater
(Humidity> 70%)
Moderate Atmosphere
(Humidity from 40% to 70%)
V ery Dry Atmosphere
(Humidity < 40%)
7 days
15 days
20 days
After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at
the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry (if
moisture.
When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning
shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed.
Whenever electric welding is performed on or near
members containing prestressing steel, the welding
ground shall be attached directly to) the steel being
welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be pro-
tected from weld spatter or other damage.
10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware
The constructor is responsible for the proper placement
of all materials according to) the design documents of the
engineer of record and the requirenients stipulated by the
anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise
all due care and attention in the placement of anchorage
hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation oif
concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications to the local
zone details verified under provisions of Articles 9.21.7.3.
in Division I and Article 10.3.2.3 in Division II shall be
approved by both the engineer of record and the anchor-
age device supplier.
10.5 IDENTICATIONAND TESTING
All wire, strand, or bars to be shipped to) the site shall
be assigneda hot number andtagged for identificationpur-
poses. Anchorage assemblies to be shipped shall be like-
wise identified.
Each lot of wire oin bars and each reel of strand rein-
forcement shall be accompanied by a manufacturers cer-
tificate of compliance, a mill certificate, and a test report.
The mill certificate and test report shall include the chem-
ical comnpositiomn (not required for strand), cross-sectional
area, yield and ultimate strengths, elongation at ruptumre,
mmiodulus of elasticity, andthe stress straincurve foir the ac-
tual prestressing steel intended for use. All values certified
shall be based on test values and noniinal sectional areas
of the material being certified.
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer for verifi-
cation testing the samples described in the following sub-
articles selected from each lot. If ordered by the Engineer,
504
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.5
the selection of saniples shall be niade at the maminilbe-
turers phamit by the Inspector
All samples subinitted shall be representative of tIme bit
to be furmiished and, in the case oW wire or strand, shall be
taken front time same master rodl.
The actual strength of the prestressing steel shall not be
less than specified by the applicable ASTM Standard, amitI
shall be determiuimied by tests of represemitative sainples of
time tendomi iiiatenial iii comiformnamice with ASTM Stan-
dards.
All of the materials specified for testing shall be fur-
nished free of cost arid shall be delivered iii tinie four tests
toi be niade well iii advance oif anticipated tine of use.
10.5.1 Pretensionimig Method Tendons
For pretemisioinetl strands. (inc sample at least 7 feet
bug shall be funmiished in accordance with time require-
miiemits oif paragraph 9.1 of AASHTO M 203.
10.5.2 Post-tensioning Method Tendons
The folloiwing lengths shall be furnished for each 20
tom, or portion thiercoif, bit tif niatenial used in the work.
(a) For wires requiring headimig5 feet.
(im) For wires hot requinimig headingsufticient length
to make up one parallel-hay cable 5 feet long consist-
ing of the same miumber of wires as the cable to be fur-
nished.
fe) For stramid to be furnished with fittings 5 feet be-
tween near emids oif fittings.
(d) For bars to be funmiishied with threaded ends amid
nutsS feet betweemi threads at ends.
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers
The Coinitractor shall fumrnish for tesuimig, one specimen
of each size of prestressing tendon, imicluding couplings,
of the selected type. with end fittings and anchorage as-
sembly attached, for strength tests only. These speciniens
shall be 5 feet iii clear length, nmicasured between ends of
fittings. If the results of the test indicate time miecessity oif
check tests, additiomial specimens shall be fuirnished with-
out cost.
Whemi dynamnic testimig is requmired, the Comitractor shall
perforni the testing amid shall furmiish certified copies oif
test results which indicate conformance with the specified
requiremiients prior toi installation of anchoirages or coiu-
jilens.
hor prestressimig systeins previously tested and ap-
proved oin projects having the samiie tendon coinfiguratioun.
the Engineer may noit require coniplete tendon saniples
providedthere is no change iii the nmiaterial, design. on de-
tails previously approved Shop drawings or presuressimig
details shall identify the proiject on which approval was
o)btaimied, oitherwise testino shall be conducted.
10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL
All prestressimig steel shall be protected agaimist phi~si-
cal daniage and rust or other results oif courrosiomi at all
times from manufacture tot grouting. Prestressimug steel
shall also be free oif deleteriniums niatenial such as grease,
oil, wax, tin paimit. Presuressimig steel that has sustained
physical damage at amiy tune shall be rejected. The devel-
opment of pitting or other results of corroision, other than
rust stain, shall be caumse for rejection.
Prestressing steel shall be packaged iii containers (in
shipping forms for the proitectiomi of the strand against
physical damage and comToisioii during shipping amid stor-
age. A corrosion inhibitor which prevents rust or other re-
stilts of corrosion shall be placed iii the package or forin.
or shall be incorpomrated in a corrosiomi imihibitor carrier
type packaging material, or when permitted by the Emigi-
neer, may be applied directly to time steel. Time corrosion
inhibitor shall have ito deleterious effect on time steel or
concrete or bond strength of steel to concrete or orout
C
Packaging or forms daniaged from any cause shall be un-
mediately replaced or restored to origimial conditiomi.
The shipping package or form shall be clearly marked
wtth a statement that the package contaimis high-strength
prestressingsteel, and time type of corrosioninhibitor used.
including the date packaged.
All anchorages, endfittings, couplers, and exposed ten-
dons, which will not be encased in concrete or grout iii the
completed work, shall be permanently protected against
corrosion.
10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR
Corrosion inhibitor shall comisist of a vapor hihiase in-
hibitor (V PI) powder comifonniimig to time provisions of Fed-
eral Specification MIL-P-3420 or as otherwise approved
by the Engineer. When approved, water soluble oil may be
used on tendomis as a corrosion inhibitor.
10.8 DUCTS
Ducts used to provide holes or voids in time comnmerete
for the placement of post-temismoned boimided tendons
niay be either formed with rcmiiovable comes or niay coin-
sist oif rigid or semi-rigid ducts which are cast into time
coincrete.
10.8
DIV ISION TICONSTRUCTION
St)5
Ducts forined with remnovable cores shall be fornied
with no constrictions which would tend to block time
passage oif grout. All coring mmiaterials shall be renioved.
Dumets fonined by sheath left in place shall be a
type that will noit permit the intrusion of cemnent paste.
They shall transfer bond stresses as required and shall
retaimi shape umiider the weight oif the comicrete and shall
have sufficient strength toi inaintaini their correct
aligninemit withoiut visible woibble during placenienit of
coincrete.
10.8 .1 Metal Ducts
Sheathing for ducts shall be metal, except as provided
herein. Sumehi duets shall be galvanized ferroums inetal amid
shall be fabricated with either welded (in interlocked
seamiis. Galvanizing of welded seams will noit be required.
Rigid ducts shall have smooth inner walls and shall be ca-
pable of being curved toi time proper comifignmration withoiut
cninipino ow flattening. Semi-rigid ducts shall be
corrugated and wimemi tendons are toi be inserted after the
concrete has beemi placed their minimnum wall thickmiess
shall be as follows: 26 gauge four ducts less than or equal
to 2~/-mn. dianieter, 24 gauge for ducts greater than
2%~-in. diameter. When bar tendoins are preassembled
with such ducts. the duct thickness shall not be less than
31 gauge.
10.8 .2 Polyethylene Duct
As an alternative to metal ducts, dumets four transverse
temidomis in deck slabs and at other locations where shown
our approved nay be of high density polyethylene, coin-
forming to the miiaterial requirements of ASTM D 33Sf).
Polyethylene duct shall not be used when the radius of
curvature of the tendon is less than 30 feet.
Semi-rigid polyethylene ducts for use where com-
pletely embedded in concrete shall be corrugated
with minimum material thickness of 0.050~0.0l0 inch.
Such ducts shall have a white coating on the outside, or
shall be of white material with ultraviolet stabilizers
added.
Rigid poilycuhylenme ducts for use where time tendomi is
noit embedded in coimicrete shall be rigid pipe manufac-
tured in accordance with ASTM 1) 2447, ASTM F 714,
ASTM 1)2239. oirASTM 1)30. For external applications,
such duct shall have ami external dianieter tou wall thickness
ratio of 2 1 or less.
For applications where polyethylene duct is exposed to
sunlight our ultraviolet light, carbomn black shall be incor-
porated into the polyethylene pipe resin in such amoiunt tot
provide resistance to ultraviolet degradation in accor-
dance with ASTM D I 248.
10.8 .3 Duct Area
Time inside dianieter of duets shall be at least - iii.
larger than time noimmuinal dianieter of single wire, bar. on
strand tendomns, or in the case of mumluiple wire, bar (in
stramid tendons, the inside cross-sectiomnal area of the
sheathing shall be at least twoi tines time miet area of the pine-
stressimig steel. When temitlons are toi be placed by time ptmll
throinigh miietimod, time dumet area shall be at least 2/ timnes
the net area of time prestressing steel.
10.8 .4 Duct Fittings
Coupling amid tramisitiomi fittings four dm.mct s formed by
sheathing shall be oif either ferrous nietal or polyethylene.
amid shall be cenient paste intrusion proof amid of suifFicient
strength tol prevent distortion our displacemiient oif the ducts
during concrete placemiiemit.
All ducts or amicimourage assemblies shall be provided
with pipes or other suitable conneetiomis at each endoif tIme
duet for the injection of grout after prestressing. As spec-
ified in Article 10.4.1.1, duets shall alsoi be provided with
ports for vemiting or groumting at high points and for draimi-
ing at intermediate low points.
V emit and drain pipes shall be
2-inch nimnimuni dianne-
ter standard pipe or suitable plastic pipe. Coitnection tom
ducts shall be made with nietallic or plastic structural fas-
teners. The vents anddrains shall be mortar tight, taped as
necessary, and shall provide means for injeetioun of grout
through the vents and for sealing to prevent leakage of
grout.
10.9 GROUT
Materials for use in making groult which is to be placed
in the ducts after tendons arc post-tensioned shall coiifourmn
to the foillowing.
10.9.1 Portland Cement
Portlamid cememit shall conform to oimie tif the ftillowimig:
Specifications for Poirtland CemenuAASHTO M 8S,
Types I, IL. or III. Cement used four grointing shall be fresh
and shall not contaimi any lumiips our other imidication of hy-
dration or pack set.
10.9.2 Water
The water used in the groinit shall be poitable. clean, and
free nif injurious quantities of substamices kmiowmi toi be
harmful to Portland cenient or prestressing steel.
10.9.3
10.9.3 Admixtures
Admixtures. if used, shall impart the properties oif hoiw-
water content, goiotd flowabihity, minimum bleed, and cx-
pansio)n if desired. They shall contain no chemicals in
quantities that may have harmful effect on the prestress-
ing steel or cement. Admixtures which, at the dosage
used, contain chlorides in excess of 0.005 percent of the
weight of the cement used or contain any fluorides, sul-
phites, and nitrates shall not be uised.
When a grout expanding admixture is required, Olin is
used at the Contractors option, it shall be well dispersed
through the other admixtumres and shall proiduce a 2 to 6-
percent unrestrained expansion oif the groiumt.
Amount of adinixture to obtain a desired aniount of
expansion shall be determined by tests. If the source of
manufacture or brand of either admixture our cemnent
changes after testing, new tests shall be coindueted to de-
termine proper proportions.
All admixtures shall be used in accordance with the in-
structions of the inanufacturein.
10.10 TENSIONING
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements
Prestressing steel shall be tensioned by hydraulic jacks
so as to) produce the forces shown on the plans or on the
approved working drawing with appropriate allowances
for all losses. Losses to be provided for shall be as speci-
fied in Divisiomi I, Article 9. 16. For post-tensioned work
the losses shall also include the anchor set loss appropri-
ate for the anchorage system employed.
For pretensioned niembers, the strand stress prior toi
seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80 percent of the
minimum ultimate tensile strength oif time prestressimig
steel (0.80 f~). This allowable stress, which slightly ex-
ceedsthe valumes allowed in Division I, Article 9.15.1, may
be perinitted toi oiffset seating losses and to accoinmodate
compensation for teniperatumre differences specified in Ar-
ticle 10.5.2
Four poist-tensioined members, the stranol stress prior tni
seating (jacking stress) and time stress in the steel imniedi-
atehy after seating shall not exceed the values allowed in
Division I, Article 9.15.1.
The methoid of tensioning employed shall be one ouf
the following as specified or approved:
I) Pretemisionimig; in which time prestressimig stranol or
tendons are stressed prior to being embedded in the
coincrete placed for the ineinber. After the coinerete has
attained the required strength. the prestressinig force is
released from the external anchorages and transferred,
by bond, into the concrete.
(2) Post-tensioning: in which the reinforcing tendons
are installed in voids or ducts within the concrete and
are stressed andanchored against the concrete after the
development of the required concrete strength. As a
final oiperation under this method, the voids or duets
are pressure-grouted.
(3) Combined Method; in which part of the reinforce-
rent is pretensioned and part post-tensioned. Under
this method all applicable requirements for preten-
sioning and for post-temisiomning shall apply toi the re-
spective reinforcing ehemnents umsing these methods.
During stressing of strand, individual wire failures miiay
be accepted by the Engineer, provided noit more than one
wire in any strand is broken and the area oif broken wires
does not exceed 2 percent of the total area of time pre-
stressing steel in the member.
10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength
Prestressing forces shall not be applied or transferred
to the concrete until the concrete has attained the strength
specified for initial stressing. In addition, cast-in-place
concrete for other than segmentally constructed bridges
shall not be post-tensioned until at least 10 days after the
last concrete has been placed in the member to be post-
terms ioined.
10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment
Hydraulic jacks used to stress tendons shall be capable
of providing and sustaining the necessary forces and shall
be equipped with either a pressure gauge or a load cell four
detcrniining the jacking stress. The jacking systein shall
provide an independent means by which the tendon eloin-
gation can be nieasured. The pressure gauge shall have an
accurately reading dial at least 6 inches in dianieter o~ a
digital display, and each jack and its gatige shall be cali-
brated as a unit with the cylinder extensioin in the approx-
imate positioun that it will be at final jacking force, and shall
be accompanied by a certified calibration chart our curve.
The load cell shall be calibrated and shall be provided with
an indicator by nicans of which the prestressing force in
the tendon may be deterniined. The range oif the loah cell
shall be such that time lower If) percent ouf the manufac-
turers rated capacity will not be nised iii determninimig the
jacking stress. When approved by the Engineer, calibrated
proiving rings may be umsed in lieu of load cells.
Recalibration of gauges shall be repeated at least an-
nually and whenever gauge pressumres and elomigatiomis in-
dicate materially different stresses.
10.10.1.2
507
Only oxygen flame or mnechamiical cutting devices shall
be used to cut stramid after installation in the meniber our
after stressing. Electric arc welders shall not be used.
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing
When the sequence of stressing individual tendons is
not otherwise specified, the stressing of post-tensioning
tendons and the release of pretensioned tendons shall be
done in a sequence that produces a mininium of eccentric
force in the inember.
10,10.1.4 Measurement of Stress
A recordof gatige pressures amid tendon elongations for
each tendon shall be provided by the Contractor for re-
view and approval by the Engineer. Elongations shall he
measured to an accuracy of +/,, inch. Stressing tails of
post-tensioned tendomns shall not be cut off until the stress-
ing records have been approved.
The stress in tendons during tensioning shall be deter-
mined by the gauge or load cell readings and shall be ver-
ified with the measured elongations. Calculations of an-
ticipated elongations shall utilize the modulus of
elasticity, based on nominal area, as furnishedby the man-
ufacturer for the lot of steel being tensioned, or as deter-
mined by a bench test of strands used in the work.
All tendons shall be tensioned to a preliminary
force as necessary to eliminate any take-up in the ten-
sioning system before elongation readings are started.
This preliminary force shall be between S and 25 percent
of the final jacking force. The initial force shall be
measured by a dynamometer or by other approved
method, so that its amount can be used as a check against
elongation as coniputed and as measured. Each strand
shall be marked prior to final stressing to permit mea-
surement of elongation and to insure that all anchor
wedges set properly.
It is anticipated that there may be discrepancy in indi-
cated stress between jack gauge pressure and elongation.
In such event, the load used as indicated by the gauge
pressure. shall produce a slight over-stress rather than
under-stress. When adiscrepancy between gauge pressure
and elongation of more than 5 percent in tendons over 50
feet long or 7 percent in tendons of 50 feet or less in length
occurs, the entire operation shall be carefully checked and
the source of error determined and corrected before pro-
ceeding further. When provisiomial duets are provided for
addition of prestressing force in event of an apparent force
deficiemicy in tendomns over 50 feet houng, the discrepancy
between the force indicated by gauge pressure and elon-
gation may be increased to 7 percent before investigation
intou the source of the error.
10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements
Stressing shall be accomplished by either single strand
stressing or niultiple strand stressing. The amount of
stress to be given each strand shall be as shown iii the
plans or the approved working drawings.
All strand to be stressed in a group (multiple strand
stressing) shall be brought to a uniforni initial tension
prior to being given their full pretensioning. The aniount
of the initial tensioning force shall be within the range
specified in 10.5.1.4 and shall be time minimum required to
eliminate all shack and to equalize the stresses in the ten-
dons as determined by the Engineer. The amount of this
force will be influenced by the length of the casting bed
and the size and nuniber of tendons in the groupto be ten-
sioned.
Draped pretensioned tendons shall either be tensioned
partially by jacking at the end of the bed and partially by
uplifting or depressing tendons, or they shall be tensioned
entirely by jacking, with the tendons being held in their
draped positions by means of rollers, pins, or other ap-
proved methods during the jacking operation.
Approved how-friction devices shall be used at all
points of change in slope ouf tendon trajectory when ten-
siomning draped pretensioned strands, regardless of the ten-
sioning method used.
If the load for a draped strand, as determined by elomi-
gation measurements, is more than 5 percent less than that
indicated by the jack gauges, the strand shall be tensioned
from both ends of the bed and the load as computed from
the sum of elongation at both ends shall aoree within 5
C
percent of that indicated by the jack gauges.
When ourdered by the Engineer, prestressimig steel
strands in pretensioned members, if tensioned individu-
ally, shall be checked by the Contractor for loss of pine-
stress not more than 3 hours prior to placing concrete for
the members. The method and equipnient for checking the
loss of prestress shall be subject to approval by the Engi-
neer. All strands that show a loss of prestress in excess of
3 percent shall be retensioned to the original computed
jacking stress.
Stress on all strands shall be maintained between ami-
chorages until the concrete has reached the conipressive
strength required at time of transfer of stress to concrete.
When prestressing steel in pretensioned members is
tensioned at a teniperature more than 25
0F lower than the
estimated temperatumre of the councrete and the prestressing
steel at the time of imuitial set tif the concrete, the calculated
elongation of the prestressimig steel shall be increased toi
compensate for the loss in stress, due to the change in tern-
perature, but in no case shall the jacking stress exceed 80
percent of the specified mimiimumm ultimate temisile suremigth
of the prestressing steel.
508 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10. 10.2
Strand splicing methods and devices shall be approved
by the Engineer. When single strandjacking is used, only
one splice per strand will be permitted. When multi-strand
jacking is used, either all strands shall be spliced or no
more than 10 percent of the strands shall be spliced.
Spliced strands shall be similar in physical properties,
from the same source, and shall have the sanie twi~It oin
lay. All splices shall be located outside of the pre-
stressed units.
Side and flange forms that restrain deflection shall be
removed before release of pretensioning reinforcement.
Except when otherwise shown on the plans, all preten-
sioned-prestressing strands shall be cut off flush with the
end of the member and the exposed ends of the stramid amid
a I-inch strip of adjoining concrete shall be cleaned and
painted. Cleaning shall be by wire brushing or abrasive
blast cleaning to remove all dirt and residue that is not
firmly bonded to the metal or concrete surfaces. The sur-
faces shall be coated with one thick coat of zinc-rich paint
conforming to the requirememits of Federal Specification
TT-P-641 .The paint shall be thoroughly mixed at the time
of application, and shall be worked into any voids in the
strands.
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements
Prior to post-tensioning any inember, the Contractoir
shall demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that
the prestressing steel is free and unbonded in the duct.
All strands in each tendon, except for those in flat ducts
with not more than four strands, shall be stressed simulta-
neously with a multi-strand jack.
Tensioning shall be accomplished so as to provide the
forces and elongations specified in Article 10.5.1.
Except as provided herein or when shown on the
plans or on the approived working drawings, tendons
in continuous post-tensioned members shall be ten-
sioned by jacking at each end of the tendon. For straight
tendons and when one end stressing is shown on the
plans, tensioning may be performed by jacking from one
end or both ends of the tendon at the option of the
Contractor.
10.11 GROUTING
10.11.1 General
When the post-tensioning method is used, the pine-
stressing steel shall be provided with permanemit protec-
tion and shall be bonded to the concrete by completely
filling the void space between the duct andthe tendon with
grout.
10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts
All ducts shall be clean and free of deleterious materi-
als that would impair bonding or interfere with groiuting
procedures.
Duets with concrete walls (cored duets) shall be
flushed to ensure that the concrete is thoiroughly wetted.
Metal dumets shall be flushed if necessary to remove dele-
terious material.
Water used for flushing ducts may contain slack lime
(calcium hydroxide) or quickhinie (calcium oxide) in the
amoumnt of 0. 1 lb per gallon.
After flushing, all water shall be blown out of the duet
with oil-free compressed air.
10.11.3 Equipment
The grouting equipnient shall include a mixer capable
of continuous mechanical mixing which will produce a
grout free oif lumps andundispersed cement, agrout pump
and standby flushing equipment with water supply. The
ecluipment shall be able to pump the mixed grout in a
manner which will comply with all requirements.
Accessory equipment which will provide for accurate
solid and liquid measures shall be provided to batch all
materials.
The pump shall be a positive displacement type and be
able to produce an outlet pressure of at least 150 psi. The
pump should have seals adequate to prevent introduction
of oil, air, or other foreign substance into the grout, andto
prevent loss of grout or water.
A pressure gauge having a full-scale reading of no
greater than 300 psi shall be placed at some point in the
gro)ut line between the pump outlet and the duct inlet.
The grouting equipment shall contain a screen having
clear openings of 0.125-inch maximum size to screen the
grout prior to its introduction into the grout pump. If a
grout with a thixotropic additive is used, a screen opening
of Y~ inch is satisfactory. This screen shall be easily ac-
cessible for inspection and cleaning.
The grouting equipment shall utilize gravity feed to the
pump inlet from a hopper attached to and directly over it.
The hopper must be kept at least partially full of grout at
all times during the pumping operatiomi to prevent air from
being drawn into the post-tensioning duct.
Under normal conditions, the grouting equipment shall
be capable of continuously grouting the largest tendon (in
the project in no more than 20 minutes.
10.11.4 Mixing of Grout
Water shall be added to the mixer first, followed by
Portland cement and admixture, or as required by the ad-
mixture manufacturer.
10.11.4
509
Mixing shall be of such duration as to obtain a uniform,
thoroughly blended grout, without excessive temperature
increase or loss of expansive properties of the admixture.
The grout shall be continuously agitated until it is puniped.
Water shall not be added to) increase grout flowability
which has been decreased by delayed use of the grout.
Proportions of materials shall be based on tests made
on the grout before grouting is begun, or may be selected
based on priour documented experience with similar mate-
rials and equipment and under coniparable field condi-
tio)ns (weather, temperature, etc.). The water content shall
be the minimuni necessary for proiper placement, and
when Type I or II cenient is used shall not exceed awater-
cement ratio of 0.45 or approximnately 5 oahlons of water
per sack (94 Ib) of cement.
The water content required foir Type III cenient shall be
established for a particular brand based on tests.
The pumpabihity of the grout may be determined by the
Engineer iii accordance with the U.S. Corps of Engineers
Method CRD-C79. When this method is used, the efflux
time of the grout saniphe inimnediately after niixing shall
not be less than II seconds. The flow cone test does not
apply to) grout which incorporates a thixotropie additive.
10.11.5 Injection of Grout
All grout and high-poimit vent openings shall be open
when groiuting starts. Grout shall be alloiwed to) flow fromn
the first vent after the inlet pipe until any residumal flushing
water or entrapped air has been remoived, at which time
the vent should be capped or otherwise closed. Remain-
ing vents shall be closed in sequence in the sanie manner.
The puniping pressure at the tendon inlet shall not ex-
ceed 250 psi.
If the actual grouting pressure exceeds the maximum
recomniendedpumpimig pressure, grout may be injected at
any vent which has been, or is ready to be capped as long
as aone-way flow of grout is inaintained. Ifthis procedure
is used, the vent which is to be used for injection shall be
fitted with a positive shutoff.
When one-way flow of grout cannoit be maintained, the
grout shall be inimediately flushed out of the duet with
water.
Grouit shall be pumped through the duct and continu-
ously wasted at the outlet pipe until no visible slugs of
water or air are ejected and the efflux time of the ejected
grout, as nieasured by a flow come test, if used, is not less
thami that of the injected grout. To ensure that the tendomn
remains filled with grout, the outlet shall then be closed
and the pumping pressure allowed to build to a minimum
of 75 psi before the inlet vent is closed. Plugs, caps, or
valves thus required shall not be removed our opened until
the grout has set.
10.11.6 Temperature Considerations
When temperatures are below 32
0F, ducts shall be kept
free of water to avoid damage due to) freezimig.
The temuperature of the concrete shall be 350F or higher
froin time tune of grouting until job cured 2-inch cubes of
grout reach a niinimnuni conipressive strength of 800 psi.
Grout shall not be above 900F during mixing or pumnp-
ing. If necessary, the mixing water shall be eooiled.
10.12.1 Measurement
The prestressing of cast-in-place concrete will be nica-
sured by the lump suni four each iteni ow location listed in
the schedule of bid items.
10.12.2 Payment
No separate payment will be niade for prestressimig pre-
cast concrete members. Payment for prestressing precast
concrete nienibers shall be considered as included in the
contract price paid for the precast members as proivided
for in Section 8, Concrete Structures.
The contract lump sum price paid for prestressing cast-
in-place concrete shall include fuill compensation four fur-
nishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment and inciden-
tals, and for doing all work involved in furnishing,
placing, and tensioning the prestressing steel in cast-in-
place concrete structures, complete in place, as shown on
the plans, as specified in these specifications and the spe-
cial provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Full compensation for furnishing and placing addi-
tional concrete and deformed bar reinforcing steel re-
quired by the particular systein used, duets, anchoring de-
vices, distribution plates or assemblies and incidental
parts, for furnishing samples for testing, working draw-
ings, and for pressure grouting ducts shall be considered
as included in the contract lump sum price paid for pine-
stressing cast-in-place concrete or in the contract price for
furnishing precast members, andnoi additional conipemisa-
tion will be allowed therefore.
Section 11
STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL
11.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of furmiishimig, fabricating, and
erecting steel structures amid structural steel portions of
oither structures in accordance with these Specifications,
time Special Proivisions and the details showmi oii the plaiis.
The structural steel fabnicatimig plant shall be certified
under the AISC Quality Certificatioin Programii, Category
I. Time fabrication oif fracture critical ineinbers shall be
Category Ill.
i)etails oif design which are perinitted to) be selected by
time Contractor shall comiform to Divisioin I of these speci
ficatiOmis.
Paimitimig shall coinfbrm toi the provisiomis of Sectiomi 13,
Paimiting. 0)1 these specificatiomns
Falsework tiseol iii the ereetiommi of structural steel shah I
conhormii to the Iiroi\ isio)n5 of Sectiomi 3, Temimporany
\V orks. of these specificatiomis
Structural co)miihio)miemits designateti omm the hilans on ii
time shiecial ~ as fruettmre critical shah I etimiform
toi the ~incivisiociisoif Chapter I 2 of time ANS//AASiIT()/
A WS 1) / .5 Bridge Welding Code
Welohimig and weld t
1uahification tests shall conJorm to
the provisions of the cuinremit ANSI/lASiIiY )//tWN [)/5
B ridgo We/ding (ode
11.1.2 Notice of Beginmming of Work
lime Contractor shah I e i\e time I:migi micer anihihe miotiec
time beginning of so oink at the mill oin iii the shmoip. sci that in
slice t i out mmmv be pnois i the oh Time temmii mmii II incan s ans
inc I line mm mill cur iii ti nd m\ wlucre iii ateri aI loin the sooiink is
be nmanufactumi-etl. No in:iiciial shall lie mamiuf:ictunctl. oem
wounk done in time shop. before the Engimiecin has beemi so
noit if ied
11.1.3 Inspection
Simuctomial steel will lie ilishiectetl at rime fabritatmoin site.
lime Contractor shall furnish mci time Fugiemeem a copN cit
all mill orders and certified mill test reports. Mill test re-
ports shall show the chemical analysis and physical test
results for each heat of steel used iii the work.
With the approval of the Engineer, certificates of com-
phiamice shall be furnished in lieu of null test reports for
material that nornially is not supplied with mill test re-
ports, and for itemits such as fills, ininor gusset plates amid
similar niatenial when quantities are small and the niater-
ial is taken froini stock.
Certified miiill test repoirts four steels with specificol
inipact values shall inchuide, iii additiotn to (ithie2in test re-
sults, the results of Charpy V -mioiteh impact tests. Whemi
fine grain practice is specified, the test repcwt shall
coinfirmii that the material was sti proiduced. Coipies ouf mill
oirders shall be furnished at time timiie oirders are placeth
withi the nianufacturer. Certified mull test repoiinus antI
Certificates oif Coimnphiaiiee shall be ftmrmiisimeoh hirior tci tIme
start oil fabrication oif material coivered by these repoirts
~FhieCertificate oif Coiiipliamice shall be sigmicol by the
nianmuifacturer amid shall certify that mime miiateinial is in
c(iiifoirmiialice with the specifmcatioinis toi whiicli it has been
inamitifactured.
Material to) be tiseth shall be matle available tci thic
Engimiecin soi that each piece cami be exanmineth The En g
teen shall I-cave free access at all times toi ami hicciticili 0)1
the fabricat i eon site wIt crc time immaterial is st 0 red oi r so bee
work tin t hue niateriaI is be i lie pe ifounituc.th
11.1.4 Inspectors Authority
i~hie litsped our shall hi ave t lie aoil hi oini t \ iou reject muateni
als (in workmanship which tloi molt fuillill the lcthuliieiiieiit~
of these Speciticatiouns him cases cit thishiuite. thic (~eimmtr,ccteun
nay ahihical to the Fnginetr. whose thecisicimi shall be final
Inspection at the miiihl antI shoip is intenoled :cs a means
oil lacihitating tIme soocink antI as oithimig encurs. amitl ii is es
presslv umndeinsrcuceth that it ovihl iuot rc2liesc the Coutractomn
of any mespoinsihiihitv in regarci to defective material cci
so ourkmiiamishiip and the necessity for lehilacilie the same
~l~Iie acceptance eit any ni ate ri al cur finis Iieth in cmii hers 135
time Inshiectour shall nout lie a bar Ici thitir stibseqoment repec
tio)li, if foummith thetective Rejecteol materials auth so cirknman
511
512
HIGHWAY BRI[)GES
11.1.4
ship shall be replaced as soomi as practical or courreeted by
the Cointractoir.
The Contractor shall expressly understand that the En-
gineers approval of the working drawings submitted by
the Contractor covers the requirements for strength and
detail, and that the Engineer assumes no responsibility
for errors in dimensiomis.
Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer
prior to performance of the work involved and such ap-
proval shall not relieve time Contractor of any responsibil-
ity under the contract four the successful completion of the
work.
11.2.1 Shop Drawings
The Contractour shall suibmit coupies of the detailed shop
drawings toi the Engineer for approval. Working drawings
shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of the start of the
affectedwork tom allow tinie for review by time Engineer and
corrections by the Contractor withoiut delaying the work.
Working drawings for steel structures shall give fuill
detailed diniensions and sizes of component parts of the
structure and details of all miscellaneous parts, such as
pins, nuts, bolts. drains,~~tc.
Where specific orientation of plates is required, the di-
rection ouf roilling tif plates shall be showit.
Working drawings shall specifically identify each
piece that is to be made oif steel which is to be other than
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 steel.
11.2.2 Erection Drawings
The Cnintractour shall subniit tirawings illustrating fully
his on her proposed nicuhoud of erection. The drawings
shall show details ouf all falsewoirk bents, bracing, guys,
dead-men, lifting devices, and attachments to the bridge
niembers: sequence of erectioun, location of cranes and
barges, crane capacities, location of lifting points oin the
bridge niembers, amid weights oif the members. Time plan
anddrawings shall be coniplete in detail for all anticipated
phases and conditions during erection. Calculations may
be required to demonstrate that allowable stresses are not
exceeded and that member capacities and final geometry
will be correct.
11.2.3 Camber Diagram
A eanmiber diagram shall be furnished to the Emigimicer
by the Fabnicatoir, shouwinig the caniber at each panel point
in the eases cif trusses our arch ribs:~ and at the hoieatioimi of
field splices and fractions ouf span length ( 4 points nimmim-
mum) in the cases of continuous beam and girders our rigid
frames. The camber diagrani shall shouw calculated cant-
hers to be used in preassembly of the structure in accoir-
dance with Article 11.5.3.
11.3 MATERIALS
11.3.1 Structural Steel
11.3.1.1 General
Steel shall be furnished according to the following
specifications. The grade our grades of steel to be furnished
shall be as shown on the plans or specified.
All steel for use in main load-carrying member com-
ponents subject to tensile stress shall conform to the ap-
plicable Charpy V -Notch Impact Test requirenients of
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709).
11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel
Unless otherwise specified, structural carboii steel
for houlted or welded construetiomi shall conform toi: Struc-
tural Steel for Bridges. AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Grade 36.
11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
Steel
High-strength low-alloy steel shall conform toi:
Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM
A 709) Grades 50 or SOW.
11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched
and Tempered Structural Steel Plate
High-strength, low-alloy quenched and tempered steel
plate shall conform tou AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Grade 70W.
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and
Tempered Alloy Steel Plate
High-yield strength. quenched, and tenipered alloy
steel plate shall conforni to:
(a) Structural Steel for Bridges. AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 100 or 100W.
(b) Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural
shapes and seamless mechanical tubing. ineeting all oif
11.3.1.5
513
the meeimamiical and chemical requmirememits ouf A 709
Grades 100 our 100W steel, except that the specified
maximnum tensile strength may be 140,000 psi four
structural shapes and 145,000 psi for seaniless me-
chanical tubing, shall be considered as A 709 Grades
100 and 100W steel.
11.3.1.6 Eyebars
Steel for eyebars shall be ouf a weldable grade. These
grades include structural steel conforming to:
(a) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grade 36.
(b) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 50 and SOW.
11.3.1.7 Structural Thbing
Structural tubing shall be either cold-formed welded or
seamless tubing conforming to ASTM 500, Grade B or
hot-formed welded or seamless tubing conforming to
ASTM 501.
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners
11.3.2.1 Material
High-strength bolts for structural steel joints shall eon-
foirm to either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or
AASI-ITO M 253 (ASIM A 490). When high-strength
boults are used with unpainted weathering grades of steel.
the bolts shall be Type 3.
The suipphier shall provide a lot miumber appearing on
the shipping package and a certification noting when amid
where all testing was done, including rotational capacity
tests, and zinc thickmiess when galvanized bolts and nuts
are used.
The maximnuni hardness foirAASHTO M 164 (ASTM
A 325) boults I or less in diameter shall be 33 HRC.
Prouofloiad tests (ASTM F606 Method I) are required
four the bolts. Wedge tests oif full-sized bolts are required
in aceourdanee with Section 8.3 of AASHTO M 164. Gal-
vanized bolts shall be wedge tested after galvanizimig.
Pruouf load tests (AASHT() M 291) are required for the
nuts. The pruouf load tests for nuts to be umsed with galva-
nized bolts shall be performed after galvanizing, overtap-
ping. and lubricating.
Except as noted below, miuts for AASHTO M 164
(ASIM A 325) bolts shall conform to AASHTO M 291
(ASTM A 563) grades DH. DH3, C. C3, and D or
AASHTO M 292 (ASTM A 194) grades 2 and 2H. Numts
for AASHTO M 253 (ASIM A 490) boults shall coumifoirni
to the requirenients ouf AASIITO M 291 (ASTM A 563)
grades DH and DH3 (in AASHTO M 292 (ASIM A 194)
grade 2H.
Nuts to be galvanized (hot-dip or mechanically gal-
vanized) shall be heat treated grade 2H, DH. or DH3.
Plain (ungalvanized) nuts shall have a minimuim
hardness of 89 HRB.
Nuts to be used with AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A
325) Type 3 bolts shall be of grade C3 or DH3. Nuts
to be used with AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts shall be of grade DH3.
All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated with a lubricant
containing avisible dye. Black bolts must be oily to touch
when delivered and installed.
Washers shall be hardenedsteel washers eonforniing to
the requirenients of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) and
Article 11.5.6.4.3.
11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) for bolts and time
specifications referenced therein for nuts require that bolts
and nuts manufactured to the specification be identified by
specific markings on the top of the bolt head and on one
face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by
the symbol A 325, the manufacturer and the type, if type
2 or 3. Nut markings must identify the grade, time manu-
facturer and if type 3, the type. Markings on direct tension
indicators must identify the manufactuminer and type 325.
Other washer niarkings must identify the nianufacturer
and if type 3, the type.
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) for bolts and the
specifications referenced therein four nuts require that buhts
and nuts manufactured toi time speeifieatioins be identified
by specific markings on the toip uf time bolt head and on one
face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by
the symbol A490, the manufacturer amid the type, if type
2 on 3. Nut markings muist identify the grade, the marmum-
facturer and if type 3. the type. Markings tin direct tension
indicators must identify the manufacturer and type 490.
Other washer niarkings must identify the nianumfacturer
and if type 3, the type.
11.3.2.3 Dimensions
Bolt and nuit diniemisions shall counform to the requmire-
merits for Heavy Hexagon Structural Bolts and four Heavy
Semi-Finished Hexagon Nuits given in ANSI Standard
B 18.2.1 and B 18.2.2, respectively.
514
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
II .3.2.4
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners
When fasteners are galvanized, they shall be specified
tou be hoit-dip galvanized in aecourdanee with AASHTO M
232 (ASIM A 153) Class C our, niechanically galvanized
in aecourdamice with AASIITO M 298 (ASTM B 695) Class
St). Bolts to be galvanized shall be either AASHTO M 164
tASiM A 325) Type I or Type 2 except that Type 2 boults
shall only be mechanically galvanized. Galvanized boilts
shall be tensioin tested after galvanizing. Washers, nuts
and boilts oif any assenibly shall be galvanized by the samne
hiroicess. The molts should be overtapped toi the miiimiimuni
anioummit requmired four time fastener assemnbly, and shall be hum-
bricated with a lumbnicant cointaimming a visible dye so a vis-
ual cheek can be made for the lubricant at the tine of field
installation. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) boults shall
not be galvanized.
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners
Other fastemmers our fastener asseniblies which ineet the
materials, inanufacturimig, and chemical comptisitiomi re-
qumirements oif AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or
AASHTO M 253 (ASTMA 490), and which meet the nie-
elianical proiperty requirements of the same specification
in full-sized tests, and which have body dianieter and
bearing areas under the head and nut, or their equmivalent.
nout less than thouse provided by a bolt and nut of the same
nominal dimensions prescribed in Art. 11.3.2.3, may be
used, subject to the approval of the Engineer. Such alter-
nate fastemiers may differ in other dimensions finouni those
of the specified bolts and nuts.
Subject tu the approval of the Engineer, high-strength
steel lock-pin and collar fasteners may be used as an
alternate for high-strength bolts as shown omi the plans.
The shank and head of high-strength steel hock-pin amid
coullar fasteners shall meet the requirements of Art.
11.3.2.3. Each fastener shall proivide a solid shank body
of sufficient diameter to provide tensile and shear
strength equivalent to our greater thami that of the bolt
specified, shall have a cold forged head on one end, of
type and dimensions as approved by the Engineer, a
shank length suitable for material thickness fastened,
locking grooves, breakneck groove and pull grooves (all
annular grooves) on the opposite end. Each fastener shall
provide a steel locking collar of proper size for shank di-
ameter used which, by means of suitable installation
touols. is cold swaged into the locking grooves forming
head for the grooved end of the fastener after the pull
groove section has been removed. The steel locking col-
lar shall be a standard product of an established manu-
facturer of hockpin and collar fasteners, as approved by
the Engineer.
11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices
Load indicating devices inay be used in coinjumnetioun
with bolts, nuts, and washers specified in Article 11.3.2.1.
Loiad indicating devices shall confoniii tou time requiremiiemits
oif ASTM Specifieatioin four Counipressible-Washer Type
Direct Tensiomi Indicatours For Use with Structural Fasten-
ers, ASTM F 959. except as provided in the foillouwimig
paragraph.
Suibject tou the approival oif time Emigimicer. alternate desigmi
direct tensioin imidicating devices miiay be tised provided
they satisfy the requirenients of Article 11.5.6.4.6 our either
reoluireinents detailed iii specifications prouvided by the
inanumfactumner and subject no the approval of the Engineer.
11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors
11.3.3.1 Materials
Shear connector studs shall conform to the require-
muiemits ouf Cold Finished-Carbon Steel Bars amid Shafting.
AASHTO M 169 (ASTMA 108). cold drawn bars, grades
lOIS, 1018, our 1020, either semi-or fuilly killed. Ifflux re-
taining caps are used, the steel for the caps shall be ouf a
hoiw carbon grade suitable four welding and shall coiniply
with Cold-Roulled Carbon Steel Strip, ASTM A 109.
Tensile properties as determined by tests ouf bar stoick
after drawing or oif finished studs shall conforni to the hol-
lowing requirements:
Tensile strength 60,000 psi (mimi.)
Yield strength* 50.000 psi (niiii.)
Elongation 20% in 2 inches (mm.)
Reduction of area 50% (nun.)
As determined hy a O2-pcrcent cifisel mechtud.
11.3.3.2 Test Methods
Tensile properties shall be deterniined in aecourdanee
with the applicable sections of ASTM A370, Mechanical
Testing of Steel Products. Tensile tests of finished stumols
shall be made on studs welded toi test plates using a test
fixture similar to that shown in Figure 7.2 ouf the current
ANSI/AASHTO/AWS DJ.5 Bridge Welding Code. If frac-
tune occurs outside of the niiddle half of the gage length,
the test shall be repeated.
11.3.3.3 Finish
Finished studs shall be ouf uniform quality and condi-
tion, free from injurious laps, fins, seams, cracks., twists,
bends, or other injurious defects. Finish shall be as pro-
duced by cold drawing, cold rolling, or machining.
11.3.3.4
515
11.3.3.4 Certification
11.3.6 Iron Castings
The inanmufactuiner shall certify that the sttmds as delis-
ered are in aceourdance with the material requirenients of
thus section. Certified coupies ouf inplant qumahity controul
test rep(uints shall be fmrnished uou the Engimicein umpoumi
requmest.
11.3.3.5 Check Samples
The Engineer niay select, at the Comitractoirs cx-
pemise. stuids ouf each type amid size umsed umnider the coumi-
tract. as necessary for eheekimig the requmireinents oif this
sectmoumi.
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting
11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings
Steel fourgings shall comifourni to the Specificatiouns
four Steel Forgimigs Carbouni amid Alloy four General
Use. AASHT() M 102 (ASTM A 668). Classes C. D, F.
O)in G.
11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting
Could finished carbon steel shaftimig shall comnfounin tom the
specificatioumis four Couhol Fimuisimed Carboun Steel Bars Stami-
dard Quality. AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108). Grade
If) 160-h030t). imiclusive. shall be furnished ninless outher-
wise specified.
11.3.6.1 Materials
(1) Gray Iromi CastingsGray mom castings shall coumi-
form uou the Specificatioumi four Gray Iroun Castings.
AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A 48), Class Nou. 30 unless
otherwise specified.
(2) Ductile Iromi CastingsDuctile iroun castimigs
shall coumifouinni to the Specificatiouns four i)uetihe Iroumi
Castings, ASTM A 536, Grade 60-40-18 nmnless
otherwise specified. In additioin toi the specified test
coupons, test speciniens froim parts integral with the
castimigs. such as risers, shall be tested for castings
weighing inoure thami 1,000 poumnmds tou deuerniine that
the required quality is obtained in the eastimigs in the
hinished condition.
(3) Malleable CastingsMalleable castings shall
confourni to the Specificatioun four Malleable Iroun Cast-
imigs, ASTM A 47. Grade Nou. 35018 shall be furnished
unless outherwise specified.
11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish
Iromn castings shall be trume toi pautermi iii fourmn and oh-
inensions, free froni pouuring faults, sponginess, cracks.
blouw houhes. amid tither defects in pousitiouns affeetino their
C
strength and value four the service intemided.
Castimigs shall be boulolly filleted at amighes and the an-
rises shall be sharp and perfect.
11.3.5 Steel Castings 11.3.6.3 Cleaning
11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings
Steel castings for use in highway bridge coumiupounents
shall comifurm tom Standarol Specificatioumis four Steel Cast-
ings four Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM
A 486) or Carbon-Steel Castings for General Applica-
tions, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM A 27). The class 70 or
grade 70-36 ouf steel, respectively, shall be used unless oth-
erwise specified.
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings
Chroumniuni allomy-steel castimigs shall comnfourm tou the
Specificatioun for Corrosiomn-Resistant Iron-Chromiumii,
Iroumi-Chroumium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings
for General Apphicatiomi. AASHTO M 163 (ASTM
A 743). Grade CA 15 shall be furnished unless otherwise
specified.
All castings must be sandblasted or outimerwise effec-
tively cleaned ouf scale amid sand sou as tom presemit a smiiououth.
clean, and uniform surface.
11.3.7 Galvanizing
Whemi galvamiizing is shouwn on the plans our spec-
ified iii time special provisions, ferrous metal products,
other than fasteners and hardware items, shall be gal-
vanized in accordance with the Specifications four
Zinc (Hot-Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated
from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged Steel Shape Plates,
Bars, and Strip. AASHTO M Ill (ASTM A 123). Fas-
teners and hardware items shall be galvanized in accor-
dance with the Specification for Zinc Couating (Hot-Dip)
on Iron and Steel Hardware. AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A
153) except as noted in Article 11.3.2.4 for high-strength
fasteners.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.4 FABRICATION
11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication
The Contractors system of assembly-marking
individual pieces, and the issuance of cutting instruc-
tions to the shop (generally by cross-referencing of
the assemblymarks shouwn omn the shop drawings with
the corresponding item covered on the mill purchase
order) shall be such as to niaintain identity ouf the original
piece.
The Contractor may furnish froum stock, material
that he or she can identify by heat nuniber and mill test
report.
During fabrication, up to the point of assenibhing
members, each piece of steel, other than Grade 36
steel, shall show clearly and legibly its specificatiomn. This
may be done by writing the material specification ott
the piece or using the identification color code shown imi
Table 11.4.
Other steels, except Grade 36 steel, not covered
above, nor included iii the AASHTO M 160 (ASTM
A 6) Specification, shall have an individual color code
which shall be established and kept on record for the
Engineer.
Pieces ouf steel, other than Grade 36 steel, which pniour
to assenibhing into memiubers, will be subject to fabricating
operations such as blast cleaning, galvanizing, heating four
forining. or painting which might ombhiterate paint color
code marking, shall be niarked for grade by steel die
stanipimig or by a substantial tag firmly attached. Steel die
stanips shall be huw stress-type.
Upon request. the Comntractor shall furnish an affidavit
certifying that thiroughomut the fabrication operatiomi he or
she has maintained the identification of steel in accor-
dance with this specification.
11.4.2 Storage of Materials
Structural material, either plain mr fabricated, shall be
stomred aboive the grouumnd omn phatfomnmns, skids, our tither sup-
points. It shall be kept free froni dirt, grease. and outimer four-
cigri matter, and shall be proutected as far as practicable
TABLE 11.4 Identification Color Codes
Grade 50 Green & Yellow
Grade 50W Blue & Yellow
Grade 70W Blue & Orange
Grade 100 Red
Grade 100W Red & Orange
from corrosion. See Article 11.5.6.4 for storage of high-
strength fasteners.
11.4.3 Plates
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling
Unless otherwise shown on the plans, steel plates for
main members and splice plates for flanges and niain ten-
smon members, not secondary members, shall be cut and
fabricated so that the primary direction of rolling is paral-
lel to the direction of the main tensile and/or compressive
stresses.
11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges
11.4.3.2.1 Edge Planing
Sheared edges of plate niore than i/~ inch in thickness
and carrying calculated stress shall be planed, milled,
ground, or thermal cut to a depth of /4inch.
11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cuttiimg
Oxygen cutting of structuiral steel shall comnfourm tom the
requirenients of the current ANSI/AAS1-ITO/AWS DI.5
Bridge Welding Code.
/ 1.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection atmd Repair of Plato
Cut Edge.o
V isual inspection and repair of plate cut edges shall
be in accordance with the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS
DI.5 Bridge Welding Code.
11.4.3.3 Bent Plates
11.4.3.3.1 General
Unwelded. load-carrying, rolled-steel plates tom be bemit
shall conforni to the follouwing:
They shall be so taken from the stock plates that the
bend line will be at right angles to the directioun ouf roulling,
except that cold-bent ribs for orthotropic-deek bridges
niay be bent with bend lines in the direction ouf rolling if
perniitted by the Engineer.
Before bending, the corners of the plates shall be
rounded to a radius of V~
5 inch throughout the portion ouf
the plate at which the bending is to occur.
11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending
Cold bending shall be such that riocracking ouf time plate
occurs. Minimnuni bend radii, nicasumred tom the comicave
face ouf the metal, are givemi in the follouwing table.
516
11.4
11.4.3.3.2 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 517
Thickness
in Inches
(t)
Up Over Over Over
to 1/2 1 to 1-1/2
1/2 tol 1-1/2 to2-l/2
Over
2-1/2
to 4
Bend Radii for all
Grades of Struc
tural Steel in This
Specification 2t 2-t/2t 3t 3-l/2t 4t
Allowance for springback of Grades 100 and 100W
steels should be about three times that for Grade 36 steel.
For break press forming, the lower die span should be at
least 16 times the plate thickness. Multiple hits are advis-
able.
11.4 i~ Hot Bending
If a radius shorter than the minimum specified for could
bending is essential, the plates shall be bemut hot at a tem-
perature not greater than I ,200
0F. except for Grades 70W,
100 and 100W. IfGrades 100 and 100W steel plates tou be
bent are heated to a temperature greater than I ,l0{)0F, our
Grade 70W plates to be bent are heated to a teniperature
greater than I ,0500F, they must be requenched and teni-
pered in accordance with the producing nulls practice
and tested to verify restoration of specified properties, as
directed by the Engineer.
11.4.4 Fit of StitTeners
End bearing stiffemiers for girders and stiffeners in-
tended as supports for concentrated lomads shall have full
bearing (either milled, ground our, (in weldable steel in
compression areas of flanges, welded as shown on the
plans or specified) on the flanges to which they transmit
load or from which they receive load. Intermediate stiff-
eners not intended to suppourt comneentrated louads, unless
shown or specified otherwise, shall have a tight fit against
the coumpression flange.
11.4.5 Abutting Joints
Abutting jomints in coumnpressiommi members of trusses and
comlunins shall be milled or saw-cut to give a square joint
and uniforni bearing. At other joints, not required to be
faced, the opening shall not exceed /~ inch.
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces
The surface finish of bearing amid base plates amid outlien
bearing surfaces that are to conic in contact with each
outher or with counerete shall meet the ANSI surface rough-
ness requirements as defined in ANSI B46. I, Surface
Ronigimness. Waviness and Lay, Part I:
Steel slabs ANSI 2,000
Heavy plates in contact in shoes to
be welded ANSI 1,000
Milled ends of compression members,
milled or ground ends of stiffeners
and fillers ANSI 500
Bridge rollers and rockers ANSI 250
Pins and pin holes ANSI 125
Sliding bearings ANSI 125
11.4,7 Straightening Material
The straightening of plates, amigles, outher shapes, amid
built-up menibers, when permitted by the Engineer, shall
be done by methods that will not produce fracture or other
injury to the metal. Distorted members shall be straight-
enedby mechanical means or, if approved by the Engineer,
by carefully planned procedures and supervised applica-
tiomn ouf a limited amoumnt of localized heat, except that heat
straightening of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades
70W, 100 and 100W steel members shall be done only num-
den rigidly controlled procedures, each application subject
to time approval of the Engineer. In no case shall the maxi-
mum temperature exceed values in the following table.
Grade 70W > 6 from weld
Grade 70W <6 from weld
Grade 100 or 100W >6 froni weld
Grade 100 or 100W <6 from weld
l.0500F
9000 F
l,1000F
9500 F
In all other steels, the temperatumre of the heated area
shall not exceed 1 ,2000F as controlled by temperature in-
dicating crayons, liquids, or bimetal thermommeters. Heat-
ing in excess of the limits shown shall because four rejec-
tion, unless the Engineer allows testing to verify material
integrity.
Parts to be heat straightened shall be substantially free
of stress and from external forces, except stresses result-
ing from mechanical means used in conjunction with the
application of heat.
Evidence of fracture following straightening of a bend
or buckle will be cause for rejection of the damnaged piece.
11.4.8 Bolt Holes
11.4.8 .1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and
Unfinished Bolts**
11.4.8.1.1 General
All holes for bolts shall be either pumnehed or drilled ex-
cept as noted herein. Material forming parts of a meniber
1Scc Anicic It 55 fcur bcclis included ice designaliteec tJnlinished
n~cIm
5
518 HIGHWAY BR1DGES 11.4.8.1.1
compoused of nout innure than five thicknesses of metal niay
be punched s inch larger than the nominal diameter of
the bolts whenever the thickness of the material is not
greater than 4 inch four structural steel, 5/~ inch for high-
strength steel our /2 inch for quenched and tempered alloy
steel, unless subpunching amid reaming are required under
Article 11.4.8.5.
When material is thicker than ~inch for structural
steel. in/s inch for high-stremigth steel, or /2 inch four
quenched amiol tempered alloy steel, all holes shall either
be subdnilled and reanied or drilled full size. Alsou. when
none than five thicknesses are joined, or as required by
Art. 11.4.8.5, material shall be subdinilled and reamed or
drilled full size while in assembly.
When required, all holes shall be either subpunched or
subdinilled (subdinilled if thickness limitation governs) 3/~,
inch smaller and, after assembling, reamed /ic,inch larger
or drilled full size to /~ inch larger than the nominal
diameter of the bolts.
When shown oun the plans, enlarged or slotted holes are
allouwed with high-strength bolts.
11.4.8.1.2 Punched Hole.s
The diamneter of the die shall not exceed the diameter
of the punch by more than /io, inch. If any holes must be
enlarged to adniit the bolts, such holes shall be reamed.
Holes must be clean cut without torn or ragged edges. The
slightly conical hole that naturally results from puinching
operations is considered acceptable.
/ 1.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes
Reamed or drilled holes shall be cylindrical, perpen-
dicular to the member, and shall comply with the require-
ments of Article II .4.8.1 . I as to size. Where practical,
reaniers shall be directed by mechanical means. Burrs on
the outside surfaces shall be removed. Reaming and
drilling shall be done with twist drills, twist reamers or ro-
tobroach cutters. Comnneeting parts requiring reamed or
drilled holes shall be assembled and securely held while
being reanied or drilled and shall be match marked before
disassembling.
11.4.8. 1.4 Accuraov of Hole.s
Holes not niore than /c2 inch larger in diameter than the
true decimal equisalent of the noumninal diameter that may
result froum a drill or reamer of the nominal diameter are
comnsidered acceptable. The width of slotted holes which
are produced by flame cutting or a coumbination ofdrilling
or punching and flame cutting shall generally be not nioure
than /22 mdi greater than the nominal width. The flame
cut surface shall be grounind smuinmouthi.
11.4.8 .2 Accuracyof Hole Group
11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Befrere Reaming
All holes punched full size. subpunehed. or subdrihled
shall be som accurately punched that after assenibling (be-
fore any reaming is done) a cylindrical pin s inch smaller
in diameter than the nominal size ouf the punched hole may
be entered perpendicular to the face ouf the member, with-
omut drifting, in at least 75 percent of the comntiguous holes
in the same plane. If the requirement is not fulfilled, the
badly punched pieces will be rejected. If any hole will not
pass a pin /16 inch smaller in diameter than the nouminal
size of time punched hole, this will be cause for rejection.
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming
When holes are reamed or drilled, 85 percent ouf the
holes in any contiguous group shall, after reaming or
drilling, show no offset greater than /32 inch between ad-
jacent thicknesses of metal.
All steel templates shall have hardened steel bushings
in holes accurately dimensioned from the center lines of
the connection as inscribed on the template. The center
lines shall be used in locating accurately the template
from the milled or scnibed ends of the members.
11.4.8 .3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field
Connections
In lieu of subsizedholes and reaming while assembled,
or drilling holes full-size while assembled, the Contractor
shall have the option to drill or punch bolt holes full-size
tn unassembled pieces andlor connections including tem-
plates for use with matching subsized and reamed holes.
by means of suitable numericallycontrolled (N/C) drilling
or punching equipment. Full-sized punched holes shall
meet the requirements of Article 11.4.8.1.
IfN/C drilling or punching equipment is used, the Coin-
tractor, by means of check assemblies, will be required to
demonstrate the accuracy of this drilling or punching pro-
cedure in accordance with the provisions of Article
11.5.3.3.
Holes drilled or punched by N/C equipment shall be
drilled or punched to appropriate size either through indi-
vidual pieces, or drilled through any combination of
pieces held tightly together.
11.4.8 .4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Ttmrned Bolts, or
Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts
All holes for ribbed boults, turned boults, or other ap-
proved bearing-type bolts shall be subpumnehed or suib-
drilled ~ inch smaller than the nommiminal diameter of the
11.4.8.4
519
bolt and reamned when assembled, or drilled to a steel
template or, after assembling, drilled froum the solid at the
option ouf the Fabnicatour. In aity case the finished houles
shall prouside a driving fit as specified tin lime plans our iii
time special provisions.
11.4.8 .5 Preparation of Field Connections
Ilomles in all field comnneetiomnms and hielol splices ouf main
ineinber ouf trusses. arches. countinuomuis beamn spamis. bents.
touwers (each face), plate girders, and nigiol frames shall
be snmbpnmtmched on subdinilled and subsequmently reamiied
while asseinblcol on thnillenl fuill size thromuigh a steel tein
plate while assemiuhiled. Iloules four field splices ouf roulleol
beamn strimicers cointinmomomus ouver floutur beams our erouss
franies niay be olnilleol fuill size ummiasseinbled to a steel
temiulilate. All imoules four fibuomin beamns our crouss frunies may
be thnilleth full size unassembled tom a steel teniplate. cx
edit that all imomles four liomour beam and stringer fieltl enol
comniuectiomns shall be suimpimneheol antI reamed while as-
sembleol cur drilled foil I si/c to a steel template. Reanui rig
our thrillinc ftill size ouf field coummnectioun homles tliroumighi a
steel template shall be dome after tIme temimhihate has been
Iticated with utmoist care as ttu positioun amid amigle amid
firmly boulteol in place. Teinphates tiseol four ineammn
natchimig inemnbers, our time ouppousite faces ouf a siiile
C
inember shall be exact nluph icates. Teinplates used four
commimmectiommis oun like parts our muienibers shall be sti accum
rately lomeated that the parts our members are duiph canes
and requdre mum niateh-miiarking.
Four any counnectioumi, iii lieu of sombpunehing and reani-
ing our subdinilhimig auth reaniing. the fabricatour may. at his
ouptiomn. thrill holes full size with all thicknesses our inmate-
rial assenibled in promper pousimiomn.
11,4.9 Pins and Rollers
11.4.9.1 General
Pins and roullers shall be accurately turned tom the
diniensiouns shomwmi omi the drawings and shall be straight.
smooth, and free fromni flaws. Pius and rollers more than
9 inches in dianieter shall be forged and annealed. Pins
auth romllers 9 imiches or less in diameter may be either
fominged and aminealed our cold-finished carboun-steel
shafting.
In pins larger than 9 inches in diameter, a hole not less
than 2 imiches in diameter shall be bored fuill length along
the axis after the forging has been allowed to cool to a
temperature below the critical range, under suitable eon-
ditiouns to) prevent injury by too rapid cooling, and before
being annealed.
11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes
Pin houles shall be homed true tot the specificol diammieter.
smooth and straight, at right angles with the axis ouf time
member and parallel with each outher umiless otherwise
required. The final surface shall be proudumeed by a finish-
ing cut.
The diameter ouf the pi ii homle shall nout exceed that ouf tIme
pimi by more thami s~ inch four pins 5 inches our less iii
diameter or by ; inch for larger pins.
The distance ouutside tom ouumtside of cud houles in temisiomn
meinbers and inside tou inside ouf end homles iii counipressicuim
inembers shall not vary fintuin that specified moire than
inch. Bounimig ouf pimi houles in bumilttip miiemiibems shall be
oloumie after the nieniber has been assemnbled.
11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts amid Pins
Threads four all boults antI pins four struettoral steel con
struletiomn shall coumifominni tom the Uniteth Stamidard Series
UNC ANSI Rh . I. Class 2A four external threads amid Class
2B four imiternal threads, except that pimi ends having a thi-
aineler omf I i/
5 inches our inoure shall be threaded six threads
tom time inch.
11.4.10 Eyebars
Pin homles mnay be flaiuie cut at least 2 inches smaller in
diameter thami tIme fimiisheol liii diamneten. All cychars that
are tou be placeol siole by siole iii the stnuetumme shall be se-
curely fastened tougether in time omroler that they will be
placed omn the pin and homed at bouth ends while som
clamped. Eyebars shall be packed and niatch-inarked four
shipnient and ereetioun. All identifying imuanks shall be
stamped with steel stemicils cmii tIme edge ouf omne heath ouf
each niemiiber after fabnicatioun is coumpleted som as tom be sis-
ible when the bars are nested in place cmii the stroucture
Steel die stanips shall be louw stress type. Nom welohinug is al-
lowed On cychars or tom secure adjacent cychars.
The eyebars shall be straight amid free froum twists amid
the pin holes shall be accurately located tin the center line
of the bar. The inclination of any bar tom the plane ouf time
truss shall nout exceed is iiieh to a fomot.
The edges of cychars that lie between the tramisserse
center line ouf their pin homles shall be cut simultaneously
with two inechanically operated torches abreast of each
other, guided by a substamitial template. in such a manner
as to preveuit distortion of the plates.
11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving
Structural members whichare indicated in the countract
to be annealedor nourmalized shall have finished machi-
ing, boring, and straightening done subsequent to heat
treatmeuit. Normnahizing and annealing (full annealing)
shall be as specified in ASTM E 44. The temperatures
shall be maintained unifornily throughout the furmiace dur-
ing the heating and coomling so that the temperature at no
two points on the nicunber will differ by more than 100
0F
at any one tunic.
Members of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades
100/100W or Grade 70W steels shall not be anneaheol cur
normalized amid shall be stress relieved ounly with the ap-
proval of the Engineer.
A record of each fuirnace charge shall identify the
pieces imi the charge and shoiw the teunperatures and sched-
ule aetumally used. Prouper inistrunients, including recording
pyronieters, shall be provided for deterniining at any time
the teinperatures of mimembers iii the furnace. The recourds
ouf the treatment operation shall be available to and niect
time approuval ouf tIme Engmneem. The holding teunperatture for
stress relieving Grades 100/100W and Grade 70W steels
shall not exceed h,l(X)0F and l,0500F, respectively.
Members, such as bridge shiomes. pedestals, or outhier
parts that are built up by weldimig sectiomis of plate together
shall be stress relieved in accordance with the procedure
ouf Sectiomi 4.4 ouf time enmrrent ANSI/AASHTO/AWS DI.5
Bridge We/ding Code, when requuired by the plans, speci-
ficatkuns. our special provisiommis ooverning the contract.
11.4.12 Curved Girders
11.4.12.1 General
Flanges of curved, welded girders inay be cut to the
radii showum on the plans or curved by applying heat as
specified iii the succeeding articles providing the radii is
not less than allowed by Article 10.15.2 of Division 1.
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and
Welded Girders
11.4.12.2. / Materials
Steels that are mimamiufactumreol tom a specified niininuuumii
yield pouimit greater than 50,000 psi shall not be heat
curved.
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating
Beamns and girders may be curved by either continuous
or V -type heating as approused by the Engineer. For the
comntinmunmums niethoud, a strip our intermittemit strips along the
edge of time tomp and bottouin flange shall be heated approx-
iniately siniultammeomushy depemiding tin flange widths and
thicknesses; the strip shall be of sufficient width amid teni-
perature to obtain the required curvature. For the V -type
heating, the top andbottom flanges shall be heated in trun-
cated triangular or wedge-shaped areas having their base
along the flange edge and spaced at regular intervals along
each flange; the spacing and temperature shall be as re-
qumired to obtain the required curvature, and heating shall
progress along the f op and bottom flange at approximately
the same rate.
For the V -type heating, the apex of the tinumneated tni-
angular area applied tou the inside flange surface shall ter-
minate just before time juncture of the web and the flauige
us reached. To avoid unnecessary web distortion, special
care shall be taken when heating the inside flange sur-
faces (the surfaces that intersect the web) sou that heat is
not applied directly to the web. When the radius of cur-
vature is 1,000 feet or more, the apex of the truncated tri-
angular heating pattern applied to the omutside flange sum-
face shall extend to the juncture ouf the flange and web.
When the radius of curvatnmre is less than 1,000 feet.
the apex of the trm.mncated triangular heating pattern
applied to the outside flange snmrface shall extemid past
the web for a distance equal to one-eighth of the flange
width or 3 inches, whichever is less. The trumicated triami-
gular pattern shall have an included angle ouf ap-
proxiniately 15 to 30 degrees, but time base ouf the tniamiCle
C
shall not exceed 10 inches. V ariations in the patterns
prescribed above may be made with time approval of time
Engineer.
For both types of heatimig, the flamige edges tou be heated
are those that will be on the inside of the horizontal curve
after cooling. Heating both inside and outside fianee sur-
faces is only mandatory when time flange thickness is 1
inches or greater, in which ease, the two surfaces shall be
heated concuirrently. The maximnum temperature shall be
prescribed as follouws.
11.4.12.2.3 Temperature
The heat-curving operation shall be coundueted in such
a manner that time temperature of the steel does not exceed
1,1 500F as measured by temperature indicating crayons or
other sumitable nicans. The girder shall not be artificially
comoled nmntil after naturally cooling to 6000F. Time unetimod
of artificial comouhing is subject tom the approusal ouf the
Engineer.
11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating
The girder may be heat-curved with time web in either
a vertical or ahorizontal position. When curved iii the ser-
tical position, the girder must be braced or suppourted in
such a manner that the tendency of the girder tom deflect lat-
erally during the heat-curving process will nout eanuse time
girder to deflect laterally during the heat-curving process
will not cause the girder to overtumrn.
11.4.12.2.4
l)IV ISION IlCONSTRUCTION
521
When curved in the horizontal position, the girder
must be supported near its ends and at intermediate
pouints, if required, to obtain a uniform cumnyature; the
bending stress in the flanges due to the dead weight ouf the
girder and externally applied loads must not exceed the
umsual allowable design stress. When the girder is posi-
tioned horizontally for heating, interniediate safety catch
blocks must be maintained at the mid-length of the girder
within 2 inches of the flanges at all times during the heat-
mng process to guard against a sudden sag due to plastic
flange buckling.
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Ojuerations
The girder shall be heat-curved in the fabrication
shomp befoure it is painted. The heat curving operatiomn niay
be couuidumeted either befoure or after all the required
welding of trauisverse interniediate stiffeners is coni-
pleted. However, unless provisions are made for girder
shrinkage, comnneetion plates and bearing stiffeners shall
be located andattached after heat curving. If longitnudinal
stiffeners are requuired. they shall be heat-curved or
oxygeui-eut separately amid then welded to the curved
girder. When cower plates are tom be attached to roulled
beanis. they may be attached before heat curving if the
toutal thickness ouf omne flange and cover plate is less than
2/2 inches and the radius of curvature is greater than
1,000 feet. Four other rolled beams with cover plates,
the beams must be heat-curved before the cover plates
are attached: cover plates must be either heat curved or
oxygen-cuit separately and then welded to the curved
beauum.
11.4.12.2.6 Camber
Girders shall be eanibered before heat curving.
Caniber for rolled beams niay be obtained by heat-
eamiibening methouds approved by the Emigineer. For
plate girders, the web shall be cut to the prescribed cam-
her with suitable allouwance for shrinkage due to cutting,
welohiiig, amid heat curving. However, subject to the
approuval of the Engimicer, nioderate deviations fromni
specified eaniber may be corrected by a carefully super-
vised application of heat.
11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature
and Camber
Horizontal curvature and vertical caunber shall be
nicasured for final acceptance after all welding and heat-
ing operations are coumnpleted andthe flanges have eoouled
tom a uniforun temperature. Horizontal curvature shall be
checked with the girder in the vertical positioui.
11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures
11.4.13.1 General
Dimensiomnal tomlerance hits for ourthotropic-deck
bridge members shall be applied tom each coumpheted
but unloaded member and shall be as specified in
paragraph 3.5 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS
D/.5 Bridge Welding Code except as follows. Time
deviation from detailed flatness. straightness. our curva-
tune at any point shall be the perpendicular distance
from that point to a template edge which has the detailed
straightness or curvature and which is in contact with the
element at two other pouts. The terni elememut as used
herein refers to individual panels, stiffeners, flamiges. our
other pieces. The teunphate edge niay have any length ruout
exceeding the greatest dimensioun of the elenient being
examined and, for any panel, not exceeding 1.5 times the
least diniension of the panel; it may be placed anywhere
within the boundaries of the eleumient. The deviatioumi shall
be measured between adjacent points ouf coumitact ouf tIme
template edge with the elememit; the distance between
these adjacent points of contact shall be used in the for-
unulas to establish the tolerance limits four the segnient
being nicasured whenever this distance is less than the
applicable dimnenusiomn of time ehenment specified four the
fourmula.
11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels
(a) The terni ~panel as used in this article nieaiis a
clear area of steel plate surface boummided by stift~eners.
webs, flanges, or plate edges and not further suibdivided
by any such elements. The provisions of this article apply
to all panels in the bridge; for plates stiffened on omie side
ounly such as orthotropic-deck plates or flanges of box
girders, this includes the total clear width on time side with-
out stiffeners as well as the panels between suiffeners on
the side with stiffeners.
(b) The maxiniuni deviation from detailed flatness our
curvature of a panel shall nout exceed the greater ouf:
D
3/h6inehor < inch
where,
D = the least diuimension iii inches along the bonind-
ary of the panel
T = the minimum thickness iii inches of the plate
comprising the panel.
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal StitTeners
Subject to Calculated Compressive
Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck
Ribs
The niaximmirnun deviatiomn fromni detailed straighumiess our
curvature in any direetiourn perpemidicumlar tom its length ouf a
transverse web stiffemmer our mther stiffemmer nout subject tou
calculated Commmipressive stress shall uiout exceed:
L
480
where L ~ tIme lenetim oif time stiffener our rib betweeii erouss
mnemnbers, webs. our flamiges, in immeimes.
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web
Stiffeners and Other StifTeners iiot
Subject to Calculated Compressive
Stress
Time nmaxi ni uim tIcs i atici mm fm-cu in thetai I col st mai glut mine ss our
etminsatumre iii ally olinectiounm hiempeuitlicuilar lou its length ouf a
transverse sveh stiffener our outhier stiffener mucut stubject tou
ealcuilateci couiuihuuessise stress shall inmout exceed:
L
240
where 1 ~ the leumgthm of the stiffener betweemi cross menu-
hers, webs. cur flanges, in iuiclies
11.4.14 Full-Sized Tests
Whemi fullsized tests ouf fabricated suruictuminal members
our eyebars are inedlouireol by tIme comitract, time Countractour
shall prouvide suitable facilities, immaterial. supervisioumi. amid
labour necessary four making and recounting the required
tests. The menubers tested in aecourdanee with time countract
shall be paid for in accordance with Article 11.7.2.
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping
Each nieniber shall be painted our uimarkeol with aim eree-
tiomn mark for identificatiouui amid an ereetioumi diagram shoiw
ing these niarks shall be fumnmmished tou time Emigineer.
The Conuractomr shall f~urnish tou the Engineer as niammy
copies ouf niatenial ourders, shippimig statenients, antI erec-
tion diagranis as the Engineer may direct. The weights of
the inohividual members shall be shown omi the statenments.
Members weighing niore than 3 tons shall have the
weights marked tliereoui. Structural members shall be
loaded on trucks our cars in such a manner that they nmay
be transported amid unloaded at their destination withomut
being excessively stressed, defoinnied, our outherwise
damaged.
Boults. miuts and washers (where required) fromun each rom-
tat ional-capacity lot shall be shipped in the same coin-
taimier. Ifthere is oily ouume prouduetinmn lout nuuunber four each
size ouf nutut anti washer, the umuts amid washers mumay be
shipped in separate countainers. Pius. small parts amid pack-
ages of boults, washers, and mints shall be shipped iii bouxes,
crates, kegs. our bauTels. but the grouss weight of army pack-
age shall not exceed 300 pomunds. A list and descriptioun tuf
the comntained materials shall be plainly niarked on tIme omuit
siohe ouf each shipping countainer.
11.5 ASSEMBLY
11.5.1 Bolting
Surfaces cuf unetal in comntact shiall be cleaned befomre as
semnbliumg. Time parts ouf auimemnber shall be assembled. ssehl
pinumed. amid tinmuily drasvum tougethmer befoure dnilhiuig. reamim-
uig. our boultimug is conimneimeed. Assembled luieces shall be
taken apart. if necessary, four the remoisal cuf bominms anti
shasimigs prouduceol by time ouperatioumi. TIme numeunber shiall be
free fromumi twists, bends, amid other defomrnmatioium.
Time drif~ting done ohuiring assemiibhing shall be ounly such
as tom bring time parts tom pousitioumi amid nout sufficieuit tom cmi
large tIme homles our distourt time muietal.
11.5.2 Welded Connections
Surfaces and colges to be weldeol shall be summoututhi, mini-
fomrni. clean and free ouf defects which suomuld adversely af-
fect the quality ouf time svelol. Edge pineparatioumi shall be
dome in accordance with the current ANS1/AASHTO/AWS
Dl.5 Bridge Wolding Code.
11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections
11.5.3.1 General
Field connections of maui members of trusses. arches.
countinuomus beams, plate girolers. bents, touwers and rigiol
frauimes shall be preassenuibled priour tou ereetioun as mmcc-
essary tou verify the geommetry ouf the counipleted strumetomre
our unit amid to verify or prepare field splices. Attaining
accurate geoumetry is the respounsibility ouf the Countractour
and he shall proupouse aim appropriate niethod ouf pine-
assembly for approval by the Engineer. The method auth
details of preassembly shall be consistent with the
erection procedure shown on the erection plans and
camber diagrams prepared by the Contractomr and ap-
proved by the Engineer. As a minimum, the preassembly
11.5.3.1 DIV ISION 11--CONSTRUCTION
523
procedure shall consist of assenibhing three contiguomus
panels accurately adjuisted four line amid camber. Succes-
sive assemblies shall consist ouf at least one seetiomi our
panel of the previous assenibly (repousitiomied if necessary
and adequately pinned tom assure accurate alignnient) plus
twom our nioure seetmouns our pamiels added at the advaneimig
end. In the case of structures longer than ISO feet. each
assembly shall be not less than 150 feet loung regardless
of the length of individual continuomus panels or sections.
At the optioumi of the fabricator, sequeuice of asseunbly nuay
start from any lomeation in the structure andprouceed in omne
or both directiouis so long as the preceding requirements
are satisfied.
11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections
For bolted connections homles shall be prepared as out-
lined in Article 11 .4.8. Where applicable, major compo-
nents shall be assenibled with milled ends of compression
members in full bearing and then shall have their subsized
holes reamed to the specified size while the connections
are assembled.
11.5.3.3 Check AssemblyNumerically
Controlled Drilling
When the contractor elects to use numerically
controlled drilling, a check assembly shall be required
for each major structural type of each project, unless
otherwise designated on the plans or in the special
provisions, and shall consist of at least thiree contiguous
shop sections or, in a truss, all members in at least three
contiguous panels but not less than the number of panels
associated with three contiguous chord lengths (i.e.,
length between field splices). Check assemblies should be
based on the proposed order of erection, joints iii bearings,
special complex points, and similar considerations.
Special points coumld be the portals of skewed trusses, four
example.
The cheek assemblies shall preferably be the first sec-
tions of each major structural type to be fabricated.
Shop assemblies other than the check assemblies will
not be required.
If the check assembly fails in some specific nianner to
demonstrate that the required accuracy is being obtained.
further cheek assemblies may be requiredby the Engineer
for which there shall be no additional comst tom the Depart-
ment.
Each assenibly, including camber, alignment, accuracy
of holes, and flu of milled joimmts, shall be approved by the
Engineer before reanming is comnunemiceol or before aui N/C
drilled check assembly is dis niantled.
11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections
For field welded comnneetioumis time fit ouf menibers in-
eludimug time proper space between abuttimug fiamiges shall be
prepared or verified with time segment preassembled in ac-
cordamice with Article 11.5.3.1.
11.5.4 Match Marking
Connecting parts preassemnbled in the shomp to assume
proper fit iii the field shall be niatch-niarked, and a
diagraun showing such marks shall be furmiisimed to) the
Engineer.
11.5.5 Connections Using Unfinished, Turned or
Ribbed Bolts
11.5.5.1 General
When unfinished bolts are specified, the bolts shall be
unfinished, turned, or ribbed bolts conforming to the re-
quirements for Grade A Bolts of Standard Specification
for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile
Strength. ASTM A 307. Bolts shall have single self-lock-
ing nuts or double nuts umnhess otherwise shown on time
plans or in the special provisions. Beveled washers shall
be used where bearing faces have a slope of more than
1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis. Time
specifications ouf this article do not pertain to the use of
high-strength bolts. Bolted connections fabricated with
high-strength bolts shall counform tom Article 11.5.6.
11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts
The surface of time body ouf turned bolts shall meet the
ANSI roughness rating value of 125. Heads and nuts shall
be hexagonal with standard dimensions for bolts ouf time
nominal size specified or the next larger nominal size. Di-
ameter ouf threads shall be equal to the body ouf the bolt or
the nominal diameter of the bolt specified. Houles four turned
bolts shall be carefully reamed with bolts furnished tou pro-
vide for alight driving fit. Threads shall be entirely oumtside
of the holes. A washer shall be provided under the nuit.
11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts
The body of ribbed bolts shall be of an approuved form
with continuous longitudinal ribs, The dianieter of the
body measured omn a circle through the pouts ouf the ribs
shall be o~-c inch greater than time nominal diameter speci-
fied for the boults.
Ribbed boults shall be furuiished with round heads coui-
forming to ANSI B 18.5 unless uutherwise specified. Nuts
524
shall be hexagonal, either recessed or with a washer of
suitable thickness. Ribbed bolts shall make a driving fit
with the holes. The hardness of the ribs shall be such that
the ribs do not mash down enough to permit the bolts to
turn in the holes during tightening. If for any reason the
bolt twists before drawing tight, the hole shall be carefully
reamed and an oversized bolt used as a replacement.
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts
11.5.6.1 General
This article covers the assembly ouf structural joints
using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M
253 (ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts, or equivalent fas-
teners, tightened to a high tension. The bolts are used in
holes confomnuning to the requirements of Article 11.4.8.
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts
All niatenial within the grip of the bolt shall be steel,
there shall be no conipressible mnaterial such as gaskets or
insulation within the grip. Bolted steel parts shall fit
solidly together after the bolts are tightened, and may be
coated or uncoated. The slope of the surfaces of parts in
contact with the bolt head or nut shall not exceed 1:20
with respect to a plane normal tom the bolt axis.
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions
At the tiuiie of assembly, all joint surfaces, including
surfaces adjacent to) the boult head and nut, shall be free of
scale, except tight unill scale, and shall be free of dirt or
other foreign material. Bumrns that would prevent solid
seating of the connected parts in the snug tight comndition
shall be remoived.
Paint is perumitted oun the faying surface including ship
critical joints when designed in accordance with Articles
10.32.3. or 10.56.1.3. Div. I.
The faying surfaces ouf slip-critical connections shall
meet the requirements of the following paragraphs., as ap-
plicable:
(I) In noneomated joints, paint. incluiding any inadver-
tent overspinay. shall be excluded froum areas closer than
one-bolt diameter, but not less thaui 1 inch, from the edge
of any hole and all areas within the bolt pattern.
(2) Joints specified to have painted faying sumrfaces
shall be blast cleaned and coated with a paint which has
been qualifiedin aceomrdanee with requirements of Articles
10.32.3.2.3 or 10.57.3.3. Div. I.
(3) Coated joints shall nout be assembled before the
coating has cured for the uniniununi time tused in time qual-
ifying test.
(4) Faying surfaces specified to be galvanized shall be
hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M Ill
(ASTM A 123), and shall subsequently be roughened by
means of hand wire brushing. Power wire brushing is not
permitted.
11.5.6.4 Installation
11.5.6.4.1 General
Fasteners of appropriately assigned lot numbers shall
be assembled together when installed. Such fasteners shall
be protected froni dirt and moisture at the job site. Only as
many fasteners as are anticipated to be installed and tight-
ened during awork shift shall be taken from protected stor-
age. Fasteners not used shall be returned to protected stor-
age at the end of the shift. Fasteners shall not be cleaned of
lubricant that is required to be present in as-delivered con-
dition. Fasteners for slip-critical connections which acen-
mumlate rust or dirt resulting from job site conditions shall
be cleaned, relubricated and tested for rotatiounal-capacity
prior to installation. All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated
with a lubricant containing a visible dye. Plain bolts muist
be oily to touch when delivered and installed. Lumbricant
shall be removed prior to painting.
A tension measuring device (a Skidmore-Wilimelm cal-
ibrator or other acceptable bolt tension indicating device)
shall be at all job sites where high-strength fasteners are
being installed and tightened. The tension measuring de-
vice shall be used to perform the rotational-capacity test
and to confirm (I) the suitability to satisfy the require-
ments of Table I l.5A of the complete fastener assembly,
including lubrication if required to be used in the wourk,
(2) calibration of the wrenches, if applicable, and (3) the
understanding and proper use by the bolting crew of the
method of tightening to be used. To perform the calibrated
wrench verification test for shourt grip bolts, direct tension
indicators (DTI) with solid plates may be used in lieu of a
tension measuring device. The DTI lot shall be first
checked with a longer grip bolt in the Skidmore-Wilimelm
calibrator. The frequency of confirmation testing. the
number of tests to be performed and the test procedure
shall be as specified in Arts. 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7,
as applicable. The accuracy of the tension measuring de-
vmce shall be confirmed by an approved testing agency at
least annually.
Fasteners together with washers ouf size and quality
specified, located as required below, shall be installed in
properly aligned holes and tightened by any ouf the ineth-
ods described in Arts. 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7 to at
least the minimum tensiomi specified in Table lISA when
all the fasteners are tight. Tightening unay be done by turn-
ing the bolt while the nut is prevented froun routating whemi
11.5.6.4.1
DIVISION TICONSTRUCTION 525
it is impractical to turn the nut. Impact wrenches, if used,
shall be of adequate capacity and sufficiently supplied
with air to perform the required tightening of each bolt in
approximately 10 seconds.
AASHTO M 253 (ASTMA 490) fasteners and galva-
nized AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) fasteners shall not
be reused. Other AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts
may be reused if approved by the Engineer. Touching up
or retightening previouslytightened bolts which may have
been loosened by the tightening of adjacent bolts shall not
be considered as reuse provided the snugging up contin-
ues froum the initial position and does not require greater
rotation, including the tolerance, than that required by
Table ll.5B.
Bolts shall be installed in all holes of the connection
and brought to asnug tight condition. Snug tight is defined
as the tightness that exists when the plies of the joint are
in firm contact.
Snug tightening shall progress systematically from the
most rigid part of the connection to the free edges. The
bolts of the connection shall then be retightened in a smni-
ihar systematic manner as necessary until all bolts are sin-
niultaneoushy snug tight and the conmiection is fully coni-
pacted.
Skidmore-Wilimelm Calibrator or an equivalent device
without stripping or failure.
(g) The tension reached at the above rotation (turn-test
tension) shall be equal to or greater than 1 .15 times the
required fastener tension (installation tension) shown
in Table lISA.
(h) After the required installation tension listed above
has been exceeded, one reading of tension and torque
shall be taken and recorded. The torque value shall
conform to the following:
Torque =0.25 PD
Where:
Torque
P
D
= measured torque (foot-pounds)
= measured bolt tension (pounds)
= bolt diameter (feet).
(i) Bolts that are too short tom test in a Skidmoure-Wil-
helm Calibrator unay be tested in a steel joint. The ten-
sion requirement of Section (g) need not apply. The
maximum torque requirement of Sectiomn (h) shall be
computed using a value of P equal to time turn test temi-
sion (1.15 times the fastener tension in Table II .SA).
/1.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests
Rotational-capacity tests are required and shall be
perfonuned on all plain or galvanized (after galvanizing)
bolt, nut and washer assemblies. Washers are required as
part of the test even though they niay not be required as
part of the installation procedure. The following shall
apply:
(a) Except as niodified herein, the rotatiouial-eapacity
test shall be perfomnuuied in accordance with the require-
nients of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325).
(b) Each combination of bolt production hot, nut lot
and washer hot shall be tested as an assemiubly. Where
washers are not required by the installation procedures,
they need not be included in the lot identification.
(c) A rotational-capacity lot number shall have been
assigned to each comnibination of hots tested.
(d) The minimnuni frequency of testing shall be two
assemblies per rotational-capacity lout.
(e) The bolt, nut and washer assenibly shall be as-
senibled in a Skidniore-Wilhelni Calibrator our an
acceptable equivalent device. Four short bolts which are
too short to be assenibled in the Skidmore-Wilhelmii
Calibratomin. see Section (i), below.
(f) The minimum rotation froni a snug tight conditiomi
(10% of the specified proof louad) shall be two times the
required nuniber of turns indicated in Table II SB in a
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers
Where the outer face of the bolted parts has a sloupe
greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane nominal to the bomlt
axis, a hardened bevelled washer shall be used to couun-
pensate for the lack of parallehisni.
Hardened beveled washers for Americami Standard
Beams and Channels shall be required and shall be square
or rectangular, shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436), and shall taper in thick-
ness.
Where necessary, washers may be clipped (in tune side
to a point not closer than /2 inch of the bolt diameter frouni
the center of the washer.
Hardened washers are hot required four conneetiouis
using AASHTO M 164 (ASIM A 325) amid AASHTO M
253 (ASTM A 490) bomlus except as fomllouws:
Hardened washers shall be used under the elemnemit
turned in tightening when the tightening is tom be
performed by calibrated wreuuch nietimoid.
Irrespective of the tightening niethoud, imardeuied
washers shall be used under both the head and the
nut when AASHTO M 2S3 (ASTM A 490) bolts are
to be installed in material having a specified yield
point less than 40 ksi.
Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 32S) bolts ouf any
dianieter orAASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
equal tom our less than 1 inch in dianieter are to be in-
stalled in ousersize our shourt-shotted holes in an omuter
ply. a hardeneol washer counfonuning to AASHTO M
293 (ASTM F 436) shall be oused.
When AASHTO M 253 I ASTM A 490) bcuhts ouver I
much in diauuieter are tou be installed in an oversized
our shourt-sloutted houle in aim omouter ply, hardenedwash-
ens comnforming no AASHTOM293(ASTMF436)
except with Y,e~-imich niinimuni thickness shall
be ouseol uumider boutim tIme head and lime nut in lieu tuf
standard timickumess hardened washers. Multiple
hardened washers with coumbimied thickness equmal tom
our greater than imich dom nout satisfy this require-
mcii t.
Where AASHTO M 164 (ASIM A 3~5) boults oufamiy
diammieter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) boults
equal tom our less than 1 inch in diameter are tou be in-
stalleol iii a homing sloutted houle iii an omumuer ply. a plane
washer our countimiutius bar ouf at least -inch thick-
ness with standard houles shall be prouvided. These
washers our bars shall have a size sumffieient tou coni-
pletely couver the slot after imistallatioun and shall be
ouf structural grade niaterial, but need nout be hard-
ened except as follows. When AASHTO M 253
(ASTM A 490) boults over 1 inch in diamneter are tom
be used in loung sloutted holes in external plies, a sin-
gle hardened washer commiforming to AASHTO M
293 (ASTM F 436) but with V ic~-inmch minimnumn
thickness shall be used in licum of washers or bars of
struetumral grade niaterial. Multiple hardened wash-
ers with counibined thickness equal to or greater than
7. inch do not satisfy this requirement.
Alternate design fasteners meeting the requirements
of Article 11.3 6 with a geoumnetry which provides
a bearing circle on the head or nut with a diauimeter
equal to or greater then the diameter of hardened
washers meeting the requirements of AASHTO M
293 (ASTM F 436) satisfy the requirements four
washers specified herein and may be used without
washers.
11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Tightening
When tuinn-ouf-nut tightening is used, hardened washers
are not required except as may be specified in Article
11.5.6.4.3.
V erification testing using a representative sample of
not less than three bolt and nut assemblies of each diamn-
eter, length and grade to be used in the work shall be per-
formed at the start of work in a device capable of indicat-
ing bolt tensioun. This verification test shall demonstrate
that the method for estimating the snug tight coundition and
controlling the turns from snug tight to be used by the
bolting crew develops a tension not less than 5 pereciut
greater than the tension required by Table II .SA. Perioudie
retesting shall be performed when ordered by the
Engineer.
After smiug tightening fasteners and foully conipacting
the counneetiomn. all bolts in the eomnneetiomn shall be tight-
ened further by the applicable amount ouf rotation speci-
fied in Table 11 SB. During the tightening operatiomn there
shall be no routatiomn of the part hot unurned by the wrench.
Tightening shall prougress systeniaticalhy froni the nuoust
rigid part ouf the jouint to its free edges.
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrateti Wrench Tightening
Calibrated wrench tighteniuig miiay be used oily when
installation pinoicedures are calibrated tin a thaily basis amiol
when a hardened washer is used omnder time elenient turmied
in tightening. Stamidard tounqomes deterniined froumn tables our
finomni forunuhas which are assunued tou relate tomnque tou temi-
smomn are not acceptable.
When calibrated wrenches are used for iuisuallatiomnm.
they shall be set tom prouvide a tensioun nout less than 5 per-
cent in excess of the miniuuiuuii temision specified iii Table
11 .SA. The installatiomi promeedures shall be calibrated by
verification testing at least once each womrking day four
each bolt diameter. lemugth. and grade using fastener as-
semblies that are beimig installed in the womrk. This verifi-
cation testing shall be aceouniphisimed iii a device capable
of indicating actual bolt tensioumi by tightening three typi-
cal bolts ouf each diameter. hemigth. auth grade frouni the bolts
being installed and with a hardened washer frouni time
washers being used in the work uunder the elemnent tomrneol
in tightening. Wrenches shall be recalibrated when siemuif-
icant difference is nouted in the surface coumiditioun of time
TABLE I t.SA Required Fastener Tension
MinimumBolt Tension in Pounds*
Bolt Size
Inches
AASHTOM 164
ASTM A 325
AASHTO M 253
ASTM A 490
1/2 12,000 15.000
5/8 19,000 24,000
3/4 28,000 35,000
7/8 39,000 49,000
1 51.000 64,000
1-1/8 56,000 80,000
1-1/4 71,000 102,000
1-3/8 85.000 121,000
1-1/2 103,000 148,000
Equal to 70% of specified minimum tensile strength of bolts (as
specified in ASTM Specifications for meats of fult-size A 325 andA 490
bolts with UNC threads toaded in axial tension) rounded to the nearest
kip
526
11.5.6.4.3
TABLE ll.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight
Condition~
5 Geometry of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts
One Face
Normal to Both Faces
Boll Axis Sloped Nout
and Other More Itman
Bolt [.enigth Face Shaped I :2f) Frown
Measured Not Moire Nounnal To
Front Than 1:20. Boult Axis,
Underside ouf l3outh Faces Beset Bevel
Heath to Enof cuf Nominal mom Washier Noul Washers Noum
Bolt Boult Axis Ilsed Used
Up to and
including 4
diameters 1/3 turn 1/2 turn 2/3 turn
Over 4
diameters but
not exceeding
8 diameters 1/2 turn 2/3 turn 5/6 turn
Over S
diameters but
not exceeding
12 diametersc 2/3 turn 5/6 turn 1 turn
Nut rotation is retamive to bolt, regardfess ofthe etement (nut or botul
being turned For bofts insuatted by 1/2 turn and less, the moterance
should be plus or minus 30 degrees; for botts installed by 2/3 turn and
more, the moterance should be plus or minus 45 degrees.
b Apphicabte only mu connections in which alt materiat within grip of
the bolt is steel
No research work has been performed by the Research Councit Riv-
eted and BoIled Structural Joints to establish the turn-of-nul proce-
dure when bolt lengths exceed 12 diameters. Therefore, lIme required
romamion must be determined by actual tests in a suitable mension
device simulating the actual conditions
bolts, threads, nuts or washers. It shall be verified during
actual installation in the assembled steel work that the
wrench adjushnient selected by the calibration does not
produce a nut or bolt head rotation from snug tight greater
than that permitted in Table II SB. If manual torque
wrenches are used, nuts shall be turned in the tightening
direction when torque is measured.
When calibrated wrenches are used to install and ten-
sioun bolts in a connection, bolts shall be installed with
hardened washers under the element turned in tightening
bolts in all holes of the connection and binomught to a snug
tight condition. Following this initial tightening operation,
the connection shall be tightened using the calibrated
wrench. Tightening shall progress systematically from the
niost rigid part of the joint to its free edges. The wrench
shall be returned to touch up previously tightened bolts
which may have been relaxed as a result of the subsequent
tightening of adjacent bolts until all bolts are tightened to
the prescribed amount.
11.5.6.4.6 Installation of A lternato Desi,gn Bolts
When fasteners which ineourpourate a desigmi feature in-
tended tom indirectly indicate the boult tensiomn our tom autom
niatically prouvide the tensiomn requmired by Table II .SA and
which have been qualified under Art. 11.3 6 are to be in-
stalled. verificatiomn testing usimig a represemitative samiuple
ouf nout less than three boult and mint assenubhies ouf each di-
ameter, length and grade to be used in the wourk shall be
performed at the joub site iii a device capable ouf indicating
boult tensiomnm. The test assemimbly shall include flat-hardened
washers, if required in tIme actual coumineetiouum, arranged as
in the actual commmnectiomns tom be tensiommed. The verificatioumi
test shall deniomnstrate that each boult develoups a tensioun nout
less than 5 percent greater than the tensuon requiired by
Table lISA. Manufacturers installatiomn proucedure shall
be followed for installation of bolts in the ealibratioun de-
vice and in all connections. Periodic retesting shall be per-
formed when ordered by the Engineer.
When alternate design fasteners which are intended tom
control or indicate bolt tensiomn of the fasteners are tused.
bolts shall be installed in all holes ouf the connection and
initially tightened suifficienuly to bring all plies of time jouint
into firm contact buit without yielding or fracturing the
control or indicator elemnent of time fasteners. All fasteners
shall then be further tightemied, progressimig systemnatically
froumthe moist rigid part of the connection to the free edges
in a manner that will minimize rehaxatiomn of previously
tightened fasteners. In sonic eases, proper tensiouning ouf
the boults may reqm.imire more than a single cycle of system-
atic partial tightening prior to final twist-off of the controul
or indicator ehenient of individual fasteners. If twisl-ofi
ouceurs prior to the final tightening cycle, the individual
fastener shall be replaced with a new one.
11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Tightening
When Direct Tension Indicators (DTIs) meetingthe re-
quirements of Article 11.3.2.7 are to be installed with
high-strength bolts tom indicate bolt tensiomi, they shall be
subjected to the verification testiuig described below and
installed in accordance with the method specified behouw.
Unless otherwise approuved by the engineer-omf-record, the
DTIs shall be installed under the head of the bolt and the
nut turned to tighten the fastener. The manufacturers rec-
ommendations shall be followed for the proper ourientation
of the DTI and additional washers, if any, required for the
correct use of the DTI.
11.5.6.4. 7a Verification
V erification testing shall be perforuned in a calibrated
bolt tensiomn measuring device. A special flat insert shall
be used in place of the normal bolt head holding insert.
11.5 .6.4.5
527
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Three venificatiomi tests are requmired for each coumbination
of fastener rotational-capacity lout, DTI hot, and DTI posi-
tion relative to time turned eleniemit (bolt head or nut) to be
used on the project. The fastener shall be tightened by
turning the elenment not against the DTI. The element (bolt
head or nut) against the DTI shall be prevented from ro-
tating. The purpose of the verification testing is to ensure
that the fastener will be at or above time desired installation
tension when half or more of the spaces in the DTI have a
gap less than 0.005 inches and that the fastener will not
undergo excessive plastic deformation at the minimum
gap allowed on the project.
The verification tests shall be conducted in two stages.
The bolt nut and DTI assembly shall be installed in a man-
ner so that at least three and preferably not more than five
threads are located between the bearing face of the nut and
the bolt head. The fastener shall be tightened first to the
load equal to that listed in Table II SC under V erification
Tension for the grade and diameter of fastener. If an im-
pact wrench is used, it is acceptable to tighten to a load
slightly below the required load and subsequently a man-
ual wrench used to attain the required tension. Determine
and record the number of refusals of a 0.005 in. tapered
feeler gage in the spaces between the protrusions. The
number of spaces is listed in Table 11 SC. The number of
refusals shall not exceed the number listed under Maxi-
mum V erification Refusals in Table I l.SC for the grade
and diameter of bolt for uncoated DTIs. The maximuni
number of refusals for coated DTIs (galvanized, painted
or epoxy coated), used under the turned ehenment shall be
no more than the number of spaces on the DTI less one.
The DTI hot is rejected if the nuniber of refusals exceeds
the values in the table or, for coated DTIs if the gage is re-
fused in all spaces.
After the numnber of refusals is recorded at the ver-
ification load. the fastener shall be further tightened
TABLE ll.5C
Verification Maximum Minimum
Bolt
Dia.
Tension
(kips)
V erification
Refusals
DTI
Spaces
Installation
Refusals
(in.) A325 A490 325 490 325 490 325 490
1/2 13 16 1 2 4 5 2 3
5/8 20 25 1 2 4 5 2 3
3/4 29 37 2 2 5 6 3 3
7/8 41 51 2 2 5 6 3 3
1 54 67 2 3 6 7 3 4
1-1/8 59 84 2 3 6 7 3 4
1-1/4 75 107 3 3 7 8 4 4
1-3/8 89 127 3 3 7 8 4 4
1-1/2 108 155 3 4 8 9 4 5
until the 0.Ot)5 in. feeler gage is refused at all the spaces
and a visible gap exists in at least one space. Record
the load at this condition and remove the fastener
froni the tension measurmng device. The nut miust be
able to be reassembled by hand four the coniplete thread
length of the bolt excluding thread runout. If the nun
caminot be assembled four this thread length. the DTI lot
us rejected unless the lomad recorded is less than 95 per-
cent of time average load measured in the rotational ca-
pacity test for the fastener lot as specified in Article
11.5.6.4.2g.
If the bolt is too short to be tested in the calibration de-
vice, the DTI shall be tested on a long bolt in a calibrator
to determine the number of refusals at the V erification
Tension listed in Table II SC. The number of refumsals
shall not exceed the values listed under Maximnum V erifi-
cation Refusals in Table I l.SC. Another DTI from time
same lot shall then be tested wth the short bolt in a con-
venient ho)le in the work. The fastener assembly shall be
tightened until the 0.005 in. feeler gage is refused in all
spaces and a visible gap exists in at least one space. The
fastener shall then be disassembled. Subsequently the nut
must be able to be reassembled by hand for the complete
thread length of the bolt excluding thread runout. The DTI
lot shall be rejected if the nut cannot be assembled for this
thread length.
11.5.6.4. 7b Installation
Installation of fasteners using DTIs shall be performed
in two stages. The fastener element against the DTI shall
be held against rotation during each stage of the installa-
tion. The connection shall be first snugged with boults
mnstalled in all the holes of time connection and initially
tightened sufficiently to bring all the plies of the con-
nection into firm contact. The number of spaces mum
which 0.005 in. feeler gage is refused in the DTI after
snugging shall not exceed those listed under Maximuni
V erification Refusals in Table II SC. If time number
exceeds the values in the table, the fastener must be
removed and another DTI installed foullouwed by
resnugging of the fastener.
The connection shall be further tightened until the
number of refusals of the 0.005 in. feeler gage is equal tom
or greater than the nuniber listed under Mininiumim Instal-
lation Refusals in Table II SC. If the fastener is tightened
so that no visible gap in any space remains, the boult and
DTI shall be removed, and replaced by a new properly
tightened fastener and DTI.
11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fa.steimer.s
The installation of buck-pin and coullar fastemmers shall
be by methods and procedures approuved by the Engineer.
528
I l.5.6.4.7a
11.5.6.4.9
DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION 529
11.5.6.4.9 Inspection
11.5.6.4.9.1 The Engineer shall determine that the
requirements of Articles 11.5.6.4.9.2 and 11.5.6.4.9.3, fol-
lowing, are met in the work.
11.5.6.4.9.2 Before the installation of fasteners in the
work, the Engineer shall check the marking, surface con-
dition and storage of bolts, nuts and washers and the fay-
ing surfaces of joints for compliance with the require-
ments ofArticles 11.3.2, 11.5.6.1, and 11.5.6.4.1. He shall
observe calibration and/or testing procedures required in
Articles 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7 as applicable, to
confirm that the selected procedure is properly used and
that, when so used with the fastener assemblies supplied,
the tensions specified in Table I ISA are provided. He
shall monitor the installation of fasteners in the work no
assure that the selected procedure, as demonstrated in the
initial testing to provide the specified tension, is romuitinely
properly applied.
11.5.6.4.9.3 Either the Engineer or the Contractor, in
the presence of the Engineer at the Engineers option,
shall inspect the tightened boults using an inspection torque
wrench, unless alternate fasteners or direct tension mdi-
cabin devices are used, allowing verification by other
methods. Inspection tests should be comnducted in atimely
manner prior to possible loss of lubrication or before cor-
rosion influences tightening torque.
Three bolts of the sanme grade, size, and condition as
those under inspection shall be placed individually in a
device calibrated to measure bolt tension. This calibration
operation shall be done at least once each inspeetioun day.
There shall be a washer under the part turned in tighten-
ing each bolt if washers are used on the structure. Ifwash-
ers are not used on the struetumre, the material used in the
tension measuring device which abuts the part turned shall
be of the sanme specification as that used on the structure
In the calibrated device, each bolt shall be tightened by
any convenient means to the specified tension. The in-
specting wrench shall then be applied to the tightened bolt
lou determine the torque required nou turn the nut our head 5
degrees (approximately 1 inch at a 12-inch radius) in the
tightening direction. The average of the torque required
for all three bolts shall be taken as the job-inspection
torque.
Temi percent (at least two) of the tightened bolts on the
structure represented by the test bolts shall be selected at
random in each coummiectioun. The job-inspection torque
shall then be applied tom each with the inspecting wrench
turned in the tightening direction. If this torque turns nom
bout head or nut, the bolts in the conneetiomn will be con-
sidered to be properly tightened. But if the torque turns
oune or more bolt heads or nuits, the job-inspection torque
shall then be applied to all bolts in the connection. Any
bolt whose head or nut turns at this stage shall be tight-
ened and reinspected. The Contractor may, houwever.
retighten all the bolts in the connection and resubnmit it for
inspection, so long as bolts are not overtightened or dam-
aged by thins action.
11.5.7 Welding
Welding, welder qualifications, prequahitication of
weld details and inspection of welds shall conform to the
requirements of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D/.5
Bridge We/ding Code.
Brackets, clips, shipping devices, or other material nout
required by the plans or special provisions shall nout be
weldedor tacked to any unember unless shown on the shop
drawings and approved by the Engineer.
11.6 ERECTION
11.6.1 General
The Contractor shall provide all tools, machinery, and
equipment necessary to erect the structure.
Falsework and forms shall be in accordance with the
requirenments of Sectiouui 3, Temporary Works.
11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials
Material tom be stored at the job site shall be placed oum
skids above the groumnd. It shall be kept clean and promperly
drained. Girders and beams shall be placed upright and
shored. Long members, such as colunmns amid chords, shall
be supported on skids placed near enough together to pre-
vent injury from deflection. If the contract is four ereetioun
only, the Comntractor shall check the material turned ouver
to hun our her against the shipping lists andrepourt promptly
in writing any shortage our injury discouvered. The Coumi-
tractor shall be responsible four time loss of any material
while in his or her care, or for any damage caused to it
after being received by the Contractor.
11.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages
Bridge bearings shall be furnished and imistalled in coin-
formance with Section 18. Bearing Devices, ouf these
Specifications.
If the steel superstructure is to be placed omn a sub-
struetumne that was built under aseparate contract, the Coumi-
tractor shall verify that the niasonury has been constructed
in the right loucation and to the correct lines andelevatiomns
before ordering niaterials.
530
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.6.4
11.6.4 Erection Procedure
11.6.4.1 Confomance to Drawings
The erection procedure shall conform to the erection
drawings submitted in accordance with Article 11.2.2.
Any modificatiomns tom or deviatiouns from this ereetiomi prom
cedure will require revised drawings and verification of
stresses and geonmetry.
11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses
Any erection stresses, induced in the structure as a re-
sult of using a method of erectiomn which differs froum the
plans. shall be accounted four by the Contractor. The Coin-
tractor, at his own expense, shall prepare ereetiomn design
calculations for such changed unethods and subniit theumi
tom the Engimmeer. The calculations shall indicate any
ehamige in stresses or change in behavior for the tempomrary
and final structures. Additiomnal niatenial required to keep
bouth the teunporary amid final stresses within the allowable
limits used in design shall be provided at the Contractomrs
expense.
The Contractor will be responsible for providing teni-
porary bracing or stiffening devices to accommodate han-
dling stresses in individual members or segments of the
structure during erection.
11.6.4.3 MaintainingAlignment and Camber
During erection, the Contractour will be responsible for
suppoirting segments of the structure in a manner that will
produce the proper alignment and camber in the coni-
pleted structure. Cross frames and diagonal bracing shall
be installed as necessary during the erection process to
provide stability and assure correct geometry. Temporary
bracing, if necessary at any stage of erection, shall be prom-
vided by the Contractor.
11.6.5 Field Assembly
The parts shall be accurately assembled as shown on
the plans or erection drawings, and any match-marks shall
be followed. The material shall be carefully handled som
that no parts will be bent, brouken, or otherwise damaged.
Hammering which will injure or distort the members shall
not be done. Bearing surfaces and surfaces to be in per-
manent contact shall be cleaned before the members are
assembled. Splices and field connections shall have one-
half of the holes filled with bolts and cylindrical erection
pins (half bolts and half pins) before installing and tight-
ening the balance of high-strength bolts. Splices and con-
nections cariying traffic during erection shall have three-
fourths of the holes so filled.
Fitting-up bolts may be the same high-strength bolts
used in the installation. If other fitting-up bolts are umsed
they shall be of the same nominal diameter as the high-
strength bolts, and cylindrical erection pins shall be /~
inch larger.
11.6.6 Pin Connections
Pilot and driving nuts shall be used iii driving pins.
They shall be furnishedby the Contractour withomut charge.
Pins shall be som driven that the members will take full
bearing on them. Pin mmuts shall be screwed up tight and
the threads burred at the face ouf the nut with a pointed tomol.
11.6.7 Misfits
The correetiomn of union misfits involvimig niuuior
aniounts of meaning, euttimig, grinding and chipping
will be considered a legitimate part omf the erectiommi. Flow-
ever, aumy error in the shop fabrication or deforniatioum re-
sulting from handling and transpourting will be cause four
rei ection.
The Countractor shall be respouuisible four all misfits, er-
rors, and damage and shall make the necessary corrections
and replacements.
11.7.1 Method of Measurement
Pay quantities fomr each type of steel amid iron will be
measured by the pound computed froinm dimensiomis shown
on the plans using the following rules and assuniptiomns:
Unit Weights, Pound per Cubic Foot
Cast Iron
Malleable Iron
Wrought Iron
Steel-Rolled or Cast
445.0
470.0
48 7.0
490.0
The weights of rolled shapes shall be computed on the
basis of their nominal weights per foot as shown on the
drawings, or listed in the handbomoks.
The weights of plates shall be counputed on the basis of
the nominal weight for theirwidth and thickness as shown
on the drawings, plus an estimated overrun coniputed as
one-half the Permissible V ariation in Thickness and
Weight as tabulated in Specification, General Requmire-
ments for Delivery of Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Steel
Piling, and Bars for Structural Use. AASHTO M 160
(ASTM A 6).
The weight of castings shall be computed from the di-
mensions shown on the approved shop drawings. deduct-
ing for open holes. To this weight shall be added 5 percent
allowauice for fillets amid ouverrumn. Scale weights unay be
substituted for conuputed weights in the case ouf castings
or of small couniplex parts four which accurate conipulta-
tions ouf weight would be difficult.
The weight of temporary erection bolts, shomp and
field paint, boxes, crates, and other containers used for
shipping, and niatenials used for supporting members dur-
ing transportation and erection, will not be included.
The weight of any additiomnal niaterial required by Ar-
ticle 11.6.4.2 to accommoudate erection stresses resulting
froni the Contractors choice ouf erection methods will not
be included.
In computing pay weight on the basis of computed net
weight the following stipulations in addition to those in
the fouregoing paragraphs shall apply.
(a) The weight shall be computed on the basis of
the net finished dimensions of the parts as shown
on the approved shop drawings, deducting for copes,
cuts, clips, and all open holes, except bolt holes.
(b) The weight of heads, nuts, single washers, and
threaded stick-through of all high tensile strength bolts,
both shop and field, shall be included on the basis of
the following weights:
Diameter of Bolt
(in.)
Weight per 100
Bolts (Ibs)
1/2 19.7
5/8 31.7
3/4 52.4
7/8 8 0.4
1 116.7
1-1/8 165.1
1-1/4 212.0
1-3/8 280.0
1-1/2 340.0
(c) The weight of fillet welds shall be as follows:
Size of Fillet Weld
Inches
WeightPounds per
Linear Foot
3/16 0.08
1/4 0.14
5/16 0.22
3/8 0.30
1/2 0.55
5/8 0.8 0
3/4 1.10
7/8 1.50
1 2.00
(d) To determine the pay quantities ouf galvanized
metal. the weight to be added to the calculated weight
of base metal for the galvanizing will be deternmumied
from the wieghts of zinc coatings specified by
AASHTOM Ill (ASTMA 123).
(e) No allowance will be made for tIme weight of
paint.
1L7.2 Basis of Payment
The contract price for fabrication and ereetiomn
of structural steel shall be considered to be full court-
pensation for the cost ouf all labor, equipment, mate-
rials, transportation, and shop and field painting, if
not otherwise provided for, necessary for the proper
completion of the work in accordance with the con-
tract. The contract price for fabrication without erec-
tion shall be considered to be full compensation four
the cost of all labor, equipment, and materials neces-
sary for the proper completion of the work, other than
erection and field assembly, in accordance with the
contract.
Under contracts containing an item for structural steel.
all metal parts other than metal reinforcement four con-
crete, such as anchor bolts and nuts, shoes, rockers,
rollers, bearing and slab plates, pins and nuts, expansion
dams, roadwaydrains andscuppers, weld metal, bolts em-
bedded in concrete, cradles and brackets, railing, and rail-
ing pots shall be paid for as structural steel unless other-
wise stipulated.
Payment will be made on a pound-price or a lump
sum basis as required by the terms of the contract, but un-
less stipulated otherwise, it shall be on a pound-price
basis.
For members comprising both carbon steel and
other special steel or material, when separate unit prices
are provided for same, the weight ouf each class of steel in
each such member shall be separately computed. and paid
for at the contract unit price therefore.
Full-size members which are tested in accordance
with the specifications, when such tests are required by
the contract, shall be paid for at the same rate as for com-
parable members for the structure. The cost of testing in-
cluding equipment, labor and incidentals shall be in-
cluded in the contract price for structural steel. Members
which fail to meet the contract requirements, and mem-
bers rejected as a result of tests, will not be paid for by
the Department.
11.7.1
531
Section 12
STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL
12.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing
steel grid flououning of the open type, or of the concrete
filled type as specified in the special provisions and as
shown on time plans. When the Contractor is allowed to se-
lect any details of the design, said details shall meet the
requirements for the design of steel grid floors in Division
I, Article 3.27.
The Contractor shall submit complete working draw-
ings with assembly details to the Engineer for approval.
Fabrication or constructioun of the flooring shall not be
started until the drawings have been approved. Such ap-
proval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibil-
ity under the contract for the successful completion of the
work.
12.2 MATERIALS
If painted, the paint shall be applied according to the
specifications for Section 13, Painting, except that dip-
ping will be permitted. The paint shall be as specified for
metal structures unless paint or coating of another type is
required by the special provisions. When painting is spec-
ified, those areas of steel grid flooringcompletely encased
in concrete may remain unpainted, unless otherwise spec-
ified.
12.2.3 Concrete
All concrete in filled steel grid floors shall conform to
the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. The
concrete and the size of aggregate shall be as specified for
Class C (AE) concrete.
12.2.4 Skid Resistance
The upper edges of all members fourming the wearing
surface of open type grid flooring shall be serrated to give
the maximum skid resistance.
Concrete filled or overhayed grid floors shall be given
a skid-resistant texture as specified in Article 8.10.2.
12.2.1 Steel
All steel shapes, plates and bars shall conform tom
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36, 50, or SOW.
Unless the material is galvanized or epoxy comated it shall
have a copper content of 0.2 percent.
Section 9, Reinforcing Steel.
12.2.2 Protective Treatment
Open type floors, unless otherwise specified, shall be
galvanized in accordance with the requuiremenits of
AASI-ITOM Ill (ASTMA 123).
Filled or partially filled types, as called for in the spe-
cial provisiomis, shall be either galvanized, painted, epoxy
coated, or supplied in unpainted weathering steel.
12.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
Where the main elements are normal tom center line of
rouadway, the units generally shall be of such length as tom
extend over the full width ouf the roadway for rouadways up
to 40 feet but in every case the units shall extend over at
least three panels. Where joints are required, the ends of
the main floor members shall be welded at the joints over
their full cross-sectiounal area, or omtherwise connected tom
promvide full continuity.
Where the main elements are parallel tom center line of
roadway. the sectiouns shall extend over nout less than three
panels, and the ends of abutting uuiits shall be welded
ouver their full cross-sectional area, or otherwmse con-
nected to provide full continuity in aecomrdanee with the
design.
533
534 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
12.4
12.4 PROVISION FOR CAMBER
Unless outherwuse prouvided oun the plans. prouvisiomi four
camber shall be made as foullows:
Steel units so rigid that they will not readily foullow the
camber required shall be cambered in the shop. Four grid
floomnimig types outher than those employing a field placed
full depth comnerete filling attached to the deck with
welded shear connectors, the stringers shall be canted or
prouvided with shop-welded beveled bearing bars tom pro-
vide a bearimig surface parallel to the crown of the road-
way. Ifbeveled bars are umsed, they shall be continuomus and
fillet welded along the center line ouf the stringer flange; in
which case, the design span length shall be governed by
the width of the bearing bar instead of the width of the
stringer flange.
Loungitudinal stringers, except as provided in the fol-
louwing paragraph, shall be mill cambered or provided
with bearing strips so that the completed floor after dead
load deflection will comnfomrm to the longitudinal camber
shown on time plans.
V ertical adjustment of full-depth-filled grid floors,
which are to be counnected to supporting nienibers with
shear connectors, may be aecoumphished by use of adjust-
ing bolts operating through nuts welded to the grid and
bearing omrm the top flange ouf framing members. Alterna-
tively, shims may be used, and shims must be used if con-
struction vehicles are to be allowed on the floor prior to
final attachnient.
12.5 FIELD ASSEMBlY
Areas of considerable size shall be placed and, if nec-
essary, adjusted to proper fit before the floor is connected
to its supports. Care shall be taken during lifting and plac-
ing to avoid overstinessing the grid units. The main ele-
ments shall be made continuouus as specified in Article
12.3, and sections shall be connected together along their
edges by welding or bolting in accordance with the plans
or the approved working drawings.
12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS
Except when other connectiomn methods are specified or
approved, the floor shall be conmiected to its steel supports
by welding every foutirtim nmain element to the supporting
nieniber; however, welds shall be spaced no greater than
IS inches on centers. Before any welding is done, the floor
shall either be temporarily lomaded or it shall be clamped
dowum to niake a tight joint with full bearing. Tom minimize
the stresses induced thromugh chaunping down, any differ-
ential elevatioun of 4 inch or niore over a 4-fomot support-
ung member shall be shinnied before welding the shimum.
the grid, and the supporting nieunber. The location, length.
and size ouf the welds shall be subject to the approval ouf
the Engineer.
Around the perimeter ouf continuous units ouf grid floomin-
InC. the ends of all the unainsteel members (if the flooring
shall be securely fastened together by meauis of steel
plates or angles welded tom the ends ouf the maui nienibers,
or by thoroughly encasing the ends with concrete.
When specified or approved. methouds other thaum sveld-
ung may be used for attaching steel grid floors (boutim open
and emncrete filled types) to framing menibers. In such
cases, welded headed shear connectors can he employed
four councrete filled grids and open steel grids can be coin-
neeted to framing members by bolting.
12.7 WELDING
All shop and field welding shall be done in accordance
with ANS1/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code Di S.
12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED
COATINGS
Galvanized surfaces that are abraded or damaged at
any time after the application of the zinc shall be
repaired by thoroughly wire brushing the damaged areas
and removing all loose and cracked coating, after which
the cleaned areas shall be painted with two applications ouf
unthinned commercial quality zinc-rich primer (organic
vehicle type). Spray cans shall not be used.
12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER
12.9.1 Forms
Concrete filled types of flooring with bottom flanges
not in contact with each other shall be provided with bot-
tom forms of metal or wood to retain the concrete filler
without excessive leakage. Forms shall be removed after
the comicrete has been cured except that metal forms coin-
fomrming to the following paragraph unay be heft in place.
If nietal formstrips are used they shall fit tightly on time
bouttom flanges or protrusions of the grid members and
be placed in noncontinuous lengths so as tom extend nout
more than finch ontou the edge of each support, but in all
cases the forms shall be such as will result in adequate
bearing of slab on the support. If metal fourms are tom be
left in place, they shall either be galvanized omr protective
Ireated by the same method that is required for the grid
fiomoning.
12.9.2
535
12.9.2 Placement
When the plans indicate that the coumierete filling does
nout extendtom the bouttoni cif the steel grid, the concrete, ex-
cept concrete four cells in which shear comnneetorsare to be
installed, may be placed with the grid in an inverted pousi-
tion priour to installation, or the portion of the grid to re-
main unfilled may be blocked omut by the use of a tenipo-
rainy inert filling material, such as. .sand or polystyrene
board filler which is later removed, or by the use of metal
lath fomrni strips our outher approived methouds. The methoud
used shall permit full embedment of the tertiary bars amid
the shear counnectoun studs., if used.
When the plans or specifleatiouns indicate that filled our
partially filled grids or reinforced comnerete slabs immeorpo-
rating steel grids are to act compousitehy with their sup-
porting members, all shear connecting studs shall be fully
encased in concrete and the cuitire area between the toup
flange of the supportimug member and the bottoin ouf the
grid filling shall be filled with concrete.
The concrete for filled grid flomors shall be mixed,
placed, and cured in accordance with the requirenients of
Sectiomn 8. The concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by
vibrating the steel grid floor. The vibrating device and the
unanner of operating it shall be subject to the approval ouf
the Engineer.
Steel grid flooring will be mneasured by the square fomot.
The number of square feet will be based on the dimen-
sions of the flooring in place and approved by the Engi-
neer in the completed womrk.
Steel grid flooring will be paid for at the countract price
per square foot. Such payment for steel grid floour. oupen our
concrete filled types, shall be counsidered tom be full com-
pensation for the cost ouf furnishing of all materials, equip-
ment, tools, and labor necessary for the satisfactory coni-
pletion of the work.
Section 13
PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL
13.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of the painting of surfaces
shown on the plans or otherwise specified to be painted.
The work includes, but is not limited to, the preparation
of surfaces to be painted, application and curing of the
paint, protection of the work, protection of existing facil-
ities, vehicles and the public from damage due to this
work, and the furnishing of all labor, equipment, and ma-
terials needed to perform the work.
13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property
The Contractor shall comply with all applicable envi-
ronniental protection and occupational safety and health
standards, rules, regulations, and orders. Failure to com-
ply with these standards, rules, regulations, and orders
will be sufficient cause for suspension or disqualification.
All reasonable precautions shall be taken to contain
waste materials (used blasting material and old paint)
classified as hazardous. Disposal of hazardous waste ma-
terial shall be performed in accordance with all applicable
Federal, State, and local laws.
The Contractor shall provide protective devices such
as tarps. screens or covers as necessary to prevent damage
to the work and to other property or persons from all
cleaning and painting operations.
Paint or paint stains that result in an unsightly appear-
ance on surfaces not designated to be painted shall be re-
moved or obliterated by the Contractor at his or her ex-
pense.
13.1.3 Protection of the Work
All painted surfaces that are marred or damaged as a
result of operatiomis of the Contractor shall be repaired by
time Countractor, at his or her expense, with materials and tcm
a condition equal tom that of the coating specified herein.
If traffic causes an objectionable aniount of dust, the
Contractor, when directed by the Engineer, shall sprinkle
the adjacent roadbed and shoulders with water or dust pal-
hiative for a sufficient distance on each side of the location
where painting is being done.
Upon completion of all painting operations and of any
other work that would cause dust, grease, or other foreign
materials to be deposited on the painted surfaces, the
painted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned. At the time
of opening structures to public traffic, the painting shall
be completed, and the surfaces shall be undamaged and
clean.
13.1.4 Color
If not otherwise shown or specified, the color of the top
or finish coat of paint shall be as directed by the Engineer.
13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES
13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints
The coating system and paints to be applied shall con-
sist of the system inTable 13.2.1 which is specified for use
or modified by the special provisions.
13.2.2 Weather Conditions
Paint shall be applied only on thoroughly dry surfaces.
Painting will not be permitted when the atmospheric tem-
perature, paint, or the surface to be painted is at or below
40
0F or above 1000F, or when metal surfaces are less than
50F above the dew point, or when the humidity exceeds
85 percent at the site of the work, or when freshly painted
surfaces may become damaged by rain, fog, or dust, or
when it can be anticipated that the atmospheric tempera-
ture will drop below400F during the drying period, except
as provided herein for painting in enclosures. Metal sur-
faces which are hot enough to cause the paint to blister, to
produce a porous paint film, ontocause the vehicle to sep-
arate from the pigment shall not be painted.
Subject to approval of the Engineer, the Contractomr
may provide a suitable enclosure to permit painting dur-
ing inclement weather. Provisions shall be made to artifi-
537
538 HIGHWAY BRI[)GES 13.2.2
TABLE 13.2.1
High Pollution and Mild Climate or Maintenance
Coastal Mild Climate Repainting
Primer Inorganic Zinc3 mils. Organic Zinc3 mils. OilIAlkyd2 mils.
Intermediate Coat Epoxy 2 mils or V inyl Epoxy 2 mils. or V inyl Oih/Ahkyd2 mils.
Wash Primer 0.3-0.5 mils. Wash Primer 0.3-0.5 mils.
Top Coat Epoxy, V inyl, or Epoxy, V inyl, or Oil/Alkyd2 mils.
Urethane2 mils. Urethane2 mils.
Total System 5.3-7 mils. 5.3-7 mils. 6 mils.
Notes:
(I) Except for vinyl wash primer, the coating and system thicknesses shown are minimums.
(2) Coating systems shown for severe areas are satisfactory in less severe areas
(3) Coastalwithin 1000 feet of ocean or tidal water. High Pollutionair pollution environment such as industrial areas Mildother than
coastal area nol in air poltution environment.
(4) Inorganic zinc paint shatl meet the requirements of Military Specification DOD-P-23236A (SH).
(5) Organic zinc paint shalt meet the requirements ofMilitary Specification DOD-P-21035A
(6) Vinyl Wash Primer shaft meet the requirements of Military Specification DOD-P-15328 D.
(7) Vinyl top coat paint shall meet the requirements ofthe Steel Structures Painting Council, SSPC-Paint 9
(8 ) Epoxy paint shall meet the requirements of the Steel Structures Painting Council, SSPC-22.
(9) OillAlkyd primer and intermediate coat paint shatl meet the requirements of the Steel Structures Painting Council, SSPC-Paint 25
(10) OilIAlkyd lop coat paint shall meet the requirements of the Steel Structures Painting Council, SSPC-Paint 104.
(t I) Urethane mop coat paint shall meet obe recommendations of the Steel Structures Painting Council, SSPC-PS Guide 1700.
(12) Paints are hazardous because of their flammability and potential toxicity. Safe handling practices are required and should include, but not be
limited to, the provisions of SSPC-PAGuide 3, AGuide to Safety in Paint Application.
cially control atmospheric comnditions inside the enclom-
sure within limits suitable for painting throughout the
painting operatiomn. Surfaces painted under cover in damp
or cold weather shall remain under cover until the paint
dries or weather conditions permit open exposure. Full
compensation for providing and maintaining such en-
closures shall be considered as included in the prices
paid for the various contract items of work involving
painting and no additional conipensation will be allowed
therefore.
All blast cleaning, except that performed within closed
buildings, and all painting shall be performed during day-
light hours unless otherwise providedby the contract doc-
uments.
13.2.3 Surface Preparation
All exposed surfaces of structural steel, except galva-
nized or metahized surfaces~, shall be cleaned and painted.
All surfaces of new structural steel shall be cleaned by
the blast-cleaning method unless otherwise specified in
the special provisions, or approved in writing by the En-
gineer.
In repainting existing steel structures the method ouf
cleaning shall be as specified in the special provisions.
Any damage to sound paint, on areas not designated for
treatment, resulting from the Contractorsoperations shall
be repaired by the Contractor at his or her expense to the
satisfaction of the Engineer.
The methods used in the cleaning of metal sumrfaces
shall conform to the following.
13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning
Abrasives used for blast cleaning shall be either clean
dry sand, mineral grit, steel shot, or steel grit, at the optioun
of the Contractor, and shall have a suitable grading topro-
duce satisfactory results. The use of other abrasives will
not be permitted unless approved in writing by the Engi-
neer.
Unwashed beach sand containing salt or excessive
amounts of silt will not be allowed.
All dirt, mill scale, rust, paint, and other foreign
material shall be removed from exposed steel surfaces
in accordance with the requirements of the Steel Struc-
tures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification
No. 10, SSPC-SPI 0Near-White Blast Cleaning. Blast
cleaning shall heave all surfaces with a dense and uni-
form anchor pattern of not less than 1 nor more than 3
mils. as measured with an approved surface profile com-
parator.
When blast cleaning is being performed near machin-
ery, all journals, bearings, motors, and moving parts shall
be sealed against entry of abrasive dust before blast clean-
ing begins.
Blast cleaned surfaces shall be primed or treated the
same day blast cleaning is done, unless otherwise autho-
rized by the Engineer. If cleaned surfaces rust or are con-
13.2.3.1 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION
539
taminated with foreign material before painting is accom-
plished, they shall be reblast cleaned by the Contractor at
his our her expemise.
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning
All dirt. grease. loose chalky paint, or other foreign
niatenial which has accumulated on the previously painted
our galvanized surfaces shall be remnoved with a steam
eleaumimig apparatus which shall precede all other phases of
cleaning. It is not intended that sound paint be removed
by this process. Any paint which becomes lomose, curled,
lifted, or loses its bound with the preceding coat our coats
after steani cleaning shall be reuimoved as directed by the
Engineer tom sound paimit or metal surface by the Contrac-
tour at his or her expense.
A biodegradable detergent shall be added to the feed
water of the steam generator or applied to the surface to be
cleaned. The detergent shall he ouf such composition and
shall be added or applied in such quantity that the cleaning
as described in the above paragraph is accomplished.
Aumy residue, detergent, or other foreign material which
may accumulate on cleaned surfaces shall be removed by
flushing with fresh water.
Steam cleaning shall not be performed more than 2
weeks priour tou painting or other phases of cleaning.
Subsequent painting shall not be performed until the
cleaned surfaces are thoroughly dry and in no case in less
than 24 hours after cleaning, and flushing.
13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning
Unless otherwise prohibited by the special provisions,
solvents shall be used to remove oil, grease, and other sol-
uble contaniinants in accordance with time requirements of
SSPC-SPI, Solvent Cleaning. Solvent cleaning shall be
performed prior toblast cleaning. Ifcontamination remains
after blasting. the area shall be recleaned with solvent.
13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning
Wire brushes, either hand or powered, hand scraping
tomols, power griuiders, or sandpaper shall be used to re-
move all dirt, loose rust and mill scale, or paint which is
not firmly bonded to the metal surfaces.
Pneumatic chipping hammers shall not be used unless
authorized in writing by tIme Engineer.
13.2.4 Application of Paints
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer, in writing, at
least I week in advance of the date that cleaning and
paimiting operations are tom begin.
Painting shall be done in a neat and workmanlike man-
ner. Unless otherwise specified, paint shall be applied by
brush, spray. or roller, or any combinatioun thereof pecu-
liar to the paint being applied.
Each application of paint shall be thoroughly cured and
any skips, holidays, thin areas, or other deficiencies cor-
rected befoure the succeeding application. The surface ouf
the paint being covered shall be free froni moisture, dust,
grease, or any other deleterious materials that would pre-
vent the bond of the succeeding applications. In spot
painting, old paint which lifts after the first application
shall be removed by scraping and the area repainted be-
fore the next application.
Paints specified are formulated ready for application
and no thinning will be allowedunless otherwise prouvided
in the applicable materials specification for the paint
being used.
Brushes, when used, shall have sufficient body and
length of bristle to spread the paint in a uniform filni.
Round, oval-shaped brushes, or flat brushes not wider
than 4~3 inches shall be used. Paint shall be evenly spread
and thoroughly brushed out.
On all surfaces that are inaccessible for painting by
regular means, the paint shall be applied by sheepskin
daubers, bouttle brushes, or by any other means approved
by the Engineer.
Rollers, when used, shall be of a type that do not leave
a stippled texture in the paint film. Rollers shall be used
only on flat, even surfaces to produce a paint film of even
thickness with no skips, runs, sags, or thin areas.
Paint may be applied with airless or conventional spray
equipment.
Suitable traps or separators acceptable tothe Engineer
shall be furnished and installed in the airline toeach spray
pot to exclude oil and water from the air.
Any spray method which produces excessive paint
build-up, runs, sags, or thin areas inthe paint film, our skips
and holidays, will be considered unsatisfactory and the
Engineer may require modification ouf the spray method our
prohibit its use and require brushing instead.
Mechanical mixers shall be used to mix paint. Prior tom
application, paint shall be mixed a sufficient length ouf
time to thoroughly mix the pigment and vehicle together,
and shall be kept thoroughly mixed during its application.
The dry film thickness of the paint will be measured in
place with a calibrated magnetic film thickness gage ac-
cording to Steel Structures Painting Council SSPC-PA2.
The thickness of each application shall be limited to
that which will result in unifourm drying throughout the
paint film.
Succeeding applications of paint shall be of such shade
as to contrast with the paint being covered.
Structures shall be blast cleaned and painted with the
total thickness of undercoats before erection. After erec-
tion and before applying subsequent paint, all areas where
paint has been damaged or has deteriorated and all ex-
posed unpainted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and
spot painted with the specified undercoats to the specified
thickness.
Surfaces exposed to the atmosphere and which would
be inaccessible for painting after erection shall be painted
the full number of applications prior to erection.
V inyl wash primer, if required, shall not be applied
more than 12 hours before application of the succeeding
coat of paint. The vinyl wash primer shall be applied by
spraying tou produce a uniform wet film on the surface.
The dry film thickness shall be between 0.3 and 0.5 immils.
The painting of areas underjoint connection and splice
plates shall conform to Article 11.5.6.3.
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers
Zinc-rich primers, which include organic and inor-
ganic zinc primers, shall be applied by spray niethods. On
areas mnaccessible to spray application, the paint mnay be
applied by brush or daubers.
Mechanical mixers shall be used in mixing the primer.
After mixing, zinc-rich primers shall be strained through
a metal 30-60 mesh screen or a double layer of cheese-
cloth immediately prior to or during pouring into the spray
pot.
An agitating spray pout shall be used in all spray appli-
cation of zinc-rich primers.. The agitator or stirring rod
shall reach to within 2 inches of the bottom of the spray
pot and shall be in motion at all times during primer ap-
plication. Such motion shall be sufficient to keep the
primer well mixed.
Spray equipment shall provide the proper pot pressure
and atomization pressure to produce a coating the com-
position of which shall comply in all respects to the spec-
ifications for zinc paint. The hose from pot to nozzle shall
not be more than 75 feet long, nor be used more than 15
feet above our below the pot.
Cured, zinc-rich primer shall be free froum dust, dirt,
salt, or other deleterious deposits and thouroughhy dry be-
fore applying vinyl wash primer.
In addition, the applicatioun of inorganic zinc paints
shall conform to the following paragraphs.
Succeeding applications of inorganic zinc paints shall
be applied within 24 hours, but not less than 30 minutes
after priour application of suich paint.
In areas where mud-cracking occurs in the inorganic
zinc paint, it shall be blast eleamied back to soundly bonded
paint, and recoated to the same thickness by the same
methods specified for the original couat.
Paint shall be cured for 48 hours at a relative humidity
of at least 45 percent before the application of vinyl wash
primer. The cured inorganic zinc paint shall be hosed
down with water and be in a surface dry condition before
the application of vinyl wash primer if the vinyl wash
primer is not applied within 3 weeks after the inorganic
zinc paint is applied, or when there is evidence ouf dust,
dirt, salt, or other deleterious deposits on the inorganic
zinc paint.
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment
Cleaning and painting structural steel will be paid for
on the basis of lump sum prices, unless otherwise speci-
fied in the special provisions.
The lump sum prices paid for clean structural steel and
for paint structural steel or the hump sum price paid
for clean and paint structural steel shall include full
compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools,
equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work
involved in cleaning and painting structural steel as
shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifica-
tions and the special provisions, and as directed by the
Engineer.
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES
All galvanized surfaces that are to be painted shall first
be cleaned by washing with mineral spirit solvent suffi-
cient to remove any oil, grease, or other materials foreign
to the galvanized coating.
After cleaning, vinyl wash primer shall be applied
to such surfaces. The vinyl wash primer shall be ap-
plied by spraying to produce a uniform wet film on the
surface. The dry film thickness shall be between 0.3 and
0.5 mils.
Finish paint to be applied to primed galvanized sur-
faces shall be as shown on the plans or otherwise speci-
fled. If not shown or otherwise specified, the finish paint
shall be the same as that used on adjacent metal work or
shall be as directed by the Engineer.
No separate payment will be made for preparing and
painting galvanized suirfaces and full conipensatioun for
furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and
incidentals, and for doing all the work involved imi pre-
paring and painting galvanized surfaces as shown on
the plans, and as specified in these specifications and the
special prouvisions. and as directed by the Engineer will
be considered as included in the prices paid for the
various contract items of work involving the galvanized
sumrfaces.
13.4
541
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER
13.4.1 General
Unless otherwise shouwn on the plans or specified in the
special provisions, all new timber requiring painting shall
be painted with three applications of paint. The paint used
for various applications will be as specified inthese spec-
ifications or as shown on the plans or specified in the spe-
cial provisions.
The painting of previously painted surfaces shall be as
required by the plans and specifications.
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces
All cracked our peeled paint, loose chalkypaint, dirt and
other foreign material shall be removed by wire brushing,
scraping our outher means inimediatehy prior to painting.
The moisture content ouf the timber shall noul be more than
20 percent at the tinie of time first application.
13.4.3 Paint
Paint for timber structures, except as otherwise
provided herein, shall counforun to the Specification for
White and Tinted Ready-Mixed Paint. AASHTO M 70.
The paint as specified is intended for use in couvening pine-
viouushy painted surfaces. When it is applied to unpaimited
timber, turpentine and linseed oil shall be added as
required by the character of the surface in an amount not
to exceed 1 pint per gallon of the paint as specified. The
paint shall be either white or tinted as directed by the
Engineer.
If a black finish paint is specified, the first or prime coat
shall be as specified above. Black paint shall comiform to
the Specifications for Black Paint, AASHTO M 68.
13.4.4 Application
When permitted in writing by the Engineer, the first ap-
plication of paint nuay be applied prior to erection.
After the first application has driedand time timber is in
place. all cracks, cheeks, nail holes, or other depressuomns
shall be puttied fluish with the surface and allowed to dry
befoure the secomid apphicatioun of paint.
Paint shall be applied by brush, air spray, or roller,
spread evenly, and worked thoroughly into all seasoning
cracks, corners, and recesses. No later coat shall be ap-
plied until the full thickness ouf the previous coat has dried.
Fimial brush stroukes with aluminuni paint shall be made
in the sanie direction to ensure that powder particles
leaf evemily.
13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber
Timber treated with creosote or oil-borne, penta-
chlorophenol preservatives shall normally not be painted.
Timber treated with water-borne preservatives shall be
clean and be reduced to no more than 20-percent moisture
content before it is painted. Any visible salt crystals on the
wood surface shall be washed and brushed away, and the
moisture content reduced again to the specified level be-
fore painting. Stored timber awaiting painting shall be
covered and stacked with spreaders to ensure air circula-
tmon.
13.4.6 Payment
No separate paynient will be made for prepanimig sur-
faces and for painting new timber. The painting of exist-
ing timber will be paid for on the basis of lunip sum
prices. Fuill coumpensation for furnishing all labor, materi-
als, tools, equipunent. and incidentals, amid for doing all the
wourk involved in preparing surfaces and painting timber
as shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifica-
tions and the special provisions, and as directed by the En-
gineer will be comnsidered as included in the prices paid for
the various contract items of work involving new timber
or the prices paid for painting existing timber.
13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE
13.5.1 Surface Preparation
Prior to painting concrete surfaces, laitamice and curing
compounds shall be remouved froum the surface by abrasive
blast cleaning in accordance with Article 13.2.3.1.
Concrete surfaces shall be thoroughly dry and free ouf
dust at the time the paint is to be applied.
Any artificial drying procedures and methods shall be
subject to approval by the Engineer.
13.5.2 Paint
Unless otherwise specified in time special prouvisiouns.
paint to be applied tom concrete surfaces shall be acrylic
emulsion and shall coumply in all respects to Federal Spec-
ification TT-P-19 (latest revusmoun), Paint, Acrylic Eniul-
sion, Exteriour. This paimit nmay be tiuited by musing univer-
sal or all purpose concentrates.
13.5.3 Application
Acrylic emulsiomn paint shall be applied in not less thaum
two applications to prouduce a uniform appearance.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
The paint shall be applied only when the anibient tent-
perature is SOT, or above. Painting will not be permitted
when it can be anticipated that the ambient temperature
will drop below 50
0F during the application and drying of
the paint.
Preparing and painting concrete will be nmeasured ei-
ther by the hump sum or by the square foot as listed in the
schedule of bid iteuns. When measured by the square fomout,
measurement will be detemnmimied along the surface ouf the
actual area painted.
The contract price paid per lump sum or square fomout for
prepare-and-paint concrete shall include full compensation
for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipnment, and in-
cidentals, and for doing all the work involved in preparing
the concrete and applying the paint to concrete surfaces, as
shown on the plans, and as specified inthese specifications
andthe special provisions, andas directed by the Engineer.
542
13.S3
Section 14
STONE MASONRY
14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone
This wourk shall consist ouf the construction of stone nina-
sounry structures amid the stone masonry portions of com-
pousite structures in aceomrdance with these specificatioums
and in reasounably close conformity with the lines amid
grades shouwn on the plans or established by the Engineer.
14.1.1 Rubble Masonry
Rubble masonry, as here specified, shall include vari-
ous classes of roughly squared and dressed stone laid in
cement mortar.
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry
Ashlar unasonry shall consist of first-class cut
stone masonry laid in regular courses and shall include
all wourk in which, as distinguished from rubble masonry,
the imidividual stomnes are dressed or tooled to exact di-
niensuourms.
14.2 MATERIALS
14.2.1 Stone for masonry shall be tough, dense, sound
and durable and free of seams, cracks, inclusions or other
structural defects. Stone shall be of the type and quality
shown on the plans or otherwise specified. Prior to ship-
ment of stone to the job site, the Contractor shall obtain
approval of the proposed source and shall submit a repre-
sentative sample of stone to the Engineer for inspection
and, if necessary, testing. The sample shall be dressed and
finished as specified for use in the work and shall not be
less than 6 inches in any dimension. All stone used in the
work shall be of a quality comparable to that of the sam-
pIe submitted.
14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone
Stone for mortar rubble masonry shall be free from
rounded, worn, or weathered surfaces. All weathered
stone shall be rejected.
Stone for ashlar masounry shall be reasonably fine
grained and uniformim in color. Preferably. stone shall be
from a quarry, the product of which is known to be ouf sat-
isfactory quality. Stoic shall be ouf such character that it
can be brought to sueh lines and surfaces, whether curved
or plane, as may be required. Any stone having defects
that have been repaired with cement or other materials
shall be rejected.
14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone
Quarry operations and delivery of stone to the point ouf
use shall be organized to insure deliveries well ahead ouf
masonry operations. A sufficiently large stock of the spec-
ified stone shall be kept on the site at all times, to permit
adequate selection of stone by the masons.
The stone shall be kept free from dirt, oil, or ammy other
injurious material which may prevent the proper adhesion
of the mortar or detract from the appearance of the ex-
posed surfaces.
14.2.3 Mortar
The ingredients used in making mortar shall conforni
to the following requirements:
Portland Cememit, Admixtures and Water; Section 8
Masonry Cement; ASTM C 91
Hydrated Lime; ASIM C 207
Quick Lime used to make hue putty; ASTM C 5
Sand Aggregate; AASHTO M 45 (ASTM C 144)
The proportions of materials shall be such that the
volume of sand in a damp, loose condition is between
2/4 and 3 times the volume of the cementitious materials.
The cememititious materials shall consist of either one
part of portland cement to between /~ and /2 parts of
hydrated lime or lime putty, or one part of portland cement
to between one and two parts of masonry cement.
Premixed materials conforming to these requirements
may be used.
14.1 DESCRIPTION
543
544
HIGHWAY BRII)GES
14.2.3
Admixtures shall be used only when specified or ap-
proved by the Engineer.
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR
MASONRY
14.3.1 General
Each stone shall be free from depressions and projec-
tions that might weaken it or prevent it from being prop-
erly bedded, and shall be of a shape tom meet the require-
ments for the class of masonry specified.
When no dimensions are shown on the plans, the
stones shall be furnished in the sizes and face areas nec-
essary to produce the general characteristics and appear-
ance as indicated on the plans.
The thickness of courses, if varied, shall diminish reg-
ularly from bottom to top of wall. The size of ring stones
in arches shall be as shown on the plans.
When headers are required, their lengths shall be not
less than the width of bed of the widest adjacent stretcher
plus 12 inches.
14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone
For the purpose of this specification the surface fin-
ishes of stone are defined as follows:
Smoothfinis/med: Having a surface in which the varia-
tions froni the pitch line do not exceed /~ inch.
Fine-finished: Having a surface in which the varia-
tions from the pitch line do not exceed /4 inch.
Rough-finished: Having a surface in which the varia-
tions from the pitch line do not exceed i~ inch.
Scabbled: Having a surface in which the variations
froun the pitch line do not exceed /4 inch.
Rock-faced: Having an irregular projecting face
withonut indications of tool niarks. The projections
beyond time pitch line shall not exceed 3 inches and no
part of the face shall recede back of the pitch line.
14.3.3 Rubble Masonry
14.3.3.1 Size
Individual stoics shall have a thickness of not less than
8 inches and a width ouf uiot less than 1 2 times time thick-
ness. No stounes. except headers, shall have a length less
than l/~ times their width.
14.3.3.2 Shape
The stones shall be roughly squared on joints, beds,
and faces. Selected stone, romugimly squared and pitched to
line, shall be used at all angles and ends of walls. If spec-
ified, all corners or angles in exterior surfaces shall be fin-
ished with a chisel draft.
Bed surfaces of face stones shall be normal to the faces
of the stones for about 3 inches and from this point nmay
depart from normal not more than 2 inches in 12 inches.
Joint surfaces of face stones shall form an angle with the
bed surfaces of not less than 450
All shaping or dressing of stone shall be done before
the stone is laid in the wall, and no dressing or hammer-
ing which will loosen the stone will be permitted after it
is placed.
14.3.3.3 Dressing
Stone shall be dressed toremove any thin or weak por-
tions. Face stones shall be dressed to prouvide bed and joint
lines with a maximum variation from true line of 1/2
inches unless otherwise indicated on the plans or in the
special provisions.
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry
14.3.4.1 Size
The individual stones shall be large and well propor-
tiouned. They shall not be less than 12 inches noun more than
30 inches in thickness.
14.3.4.2 Dressing
Stones shall be dressed to exact sizes and shapes
before being laid and shall be cut to lie on their natural
beds with top and bottom truly parallel. Hollow beds
will not be permitted. The bottoum bed shall be the full
size of the stone and no stone shall have an over-hanging
top. In rock-face construction the face side of any stone
shall not present an undercut contomur adjacent tom its
bouttom arnis giving a top-heavy, unstable appearance
when laid.
Beds of face stone shall be fine-finished for a depth of
not less than 12 inches.
V ertical joints of face stone shall be fine-finished amid
full to the square for a depth of not less than 9 inches.
Exposed surfaces of the face stone shall be given the
surface finish indicated oun the plans, with edges pitched
to true lines and exact batter. Chisel drafts I: iumeimes wide
shall be cut at all exterior corners. Face stone fornuing the
starling or nosing of piers shall be rough-finished unless
otherwise specified.
Holes for stone hooks shall not be permitted to show imi
exposed surfaces.
14.3 .4.3 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 545
14.3.4.3 Stretchers
Stretchers shall have a width of bed of not less than 1 2
times their thickness. They shall have a length of bed not
less than twice nor more than 3/~ times their thickness,
and not less than 3 feet.
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones
Arch ruing stone joint surfaces shall be radial and at
right angles to the front faces of the stones. They shall be
dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from the front
faces and the soffits, from which points they may depart
from a plane normal to the face not to exceed /4 inches to
12 inches. The back surface in contact with the concrete
of the arch barrel shall be parallel to the front face and
shall be dressed for a distance of 6 inches from the intra-
dos. The top shall be cut perpendicular to the front face
and shall be dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from
the front.
When concrete is to be placed after the masonry has
been constructed, adjacent ring stones shall vary at least 6
inches in depth.
Stratification in arch ring stones shall be parallel to the
radial joints and in other stones shall be parallel to
the beds.
When specified in the special provisions, a full-sized
template of the arch ring shall be laid otut near the quarry
site, showing face dimensions of each ring stone and
thickness ofjoints. The template shall be approved by the
Engineer before the shaping of any ring stone is started,
and no ring stone shall be placed in the structure until all
ring stones have been shaped, dressed, and approved by
the Engineer.
14.4 CONSTRUCTION
Stone masonry shall not be constructed in freezing
weather or when the stone contains frost, except by writ-
ten permission of the Engineer and subject to such condi-
tioums as he or she may require.
144.2 Mixing Mortar
The mortar shall be hand or machine mixed, as may be
required by the Engineer. In the preparation of hand
mixed mortar, the sand and cement shall be thoroughly
mixed together in a clean, tight mortar box until the mix-
ture is of uniform color, after which clean water shall be
added in such quantity as toform a stiff plastic mass. Ma-
chine-mixed mortar shall be prepared in an approved
mixer and shall be mixed not less than 3 minuites nor niore
than 10 minutes. Mortar shall be used within l~~ hours
after mixing and before final set begins. Retempenimig of
mortar shall be done as necessary to maintai npromper coin-
sistency during placement.
14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone
14.4.3.1 General
When masonry is placed on a preparedfoundation bed,
the bed shall be firm and normal to, or in steps normal to,
the face of the wall, and approved by the Engineer before
any stone is placed. When it is placed on foundation ma-
sonry, the bearing surface of the foundation masonry shall
be cleaned thoroughly and in a saturated-surface dry con-
dition when the mortar bed is spread.
All masonry shall be constructed by experienced work-
men. Face stones shall be set in randoni bond to produce
the effect shown on the plans.
Care shall be taken to prevent the bunching of small
stones or stones of the same size. When weathered or col-
ored stones, or stones of varying texture, are being used,
care shall be exercised to distribute the various kinds of
stones uniformly throughout the exposed faces of the
work. Large stones shall be used for the bottom courses
and large, selected stones shall be used in the corners. In
general, the stones shall decrease in size from the bottom
to the top of work.
Each stone shall be cleaned and thoroughly saturated
withwater before being set and the bed which is to receive
it shall be clean and well moistened. All stones shall be
well bedded in freshly made mortar. The mortar joints
shall be full and the stones carefully settled in place be-
fore the mortar has set. No spalls will be permitted in the
beds. No pinning up of stones with spalls will be permit-
ted in beds.
Stone shall not be dropped upon, or slid over the wall.
nor will hammering, rolling. or turning of stones oun the
wall be allowed. They shall be carefully set without jarring
the stone already laid and they shall be handled with a
lewis or other appliance that will not cause disfigurement.
In case any stone is moved or the joint brouken. the
stone shall be taken up, the mortar thoroughly cleaned
from bed and joints. and the stone reset in fresh mortar.
14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry
Rubble masonry shall be laid to line and in courses
roughly leveled up. The bottoni or foundation courses
shall be composed of large, selected stones and all comurses
shall be laid with bearing beds parallel to the natural bed
546 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
14.4.3.2
of the material. The vertical joints in each comurse of rub-
ble masonry shall break with those in adjoining comurses at
least 6 inches. In no ease shall a vertical jomint be so located
as to occur directly above or below a header.
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry
The stones in any one course of ashlar unasonry
shall be placed som as to form bonds of not less thami 12
inches with the stounes of adjoimiing courses. I-headers shall
be placed over stretchers and, in gemieral, the headers of
each couurse shall equally divide the spaces between the
headers of adjoining courses., but no header shall be
placed over a jomint and no joint shall be unade over a
header.
14.4,4 Beds and Joints
Beds and joints in rubble masounry shall have an aver-
age thickness of not unore than 1 inch. Beds andjouimuts in
ashlar masonry shall be nout less than /~ inch nor more than
/2 inch in thickness and the thickness of the joint or bed
shall be uniform throuughout.
The thickness of beds iii ashlar masonry unay vary as
shown from the bottom to the toup of the work. However,
in each course the beds shall be of uniform thickness
throughomut.
Beds shall not extend in an unbroken line thromugh niore
than five stoics.
Joints in ashlar masonry shall be vertical. Iii all other
masonry, joints niay be at angles with the vertical from 00
to 45O~
Each face stone shall bond with all contiguous face
stones at least 6 inches longitudinally and 2 inches verti-
cally. Ring stone joints on the faces and soffits shall be nout
less than /4 inch nor more than I /2 inches in thickness.
Cross beds for vertical walls shall be level and for bat-
tered walls may vary from level to normal to the batter
line of the face of the wall. All joints shall be completely
filled with mortar.
144.5 Headers
Headers shall hold in the heart of the wall the samne size
shown in the face and shall extend not less than 12 inches
into the core or backing. They shall occupy not less than
one-fifth of the face area of the wall and shall be evenly
distributed.
Headers in rubble masonry walls 2 feet or less in thick-
ness shall extend entirely through the wall.
Headers in ashlar masonry shall be placed in each
course and shall have a width of not less than 1 /2 times
their thickness. In walls having a thickness of 4 feet or
less, the headers shall extend entirely through the wall. In
walls of greater thickness, the length of headers shall be
not less than 2/2 times their thickness when the comurse us
18 inches or less in height. and nout less than 4 feet in
courses of greater height. Headers shall be spaced not fur-
timer apart than 8 feet center to center. There shall be at
least one header to every two stretchers.
14.4.6 Cores and Backing
14.4.6.1 General
Cores and backing shall couisist either of roughly bed-
ded andjouinted headers and stretchers, as specified abouve.
or ouf Class B or C concrete, as may be specified.
The headers and stretchers in walls having a thickness
of 3 feet or less shall have a width or length equal to the
full thickness of the wall. No backing will be allowed.
14.4.6.2 Stone
When stone is used for cores or backing, at least one-
half of the stoic shall be of the same size andcharacter as
the face stone, and with parallel ends. No course shall be
less than 8 inches thick.
Stone backing shall be laid in the sanme manner as spec-
ified above for face stone, with headers interlocking with
face headers when the thickness ouf time wall will permit.
Backing shall be laid to break joints with the face stoune.
Stone cores shall be laid in full mortar beds so as to bond
not less than 12 inches with face and backing stone and
with each other. Bed joints in cores and backing shall not
exceed 1 inch and vertical joints shall not exceed 4 inches
in thickness.
14.4.6.3 Concrete
Concrete used for cores and backing shall conform
to the requirenients specified in Section 8, Concrete
Structures.
The operations involved in the handling and placing of
comucrete used in cores and backing shall conform to the
requirements specified in Section 8. However, the pud-
dling and compacting of concrete adjacent to the ashlar
masonry facing shall be done in a manner that will insure
the filling of all spaces around the stones and secure full
comutact andefficient bond with all stone surfaces.
14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses
Stone cores and backing shall be carried up to the ap-
proximate level of the face course before the succeeding
course is started.
547
The construetioun omits produced in concrete cores or
backing by the intermittent placing ofeouncrete shall be lo-
cated, in general. nout less than 6 inches below the top bed
ouf any comurse ouf masomuiry.
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete
Unless otherwise specified in the Special Prouvusmons,
the stone niasonry shall be construmeted before placing
concrete.
Steel anchors as shouwmi oti the plans our specified in the
Special Provisions shall be used. To iniprouve the bond be-
tween the stomne niasounry and the concrete backing. the
back ouf the masounry shall be made as unesen as the stones
will permit.
After tIme stone facimig has been laid and the niortar has
~tttaimmedsufficiemit strength, all surfaces against which
councrete is to be placed shall be cleaned carefully amid all
dirt. lououse material, and aecumuilatiouuis ouf niortar droup-
pings remouved.
When placing concrete all interstices ouf the mimasonry
shall be filled and the concrete thoromugimly spaded and
womrked uuitil it is brought intom intimate comntact with every
part of the back ouf the masonry.
14.4.8 Copings
14.4.8 .1 Stone
Stounes four coupings ouf svall, pier, ammol aboitniemut bridge
seats shall be earefoully selected amid fuilly dimmiemisiouneol
stoummes. On piers. umout mnomre thami two stouuies shall be used
tom make up the emutime width ouf comping. TIme compings ouf
abutiumemit bridge seats shall be ouf sufficient width tom cx-
mend at least 4 inches nuder time hackwall. Each step fomnni-
mug the compiling ouf a wingwall shall be fomrnied by a simigle
stoic svhich shall ouverlap tIme stoune foumnuine the step iii
nmediatelv belouw it at least 12 inches.
Tops ouf coupings shall he given a bevel cut at least 2
uuiehmes wide, and beols. bevel cuts, amid toups shall be fine-
fimmishied. Time vertical jouiuits shall be snmououthfimmished and
tIme compings shall be laid with outs miout ummoure thiami .K, mdi
in thickness. Time omumohersides ouf projeetimig compinugs. hmref en
ably. shall Imase a drip beaof.
Jouints in coupings shall be loucated som as tom prouside muout
less than a I ~-immehboumiol with the stoummes ouf the omumoler
coominse amid som that uioujomiuut will coumne oiireetlv ummuher the su
penstrometomre unasounry plates.
14.4.8 .2 Concrete
Coupings. bridge seats, and baekwalls shall be ouf time
immaterial shiomwui oumi the plans amid when miout outherwise spec
ified shall be of Class A concrete which shall counforni tom
the requiremeuits ouf Sectioun 8.Concrete Structomines.
Concrete copings shall be niade iii seetiomns extendimig
the full width of the wall, not less than 12 inches in thick-
ness, and from 5 to 10 feet long. The sections may be cast
in place our precast and set in place in full mourtar beds.
14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps
Where required, copimig stoune, stoic in the wings ouf
abutments, and stouie in piers shall be secured with
wrought-iron cramps or douwels as iuidicated omn the plans.
Douwel holes shall be drilled thromugh each stoic before
the stmne is placed and, after it is in place. such douwel
holes shall be extended by drillimig into the ommiderlying
course not less than 6 inches.
Cramps shall be ouf the shapes and dimemisiouns shouwn
oum the plans or approved by the Engineer. They shall be
imiset iii the stone so as to be flush with lime surfaces.
Cramps and dowels shall be set in head, care beimig
taken tom completely fill the surromunding spaces with time
unoulten metal, our shall be rigidly anchored by cuther nicans
approved by time Engineer.
14.4.10 Weep Holes
All walls and abutments shall be prouvided with weep
holes. Unless otherwise shouwn on the plans our directed by
the Engineer, the weep holes shall be placed at the louwesm
pouts where free omuitlets can be oubtamned and shall be
spaced not moire than I 0 feet center tom cemiter. A uniuuimumuuim
ouf 2 cumbie feet ouf permumeable niatenial emmeapsomlated with
filter fabric shall be placed at each weep hole.
14.4.11 Pointing
Pouintimig shall nout be dome in freezumme weather our when
the stouume coumitaiuis froust.
Whenever poussible tIme face jouinuts shall be proiperly
pouted befoure time inortar becoummies set Joumnts which caui-
mA be som liomilited shall be prepareol four pouimutimig by rakimug
tlmeni omit tom a depth ouf 2 inches befomine tIme mountain Imas set
The face sominfaces ouf stoummes shall nout be snucareol with tIme
niourtar fourceol out ouf the jomimuts our that mused in Juommntimig.
Jomints nuout pominteol at the timume tIme stoumme is laid shall be
thouromuigimly svet with cleamm water arid filleol with mimomrtar
The umiomrtar shall couuifonmim tom Article 14.2.3 except that the
proupourtiomn ouf hydrated linie putty shall be immereaseol tou
tom 2 tunes the voulummmue ouf the cemeuut our the ceumment shall be
all masomnry type cenmeuum. The niormar shiahl be well thniseum
into the omits and fiiiished with an aplurouvedpominting tomoul.
Time wall shall be kept wet while pouinting is being done
amid in hot our dry weather the pouiuited mnasoummrv shall be
548
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
protected from the sun and kept wet for aperiod of at least
3 days after completion.
After the pointing is counipleted and the niortar set, the
wall shall be thoroughly cleaned and heft in a neat and
workmanlike conditiomn.
14.4.12 Arches
The nuniber ouf comnmrses amid the diepthm ouf vd)ulssouirs
shall be as shouwn oun time plaums. V omussouirs shall be placed
in the order indicated, shall be foull size throughout, and
shall have bound nout less than their thickness of tIme stoumme.
Beds shall be roughly poiiited to bring them tom radial
plaumes. Radial jouints shah be in phamues parallel tom the
tratusverse axis ouf the arch and, when uneasured at time iii-
tradous. shall nout exceed inch in thickness. Jomiuits
perpendicular tou tIme arch axis shall nout exceed I inch
iii thickness when nicasureol at the intradous. The iuutradoms
face shall be dressedh suifficiemutly tom penimuif the stoic
tom rest prouperly upoun the ceuiteriuig. Exposed faces ouf
the arch ring shall be rock-faced with edges pitched tom
true lines.
TIme wourk shall be carried tip symmuumuetnically abomLut the
erouwim, tIme stoumme beimug laiol iii full mmuomrtar beds, amid the
jouimuts gromouted where muecessary. Pinning by the use ouf
stoic spalls will uiout be penmimitteol.
Backing may consist of Class B concrete or ouf large
stones shaped to fit the arch, bonded to the spandrels, and
laid in full beds of mortar. The extrados and interiour faces
of the spandrel walls shall be given a finished comat of 1:2
/2 cement mortar which shall be trouwelled snuooth tom re-
ceive the waterproohing.
Arch centering, waterproomfing, draiuuing, and filling
shall be as specified in Section 3, Temporary Works,
Seetiomn 8, Concrete Structuines, and Sectioum 21, Water-
proomfing.
Stoic masounry will be uneasured by either the cubic
yard our the square yard as listed iii the schedule ouf bid
itenis. The vouhouune our area will be that actually placed tom
the limiting dimensiouums shiouwn tutu the plans, our time p1an
dinmemismomns as nmay have beeui revised by the Emigineer.
Stomue nuasomnry. as nicasured above, will be paid four by
the comntract price per eumbie yard our square foot. Someli pay-
mument shall be counsidered tom be full counipensatiomn four the
coust ouf all labour, tomouls. nuaterials, amid outher iteuns ineideui
tal tou tIme satisfactomry coumimpletiomn ouf the wourk.
Coumucrete used imi counnectioun with stoic umuasomnry shall
be nicasured and
1uaid four in the saumme nuanner as coumucrete
for struetnmres.
Section 15
CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION
quirements for uncoated reinforcing in Section 9, Rein-
forcing Steel.
Concrete block and brick masonry shall consist of con-
crete blocks or brick laid in cement mortar and may be un-
reinforced or reinforced with steel reinforcing. Block or
brick pavements are not included under this designation.
15.2 MATERIALS
15.2.1 Concrete Block 15.2.5 Grout
Unless otherwise specified in the special provisions our
approved in writing by the Engineer, all concrete block for
masonryconstruction shall be Type I moisture controlled
units (Grade N-I) that meet the requirements of ASTM C
90. The value of f~ shall be as shown on the plans or as
specified in the special provisions.
Concrete block units should be protected from rain,
snow, or other moisture during storage on or off the job
site to assure that they will meet the Type I mouisture re-
quirements at the time they are placed in the construction.
15.2.2 Brick
Brick for masomnry comnstruction shall confourm tom the
Specification for Bomilding Brick (solid masommry units
made froum clay or shale) AASI-ITO M 114 (ASTM C 62),
Concrete Building Brick (ASTM 55), or Solid Load-Bear-
ing Concrete Masonry Units (ASTM 145). The type and
grade of brick to be furnished shall be as shown on the
plans or as specified in the special provisions.
The bricks shall have a fine-grained uniforni, and
dense structure, free from lumps of lime, laminations,
cracks. checks, solumble salts, or other defects which may
in any way impair their strength, durability, appearance,
or usefulness for the purpose intended. Bricks shall emit
a clear, unetalhic ring when struck with a hammer.
Reinforcing steel used in the comnstruction of concrete
block or brick masounry structures shall conform to the re-
15.2.4 Mortar
Mortar used shall confourm, as regards materials, pro-
portions and mixing, to the mortar specified in Articles
14.2.3 and 14.4.2.
Grout for filling voids in hollow masonry units shall ei-
ther conform to the requirements of ASTM C 476 or to the
requirements of the following paragraph.
As an alternative to the requirements of ASTM C 476.
the materials for grout shall conform to the requirements
of Section 8, Concrete Structures, for cement, aggre-
gates, water and adniixtures and to the requirements ouf Ar-
ticle 14.2.3 for lime. Coarse aggregate shall be of either /: -
inch or /~-inch maximum gradation. For fine grout, if
proportioned by volume, the cementitious materials shall
consist of one part portland cement to no more than / part
hydrated lime or lime putty and the aggregates shall con-
sist of sand in the amount of 2/4 to 3 times the total volume
of cementitious materials. For coarse grout, the propor-
tions shall be the same as four fine groumt except that comarse
aggregate in the amonmnt of I to 2 times the total volume of
cementitious materials shall be added. If proportioned by
weight, the weights used shall be eqouivahent to those which
would be obtained by vohunmetric methods.
Adjustments in mix proportiomns, within the limits al-
lowed, shall be made as necessary to satisfy workability
and strength requirements.
Admixtures shall be used only when specified or ap-
proved by the Engineer.
15.2.6 Sampling and Testing
15.2.6.1 Mortar
Unless otherwise specified in the special provisiomms,
mortar shall have a niinimum 28-day conipressive
549
550
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
15.2.6.1
strength of I ,800 psi based oun the average ouf three spec-
imens tested in accordance with the requirenients of
ASTM C 780. Field samples shall be obtained as follows:
(a) Spread 2 imich our the thickness ouf the mourtar joint
of mourtar on niasounry units.
(b) After I nmuumute renmove niourtar andcomuipress into 2
x 4 inch cylinder in two layers using flat end of a rod
or fingers, being sure to see that niould is solidly filled.
fe) Lightly tap cylinder imunediately and maintain in
damp condition.
(d) After 48 hours reimuouve mold and store in fog roomn
uuitil testing.
15.2.6.2 Grout
When requiredby the special provision or requested by
the Engineer. the Contractor shall manufacture grout
pnisuns for testing. Prisnis shall be manufactured at the site
during comustruction using the following procedure:
(a) Place niasonry units, having same moisture condi-
tion as those being placed, on nonabsorptive base to
forni a void four a square prism with a height twice the
side and a minimum side of 3 inches.
(b) Line time side faces of the prism with permeable
paper or porous separator to allow water passage
through liner into masonry units.
(c) Fill prism with a fully representative grout sample
in two layers. Puddle each layer to eliminate air voids.
(d) Level off specimen and maintain in a danip condi-
tion.
(e) Remove prisms from masonry units after 48 hours
anddeliver to Engineer.
Grout prisms will be tested in accourdance with the pro-
vmsmons of ASTM C 39. Grout shall have attained a com-
pressive strength of 2,000 psi at 28 days unless otherwise
specified in the special provisions.
15.3 CONSTRUCTION
Block or brick masonry shall not be constructed in
freezing weather or when the blockor brick contains frost,
except by written permission of the Engineer amid subject
to such conditions as he or she may require.
15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick
The blocks or bricks shall be laid in such manner as
will thoromugimly bond them into the niortar by means of the
shove-jouint unethomol; butteredi our plastered joints will
not be permitted. All clay or shale brick must be thomr-
ougimly saturated with water before being laid. Da nipeum-
ing of concrete masonry units before or during construe-
tioun shall miot be pernmitted unless approived by the
Engineer. The arrangenment of headers and stretchers shall
be such as will thoroughly bond the mass and, unless outhi-
erwise specified. work shall be of alternate headers amid
stretchers with consecutive courses breaking jouints Other
types of bonding, as for ornamental work, shall be as
specified on the plans.
All joints shall be completely filled with niortar. They
shall not be less than /4 inch and not more than /~ iuuch in
thickness and the thickness shall be uniform throuughout.
All joints shall be finishedproperly as the work progresses
andon exposed faces they shall be neatlystruck, using the
weather joint.
Nom spahls or bats shall be used except for shaping
around irregular openings our when unavoidable to finish
out a course, in which ease full bricks shall be placed at
the corners, the bats being placed in the interior of the
comurse.
Each masonry unit shall be adjustedto its final position
while mortar is still soft and plastic. Units which are dis-
turbed after mortar has stiffened shall be removed and re-
layed in fresh mortar.
V ertical cells to be filled with grout shall be aligned to
provide acontinuous unobstructed opening.
Piers and walls may be built of solid brick work, or
may consist of a brick or block shell backed with
concrete or other suitable material as specified on the
plans. All details of the construction shall be in aceomr-
dance with approved practice and to the satisfactioum of
the Engineer.
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement
Prior to andduring grouting the reinforcing steel shall
be securely held in position at the top and bottom and
at intermediate points not exceeding 200 bar diameters
or 10 feet apart. Bars shall be maintained clear of the
cell walls and within plus or minus /2 inch of their
planned position transverse to the wall and within plus or
niinus 2 inches of their planned position longitudinal to
thie wall.
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids
Grouuted masonry shall be constructed in such a maui-
tier that all elements of the masonry act together as astruc-
tural element.
DIV IS IO N Il CO NS TR U CTIO N
Prior to grouting, the grout space shall be clean so that
all spaces to be filled with grout do not contain mortar pro-
jections greater than /2 inch, mourtar droppings or outher
foreign material. Grouut shall be placed so that all spaces
to be grouted do not contain voids.
Grout materials and water countent shall be controlled
to prouvide adequate fluidity for placement, without segre-
gatioun.
Size and height limitations ouf the grout space or cell omn
the average shall not be less than shown in Table No. 15.1.
Higher groutut pours or smaller cavity widths or cell size
than shown in Table No. 15.1 may be used when approved
by the Engineer, if it is demonstrated that grout spaces are
properly filled.
When requuired by Table No. 15.1. eheanoomts shall be
prouvided in the bottom course at every vertical bar but
shall muout be spaced niore than 32 inches on center for
solidly gromuted ummasonry. Cleanouts shall be of sufficiemit
size tom allouw removal ouf debris.
Units may be laid to the full height of the grouumt pouur
and grout shall be placed in a comntinuomus pomur in grout
lifts not exceeding 6 feet. If construetioun joints are uused in
eoulumns of grout. they shall be located at least 1 /2 inches
below the level ouf a niortar bedjoint.
Segregation of the gromut materials and damage to
the masonry shall be avoided during the grouting process.
Grout shall be comnsolidated before loss of plasticity in
a manner to fill the grout space. Grout pours greater thamm
12 inches in height shall be mechanically reconsolidated
to minimize voids due to water loss. Grout not mechani-
cally vibrated shall be puddled.
In nonstructural elements, mortar of pouring coin-
sistency may be substituted for grout when the masonry
us constructed and grouted iii pours of 12 inches our
less.
V ertical barriers of masonry may be built across the
groumt space. The grouting of any section of wall between
barriers shall be coumpleted in I day with no intermptiomn
longer than 1 hour.
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls
Time tops of retaining walls, abutment wingwahls. and
similarly exposed brick or block work shall be prouvided.
in general, with either a stone or comnerete copimug. The tin-
derside ouf the coping shall have a batter our drip bead, at
least I inch beyond the face of the block our brick work
wall. The coping upomn an abutunent backwall will comni-
monly have no projection beyond its bridge seat face.
When comncrete is used, it shall confomrm to the requmire-
ments for Class A comncrete specified in Section 8. Coin-
crete Structures. For thin coupings, mortar of the same
proportions as used four haying the block or brick may be
used to produce precast sections not less than 3 feet nor
more than 5 feet in length. Nocoping shall be less than 4
inches thick.
Copings of piers and abutment bridge seats shall be ouf
Ashlar stone work or of Class A concrete and shall con-
form to the requiremnents four Ashlar Masonry specified
in Section 14, Stone Masonry, or for concrete as speci-
fled in Section 8, Concrete Structures, as the plans may
TABLE 15.1 Grouting Limitations
Least ClearDimensions
Grout Pour Width of Cell
Grout Type
Maximum Height
(feet)
Grout Space
(in.)
2
Dimensions
(in. x in.)
Cleanouts
Required3
F i n e 1 3 /4 l -l /2 x 2 No
F i n e 5 1 -1 /2 l -l /2 x 2 No
F i n e 8 1 -1 /2 l -l /2 x 3 Yes
F i n e 1 2 1 -1 /2 l -3 /4 x 3 Yes
F i n e 2 4 2 3 x 3 Yes
Co a r s e 1 1 -1 /2 l -1 /2 x 3 No
Co a r s e 5 2 2 -I/2 x 3 No
Co a r s e 8 2 3 x 3 Yes
Co a r s e 1 2 2 -1 /2 3 x 3 Yes
Co a r s e 2 4 3 3 x 4 Yes
The clear dimension is the cell or grout space width less mortar projects.
2 Groutspace width shall be increased by the horizontal projection ofthe diameters ofthe horizontal bars within the cross section ofthe grout space.
Cleanouts may be omitted if approved provisions are made to keep the grout space clean prior to grouting.
15.3.4
551
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
indicate. Unless d)therwise shown oumi the plamus, couuerete
shall be used.
15.4 MEASUREMENT ANI) PAYMENT
Coummerete hulouck amid brick mumasoummry will be mumeasured b~
the mmumimber of cubic yards our the munumumber ouf sd~omaine feet ouf
tIme type of nuasoumury actomally placed iii the strometomre in ac
comindamice with the plaums our as mimomohifuedl by writteum imistrouc
tiouuis frouuum tIme Fiugiumeer. The ouumits ouf nicasomre four tIme van
mous types of Inasounry shall be as listed in the schedomle of
bid items.
Concrete block and stomue niasomiry, as measured above.
will be paid for by the couitract price per cubic yard or
square fomout. Such paynient shall be considered to be foill
couunpensatiouui four the coust ouf all labor. equipnment. materi-
als, and outher expenses incidental tom the satisfactomry coni-
pletiomn ouf the womrk. Filhiuig niaterial four the iuiteriomr ouf time
wall. remnfomreiuig steel, and counerete our niourtar compungs.
shall be considered as included iii the price paid four minimum-
ben ouf combie yards our sqomare feet of blomek our brick niasoumury
actually placed.
552
15.3.5
Section 16
TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL
This woumk shall coumisist ouf counstruetiuug timimbem strume
tomes amid the timmuber luomintiouns of couumiliousite strouctuines. iii
accourdlance with thme~e sluccihicatiouius auiol in measoumuably
eloise coutufomnmimit~ with time ohetails shousvn oumi time hIatus our
established by time Etugimucer.
It will iuielude foirumisimmno. preparimig. fabricati tie, erect
1mg. treatimig. audI paimutimug ouf timimber. All tiumuber. treateol our
umitincaledl. shall be ouf tIme specified species. graoles amud oh
muietusiomns. Alsom imucloudeol will be any requiredl yard lumber
of time sizes amid gradles sliecified amid all hardware tequimeoh
four timber counmuectiouuus anol ties.
16.1.1 Related Work
Other wourk iuusoul sed in the couustruetioun out timber
strumetures shall be as specified iii the applicable seetmouuus
duf this shiecificatiduli. Somnme ouf the sectiomns that frequently
apply tom timmiber struictures are Scetioumi 4, ~DrisenFounim-
datiouim Piles, Sectioumi 13, Paimiting. Sectioun 17.
Presersative Treatmumeuut ouf Womoid, and Sectiouum 2(1,
~Raihings
1 6 . 2 M ATERIALS
16.2.J Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued
Laminated)
Sawum lumimber aiud timmuber shall comumfounmum to) thue Specifi
catiomnms for Stuouctural Timber, Lunuhier. amid Piling.
AASIITO M 168.
Strometouual glomed laumuiuuated timber shall comnfomrm tom the
Amiucrican Natiouumal Stauidarol ANSI/AITC AI 9() I, S~uco-
i/co atioun four Struotural Glued Lani inatccl Timbe,: Strome
tommal eltied laumuimmateol timber, as emuiplouyed in ANSI/AITC
Al 90.1. is ami euugimuecred. stressrated luroidlttet ouf a timumber
lauuuimuatimug hilamut. coummipnising assemumblies ouf somitably se-
lecteol amiol preluareol svououd lanuinatiommus securely boumioleol
tougetlier with wet-use adhesises. TIme graimu ouf all lamimuuma-
tiduuis is alulminoux imiuatelv Imarallel lommugimuolimmallv. The sepa
rate laiuiinatiouums mimay muout exceed 2 immehes in umet thick-
mess. They nmay be coummiprised ouf pieces emid-joumned tom
founuim aumy leumgthu. ouf Iuieces lilaced our glinted edge tom edlge
tom ummake wider duties, iin ouf huieces bemit tom curved fourin
durimue gluimig. On glomedlamiuuumated strometoiral meuuibers
that are muout tom be preservatiselv treated, ami approuved
end sealer shall be applied after cud triiiimuuiuug ouf each
coumipleted uimemmubem.
Flie grades ouf timumber used for sariouns stinuctoiral
purpouses shall be as shiowum ouui the plans our iii time sliecial
lmrOisi siOmuiS.
Structural loinitier amid timuiber. soil idi sawum our glometh lain
imuated. in expouseol permamuemit structures. outhier thuaui rouum
nimug planks ouuu decks, slual I be treated iii coumi fomnumiance
with the reqouirenuments dif Sectiommi 17, Preserved Treat-
unent ouf Wouomd. Tetumporary struetomres our lumimber amid timim
her of certain species with adequate heartwououd requuire-
mumenus. as listedl imi AASHTO M 168. when perummitteol by
the plans our specificatioumis, dom nout reqouire preservative
treatumuent.
When time special prouvisiouuis require certihicatiomn ouf
quality four tinuber our louiumber, the Comntractomr shall furnish
the fouhlouwimig certificates ouf eouiuiplianLL tom the Engineer.
as approupniate, upoun delivery ouf the nuaterials tou the joub
site:
Four timber anol lumimber. a certificatioumi by an ageumey
certified by the Amumenicaum Luinber Stanolards Coummiuuuittee
that time tiumuber our lumber counfomrnis tom the ginaole, species.
and auuy outher specified reqouiremmuemuts.
Four gluedlaminated tiunber. a certificatiouti by a qomahi
fied iuuspection amid testing agency that the glued-lamumi-
nated tiunber comnihulies with the grade. species. aumol outhier
requirenments ountliuued iii ANSI/AITC A 190.1.
Ifthe womomol is tom be treated with a preservative, a cer-
tificate ouf comuimphiance, as specified in Article 173.3. shall
be furuiisimed.
16.2.2 Steel Components
Romols. hilates. cychars. and shapes shall comumfomrni tom thue
reqomireummemits of AASHTO M 27t) (ASTM A 7()9 Grade
36 ommuless outimerwise specified.
553
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
16,2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors
Castings shall be east steel or gray-iron, as specified,
conformiuig tom the requirenuents of Article 11.3.5 or
11.3.6.
16.2.4 Hardware
Boults, nuts, drift-boilts, and douwels may be of mild
steel. Washers niay be east iron ougee or malleable iron
castimugs. or they nuay be cut frouni mild steel plate, as spec-
fied.
Bolts shall have either standard square, hex or donue
heads, or econounmy type (washer) heads. Nails shall be cut
or rouund wire ouf standard forni. Spikes shall be emit our wire
spikes, or boat spikes, as specified. Unless otherwise spec-
ified, boults shall comply with ASTMA307, and shall have
couarse threads, Class 2 touleranee couuforming to ANSI
Suanolard Specifications.
All fasteners, including nails, spikes, bolts, dowels,
washers, and hag screws shall be galvanized, unless oth-
erwise specified our permitted.
1 6 . 2 . 5 Galvanizing
1 6 . 2 . 5 . 1 Unless ot herwise specif ied, all hardware f or
timber structures shall be galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO M 232 (ASTMA 153) or cadmiuni plated in ac-
cordance with AASHTO M 299 (ASTM B 696). All steel
components, timber connectors, and castings, outher than
malleable iron, shall be galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO M Ill ( ASIM A 1 2 3 ) .
16.2.6 Timber Connectors
16.2.6.1 Dimensions
The various types of timber connectors shall generally
conf orm lou t he dimensions shown in Table 1 6 . 1 and t o t he
dimensions specified in this Article 16.2.6.
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors
Split rings of 2 / 2 -inch inside diamet er and 4 -inch in-
side diameter shall be manufactured from hot-rolled car-
bon steel conforming to the Society of Automative Engi-
neers Specification SAE-l0l0. Each ring shall form a
closed true circle with the principal axis of the cross sec-
tion of the ring metal parallel to the geometric axis of the
ring. The met al sect ion shall be beveled f rom t he cent ral
portion toward the edges to athickness less than the mid-
section. It shall be cut through in one place in its circum-
ference to form a tongue and slot.
Pressed steel shear-plates of 2/~-inch diameter shall be
rumanufactured froni hot-roulled carbon steel confourumuing to
the Society of Automotive Engineers Specificatioun SAE-
1010. Each plate shall be a true circle with a flange aroumud
the edge, extending at right amighes to the face ouf the plate
and extending from one face only, the plate portion hav-
ung a central bolt hole and two small perforatiouns omn op-
pousite sides of the houhe and nmidway from the ceuiter and
circumference.
Malleable iron shear-plates of 4-inch diameter shall be
imianufactured according to ASTM A47, Grade 325 IC, four
nualleable iromi casting. Each casting shall counsist of a per-
forated round plate with a flauige aromund the edge extend-
ing at right angles to the face of the plate and proujeeting
froni oune face only. the plate portion havimug a ceuutral bolt
houhe reanmed tom ~ize wit h aim integral hub concemitnie tom tIme
bolt hole and extendiuig froun the same face as the flange.
16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors
Spike-grid timnber counneetors shall be manufactured
according tou ASTM A47, Grade 32510, for malleable iroun
casting.
TABLE 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber
Connectors (dimensions in inches)
Split Rings
2-1/2 in. 4in.
Split Ring:
Inside Diamet er at C ent er When
C losed
Thickness of M et al at C ent er
Dept h of M et al ( Widt h of Ring)
2 . 5 00
0. 1 6 3
0. 7 5 0
4 . 00
0. 1 93
1 . 00
Groove:
Inside Diamet er
Widt h
Dept h
2 . 5 6
0. 1 8
0. 3 7 5
4 . 08
0. 2 1
0. 5 0
Bolt Diameter:
Hole Diameter
1/2
9/16
3.4
13/16
Washers, St andard:
Rou nd, C ast or M alleable Iron,
Diamet er
Rou nd, M ild St eel,
Diamet er
Thickness
Sq u are Plat e, M ild St eel,
Lengt h of Side
Thickness
2-5/8
1-3/8
3/32
2
1/8
5
5
5 / 3 2
3
3 / 1 6
554
16.2.3 Castings
16.2.3
DIV IS IO N IL CO NS TR U CTIO N
TABLE 16.1 (Continued)
S hea r Pl a t es
( d i m en s i o n s i n i n c hes )
2-5/8 2-5/8 4 4
S hea r Pl a t e:
Ma t er i a l Pr es s ed L i ght Ma l - Ma l
steel gage leable leable
Di a m et er o f Pl a t e 2.62 2.62 4.03 4.03
DiameterofBoltllole 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.94
Ttiicknessof Plate 0.172 0.12 0.20 0.20
Depthof Flange 0.42 0.35 0.64 0.64
Steel straps or shapes for use with shear plates shall be
d es i gn ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h a c c ep t ed en gi n eer i n g p r a c t i c es .
Ho l e Di a m et er i n S t r a p s
o r S ha p es f o r B o l t s
Ci r c u l a r Da p
Di m en s i o n s :
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
B o l t Ho l e Di a m et er i n
Ti m b er
Wa s her s , S t a n d a r d :
R o u n d , Ca s t o r Ma l l ea
b l e Ir o n Di a m et er
R o u n d , Med i u m S t eel
Mi n i m u m :
Di a m et er
Thi c kn es s
S q u a r e Pl a t e:
L en gt h o f S i d e
Thi c kn es s
1 3 /1 6 1 3 /1 6 1 3 /1 6 1 5 /1 6
2 . 6 3
0. 8 1
0. 1 9
0. 4 5
0. 2 5
2 . 2 5
2 . 6 3
1 . 07
0. 8 1
0. 6 5
0. 1 3
0. 3 8
0. 1 4
0. 3 4
2 . 3 7
4 . 03
1 . 5 5
0. 8 1
0. 9 7
0. 2 7
0. 6 4
0. 2 2
0. 5 0
3 . 4 9
4 . 03
1 . 5 5
0. 9 4
0. 9 7
0. 2 7
0. 6 4
0. 2 2
0. 5 0
3 . 4 9
1 3 /1 6 1 3 /1 6 1 3 /1 6 1 5 /1 6
5
5
5 /3 2
3
1 /4
5
5
5 /3 2
3
1 /4
5
5
5 /3 2
3
1 /4
3 -1 /2
2 -1 /4
1 1 /6 4
3
1 /4
Square grids shall consist of four rows of opposing
spikes forming a 4/~-inch square grid with 16 teeth that
are held in place by fillets. Fillets for the flat grid in cross
section shall be diamond shaped. Fillets for the single
curve grids shall be increased in depth to allow for curva-
ture and shall maintain a thickness between the sloping
faces of the fillets equal to the width of the fillet.
Circular grids of 3/s-inch diameter shall consist of
eight opposing spikes equally spaced around the outer
circumferemice and held in place by connecting fillets
around the (muter diameter and radial fillets projecting to
a central circular fillet which forms a boult hole opening
of 1 /4 inch. Fillets in cross section shall be dianmound
shaped except that the inner circular fillet may be flat-
tened on one side to provide for unanufacturer identifi-
cation.
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
16.3.1 Workmanship
Workmanship shall be first class throughout, and all
framing shall be true and exact. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, nails and spikes shall be driven with just sufficient
force to set time heads flush with the surface of the wood.
Deep ha m n i er m a r ks i n wo o d s u r f a c es s ha l l b e c o n s i d er ed
evidence of poor workmanship and sufficient cause for re-
moval of the workman causing them.
16.3.2 Storage of Material
Lumber andtimber stored at the construction site shall
be kept in orderly piles or stacks. Untreated niaterial shall
b e o p en -s t a c ked o n s u p p o r t s a t l ea s t 1 2 i n c hes a b o v e t he
ground surface to avoid absorption of ground moisture
and permit air circulation and it shall be so stacked and
stickered as to permit free circulation of air between the
tiers and courses. In particular cases required by the En-
gineer. the Contractor shall provide protection from the
wea t her b y a s u i t a b l e c o v er i n g. The gr o u n d u n d er n ea t h
and in the vicinity of the timber shall be cleared of weeds
and rubbish. The storage area shall be chosen or con-
structed so that water will not collect under or near the
stored timber.
16.33 TreatedTimber
16.3.3.1 Handling
Treated timber shall be carefully handled without sud-
den dropping, breaking of outer fibers, bruising, or pene-
trating the surface with tools. It shall be handled with web
slings. Cant hooks, peaveys, pikes, or hooks shall not be
used. When metal bands are used to bundle members, cor-
ner protectors shall be provided to prevent damage to the
t r ea t ed t i m b er .
16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring
All cutting, framing, andboring of treated timbers shall
be done before treatment insofar as is practicable. When
t r ea t ed t i m b er s a r e t o b e p l a c ed i n wa t er s i n f es t ed b y m a -
ne borers, umitreated cuts, borings, or other joint framnings
below high-water elevation shall be avoided.
16.2.6.4 555
5 5 6 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
16.3.3.3
16.33.3 Cuts and Abrasions
Al l c u t s a n d a l l r ec es s es f o r m ed b y c o u n t er s i n ki n g i n
c r eo s o t e t r ea t ed p i l es o r t i m b er s , a n d a l l a b r a s i o n s , a f t er
ha v i n g b een c a r ef u l l y t r i m m ed , s ha l l b e f i el d treated as
s p ec i f i ed ei t her i n t hi s p a r a gr a p h o r t he f o l l o wi n g p a r a -
gr a p h. Cu t s a n d r ec es s es shall be covered with two appli-
cations of a mixture of 60-percent creosote oil and 40-
percent roofing pitch or brush coated with at least two
a p p hi c a t i o u n s o f ho t c r eo s o t e ouil and covered with hot roof-
ing pitch. Recesses likely to collect injurious materials
s ha l l b e f i l l ed wi t h ho t r o o f i n g p i t c h. U n l es s s p ec i f i ed o t h-
er wi s e, ho t p r es er v a t i v es s ha l l b e hea t ed t o a t em p er a t u r e
b et ween l 5 0~ a n d 2 00
0F . Wher e p a r t i c u l a r l y heavy coat-
ings are required, a suitable plastic compomund can be pre-
p a r ed b y m i x i n g 1 0 to 20 percent of creosote and 801090
p er c en t o f c o a l -t a r r o o f i n g p i t c h.
For timbers originally treated with pentacimlorophenol,
creosote, creosote solutions or water-borne preservatives,
a l l c u t s , a b r a s i o n s a n d recesses which occur after treat-
ment shall be field treated by two liberal applications ouf a
c o m p a t i b l e p r es er v a t i v e i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he r eq u i r e-
m en t s o f t he Am er i c a n Wo o d Pr es er v er s As s o c i a t i o n
S t a n d a r d M4 en t i t l ed , S t a n d a r d f o r t he Ca r e o f Pr es s u r e
Tr ea t ed Wo o d Pr o d u c t s .
163.3.4 Bored Holes
All holes bored after treatment shall be treated by fill-
ing the holes with the preservative used for field treatnuent.
Af t er t r ea t m en t , any holes not filled with bolts or other
items shall be plugged with preservative treated plugs.
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment
When ev er , wi t h t he a p p r o v a l o f t he E n gi n eer , forms or
t en i p o r a r y b r a c es a r e a t t a c hed t o t r ea t ed t i m b er wi t h n a i l s
o r s p i kes , t he r es u l t i n g ho u l es s ha l l b e t r ea t ed a s r eq u i r ed
f o r b o r ed ho l es a n d shall be filled by driving galvanized
nails, spikes, o r p r es er v a t i v e-t r ea t ed plugs flush with t he
surface.
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors
Ti m b er c o u n n ec t o r s s ha l l b e o u n e o u f t he f o l l o wi n g t yp es ,
as specified oun the plans: the split ring, the shear plate. or
t he s p i ke gr i d . The s p l i t r i n g a n d t he s hea r p l a t e t yp es s ha l l
b e i n s t a l l ed i n p r ec u t gr o o v es o f d i m en s i o n s a s gi v en
her ei n o r a s r ec o m m en d ed b y t he m a n u f a c t u r er . S p i ke
gr i d s s ha l l b e f o r c ed i n t o t he wo o d s o t ha t t i m b er s wi l l b e
in firm contact. Pressure equipment that does not damage
t he wo o d s ha l l b e u t i l i z ed . O n e a c c ep t a b l e m et ho d is t o
u s e hi gh-s t r en gt h b o u l t s o r r o d s f i t t ed wi t h l o w f r i c t i o n
b a l l -b ea r i n g wa s her s m a d e f o r t hi s p u r p o s e. The hi gh-
s t r en gt h b o l t wi l l b e r ep l a c ed wi t h s p ec i f i ed b o l t s f o r t he
f i n a l i n s t a l l a t i o n . Al l c o n n ec t o r s o f t hi s t yp e a t a j o i n t s ha l l
b e em b ed d ed s i m u l t a n eo u s l y a n d u n i f o r m l y.
Co n n ec t o r gr o o v es i n t i m b er s ha l l b e c u t c o n c en t r i c
wi t h t he b o l t ho l e, s ha l l c o n f o r m t o t he c r o s s -s ec t i o n a l
s ha p e o f t he r i n gs , a n d s ha l l p r o v i d e a s n u g f i t . In s i d e
gr o o v e d i a m et er s ha l l b e l a r ger t ha n n o m i n a l r i n g d i a n i e-
t er i n o r d er t ha t t he r i n g wi l l ex p a n d s l i ght l y d u r i n g i n -
s t a l l a t i o n . ( S ee Ta b l e 1 6 . 1 . )
F a b r i c a t i o n o f a l l s t r u c t u r a l m em b er s u s i n g c o n n ec t o r s
s ha l l b e d o n e p r i o r t o p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t m en t . When p r e-
f a b r i c a t ed f r o m t em p l a t es o r s ho p d et a i l s , b o l t ho l es s ha l l
n o t b e m o r e t ha n /~ i n c h f r o m r eq u i r ed p l a c em en t . B o l t
ho l es s ha l l b e /~ i n c h l a r ger t ha n t he f i n i s hed b o l t d i a m e-
t er . B o l t ho l es s ha l l b e b o r ed p er p en d i c u l a r t o t he f a c e o u f
t he t i m b er .
Ti m b er a f t er f a b r i c a t i o n s ha l l b e s t o r ed i n a m a n n er
t ha t wi l l p r ev en t c ha n ges i n t he d i m en s i o n s o f t he m em -
b er s b ef o r e a s s em b l y. Ti m b er s ho u l d b e c u r ed b ef o r e f a b -
r i c a t i o n s o t ha t i t wi l l r em a i n s t a b l e i n i t s d i m en s i o n s .
Ti m b er t ha t s hr i n ks d u r i n g s t o r a ge c a u s i n g p r ed r i l l ed
gr o o v es f o r s p l i t r i n gs o r p l a t es t o b ec o m e el l i p t i c a l o r
c a u s i n g b o l t ho l e s p a c i n g t o c ha n ge wi l l b e s u f f i c i en t r ea -
s o n f o r r ej ec t i o n .
1 6 . 3 . 5 Ho l es for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag
Screws
Holes for round drift-bolts and dowels shall be bored
wi t h a bit / i n c h l es s i n d i a m et er t ha n t he b o l t o r d o u wel
to be u s ed . The diameter of holes for square drift-bolts or
d o wel s s ha l l b e eq u a l t o t he l ea s t d i m en s i o n o f t he b o l t o r
d o wel .
Ho l es f o r m a c hi n e b o l t s s ha l l b e b o r ed wi t h a b i t t he
s a m e d i a m et er a s t he f i n i s hed b o u l t , ex c ep t a s o t her wi s e
p r o v i d ed f o r b o l t s i n c o n n ec t o r s .
Ho l es f o r r o d s s ha l l b e b o r ed wi t h a b i t /:~ i n c h gr ea t er
i n d i a n i et er t ha n t he f i n i s hed r o d .
Ho l es f o r l a g s c r ews s ha l l b e b o r ed wi t h a b i t n o t l a r ger
t ha n t he b o d y o f t he s c r ew a t t he b a s e o u f t he t hr ea d . To
p r ev en t s p l i t t i n g o r s t r i p p i n g t he t hr ea d s , t he ho l e f o r t he
s ha n k s ha l l b e b o r ed t he s a m e d i a m et er a n d t o t he s a t u m e
d ep t h a s t he s ha n k. The d ep t h o f ho l es f o r l a g s c r ews s ha l l
b e a p p r o x i m a t el y h-i n c h l es s t ha n t he l en gt h u n d er t i m e
hea d .
16.3.6 Bolts and Wa s her s
A wa s her , o f t he s i z e a n d t yp e s p ec i f i ed , s ha l l b e u s ed
u m u d er a l l b o l t hea d s ( ex c ep t f o r t i m b er b o l t s wi t h ec o u n o u n m y
t yp e hea d s ) a n d n u t s whi c h wo u l d o t her wi s e c o m e i n c o n -
t a c t wi t h wo o d .
1 6 . 3 . 6
DIV IS IO N Il CO NS TR U CTIO N
557
The n u t s o f a l l b o l t s s ha l l b e ef f ec t u a l l y l o c ked a f t er
t hey ha v e b een f i n a l l y t i ght en ed .
16.3.7 Countersinking
Countersinking shall be done where smooth or flush
surfaces are required. All recesses imi treated timber.
f o u r m ed f o r c o m u n t er s i n ki n g. s ha l l b e t r ea t ed a s s p ec i f i ed i n
Ar t i c l e 1 6 . 3 . 3 . 3 . R ec es s es l i kel y t o c o l l ec t i n j u r i o u s m a -
t er i a l s s ha l l b e f i l l ed wi t h ho t r o o f i n g p i t c h.
16.3.8 Framing
All lumber and timber shall be accurately cut a n d
framed tou a eloise fit in such nuanimer that the jouints will
have even bearing over the entire contact surfaces. Mor-
t i s es s ha l l b e t r u e t o m s i z e f o r t hei r f u l l d ep t h a n d t en o n s
shall fit snugly. Nom shimnnuing will be permitted in making
jouints, noun will open joints be accepted.
16.3.9 Framed Bents
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills
Mu i d s i l l s s ha l l b e f i r u m u l y a n d ev en l y b ed d ed t o m s o m hi d
bearing amid tamnped in place. Muid sills shall be pressure
preservative treated for ground contact. Where untreated
tiuumber is pemnuitteol four umuoud sills, it shall be ouf heart ceolar.
heart cypress. redwomoud, or other duirable timber as ap-
prouved by the Engineer.
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals
Co m n er et e p ed es t a l s f o r t he s u p p o u r t ouf framed bents
s ha l l b e c a r ef u l l y f i n i s hed s o t ha t t he s i l l s o r p o s t s wi l l
t a ke ev eu m b ea r i m u g. Do wel s f o r a n eho u n i n g s i l l s o r p o u s t s
shall be not less than / inches iii diamneter and project at
least 6 inches abouve the tops ouf t he p ed es t a l s . Thes e d o w-
el s s ha l l b e ea s t i n t he c o m n er et e p ed es t a l s . Co n c r et e a n d r e-
i m i f o r c i n g s t eel s ha l l c o n f o r n i t o m t he r eq u i r em en t s o u f S ec -
t i o n s 8 , Co n c r et e S t r u c t u r es , a n d 9 . R ei n f o r c i n g S t eel .
r es p ec t i v el y.
1 6 . 3 . 9 . 3 S i l l s
S i l l s s ha l l ha v e t r o m e a n d ev en b ea r i n g o n m u d s i l l s .
p i l es , o r p ed es t a l s . They s ha l l b e dnil~t-bolted t o m u d s i l l s
o r p i l es wi t h b o l t s o f n o t l es s t ha n /
4 -i n c h d i a m et er a n d
ex t eu u d i n g i n t o t he n i u d s i l l s o r p i l es a t l ea s t 6 i n c hes . o r
b y o t her t yp es o f c o n n ec t o r s a s d et a i l ed o n t he p l a n s .
When p o s s i b l e, a l l ea r t h s ha l l b e r en i o u v ed f r o n i c o n t a c t
wi t h s i l l s som t ha t t her e wi l l b e f r ee a i r c i r c u l a t i o u n around
t he s i l l s .
16.3.9.4 Posts
Posts shall be fastened to pedestals with dowels ouf not
less than /s-inch diameter, extending at least 6 inches ibm
t he p o s t s . o r b y o t her t yp es o f c o n n ec t o r s a s d et a i l ed o m n
t he p l a n s .
Posts shall be fastened to sills by one of the foullowing
methods, as indicated on the plans:
(a) By douwels ouf not less than 5-iumeim dianmeter, ex-
tending at least 6 inches into posts and sills.
(im) By drift-bouts of not less than ~-incimdiameter driv-
en diagounally thromugh the base of time post and cx-
temiding at least 9 iumehes intom time sill. Drift bolts shall be
driven in ho l es a s r eq u m i r ed b y Ar t i c l e 1 6 . 3 . 5 a t a 450
a n gl e a n d s ha l l en t er t he p o u s t a t l ea s t 6 iumehes abouve the
post base.
(c) By outher types of comnneetors as detailed oun the
plans.
16.3.9.5 Caps
Ti m b er c a p s s ha l l b e p l a c ed , wi t h en d s a l i gn ed . iii a
n i a n n er t o m s ec u r e a n ev en a n d u m m i f o r m bearing over the
tops ouf time suppourtimug p o s t s o r p i l es . Al l c a p s s ha l l b e s e-
c u r ed b y d r i f t -b o l t s ouf nout less than /-ineh diameter. cx-
t en d i u u g a t l ea s t 9 i n c hes i n t o m t he p o u s t s o u r p i l es . o u r b y o u t her
t yp es o u f c o n n ec t o r s a s d et a i l ed o n t he p l a u m s . Ti m e d r i f t -
b o l t s s ha l l b e a p p r o x i m a t el y i n t he c en t er ouf t he p o u s t o r
p i l e.
16.3.9.6 Bracing
Bracing shall be bolted through the pile. poust. our cap
at the ends and at all intermediate intersections using a
b o l t o f n o u t l es s t ha n ~. inches in diameter. Bracing shall
be of sufficieuit length tom provide a nmininmunu distance of
8 iuiehes between the outside boult amid the end ouf t he
brace.
16.3.10 Stringers
Stringers shall be sized at bearings and shall be placed
i n p o u s i t i o n s o t ha t kn o u t s n ea r ed ges wi l l b e i n t he t o p p o r -
t i o n s o f t he s t r i n ger s .
O u t s i d e s t r i n ger s m a y ha v e b u t t j o i n t s wi t h t he eu u d s c u i t
o u i a t a p er , b u t i n t er i o r s t r i n ger s s ha l l b e ha p p ed t o u t a ke
b ea r i n g o v er t i m e f u l l wi d t h o f t he f l o m o r b ea n i o r c a p a t ea c h
en d . The l a p p ed en d s o f u n t r ea t ed stringers shall b e
s ep a r a t ed a t l ea s t 2 i n c h f o r t he c i r eu l a t i o m i o f a i r a n d s ha l l
b e s ec u r el y f a s t en ed b y d n i l t -b o l t i n g wher e s p ec i f i ed .
When s t r i n ger s a r e t wo p a n el s i n l en gt h t he j o m i n t s s ha l l b e
staggered.
558
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
16.3. 10
Unless outherwise specified in the contract, cross-bridg-
ing our bloucking shall be phaceol at the center of each span.
Cross-bridging between stringers shall be neatly and ac-
curately framed and securely toe-nailed with at least two
nails in each end. All cross-bridging menibers shall have
full bearing at each end against the sides ouf stringers.
Blocking shall be snug-fit and held in place by either pre-
fabricated galvanized steel beam hangers or by tie-rods as
detailed on the plans.
16.3.11 Plank Floors
Unless otherwise specified, planks for flomoring shall be
surfaced fomur sides (5 4 5).
Single plank flomors shall consist of a single thickness
of plank supported by stringers or joists. The planks shall
be laid heart side down, with -inch oupenings between
theni four seasouned material and with tight joimuts for mm-
seasouned unaterial. Each plank shall be securely spiked to
each jouist. The planks shall be carefully graded as to
thickness anol som laid that nou two adjacent planks shall
vary in thiekmmess by unomre than I inch.
Two-ply timber flomomrs shall consist of two layers ouf
flomouring suppourted on stringers our jouists. The top course
shall be laid either diagonal our parallel tou the center line
ouf rouadway. as specified, and each floor piece shall be se-
curely fastened to the lower comurse. Joints shall be stag-
gered at least 3 feet. If the top flooring is placed parallel
to) the celiter hue uf the romadway. special care shall be
takeum tom seeumrelv fasten tIme ends ouf time fiomomning. At each
end of the bridge these nienibers shall be beveled.
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors
The strips shall be placed omn edge. at right amughes tom tIme
cemuter line ouf romadway. Each strip shall be nailed tou the
preceding strip as simoiwn iii Figure 16.3. The spikes shall
be ouf sufficient lemugth tom pass thromugh twom strips and at
least haltway thuromughi the third strip.
If timuiber suhupomints are used, every outher strip shall
be touc-umaileol tom every outher souppourt. Time size of the
spikes shall be as shuouwn omum the plaums. When specified omn
t he p l a n s . t he s t r i p s s ha l l b e s ec u r el y a t t a c hed t o s t eel
s u p p o r t s b y t he u s e o f a p p r o v ed ga l v a n i z ed n i et a l c l i p s .
Ca r e s ha l l b e t a ken tom ha v e ea c h s t r i p v er t i c a l a n d t i ght
a ga i n s t t he p r ec ed i m i g s t r i p . a n o l b ea r i n g ev en l y o u m a l l t Im e
suppomrts
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks
U n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , d ec k p a n el s s ha l l b e p r es -
s u r e p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t eo l wi t h er eo u s o t e o u r p en -
tacimhourouphemuoul with Typ e A. C. o u r D c a r r i er . When i t i s n o t
p o s s i b l e t o c o m p l et e t he f a b r i c a t i o u n a n d d r i l l i n g o f gl u l a n i
m em b er s f o r f i el d c o n n ec t i o n s b ef o u r e t r ea t i n g, a p r es er v -
a t i v e t r ea t m en t s ha l l b e a p p l i ed t o u c u t o r d r i l l ed a r ea s i n
t he f i el d , i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l es 1 6 . 3 . 3 . 3 a n d
16.3.3.4.
Panels shall not be dragged our skidded. Glue-laminateol
d ec k p a n el s s ha l l b e ha n d l ed , a n d t r a n s p o r t ed i n a wa y t o
p r ev en t b en d i n g t he p a n el s . . e s p ec i a l l y t r a n s v er s e l o u t he
l a m i n a t ed p i ec es . When l i f t ed , t hey s ha l l b e s u p p o r t ed a t
a s u f f i c i en t n u m b er o u f p o i n t s t o a v o i d o v er s t i n es s i n g. a n d
t he ed ges s ha l l b e p r o t ec t ed f r o m d a m a ge.
When d o u wel s a r e s ho wn o n t he d r a wi n gs b et ween d ec k
p a n el s , a t em p l a t e o r d r i l l i n g j i g s ha l l b e u s ed t o m en s u r e
t ha t d o wel ho l es a r e a c c u r a t el y s p a c ed . The ho l es s ha l l b e
d r i l l ed t o m a d ep t h /4 i n c h gr ea t er t ha n o u n e-ha l f t he d o u wel
l en gt h a n d o f t i m e s a m e d i a m et er a s t he d o wel o m n hes s o t h-
er wi s e s ho wn o u n t he d r a wi n gs . A t em p o r a r y d o wel s ha l l
b e u s ed a s a c heek f o u r s n u g f i t p r i o r t o m p r o d u c t i o n d n i l l i m i g.
The d o wel s s ha l l b e o f t i m e s i z e s ho wn o n t he d r a wi n gs
wi t h t he tips slightly tapered or r o u n d ed . A l u b r i c a n t ummay
b e u s ed to f a c i l i t a t e t he c o n n ec t i o n p r o c es s .
The t i p s o f t he d o u wel s s ha l l b e p a r t i a l l y a n d eq u a l l y
s t a r t ed i n t o m t he houles of time two panels being joined. The
p a n el s s ha l l b e d r a wn t o get her keep i n g t he ed ges p a r a l l el .
u n t i l t he p a n el s a b o u t t i ght l y. E a c h p a n el s ha l l b e s ec u r el y
f a s t en ed t o ea c h s t r i n ger o r gi r d er a s s ho wn o u n t he draw-
ings.
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks
Shear counneetours umeedeol to resist shear amid proivide
hold-down capacity betweemi timmiber and councrete ele-
ments which are olesigneol four counupousite aetimn shall be
furnished amid installed in couuufomrnianee with time details
shouwn ouim the plaums our specified iii the special pinoivisioumis.
If nom such details are
1uromvided aimol the eounmstrouctiouum is de-
scribed oun time plans as beiuig comilpousite. the Coumitractour
s ha l l s u b n m i t wo u n ki n g d r a wi n gs f o u r s u c h d et a i l s a n d d e-
vices for approuval by the Etugineer huefomre time soubjeet womrk
us begun.
16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing
Wheel comarols auth railimug shall be aecomrateh~ frameol in
aceomrdance with time plans andl erected true tom line and
gr a d e. U n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , wheel eu m a r o l s . r a i l s , a m i d
rail pousts shall be sumrfaced fomour-sides ( 5 4 5 ) . Wheel
guards shall be laid imu sectiouums nout less than 12 feet loung.
except where necessary tom match expansion jomints our cud
joumnts.
Railings shall conform tom the reqouiremmuents in Seetiomn
20. Raihings
16.3. 16 DIV IS IO N 1 1 CO NS TR U CTIO N 559
16.3.16 Trusses
Trusses, when completed, shall show mio irregularities
of line. Chords shall be straight and true from end tom cud
i n ho r i z o n t a l p r o j ec t i o n a n d , i n v er t i c a l p r o j ec t i o n , s ha l l
s ho u w a s m o o u t h c u r v e t hr o u gh p a n el poiuits conforming tom
t he c o r r ec t c a m b er . All b ea r i n g s u r f a c es s ha l l f i t a c c u -
r a t el y. U n ev en o r r o u gh c u i t s a t t he p o i n t s o f b ea r i n g s ha l l
b e c a u s e four rejection of the p i ec e c o n t a i n i n g t he d ef ec t .
16.4 PAINTING
Rails and rail posts of timber and any other parts des-
igmuated on the plan or in the special provisions to be
paimited shall be painted with three comats of specification
p a i n t . Pa i n t a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s ha l l c o n f o r m t o t i m e r e-
q u i r em en t s i n S ec t i o n 1 3 , Pa i n t i n g.
Met a l p a r t s , ex c ep t f o u r ha r d wa r e, ga l v a n i z ed o r c a d -
m i u m p l a t ed n i et a l . a n d n i a l l ea b l e i r o n , s ha l l b e gi v en o n e
c o a t o u f s ho p p a i n t a n d , a f t er er ec t i o u n . t wo c o a t s o f f i el d
p a i n t a s s p ec i f i ed i n S ec t i o n l 3 , Pa i n t i n g.
16.5 MEASUREMENT
The quantities to be paid for will be the number ouf
thousand feet board measure (Mbm) of each species and
gr a d e o u f l u m b er a n d t i m b er l i s t ed i n t he s c hed u l e o f b i d
i t em s . c o n i p l et e i n p l a c e a n d a c c ep t ed . Mea s u r em en t s o f
l u m b er a n d t i m b er wi l l b e c o m p u t ed f r o m t he n o m i n a l d i -
n i en s i o n s a n d a c t u a l l en gt hs . The c r o s s -s ec t i o n a l d i m en -
s i o n s o n t he p l a n s wi l l b e i n t er p r et ed a s s t a n d a r d s i z es .
The s t a n d a r d c r o s s -s ec t i o n a l d i m en s i o n s wi l l b e u s ed i n
t he c o m p u t a t i o n s ev em i t ho u gh t i m e a c t u a l s i z e i s l es s i n t he
d i m en s i o n s p ec i f i ed .
Ti m b er i n wheel gu a r d s wi l l b e i n c l u d ed . Ti n u b er i n pil-
ing. railing, and other itenis for which separate payment
is provided will not be included.
Measurements for glued hanminated girders and beanis
will be coumputedfroum the applicable finisheddinmensiouns
a n d a c t u a l l en gt hs . Q u a n t i t i es f o r gl u e l a m i n a t ed gi r d er s
a n d b ea m s t o b e p a i d f o r wi l l b e t he l i n ea r f eet f o r ea c h
s i z e a n d s t r es s c o n i b i n a t i o n .
The m ea s u r em en t o f l u m b er a n d t i m b er a n d o f gl u ed
l a m i n a t ed gi r d er s a m i d b ea m s wi l l i n c l u d e o n l y s u c h m a t e-
r i a l a s i s a p a r t o f t he c o u n p het ed a n d a c c ep t ed wo r k, a n o l
wi l l n o t include niatenials tised four erection purposes, such
a s f a l s ewo r k, b r a c i n g, s heet i n g, et c .
16.6 PAYMENT
Payment for timber, lumber, and glued-laminated
girders and beams shall be considered to be full coumpen-
sation for all costs ouf furnishing of materials, including
hardware and timber counnectors, preservative treatment,
eq u i p m en t , t o o l s , a n d l a b o r f o r t he f a b r i c a t i o n , er eet i o u n ,
a n d p a i n t i n g n ec es s a r y t o c o m p l et e a l l o f t he wo r k i n
c o m p l i a n c e wi t h t he p l a n s a n d s p ec i f i c a t i o n s m n a s a t i s -
f a c t o r y m a n n er .
Met a l p a r t s , o t her t ha n ha r d wa r e a n d t i m b er c o n n ec -
t o r s , wi l l b e m ea s u r ed a n d p a i d f o r a s p r o v i d ed i n S ec t i o n
2 3 , Mi s c el l a n eo u s Met a l .
R a i l i n gs a n d c o n c r et e wi l l b e m ea s u r ed a n d p a i d f o u r a s
p r o v i d ed i n S ec t i o n s 2 0, R a i hi n gs a n d 8 , Co n c r et e
Structures, respectively.
Nominal 2-4nch th~k lumber lamination
indicates nais in frst lamination
x indicates nails in so~nd lamination
.~- indicates nails in third lamination
1 for 4 nominal lamination depth
1-1/2 for 8 or g reater nominal lamination depth
FIGURE 16.3. Nail Placement Pattern
Section 17
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL
Thi s wo r k s ha l l c o n s i s t o f t r ea t i n g wo u o u d , i n c l u d i n g
hu n i b er , t i m b er , p i l es a n d p o l es , wi t h d es i gn a t ed p r es er v -
a t i v es i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t hes e s p ec i f i c a t i o u n s . It s ha l l i n -
c l u d e f u r n i s hi n g a l l m a t er i a l s . , preparing, treating, and
p er f o r m i n g a l l wo r k t o c o n i p l et e t r ea t i n g t he wo o d prod-
ucts required for the project.
The t yp e o f p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t m en t r eq u i r ed s ha l l b e a s
specified in the special provisions or as noted on the plans.
When a specific type of preservative is not called for,
t he ki n d o f p r es er v a t i v e t o b e u s ed s ha l l b e a d o p t ed f o r i t s
s u i t a b i l i t y t o t he c o n d i t i o n s o f ex p o s o u r e t o whi c h i t wi l l b e
s u b j ec t ed a n d s ha l l b e s u b j ec t t o a p p r o v a l o f t he E n gi n eer .
The ha n d l i n g a n d c a r e o f t r ea t ed wo o d s s ha l l c o n f o r m
t o t he r eq u i r em en t s o f S ec t i o n s 4 , Dr i v en F o u n d a t i o n
Pi l es , a n d 1 6 , Ti m b er S t r u c t u r es .
Unless otherwise specified in the Special Provisions
or shown on the design drawings, timber railings
and posts and timber that are tom be painted shall be treated
with pentachlorophenol with a Type C solvent or
with a water-borne preservative of either Type CCA or
ACZA.
17.2.3 Coal-tar Roofing Cement
F o r p u r p o s es o f t hes e s p ec i f i c a t i o n s p i t c h, c o m a l -t a r
pitch, coal-tar roofing pitch, or coal-tar romofing conipomund
shall mean coal-tar roofing cement wherever the term~I are
u s ed . Co a l -t a r r o o f i n g c em en t i s a r es i d u e o f t he n m a n u -
f a c t u n i n g o f c o ke a n d c r eo s o t e f r o n i b i t u m i n o u s c o a l . It
s ha l l b e a t hi c k, hea v y-b o d i ed , a n d p a s t e-hi ke n i a t en i a l .
When c a l l ed f o r , i t c a n b e m i x ed wi t h c r eo s o t e. It m a y o r
m a y n o t c o n t a i n f i b r o u s m a t er i a l .
17.2 MATERIALS
17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION
Pi l i n g s ha l l c o n f o r m t o t he r eq u i r en u en t s o f S ec t i o n 4 ,
Driven Foundation Piles. Timber and lumber shall con-
f o r m t o t he r eq u i r em en t s o f S ec t i o n 1 6 , Ti m b er S t r u c -
t u r es .
1 7 . 2 . 2 Pr es er v a t i v es and Treatments
Ti m b er p r es er v a t i v es a n d t r ea t m en t m et ho d s s ha l l c o n -
f o r m t o AAS HTO M 1 3 3 . The t yp e o f p r es er v a t i v e f u r -
n i s hed s ha l l b e i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t ha t s p ec i f i ed o r a s
n o t ed o n t he p l a n s . It s ho u l d b e n o t ed t ha t AAS HTO M
1 3 3 d es i gn a t es t he p r es er v a t i v es a n d r et en t i o m i s r ec o m -
m en d ed f o r Co a s t a l Wa t er s a n d i n m a r i n e s t r u c t u r es a n d
f u r t her t ha t t i m b er f o r u s e i n gr o u n d o r wa t er c o n t a c t
ha s r eq u i r en u en t s t ha t d i f f er f r o m t i m b er s f o r u s e n o t i n
gr o m u n d o r wa t er c o n t a c t . In s o m e i n s t a n c es t her e i s a
r a n ge o f r et en t i o n s o f f er ed whi c h p r o v i d es f o r d i f f er en t
d egr ees o f ex p o s u m r e b a s ed o n c l i m a t e o r d egr ee o f i n s ec t
i n f es t a t i o n . U n l es s t he hi gher r et en t i o u n s a r e s p ec i f i ed . n o t
l es s t ha n t he n i i n i m u n m r et en t i o n i s r eq u i r ed .
17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection
E a c h p i ec e o f t r ea t ed t i m b er s ha l l b ea r a l egi b l e b r a n d .
m a r k, o r t a g i n d i c a t i n g t he n a m e o f t he t r ea t er a n d t he
s p ec i f i c a t i o n s ym b o l o r s p ec i f i c a t i o n r eq u i r em en t s t o
whi c h t he t r ea t m en t c o n f o r m s . Tr ea t ed wo o d p r o d u c t s
b ea r i n g t he q u a l i t y m a r k o f t he Am er i c a n Wo o d Pr e-
s er v er s B u r ea u ( AWPB ) wi l l b e a c c ep t a b l e. The E n gi n eer
s ha l l b e p r o v i d ed a d eq u a t e f a c i l i t i es a n d f r ee a c c es s t o t he
n ec es s a r y p a r t s o f t he t r ea t i n g p l a n t f o r i n s p ec t i o n o f
m a t er i a l a n d wo r km a n s hi p t o d et er m i n e t ha t t he c o n t r a c t
r eq u i r em en t s a r e n i et . The E n gi n eer r es er v es t he r i ght t o
r et es t a l l m a t er i a l s a f t er d el i v er y t o t he j o b s i t e a n d t o
r ej ec t a l l m a t er i a l s whi c h d o n o t m eet t he r eq u i r em en t s o f
t he c o n t r a c t ; p r o v i d ed t ha t , a t t he j o b s i t e r ei n s p ec t i o n ,
c o m n f o r m a n c e wi t hi n 5 p er c en t o f c o n t r a c t r eq u i r em en t s
s ha l l b e a c c ep t a b l e. R ei n s p ec t i o n a t t he j o b s i t e m a y i n -
c l u d e a s s a y t o d et er m i n e r et en t i o n o f p r es er v a t i v es a n d
ex t r a c t i o n a n d a n a l ys i s o f p r es er v a t i v e t o m d et er m i n e i t s
quality.
17.2.1 Wood
5 6 1
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
173.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant
U n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , i n s p ec t i o u n o f m a t er i a l s a n d
p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t m en t s ha l l b e t he r es p o n s i b i l i t y o u f t he
Co n t r a c t o r a n d t he s u p p l i er o f t r ea t ed wo u o d prouducts. In-
spections shall be conducted in accordance with
AAS HTO S p ec i f i c a t i o n M 1 3 3 ( AWPA S t a n d a r d s ) b y t he
t r ea t er o r a n i n d ep en d en t c o m m er c i a l i n s p ec t i o u n a gem u c y
a p p r o v ed b y t he Am er i c a n Wo u o u d Pr es er v er s B u r ea u
( AWPB ) a n d t he E n gi n eer .
The i n s p ec t i o n a gen c y s ha l l b e en ga ged b y t he Co n -
t r a c t o r d i r ec t l y o r t hr o u gh hi s o r her s u p p l i er . No d i r ec t
c o m p en s a t i o n wi l l b e m a d e f o r t hes e i n s p ec t i o n c o s t s , i t
b ei n g u n d er s t o o d t ha t t he c o s t s o f i n s p ec t i o n a r e i n c l u d ed
i n t he c o n t r a c t b i d p r i c es f o r t r ea t ed wo o d p r o d u c t s o r c o u m -
s t r u c t i o u n i t em s o f wo r k.
17.3.3 Certificate of Compliance
When ev er s p ec i f i ed o r r eq u es t ed b y t he E n gi n eer a
c er t i f i c a t e o f c o m p l i a n c e wi t h c o p i es o f t he i m i s p eet i o u n r e-
p o r t s a t t a c hed s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed t o t he E n gi n eer with each
s hi p n u en t o f m a t er i a l . S u c h c er t i f i c a t es shall identify time
t yp e o f p r es er v a t i v e u s ed a n d t he q u a n t i t y iii poommids p er
c u b i c f o o t ( a s s a y m et ho d ) a n d s ha l l b e s i gn ed b y t he
t r ea t er o r t he q u a l i f i ed i m u d ep en d en t i n s p eet i o m n a gen c y.
No separate measurement and payment will be made
f o r p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t m en t a s s u c h wo r k i s a p a r t o f t he
wo r k i n c l u d ed i n f u r n i s hi n g p r es er v a t i v e t r ea t ed m a t er i a l s .
562
17.3.2
Section 18
BEARING DEVICES
18 .1 GENERAL
Thi s wo r k s ha l l c o n s i s t o f f u r n i s hi n g a n d i n s t a l l i n g
b r i d ge b ea r i n gs . B ea r i n g t yp es i n c l u d e, b u t a r e n o t l i m i t ed
t o , eha s t o m er i c p a d , r o c ker , r o l l er , p o t , spherical, disk and
s l i d i n g p l a t e b ea r i n gs . In c l u d ed a s c o m p o n en t s o f b ea r -
i n gs a r e m a s o n r y, s o l e a n d s hi m p l a t es , b r o n z e o r c o p p er -
a l l o yed b ea r i n g a n d ex p a n s i o n p l a t es , a n c ho r b o l t s , TE E
s heet s o r s u r f a c i n g, l u b r i c a n t s a n d a d hes i v es . Al s o i n -
c l u d ed i n t hi s wo r k is t he f u r n i s hi n g a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
b ed d i n g m a t er i a l s u s ed u n d er m a s o n r y p l a t es .
B ea r i n gs s ha l l b e c o n s t r u c t ed iii a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he
d et a i l s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s a n d specified. When complete
details are nout provided, bearings shall be furnished that
counfourni tom the limited details shouwn oumi the plaums and
s ha l l p r o v i d e t he d es i gn c a p a c i t i es f o r l o a d s a n d n i o v e-
n i en t s s ho wn o r s p ec i f i ed a n d t he p er f o r m a n c e c ha r a c t er -
i s t i c s s p ec i f i ed .
18 .1.1 Working Drawings
Whenever counilulete details four beanimigs amid their aui
eho u r a ges a r e u m o u t s ho wn o u m t i m e p l a n s , t he Co n t r a c t o r s ha l l
prepare amid submit womrkimig drawings four the beanimigs.
S u c h d r a wi n gs s ha l l s ho w a l l d et a i l s o u f t he b ea r i n gs a n d
o f t he m a t er i a l s prouposed for use andmust be approuved by
t he E n gi n eer b ef o r e f a b r i c a t i o m n o u f t he bearings is begun.
S u c h a p p r o u v a l s ha l l n o u t r el i ev e t he Co n t r a c t o r o f a n y r e-
s p o n s i b i l i t y u n d er t he c o u n t r a c t f o r t he s u u eees s f m a l c o n u p l e-
tion ouf t he wo u r k.
18 .1.2 Packaging, Handling, and Storage
Pr i o r t o s hi p m eu m t f r o n i t he p o u t o f m a m m u f a c t u r e, b ea r -
i u i gs s ha l l b e p a c ka ged i n s u c h a m a n n er t o en s u r e t ha t
d u r i n g s hi p m en t a m i d s t o r a ge t he b ea r i n gs wi l l b e p r o m -
t ec t ed a ga i n s t d a n i a ge f r o n i ha n d l i n g, wea t her , o r a n y m i n o r -
m a l ha z a r d . E a c h c o m p l et ed b ea r i n g s ha l l ha v e its c o n i -
p o m n en t s c l ea r l y i d en t i f i ed , b e s ec u r el y b o l t ed , s t r a p p ed o r
o t her wi s e f a s t en ed t o p r ev en t a n y r el a t i v e m o v em en t , a n d
m a r ked o n its t o u p a s t o l o c a t i o n a n d o r i en t a t i o n i n ea c h
s t r u c t u r e i n t he p r o j ec t i n c o n f o r m i t y wi t h t he p l a n s . Di s -
m a n t l i n g a t t he s i t e s ha l l n o t b e d o n e u n l es s a b s o u l u t ehy
n ec es s a r y f o r i n s p ec t i o n o r i n s t a l l a t i o n .
Al l b ea r i n g d ev i c es a n d c o m p o n en t s s ha l l b e s t o r ed a t
t he wo r k s i t e i n a n a r ea t ha t p r o v i d es p r o t ec t i o u n f r o m en -
v i r o n m en t a l a n d p hys i c a l d a m a ge. When i n s t a l l ed , b ea r -
i n gs s ha l l b e c l ea n a n d f r ee o f a l l f o r ei gn s u b s t a n c es .
18 .1.3 Manufacture or Fabrication
B ea r i n g d ev i c es o r a s s em b l i es s ha l l c o n s i s t o f c o i n -
p o n en t s m eet i n g t he m a t er i a l s p ec i f i c a t i o n s o f t hi s S ec -
t i o n 1 8 .
U n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , t he s u r f a c e f i n i s h o u f b ea r -
i n g c o m p o n en t s t ha t c o n i c i n t o u c o m u t a c t wi t h ea c h o t her o u r
wi t h c o n c r et e, b u t a r e n o t em n b ed d ed i n c o n c r et e, s ha l l
c o n f o r m t o m t he r eq u i r em en t s o f Ar t i c l e 1 1 . 4 . 6 , F a c i n g o u f
B ea r i n g S o u r f a c es , a n d o f S ec t i o u m i II, S t eel S t r u et o m r es .
B ea r i n g a s s em b l i es s ha l l b e p r e-a s s en i b l ed i n t he s ho m p
b y t he s u p p l i er a n d c hec ked f o u r p r o p er c o n i p l et em m es s a u u o l
geoumetry before shipping tom the s i t e.
Unless outherwise specified, steel, outher thaum staimiless
steel, bearing components, including anchour boults, shall
b e ga l v a n i z ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ar t i c l e 1 1 . 3 . 7 .
18 .1.4 Construction and Installation
B ea r i n gs s ha l l b e i n s t a l l ed b y q u a l i f i ed p er s o n n el t o m t Im e
pousitiouns shouwmm cm the plans. Beanimigs shall be set at tiumie
o u f i n s t a l l a t i o n t o m t he d i m et i s i o u n s p r es c r i b ed b y t he u u m a m u t i -
f a c t u r er , t he E n gi m m eer , o r a s s ho wn o u n t he p l a n s a n d a o l -
j u s t ed a s n ec es s a r y t o t a ke i n t o a c c o u n t t he t em u u p er a t u r e
a n d f u t u r e m o v en i en t s o f t he b r i d ge.
B r i d ge b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e s et l ev el . iii ex a c t p o u s i t i o m u m ,
a n d m u s t ha v e f u l l a n d ev en b ea r i n g o m n a l l b ea r i n g p ha u u es .
B ea r i n g s u r f a c es l o c a t ed a t i m p r o p er el ev a t i o u m i s o u r set
n o t l ev el a n d t r u e t o p l a n e s ha l l r eq o u i r e ei t her gn i n d i m i g ouf
t he s u r f a c e, gr o u t p a c k b ea r i n g s ea t s o r n i o u d i f i c a t i o t i o u f
t he b ea r i n g s u c h t ha t i n t en d ed b ea r i n g p l a c em n em i t i s a s
o m n i gi n a l l y d es i gn ed wi t h t he l ea s t a m o m u n t o u f b ea r i n g n i o d -
i f i c a t i o n .
Met a l l i c b ea r i n g a s s en i b l i es n o t em b ed d ed i n t i m e c o i n -
c r et e s ha l l b e b ed d ed o n t he c o n c r et e wi t h a f i l l er o u r f a b -
r i c m a t er i a l c o n f o n n i n g t o Ar t i c l e 1 8 . 1 0.
563
564
HIGHWAY B R IDGE S
1 8 . 1 . 4
E ha s t o m er i e b ea r i n g p a d s s ha l l b e s et d i r ec t l y o n p r o m p -
er l y p r ep a r ed c o n c r et e s u r f a c es wi t ho u t b ed d i n g m a t er i a l .
B ea r i n gs s ea t ed d i r ec t l y o n s t eel wo r k r eq u i r e t he s u p -
p o r t i n g s u r f a c e t o b e m a c hi n ed s o a s t o p r o v i d e a l ev el a n d
p l a n a r s u r f a c e u p o n whi c h t he b ea r i n g i s p l a c ed .
1 8 . 2 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
18 .2.1 Scope
E l a s t o m er i e b ea r i n gs a s her ei n d ef i n ed s ha l l i n c l u d e
u n r ei n f o r eed p a d s ( c o n s i s t i n g o f eha s t o m er o n l y) a n d r e-
i n f o u r eed b ea r i n gs wi t h s t eel o r f a b r i c l a m i n a t es .
18 .2.2 General Requirements
Bearings shall be furumished with the dimensions, una-
t en i a l p r o u p er t i es . eha s t o m er gr a d e a n d t yp e o f l a m i n a t es r e-
q u i r ed b y t he p l a n s . . The Des i gn Met ho u d ( A o r B ) a n d t he
d es i gn l o a d s ha l l a l s o m b e s ho wn o n t he p l a n s a n d t es t i n g
s ha l l b e p er f o r m n ed a c c o r d i n gl y. In t he a b s en c e o f m o r e
s p ec i f i c i m i f o r n i a t i o u n , b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e Gr a d e 3 , 6 0-
d u r o m et er el a s t o m er , a m i d s t eel r ei n f o r c ed , a n d s ha l l b e
s u b j ec t ed t o t he l o m a d -t es t i n g r eq u i r em en t s c o r r es p o n d i n g
t o Method Adesign.
18 .2.3 Materials
18 .2.3.1 Properties of the Elastomer
The raw elastonier shall be either virgin Neoprene
( p o l yc hl o r o u p r en e) o r v i r gi n n a t u r a l r u b b er ( p o l yi s o p r en e) .
The el a s t o m er c o m p o u n d s ha l l b e c l a s s i f i ed a s b ei n g o f
l o w t em p er a t u r e gr a d e 0, 2 , 3 , 4 , o r 5 . The gr a d es a r e d e-
f i n ed b y t he t es t i n g r eq u i r em en t s i n Ta b l es 1 8 . 2 . 3 . 1 A a n d
1 8 . 2 . 3 . 1 B . A hi gher gr a d e o f eha s t o m er m a y b e s u b s t i t u t ed
f o r a l o wer o n e.
The el a s t o m er c o m p o u n d s ha l l m eet t he m i n i m u m r e-
q u i r em en t s o f Ta b l es 1 8 . 2 . 3 . 1 A a n d B ex c ep t a s o u t her wi s e
s p ec i f i ed b y t he E n gi n eer . Tes t r eq u i r em en t s m a y b e i n -
t er p o u l a t ed f o u r i n t er n u ed i a t e ha r d n es s es . If t he m a t er i a l i s
s p ec i f i ed b y i t s s hea r m o d u l u s . , its m ea s u r ed s hea r m o d u -
l u s s ha l l l i e wi t hi n 1 5 p er c en t o f t he s p ec i f i ed v a l u e. A
c o n s i s t en t v a l u e o f ha r d n es s s ha l l a l s o b e s u p p l i ed f o r t he
p u r p o s e o f d ef i n i n g l i m i t s f o r t he t es t s i n Ta b l es 1 8 . 2 . 3 . 1 A
a n d B . If t he ha r d n es s i s s p ec i f i ed , t he m ea s u r ed s hea r
m o d u l u s n i u s t f a l l wi t hi n t he r a n ge o f Ta b l e 1 4 . 3 . 1 o f Di -
v i s i o n I. When t es t s p ec i m en s a r e c u t f r o m t he f i n i s hed
p r o d u c t , t he p hys i c a l p r o p er t i es s ha l l b e p er m i t t ed t o v a r y
f r o u n t ho s e s p ec i f i ed i n Ta b l es 1 8 . 2 . 3 . hAa n d B b y 1 0 p er -
c en t . Al l m a t er i a l t es t s s ha l l b e c a r r i ed o u t a t 7 3
0F 4 0F
( 2 3 0C ~ 2 0C) u n l es s o t her wi s e n o t ed . S hea r m o u d u hu s
tests shall be carried out using the apparatus and proce-
d u r e d es c r i b ed i n a n n ex A o f AS TM D 4 01 4 .
18 .2.3.2 Steel Laminates
S t eel l a m i n a t es u s ed f o r r ei n f o r c em en t s ha l l b e m a d e
f r o m r o l l ed m i l d s t eel c o n f o r m i n g t o AS TM A 3 6 , A 5 7 0,
o r eq u i v a l en t , u n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed b y t he E n gi n eer .
The l a m i n a t es s ha l l ha v e a m i n i m u m n o m i n a l t hi c kn es s o f
1 6 ga ge. Ho l es i n p l a t es f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p u r p o s es wi l l
n o t b e p er m i t t ed u n l es s t hey ha v e b een a c c o u n t ed f o r i n
t he d es i gn , a s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s .
18 .2.3.3 Fabric Reinforcement
F a b r i c r ei n f o r c em en t s ha l l b e wo v en f r o m 1 00 p er c en t
gl a s s f i b er s o f E t yp e ya r n wi t h c o n t i n u o u s f i b er s . The
m i n i m u m t hr ea d c o u n t i n ei t her d i r ec t i o n s ha l l b e 2 5
t hr ea d s p er i n c h ( 1 0 t hr ea d s p er c m ) . The f a b r i c s ha l l ha v e
ei t her a c r o wf o o t o r a n 8 Ha r d n es s S a t i n wea v e. E a c h p l y
o f f a b r i c s ha l l ha v e a m i n i m u m b r ea ki n g s t r en gt h o f 8 00
l b /i n . ( 1 4 0 K N/m ) o f wi d t h i n ea c h t hr ea d d i r ec t i o n . Ho l es
i n t he f a b r i c wi l l n o t b e p er m i t t ed .
18 .2.3.4 Bond
The v u l c a n i z ed b o n d b et ween f a b r i c a n d r eu n -
forcement shall have a minimum peel strength of 30
lb/in. (5.2 KN/m). S t eel l a n m i n a t ed b ea r i n gs s ha l l d ev el -
o p a m i n i m u m p eel s t r en gt h o f 4 0 l b /i n . ( 6 . 9 K N/n u ) .
Peel s t r en gt h t es t s s ha l l b e p er f o r m ed b y ATS M D 4 2 9
Met ho d B .
18 .2.4 Fabrication
B ea r i n gs wi t h s t eel l a m i n a t es s ha l l b e c a s t a s a u n i t i n
a mold and shall be bonded and vulcanized under heat and
p r es s u r e. The m o l d f i n i s h s ha l l c o n f o r m t o s t a n d a r d s ho m p
p r a c t i c e. The i n t er n a l s t eel l a m i n a t es s ha l l b e s a n d -b l a s t ed
a n d c l ea n ed o f a l l s u r f a c e c o a t i n gs , r u s t , m i l l s c a l e, a n d
d i r t b ef o r e b o n d i n g, a n d s ha l l b e f r ee o f s ha r p ed ges a n d
b u r r s . E x t er n a l l o a d p l a t es ( s o l e p l a t es ) s ha l l b e p r o t ec t ed
f r o m r u s t i n g b y t he m a n u f a c t u r er , a m i d p r ef er a b l y s ha l l b e
ho t b o n d ed t o t he b ea r i n g d u r i n g v u l c a n i z a t i o u n . B ea r i n gs
t ha t a r e d es i gn ed t o a c t a s a s i n gl e u n i t wi t h a gi v en s ha p e
f a c t o r m u s t b e m a n u f a c t u r ed a s a s i n gl e u n i t .
F a b r i c -r ei n f o r c ed b ea r i n gs m a y b e v u l c a n i z ed i n l a r ge
s heet s a n d c u t t o s i z e. Cu t t i n g s ha l l b e p er f o r m ed i n s u i c h
a wa y a s t o a v o i d hea t i n g t he m a t er i a l s a n d s ha l l p r o d u c e
a s m o o t h f i n i s h wi t h n o s ep a r a t i o n o f t he f a b r i c f r o u n t he
el a s t o m er . F a b r i c r ei n f o r c em en t s ha l l b e a t l ea s t s i n gl e p l y
f o u r t he t o p a n d b o t t o m r ei n f o r c em n en t l a yer s a n d d o u b l e
p l y f o r i n t er n a l r ei n f o r c em en t l a yer s ~. F a b r i c s ha l l b e f r ee
18.2.4 DIV IS IO N Il CO NS TR U CTIO N
565
TABLE 18 .2.3.IA Neoprene Quality Control Tests. Note in the table that ASTM D 1043 refers to modulus of
rigidity,while ASTM D 4014 refersto shear modulus stiffness.The word stifTnessis
used here to cover both terms.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
D 2240 Hardness (Shore A Durometer)
D 412 Tensile Strength, Minimum psi
Ultimate Elongation, Minimum %
50 5
2 , 2 5 0
4 00
605
2,250
350
7 0 5
2,250
3 00
HEAT RESISTANCE
D 573
7 0 Ho u r s
at 212
0F
Change in Durometer Hardness,
Maximum Points IS
Change in Tensile Strength, Maximum %
Change in Ultimate Elongation, Maximum %
COMPRESSION SET
D 395
Method B
22 Hours @ 2120F, Maximum %
100 pphim ozone in air by volume, 20% strain 1000F
2W
100 hours mounting procedure D 518, Procedure A
Grade 3 Brittleness at 40W
Grade 5 Brittleness at 700F
No Cr a c ks
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No Cr a c ks No Cr a c ks
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
No F a i l u r e
INSTANTANEOUS THERMAL STIFFENING
D 1043 Grades 0 & 2Tested @ 25W
Grade 3Tested @ 40W
Grade 4Tested @ SOW
Grade 5Tested @ 65W
LOW-TEMPERATURE CRYSTALLIZATION
Quad Shear Test Grade 0No Test Required
as Described Grade 27 days @ OW
Grade 314 days @ 150F
Grade 421 days @ 35W
Grade 528 days @ 35W
Stiffness at test temperature shall not exceed 4 times
the stiffness measured at 73 Degrees F
the stiffness measured at 73 Degrees F
Stiffness at test time and temperature shall not exceed 4
mimes the stiffness measured at 73 Degrees F with no
time delay. The stiffness shall be measured with a
quad shear test rig in an enclosed freezer unit. The
test specimens shall be taken from a randomly
selected bearing. A 25% strain cycle shalt be
used, and a complete cycle of strain shall be applied
wi t h a p er i o d o f 1 00 s ec o n d s . The f i r s t 3 /4 c yc l e o f
s t r a i n s ha l l b e d i s c a r d ed a n d the stiffness shall be
d et er m i n ed b y t he s l o p e o f the force deflection curve
f o r t he n ex t 1 /2 c yc l e o f l o a d i n g.
1 5 1 5
1 5
-40
OZONE
D 1149
1 5
4 0
1 5
40
35
3 S 35
LOW -TEMPERATURE BRITTLENESS
D 746 Grades 0 & 2No Test Required
Procedure B
566
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.2.4
TABLE 18 .2.3.IB Natural Rubber Quality Control Tests. Note in the table that ASTM D 1043 refers to,
modulus of rigidity,while ASTM D 4014 refers to shear modulus stiffness.The word
stiffnessis used here to cover both terms.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
D 2240 Hardness (Shore A Durometer)
D 412 Tensile Strength, Minimum psi
Ultimate Elongation, Minimum %
50 S
2,250
450
6 05
2,250
400
HEAT RESISTANCE
D 573
7 0 Ho u r s
at 158W
Change in Durometer Hardness,
Maximum Points 10
Change in Tensile Strength, Maximum %
Change in Ultimate Elongation, Maximum %
COMPRESSION SET
0 395
Method B
22 Hours @ 158
0F, Maximum %
25 pphm ozone in air by volume, 20% strain 100W
2W
48 hours mounting procedure D 518 ,
Procedure A
Grade 3 Brittleness at 400F
Gr a d e S B r i t t l en es s a t 700F
No Cr a c ks
No F a i l u r e
No Failure
No Failure
No Cracks No Cracks
NoFailure
No Failure
No F a i l u r e
No Failure
No Failure
No F a i l u r e
INSTANTANEOUS THERMAL STIFFENING
D 1 04 3 Gr a d es 0 & 2 Tes t ed @ 25W
Grade 3Tested @ 4 00F
Gr a d e 4 Tes t ed @ SOW
Gr a d e 5 Tes t ed @ 6 5 W
L O W - TE MPE R ATU R E CR YS TAL L IZATIO N
Q u a d S hea r Tes t Gr a d e 0No Tes t R eq u i r ed
a s Des c r i b ed i n Gr a d e 2 7 d a ys Cci: 00F
An n ex A o f
AS TM 04 01 4 Gr a d e 3 1 4 d a ys @ 1 5 W
Gr a d e 4 2 1 d a ys @ 350F
Gr a d e 5 2 8 d a ys ~ 350F
t he s t i f f n es s m ea s u r ed a t 7 3 Degr ees F
S t i f f n es s a t t es t t i m e a n d t em p er a t u r e s ha l l n o t ex c eed 4
t i m es t he stiffness measured at 73 Degrees F with no
time delay. The stiffness shall be measured with a
quad shear test rig in an enclosed freezer unit. The
t es t s p ec i m en s s ha l l b e t a ken f r o m a r a n d o m l y
s el ec t ed b ea r i n g. A 25% s t r a i n c yc l e s ha l l b e
used, and a complete cycle of strain shall be applied
within a period of 100 seconds. The first 3/4 cycle of
s t r a i n s ha l l b e d i s c a r d ed a n d t he s t i f f n es s s ha l l b e
d et er m i n ed b y t he s l o p e o f t he f o r c e d ef l ec t i o n c u r v e
for the next 1/2 cycle of l o a d i n g.
7 0 5
2,250
300
10 10
25
25
OZONE
D 1149
25
25
25
2S
25
2S
25
LOW - TEMPERATURE BRITTLENESS
D 746 Grades 0, 2No Test Required
Procedure B
18.2.4 DIVISION ITCONSTRUCTION 567
o f folds and ripples and shall be parallel t o t he t o u p a n d b o t -
t o m s u r f a c es .
Pl a i n p a d s m a y b e m o l d ed , ex t r u d ed , o r v u l c a n i z ed i n
large sheets and cut to size. Cu t t i n g shall nout hea t t he m a -
t er i a l , a n d s ha l l p r o d u c e a s m o o t h f i n i s h.
F l a s h t o l er a n c e, f i n i s h, a n d a p p ea r a n c e s ha l l m eet t he
r eq u i r em en t s o f t he l a t es t ed i t i o n o f t he Rubber Hand-
book, p u b l i s hed b y t he R u b b er Ma n u f a c t u r er s As s o c i a -
t i o n , In c . , R MA F 3 a n d T. 06 3 f o r m o l d ed b ea r i n gs a n d
R MA F 2 f o r ex t r u d ed b ea r i n gs .
1 8 . 2 . 5 Fabrication Tolerances
Pl a i n p a d s a n d l a m i n a t ed b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e b u i l t t o t he
s p ec i f i ed d i m en s i o n wi t hi n t he f o u l l o wi n g t o l er a n c es :
I. Overall Height
Design Thickuiess
l/4 in. (32 mnm) our
less
Design Thickness
over f 4 i n . ( 3 2 m m )
0.
-o-/, in.
0,
+/4 i n .
(0,
+3mm)
(0,
+6 mum)
7. Thickness
Top and bottom cover
layer (if required)
8. Size
Holes, slots, or i n s er t s
0, the smaller of
+/l6 in. (1.5 m m ) a n d
+20% of the nominal
cover layer thickness
/~ in. (3mm)
18 .2.6 Marking and Certification
The m a n u f a c t u r er s ha l l certify that each bearing satis-
fies the requirements of the plans and these specifications.
and shall supply a certified copy of material test results.
Each reinforced bearingshall be marked in indelible ink or
f l ex i b l e p a i n t . The marking shall consist of the orientation,
t he o r d er n u n i b er , lot number, bearing identification nuni-
her , a n d el a s t o m er t yp e a n d gr a d e n u m b er . U n l es s o t her -
wi s e s p ec i f i ed i n t he contract documents, the marking shall
b e o n t he face that is visible after er ec t i o n o f t he b r i d ge.
1 8 . 2 . 7 Tes t i n g
18 .2.7.1 Scope
2. Overall Ho)ricontal
Dimensioiis
3 6 i n . ( 0. 9 1 4 m ) o r
less
O v er 3 6 i n .
(0.914 ni)
0,
/4 in.
0,
/2 i n .
(0,
+6mm)
(0,
+ 12mm)
Ma t er i a l s f o r el a s t o m er i c b ea r i n gs a n d t he f i n i s hed
b ea r i n gs t hem s el v es s ha l l b e s u b j ec t ed t o m t he t es t s d e-
s c r i b ed i n t hi s section. Material tests shall be in accor-
dance with the appropriate Table 18.2.3.IA or Table
18.2.3. lB.
18 .2.7.2 Frequency of Testing
3. Thickness oJ Individual
Lovers of Elastomer
(Laminated Bearings
On lv)
At a n y p o i n t wi t hi n
the bearings
4. Parallelism with
Opposite Face
Top and bottom
Sides
5. Position 01 Exposed
Connection Members
Ho l es , s ho t s , or inserts
6. Edge Cover
Embedded laminates
(ur connection
members
t207 o f d es i gn v a l u e b u t
no more than 1 i n .
(3 m m )
0. 005 r a d i a n s
0.02 radians
/~in. (3 mm)
0, (0,
in. +3 mm)
The ambient temperature tests on the ehastomer de-
s c r i b ed i n Ar t i c l e 1 8 . 2 . 7 . 3 s ha l l b e c o n d u c t ed f o r t he n s a -
terials used in each l o t o f b ea r i n gs . In l i eu o f p er f o u r n u i n g
a shear modulus test for each batch of material, the man-
ufacturer may elect to provide certificates from tests per-
formed on identical formulations within the preceding
year, unless otherwise specified by the Engineer. Test cer-
tificates from the supplier shall be provided for eachlot of
reinforcement.
The three low temperature tests on the ehastomer de-
seribed in Article 18.2.7.4 shall be conducted on the ma-
terial used in each lot o f b ea r i n gs f o r gr a d es 3 , 4 , a n d S
m a t er i a l a n d t he i n s t a n t a n eo u s t her m a l s t i f f en i n g t es t s ha l l
b e c o n d u c t ed on material of grades 0 and 2. For grade 3
m a t er i a l , i n lieu of the l o w t em p er a t u r e c r ys t a l l i z a t i o n test,
t he m a n u f a c t u r er m a y c ho o s e t o provide certificates from
low-temperature crystallization tests performed on identi-
cal material within the last year, unless otherwise speci-
fied by the Engineer. Low-temperature brittleness and
crystallization t es t s a r e n o t r eq u i r ed f o r gr a d es 0 a n d 2 m a -
t er i a l s , u n l es s es p ec i a l l y r eq u es t ed b y t he E n gi n eer .
568 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.2.7.2
E v er y f i n i s hed b ea r i n g s ha l l b e v i s u a l l y i n s p ec t ed i n
accordance with Article 18.2.7.5
E v er y s t eel r ei n f o r c ed b ea r i n g s ha l l b e s u b j ec t ed t o t he
short-term load test described in Article 18.2.7.6.
From each lot of bearings either designed by Methoud
B of Article 14.4, Division I of this specification or niade
from grade 4 or grade 5 elastomer, a randoum saniple shall
b e s u b j ec t ed t o t he l o n g-t er n i l o a d t es t d es c r i b ed i n Ar t i -
dc 18.2.7.7. The sample shall consist of at least ouime bear-
imig cimousen ranoloumly fromni each size amid niaterial batch
and shall comniprise at least 10 percent of tIme lout. If ouume
bearimig ouf the saumuple fails, all the bearimugs of that lout shall
be rejeeteol, umuless the niammufactoirer elects tom test each
hmearimig ouf time lout at his expense. In licom ouf this lmromeedomre.
the Engimmeer uiuay requuire every bearimig ouf the lout tom be
tested.
The Fngimueer mimay reqomire shear stiffness tests ommm ma-
terial frouumi a ramudomum saumuphe ouf the fiumisheol bearimmes mm ac
courdanee with Article 18.2.7.8.
18 .2.7.3 Ambient-Temperature Tests on the
Elastomer
The elastounmer useol shall at least satisfy the hinmits pre-
scribed iii tIme approupriate Table 18.2.3.1 Aomr B four domrouun-
eter hardness, teuusile stremmgtlm, ultimmmate elouuigatioumi. heat
inesistauice, eoummipressioumu set, and ouzoumme resistance. Time
boumid tom the ineintourceummeuit, if any. shall alsom satisfy Article
18.2.3.4. The shear nuomolomlus ouf time mmuaterial shall be tested
at 73
0F ousing the apparatoms and procedure described in
annex A ouf ASTM 1) 4014. It shall fall within 15 pereeuit
ouf the specified value, our within the rauige ouf its liardumess
giveui iii Article 14.3 of Divisiomn I if no shear moudulous is
specified.
18 .2.7.4 Low-Temperature Tests on the
Elastomer
Gr a d es 3 , 4 , a n d 5 eha s t o u n m er s s ha l l b e s u b j ec t ed t o l o w
t em p er a t u r e b r i t t l en es s t es t s ( AS TM D 7 4 6 ) , i n s t a n t a -
umeouus how-teniperature stiffness tests (ASTM D 1043),
and low-tenuperature crystallization tests (ASTM D
4 0 1 4 ) . Gr a d es 0 a n d 2 eha s t o n u er s s ha l l b e s u b j ec t ed t o i n -
stantaneomus louw-temumperature stiffness tests (ASTM D
1043). The tests shall be performed in aceomdanee with the
requirements ouf Tables 18.2.3.IA and B and the com-
pound shall satisfy all limits four its grade.
18 .2.7.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished
Bearing
Every finished bearing shall be inspected for com-
pliance with dimensional tolerances and for overall
q u a l i t y o f m a n u f a c t u r e. In s t eel r ei n f o r c ed b ea r i n gs , t he
ed ges o f t he s t eel s ha l l b e p r o t ec t ed ev er ywher e f r o m c o i n -
rosin on.
18 .2.7.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on
Bearings
The bearing shall be loaded in counpressiomi to 1.5
t i n i es i t s m a x i m u m d es i gu m l o a d . The l o a d s ha l l b e
hel d c o n s t a u u t f o r S n i i n u t es , r ei n o u v ed . a m i d r ea p p hi ed f o u r
a n o u t her 5 u u m i n u t es . The b ea r i n g s ha l l b e ex a m i n ed v i s u -
a l l y whi l e o u m u d er t i m e s ec o u m i d loading. If t i m e b o u l gi m u g p a t -
t er n s u gges t s l a n m i n a t e p a r a l l el i s n i o u r a l a yer t hi c kt u es s
t ha t i s o u u t s i o l e t he s p ec i f i ed t o u her a m u c es . o u r p o m o m r l a m i u i m i a t e
b o u m i d , t i m e b ea r i u u g s ha l l b e r ej ec t ed . If t her e a r e t hr ee o u r
umuomre separate surface cracks that are greater thaum 0.08 iii.
(2 nmni) wide and (1.08 iii. (2 mimi) deep. the bearitug shall
b e r ej ec t ed .
18 .2.7.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on
Bearings
The bearing shall be lomaded iii comnipressioumi tom 1.5
tiuumes its niaximuinmim design lomad four a uniniummumim period ouf
15 hmomomrs. If. domniuug the test. the lomad falls belouw 1.3 timimes
the immaximnuuum design louad. the test duinatioumi shall be in-
creased by the lueriod of timmme for which the homad is behouw
t hi s l i m i t . Ti m e b ea r i n g s ha l l b e ex a u m u i n ed v i s u a l l y a t t he
end of the test while it is still under load. If the bulgimig
pattern suggests lanmimiate parallehisin our a layer thiekuiess
that is ouutside the specified tomlerances. our pouour laimuimuate
bound. the bearing shall be rejected. If there are three our
moire separate stmrface cracks that are greater thamm 0.08 in.
(2 mmmi) wide and 0.08 in. (2 num) deep. the bearing shall
be rejected.
18 .2.7.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Material from
Bearings
The shear niodulus of the nuaterial in the finished bear-
ing shall be evalotated by testing a specinmen cut froni it
u s u n g t he a p p a r a t u s a n d p r o c ed u r e d es c r i b ed i n An n ex A
o u f AS TM D 4 01 4 , o r , a t t he d i s c r et i o n o f t he E n gi n eer , a
c o u m p a r a b l e n o u n d es t r u et i v e s t i f f n es s t es t m a y b e c o m i -
d u et ed o n a p a i r o f f i n i s hed b ea r i n gs . The s hea r m o u d u l u s
s ha l l f a l l wi t hi n 15 percent of the specified valome. o u r
wi t hi n t he r a n ge f o r i t s ha r d n es s gi v en i n Ar t i c l e 1 4 . 3 o f
Di v i s i o n I i f n o s hea r m o d u l u s i s s p ec i f i ed . If t he t es t i s
c o u n d u c t ed o n f i n i s hed b ea r i n gs , t he m a t er i a l s hea r m o u d -
u l u s s ha l l b e c o m p u t ed f r o u i m t he m ea s u r ed s hea r s t i f f n es s
o f t he b ea r i n gs , taking due account of the influence on
569
s hea r s t i f f n es s o f b ea r i n g geo m et r y a n d c o m p r es s i v e
l o a d .
18 .2.8 Installation
Bearings shall be placed on surfaces that are plane to
within i~ in. amid, unless the bearings are placed in op-
pousing pairs. hourizontal to within 0.01 radians. Any lack
ouf parallehisuum between tIme toup of the bearing and the tin-
derside of time girder that exceeds C. 01 radians shall be
correcteol by grouting or as outherwise directed by the Eu-
oineer
Exteriour plates ouf the bearimig shall nout be welded
unless at least 1 2 in. ouf steel exists between mime welol
amuol tIme elastomuner. Imi mmom ease shall the elastomner our the
bomnol be soibjeeted to temuiperatomres higher thaum 400
0F
(2040C).
18 .3 POTAND DISC BEARINGS
18 .3.1 General
Pout anddisc bearings shall be furnished counfomnumuing tou
time foullouwing inequiremiients~ shall be aohequate four tIme ole-
siemi louads and mumouvenuients simouwim oun the plans our speci-
fied, and shall he tested at the appropriate level.
In additiomi tom time mequiremuuents of Article 18. 1.1. the
following shall be shown on the womrking drawings:
The toutal quantity of each kind ouf beariuug requireol
(fixed, guided expansion, or nonguided expan-
sion), grouped first according to type (load range),
andthen by actual design capacity.
The plan view and sectioui elevation view showing
all relative dimensions of each type of bearing.
The m a x i m u m d es i gn c o ef f i c i en t o f f r i c t i o n a s
n o t ed o n t he Co n t r a c t Pl a n s .
Ti m e t yp e o f n u a t er i a l s t o b e u s ed f o r a l l b ea r i n g el e-
m em i t s .
If a p p l i c a b l e, a n y wel d i n g p r o c es s u s ed i n t he b ea r i n g
m a n u f a c t u r e t ha t d o es not conform to the approved
p r o c es s es o f t he Am er i c a n Welding Society (AWS) shall
b e clearly described and detailed.
V er t i c a l a n d ho r i z o u n t a l l o a d , r o t a t i o n , a n d m o v em en t
c a p a c i t y.
Painting our coating requirenments.
Alignment plans.
Installation scheme.
Co m p l et e d es i gn c a l c u l a t i o n s v er i f yi n g c o n f o r m a n c e
with these specifications, if required by time Engineer.
Anchorage details.
B ea r i n g p r es et d et a i l s , i f a p p l i c a b l e.
The location of the fabrication plant.
The Manufacturers naine and the namne of his or her
representative who will be responsible four coourdimuating
p r o d u c t i o n , i n s p ec t i o n , s a m p l i n g, a n d t es t i n g.
18 .3.3 Materials
All ummaterials shall be hew amid omnused. with mmou re-
claimed nuaterial incorpourated in time finished bearing.
18.3.3.1 Elasfomeric Rotational Element
The elastoumiucrie routatioumial elemmueuit oused in the coin
s t i n r u et i o u n o u f p o u t b ea r i u i gs s ha l l c o u m i t a i n i o u i m l v v i r gi n , er ys -
talhizatiomn-resistant pomlycimlorouprene (micouprene) our virgin
umatural poulyisompremie (nmatural roubber) as the raw poulyumier.
The physical prouperties of neoprene and natomral rubber
used in these bearinigs shall counforni tom time follouwiuug
ASTM or AASHTO requiremnemits. with niodificatiomns as
noted:
Compound
Neoprene
Natural
Rubber
ASTM
Requirement
D2 000, L i n e Ca l l O u t
M2 B CS 2 O AI4 B 1 4
D2000, Line Call Out
M4AAS2OA I 3B33
AASHTO
Requirement
AASHTO M 251
AASHTO M 251
Modifications:
(1) The Shore A Durometer hardness shall be 50
10 points.
(2) Samples f o r c o m p r es s i o n s et t es t s s ha l l b e p r e-
pared using a type 2 die.
18 .3.3.2 Sealant
If used, the type of sealant betweemi time steel pout and
the top steel hearimig plate shall be as recounmended by the
Manufacturer.
18 .3.3.3 Sealing Rings
The sealing rings between the steel piston and the
elastomneric rotational element of pot bearings shall be
brass formed to the size r ec o m m en d ed by the Manu-
facturer. Where more than one flat sealing ring is used.
ring gaps shall be staggered equally around the rings
circumference.
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18 .3.3.7 Polyether Urethane Structural Element
All steel except stainless steel components of the bear-
ing shall counform to the requirenients of Article 11.3 for
Carbon Steel or High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
Steel for Welding.
18.3.3.5 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel shall confoinni to the requirements of
ASTM A 167, Type 304 or ASTMA 240, Type 304. Stain-
less steel in contact with TFE sheet shall be poulished tou a
b r i ght m i r r o u r f i n i s h, l es s t ha n 2 0 m i c r o -i n c hes r o m o u t n i c a n
s q u a r e. The u n i n i m u m t hi c kn es s o f the stainless steel shall
be 0.050 inches.
18 .3.3.6 Polytetrafluorethylene Sheet and Strip
Po m l yt et r a f l u o r et hyl en e ( TE E ) s heet a m i d s t r i p s ha l l b e
n i a n u f a c t o m r ed ei t her f r o u u i m p u m r e v i r gi u i ( n o u t r ep r o m ees s ed )
o m n f i l l ed TE E r es i n , f r o n i TE E r es i n unifornily blended
wi t h ei t her 1 5 -p er c en t gl a s s f i b er o r 2 5 -p er c en t ea r b o u n
( i n a x i n m u m f i l l er , p er c en t by weight), our frouni fabric coun-
t a m i n g TF F . f i b er s . TE E s heet a m i d s t r i p s ha l l n i ec t t he a p -
p l i c a b l e m a t er i a l r eq u u i r en m en t s o u f Ar t i c l e 1 8 . 8 .
1 -l o m n i z o m n t a l l y i n s t a l l ed TE E s heet s ha l l b e b o u r d ed t o u
a n d r ec es s ed i n t o u i t s s t eel s u b s t r a t e. V er t i c a l l y i n s t a l l ed
TE E s heet s ha l l b e b o n d ed t o u a i m o l r ec es s ed i n t o , o u r b o u n d ed
to and mechanically fastened to i t s s t eel s u i b s t r a t e. TF E
sheet shall have a mininmuumi thickness of /~ inch and shall
b e r ec es s ed f o r a t l ea s t o n e-ha l f o u f its thickness into its
s t eel s u b s t r a t e.
Finished TEE sheet and strip shall b e r es i s t a n t t o all
acids, alkalis, and petrouleuni lurouduets, stable at tempera-
tures froun 360
0F tou i-SOmE. nomnfianmniable, and noun-
a b s o r b i n g o f wa t er . The ep o u x y o u s ed t o b o n d t he TE E t o m i t s
s t eel s u b s t r a t e s ha l l b e a hea t c u r ed , hi gh t em p er a t u r e
ep o x y c a p a b l e o u f wi t hs t a n d i n g t en i p er a t u r es o f 3 2 00F t o
+5 000 F .
The polyether urethane structural element used in the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d i s c b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e m o l d ed f r o m a p o m l y-
et her u r et ha n e c o m p o u n d a n d s ha l l b e m o n o l i t hi c . The
p hys i c a l p r o p er t i es o f t he p o l yet her u r et ha n e s ha l l c o i n -
f o r m t o o n e o f the requirements listed in Table 18.3.3.
18 3.4 Fabrication Details
The Contractor shall provide the Engineer with written
n o u t i f i c a t i o n t hi r t y ( 3 0) d a ys p r i o r t o t he s t a r t o u f b ea r i n g
f a b r i c a t i o u n .
The finish o f t he m o u l d u s ed t o p r o d u c e t he el a s t o n i er i e
rotational element for pot bearings or the polyctimer omre-
thane struictumral element four disc bearings shall confomrni tom
go o d n i a c hi n e s ho p p r a c t i c e.
The TF E s heet s ha l l b e b o n d ed t o its grit blasted steel
s u b s t r a t e u s i n g a u i ep o x y r es i m i a d hes i v e umnder countroulled
f a c t o r y c o n d i t i o n s i n a c eo r d a m m ee wi t h t he i n s t r u et i o u n i s o u f
t he a d hes i v e m a i m o i f a c t u r er . The TE E s heet s ha l l b e r e-
c es s ed i n t o u i t s s t eel s u i b s t r a t e f o u r a t l ea s t o m n e-ha l f o u f i t s
t hi eki m es s . If o n a v er t i c a l s u r f a c e, t he TE E s heet n i u a y b e
niechanically fasteuued to the soubstrate. Ti m e a t t a c hn i en u t o u f
the TEE sheet tom i t s s u b s t r a t e s ha l l b e d o n e i n a c eo r d a m u c e
wi t h t he m a u m o m f a c t o m n i n g r eq u i r em u i en t s o u f Ar t i c l e 1 8 . 8 .
Af t er f a b r i c a t i o n , s t eel s u r f a c es expoused tou the attumous-
p her e, ex c ep t s t a i n l es s s t eel s u r f a c es , s ha l l b e s i m o u p
painted our comated tom p r o u t eet a ga i n s t c o r r o u s i o m n i n a ec o u r -
dance with time contract plans our specificatiouns. Priour to
coating, the exposed steel surfaces shall be cleaned in ac-
cordance with the recomniendations of the comatings man-
ufacturer. Metal surfaces tom be field welded shall be giveui
a coat of clear lacquer or other protective couating ap-
proved by the Engineer, if the time of exposure before
welding takes place is to exceed 3 mnonths. The lacquer
comating shall be remnouved at the time of welding. The fiuual
painting or coating of these sumrfaces shall be dome after the
completion of welding.
TABLE 18 .3.3 Polyether Urethane
ASTM
Requirements
Compound A Compound B
Physical Property Test Method Mm. Max. Mm. Max.
Ha r d n es s , Typ e D Du r o m et er D 2 2 4 0 4 6 5 0 6 0 6 4
Ten s i l e S t r es s , p s i D4 1 2
At 1 00% el o n ga t i o n 1 , 5 00 2 , 000
At 2 00% el o n ga t i o n 2 , 8 00 3,700
Ten s i l e S t r en gt h, p s i D 4 1 2 4 , 000 5,000
U l t i m a t e E l o n ga t i o n , % D 4 1 2 3 5 0 220
Co m p r es s i o n S et 2 2 hr s . a t 1 5 8 E % D 3 9 5 40 40
570
18 .3.3.4 Steel
18.3.3.4
Stainless steel sheet shall be attached to its steel sub-
strate with an approved epoxyto ensure complete contact,
and then sealed with a continuous seal weld.
For pot bearings, the steel piston and the steel pot
s ha l l ea c h b e m a c hi n ed f r o m a s o l i d p i ec e o f s t eel .
The s t eel b a s e p o t o f a l l b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e either integrally
m a c hi n ed , r ec es s ed i n t o , o u r continuously welded to
its bottom steel masonry plate. The outside diani-
et er o f t he p i s t o u n s ha l l b e n o m o r e t ha n 0. 03 0 i n c hes
l es s t ha n the inside diameter of the pot a t t he i n t er f a c e
l ev el o f the piston and elastomeric rotational elenment.
The sides of time piston shall be beveled to facilitate
r o u t a t i o u n .
F o r d i s c b ea r i n gs , t he p o l yet her u r et ha n e s t r u c t u r a l el -
en u en t s ha l l b e c o n f i n ed b y a l i m i t i n g r i n g whi c h s ha l l b e
p r o v i d ed b y wel d i n g a r i n g t o o r m a c hi n i n g a r ec es s i n t o
t he u p p er a n d l o wer bearingplates. The inside diameter ouf
the ring shall be 4 to 6 percent larger than the diameter of
the disc element. The shear restriction mechanism shall be
c o n n ec t ed t o the bearing plate by welding or other ac-
ceptable means.
All welding shall conforni to, and all welders shall be
q u a hi hi ed i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he r eq u i r em en t s o f the
AOVSI/AASHTO/AWSDl. 5-95 Bridge Welding Code.
E x c ep t a s n o u t ed , a l l b ea r i n g s u r f a c es o f s t eel p l a t es
s ha l l b e f i n i s hed o r m a c hi n ed f l a t wi t hi n 0. 01 0 i t i c i m es p er
f o m o t . O u m t -o f -f l a t n es s gr ea t er t ha n 0. 0 1 0 inches per foot on
a n y p l a t e s ha l l b e c a u s e f o r r ej ec t i o n . The bottom surfaces
ouf louwer bearing plates (niasomnry plates) designed to rest
oun bearimig pads shall not exceed an omut-of-flatness value
of 0.0625 inches per foot. Oxygen cut surfaces shall not
exceed a surface roughness value ouf 1 .000 nmicro-inches.
as dehined by ANSI B46. I.
Gross bearing dimensions shall have a tolerance of 0.
E v er y b ea r i n g s ha l l ha v e t he Pr o j ec t Id en t i f i c a t i o n
Nounber. Lot Nuniber, and individual bearing number in-
delibly marked with ink on a side that will be visible after
ereetmoumi.
18 .3.5 Sampling and Testing
18 .3.5.1 Lot Size
Samumphing. testimug. and acceptance couisideratioun will
b e u n a d e o u u i a l o u t b a s i s . A l o u t s ha l l b e d ef i n eo l a s t ho s e b ea r -
i n gs p r es en t ed f o u r i n i s p eet i o n a t a s p ec i f i c t u n e o r d a t e. A
l o t s ha l l b e f u r t her d ef i m m ed a s t he s n i a l l es t n u n i b er o u f b ea r -
ings as deteinnuined by the foullowimig c r i t er i a :
( a ) A l o u t s ha l l u m o u t ex eec o l a s i n gl e c o m n t r a c t o u r l m r o i eet
q n a n i t i ty
(b) A lot shall not exceed 25 b ea r i n gs
(c) A lot shall consist of those bearings of the same
type regardless of load capacity. Bearing types shall be
f i x ed o r ex p a n s i o n t yp es . Guided and nonguided ex-
pansion bearings will be considered to be asingle type.
18.3.5.2 Sampling and Testing Requirements
18.3.5.2. 1 Testing by Manufacturer
The m a n u f a c t u r er s ha l l s el ec t , a t r a n d o m , s a m p l e b ea r -
i n gs f r o m completed hots of bearings for testing by the
m a n u f a c t u r er . The manufacturer shall complete the r e-
q u i r ed t es t i n g and determine compliance with this speci-
fication before submitting the lots(s) for quality assurance
inspection, testing, and acceptance consideration. The re-
s u l t s o f t he m a n u f a c t u r er s t es t s s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed t o t he
Engineer.
18.3.5.2.2 Testing by the Engineer
When q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e t es t i n g i s c a l l ed f o r by the spe-
c i a l p r o v i s i o n s , t he m a n u f a c t u r er s ha l l f u r n i s h t o t he E n -
gi n eer the required number of samples to perform quality
a s s u r a n c e t es t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Ta b l e 1 8 . 3 . 5 .
A m i n i m u m o f t hi r t y ( 3 0) d a ys s ha l l b e a l l o wed f o r i n -
s p ec t i o n , s a m p l i n g, and quality assurance testing ouf prom-
d u c t i o m n b ea r i n gs and component materials.
All exterior surfaces of sampled production bearings
shall be smooth and free froni irregularities or protrusions
that might interfere with testing procedures.
TABLE 18 .3.5 Sampling
Test Samples Required
Proof Load One production bearing per lot
Coefficient of
Friction
One production bearing per lot
Physical Properties
of Elastomeric
One elastomeric element per lot
Rotational Element
Physical Properties
of TFE sheet
One lOx 15 sheet of TFE
material per project
Physical Properties
of Polyether
Urethane Structural
Element (except
compression set)
One l0x15 sheet of polyether
urethane material (thickness of
0.063 to 0. 120) per lot
Compression Set of
Polyether Urethane
Structural Element
One 4x4 sheet of polyether
urethane per lot, molded or cut
to the thickness requirements of
ASTM D 395, Method B
18.3.4 571
572
Bearings with tapered sole plates which are selected for
testing shall be delivered to the test site accompanied by a
single unattached matching beveled plate. This plate shall
b e m a d e o f t he s a m e material and be the same size and
t hi c kn es s a s t he t a p er ed p l a t e. Ad d i t i o n a l l y, t he s i n gl e
b ev el ed p l a t e s ha l l b e s o c o n s t r u c t ed t ha t , when p l a c ed i n
c o n t a c t wi t h t he t a p er ed s o l e p l a t e, t he t wo s ha l l f o r m asin-
gle body, rectangular in shape and uniform in thickness.
The Engineer may select, at random, the required sam-
ple bearing(s) from completed lots of bearings, and sam-
ples of the elastoumeric and TEE materials for quality as-
surance testing.
The Co n t r a c t o r s ha l l a s s u m e t he c o s t o f t r a m i s p o r t i n g a l l
s a m p l es f r o n u t he p l a c e o f m a n u f a c t u r e t o the test s i t e a n d
b a c k, o r i f a p p l i c a b l e, t o the project site.
18.3.5.3 Performance Characteristics
18.3.5.3.1 ProofLoad Test
A test bearing shall be loaded to ISO percent of the
b ea r i n g s r a t ed d es i gn capacity and simultaneously sub-
jected to arotational range of 0.02 radians (1.1460) or de-
s i gn r o t a t i o n , whi c hev er i s gr ea t er , f o r a p er i o d o f o n e ( I)
hour.
The bearing will be visually examined both during the
test and upon disassembly after the test. Any resultant vis-
ual defects, such as extruded our deformed ehastomer, poly-
ether urethane or TEE, damaged seals or limited rings, or
cracked steel, shall be cause for rejection ouf the hot.
Du r i n g t he t es t , f o r p o t b ea r i n gs t he s t eel b ea r i n g p l a t e
a n d s t eel p i s t o n s ha l l m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u o u s a n d u n i f o r n i
contact for the duration of the test. For disc bearings, con-
tinuous and uniform contact shall be maintained between
the polyether urethane element and the bearing plates and
between the sliding steel top plate and the upper bearing
p l a t e f o r t he d u r a t i o n o f t he t es t . Any observed hift-ouff will
b e cause for rejection of the lot.
18.3.5.3.2 Sliding Coefficient (uf Friction
F o r a l l gu i d ed a n d n o n gu i d ed ex p a n s i o n t yp e b ea r i n gs ,
t he s l i d i n g c o ef f i c i en t o f f r i c t i o n s ha l l b e measured at the
b ea r i n g s d es i gn c a p a c i t y i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h Article
1 8 . 8 . 3 . 3 , a n d o n t he f i f t h a n d f i f t i et h c yc l es , a t a s l i d i n g
s p eed o f 1 i n c h p er minute.
The s l i d i n g c o m ef f i c i en t o f f r i c t i o n s ha l l b e c a l c u l a t ed a s
t he ho r i z o m n t a l l o a d r eq u u i r ed t o m n u a i n t a i n c o u n t i n u o u n s slid-
ing of omne bearimig. divided by the bearings vertical de-
sign capacity.
The t es t r es u l t s wi l l b e ev a l o m a t ed a s f o u l l o u ws :
(a) The nicasured slidiuig comefficients ouf frietiomi s ha l l
not exceed 3 p er eem i t .
(b) The bearing will be visually exanmuumed both during
and after the test. Any resultant visual defects, such as
bond failure, physical destruction, cold flow of TE E t o
the point of debonding, or damaged components, shall
be cause for rejection of the lot.
Bearings not damaged during the testing of perfor-
mance characteristics may be used in the work.
18.36 Installation
Pot and disc bearings shall be installed in accordance
with the alignment plan and installation scheme as shown
in the contract plans and the approved working d r a wi n gs .
Upon final installation ouf the bearings, the Engineer, i n t he
presence of the manufacturers representative, shall iii-
spect the bearing components to assure that they are level
and parallel to within t Y ~ inch per foot. Any deviations
in excess of the allowed tolerances shall be corrected.
18 .4 ROCKER, ROLLER, AND SLIDING
BEARINGS
18 .4.1 Materials
Steels used in rocker, roller, and sliding bearings shall
be of the types and grades shown on the plans or other-
wise specified. TFEcoatings, if required, shall conform to
Article 18.8.
18 .4.2 Fabrication
F a b r i c a t i o n o f r o c ker , r o l l er , a n d s l i d i n g b ea r i n gs s ha l l
b e c o n f o r m ed t o t he d et a i l s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s . F a b r i c a -
t i o ) n s ha l l b e p er f o r m ed i n a wo r km a n l i ke m a n n er i n c o n -
f o r m a n c e wi t h t he practice in modern commercial shops.
B u r r s , r o u gh, a n d s ha r p ed ges , a n d o t her f l a ws s ha l l b e r e-
m o v ed .
Setting of rocker, roller, and sliding bearings shall take
i n t o a c c o u n t a n y v a r i a t i o n f r o u r m m ea n t em p er a t u r e o f t he
s u p p o r t ed s p a n a t t i m e o f settiuig and any other anticipated
changes in length of t he s u p p o u r t ed s p a n s o t ha t a t n u c a n
t em p er a t u r e, a f t er r el ea s e o u f f a l s ewo r k a n d a n y s ho r t en i n g
d u i e t o m prestressing forces, the rockers and rollers will be
v er t i c a l . Ca r e s ha l l b e t a ken t ha t f u l l a n d f r ee n u o v em n en t
o f t he superstructure at movable bearings is not restricted
by improper settings or adjustment of bearings.
The Contractor shall couat all contact surfaces thour-
oomgimly with oil and graphite just befoure placing roller
bearings.
18.4.3
573
Cylindrical bearings need to be carefully positioned so
t ha t t hei r a x es ouf rotation are i n a l i gn m en t and coincide
wi t h t he a x i s o f r o t a t i o n o f t he s u p er s t r u c t u r e.
18.5 SPHERICAL BEARINGS
S p her i c a l b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e fabricated, tested, and in-
stalled in accordance with the requirements shown on the
plans or provided in time special provisions.
18 .6 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOYED PLATES
FOR BEARINGS
18 .6.1 Bronze Bearing and Expansion Plates
B r o n z e b ea r i n g a n d ex p a n s i o n p l a t es s ha l l c o n f o r n i t o
t he Specification for Bronze Castings for Bridges and
Tu r n t a b l es , AAS HTO M 1 07 ( AS TM B 22). Allomy
C9 1 1 00 s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed u n l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed .
Brounze plates shall be cast according to details shown
o n t he p l a n s . S l i d i n g s u r f a c es s ha l l b e p l a n ed p a r a l l el t o
t he m o v em en t o f t he spans and polished unless detailed
o t her wi s e.
18 .6.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy Bearings and
Expansion Plates
Rolled copper-alloy bearing and expansion plates shall
conform to the Specification for Rolled Copper-Allomy
Bearing and Expansion Plates and Sheets for Bridge and
Other Structural Uses, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100).
Alloy No. CS 1000 o r No . CS 1 1 00 s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed u n -
l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed .
Co p p er -a l l o y p l a t es s ha l l b e f u r n i s hed a c c o r d i n g t o d e-
t a i l s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s . F i n i s hi n g o f t he r o l l ed p l a t es wi l l
not be required provided they have a plane, true, and
sniooth surface.
18 .6.3 Metal Powder Sintered Bearings and
Expansion Joints (Oil Impregnated)
Metal powder sintered bearings and expansion plates
shall conform to the specifications for such material of
AS TM B 4 3 8 , Gr a d e I, Typ e II o r Gr a d e 2 . Typ e I.
18 .7 MASONRY, SOLE AND SHIM PLATES FOR
BEARINGS
18 .7.1 Materials
Met a l p l a t es u s ed i n m a s o n r y. s o u l e a n d s hi m p l a t es , u n -
l es s o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed , s ha l l c o n f o r m t o AAS HTO M
2 7 0 ( AS TM A 7 09 ) Gr a d e 3 6 . Bronze or copper-alloy
b ea r i n g a n d ex p a n s i o n p l a t es s ha l l c o n f o r u m i t o t he r e-
q u i r em en t s o f Ar t i c l e 1 8 . 6 .
18 .7.2 Fabrication
Ho l es i n b ea r i n g p l a t es m a y b e f o r m ed b y d r i l l i n g,
p u n c hi n g, o r a c c u r a t el y c o n t r o l l ed oxygen cutting. All
b u r r s s ha l l b e r em o v ed b y gr i n d i n g.
B ea r i n g p l a t es s ha l l b e a c c u r a t el y s et i n l ev el p o s i t i o n
a s s ho wn o n the plans and shall have a uniforni bearing
over the whole area. When plates are to be embedded in
c o n c r et e, p r o v i s i o n s ha l l b e n i a d e t o keep t he p l a t es i n c o r -
r ec t p o s i t i o n a s t he c o n c r et e i s b ei n g p l a c ed .
18 .8 TFE SURFACES FOR BEARINGS
18 .8 .1 Materials
18 .8 .1.1 General
Polytetrafluoroethylene (TEE) resin sheets, TEE fab-
ric, interlocked bronze and TEE structures, TEE-perfo-
rated metal composite, backup materials and all other
parts of fixed or expansion bearings containing TEE ma-
terials shall have the friction, mechanical, physical, and
wea t her i n g p r o p er t i es s p ec i f i ed o r shown on the plans.
18 .8 .1.2 TFE Resin
TE E r es i n s ha l l b e v i r gi n m a t er i a l ( n o t r ep r o c es s ed )
meeting the requirements of ASTM Designation D 14S7.
S p ec i f i c Gr a v i t y s ha l l b e 2 . 1 3 2 . 1 9 . Mel t i n g p o i n t s ha l l b e
6 2 3
0F 2 .
18 .8 .1.3 Filler Material
Filler m a t er i a l , when u s ed , s ha l l b e m i l l ed gl a s s f i b er s ,
carbon or other approved inert filler materials.
18 .8 .1.4 Adhesive Material
Ad hes i v e m a t er i a l s ha l l b e a n ep o x y r es i n m eet i n g t he
r eq u i r em en t s o f F ed er a l S p ec i f i c a t i o n MM M-A- 1 3 4 , F E P
f i l n i o r eq u a l , a s a p p r o v ed b y the Engineer.
18 .8 .1.5 Unfilled TFE Sheet
Finished unfilled TEE sheet shall be made from virgin
TEE resin and shall counforun to the following require-
nients:
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
AS TM D 1 4 5 7
AS TM D 1 4 5 7
2,800 psi
200%
18 .8 .1.6 Filled TFE Sheet
Filled TEE sheet shall be made from virgin TEE resin
uniformly blended with inert filler material.
F i n i s hed f i l l ed TEE sheets containing glass fiber or car-
bon shall conform to the following requirements:
Mechanical
AS TM 1 5 % Gl a s s 2 5 %
Met ho d F i b er s Ca r b o n
Tensile Strength
(minimum)
Elongation
D 1457
D 1457
2,000 psi
150%
1,300 psi
75%
( m i n i m u m )
Physical
Specific Gravity D 792 2.20 2.10
(minimum)
Mel t i n g Po i n t D 1 4 5 7 3 2 7
0C 1 00C 3 2 7 C 1 00C
18 .8 .1.7 Fabric ContainingTFE Fibers
The f a b r i c wi l l b e manufactured from oriental multi-
filament TEE fluorocarbon fibers and other fibers as r e-
q u i r ed b y p r o u p r i et a r y d es i gn s . Typ i c a l p hys i c a l p r o u p er t i es
o f t he TE E f i b er s s ha l l b e a s f o u l l o ws :
Tensile Strength
(minimum)
E l o n ga t i o m n
(minimuni)
D 2256
D 2256
24,000 psi
75%
18 .8 .1.8 Interlocked Bronze and Filled TEE
Structures
Interlocking bronze and filled TEE structures shall
c o n s i s t o f a phosphor bromize plate with an 0.010 iii. thick
pomrouus brounze surface layer into which is iuiupregnated a
hea d /TE E c o m p o u n d . Ther e s ha l l b e a n o u v er ha y o f c o u n i -
p o u n d ed TE E not l es s t ha n 0.001 in. thick. The phosphor
b r o n z e b a c k p l a t e s ha l l c o n f o r m t o u AS TM B 100 and the
p o r o m u s b r o n z e layer shall conform to ASTM B 103.
18 .8 .1.9 TFE Metal Composite
TEE metal composite shall consist of virgin TEE
m o l d ed o n ea c h s i d e a n d c o n i p l et el y t hr o m u gh a 1 . 3 2 i n .
p er f o r a t ed s t a i n l es s s t eel AS TM A 2 4 0, Typ e 3 04 s heet .
18 8 .1.lO Surface Treatment
Where TEE sheets are to be epoxy bonded, one side of
the TEE sheet shall be factory treated by an approved
manufacturer by the sodium napthalene or sodium am-
monia process.
18 .8 .1.11 Stainless Steel Mating Surface
S t a i n l es s steel mating surfaces when used shall be 20-
ga ge m i n i m u m t hi c kn es s a n d c o n f o r m t o AS TM A 2 4 0
Typ e 3 04 wi t h a surface finish less than 20 micro i n c hes
r o o t m ea n s q u a r e ( r m s ) . S t a i n l es s steel mating surfaces
s ha l l b e p o l i s hed o r r o l l ed a s n ec es s a r y t o m eet t he f r i c -
t i o n r eq u i r em en t s o f t hi s Specification.
18 .8 .2 Manufacturing Requirements
The expansion bearing shall be manufactured to the di-
mensions and to meet the requirements of the method ouf
fastening to the structure as shown in the plans.
18 .8 .2.1 Attachment of TFE Material
TEE material shall be factory-bonded, mechanically
connected, o r r ec es s ed i n t o t he b a c ku p m a t er i a l a s s ho wn
on the plans.
18.8.2.1. / Bonding
The b o n d i n g s ha l l b e p er f o r m ed a t t he f a c t o u r y o u f t he
m a n u f a c t u r er o f the fixed or expansion bearings under
c o n t r o l l ed c o n d i t i o n s a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t i m e wr i t t en
i n s t r u c t i o n s o f the manufacturer ouf the approuved adhesive
system. After completion of the bounding operation, the
TEE surface shall be smomouth and free from bubbles. Filled
TE E s u r f a c es s ha l l t hen b e p o l i s hed .
1 8 . 8 . 2 . 1.2 Mechanical/v Fasteneol
When m ec ha n i c a l l y f a s t en ed , TEE sheet s ha l l b e fas-
tened as shouwn in the plans with the size, type. and nuni-
her of fasteners requiredtaking care tom have fuill bearing ouf
the fastener used in the TEE sheet and backup niaterial.
/8.8.2.1.3 Fabric Containing TFE Fiber.s
The f a b r i c s ha l l b e b o n d ed o r m ec ha n i c a l l y a t t a c hed t o m
a r i gi d s u b s t r a t e. The f a b r i c s ha l l b e c a p a b l e o u f ea r r yi t u ~
utiit loads of 10,000 psi without cold flow. The fabrie-soub-
s t r a t e b o n d s ha l l b e c a p a b l e o f wi t hs t a u m d i n g a s hea r f o m r c e
ed l u a l t o 1 0 p er c en t o f t he p er p en d i c u l a r o r n o r m a l a p p l i -
cation loading wi t ho u t d el a m i n a t i o u m i n a d d i t i o m n t o u t i m e
shear force developed as a result of the natural bearint~
friction shear force.
574
Tensile Strength
(minimum)
Elongation
(minimum)
18.8.1.5
18.8.3 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 575
18 .8 .3 Testing and Acceptance
18 .8 .3.1 General
At the discretioun of the Engineer, the manufacturer
may be required to furnish facilities for testing and per-
f o r n i t es t i n g a n d i n s p ec t i o n o f t he c o m p l et ed b ea r i n gs o r
r ep r es en t a t i v e s a m p l es o f b ea r i n gs wi t h TF E s u r f a c es i n
his or her plant or at an independent test facility. Inspec-
tors, i f a p p o i n t ed , s ha l l b e a l l o wed f r ee a c c es s t o t he n ec -
es s a r y p a r t s o f t he m a n u f a c t u r er s p l a n t a n d t es t f a c i l i t y.
When t es t i n g i s p er f o r n i ed b y t he m a n u f a c t u r er , c o p i es o f
t he t es t r es u l t s s ha l l b e s u b m i t t ed t o t he E n gi n eer .
1 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 Test Specimens
If requested by t he E n gi n eer a n d a v a i l a b l e t es t f a c i l i -
t i es p er m i t , c o n i p l et e b ea r i n gs s ha l l b e t es t ed . If t he t es t
facility does not permit testing complete bearings, at the
direction of the Engineer, extra bearings may be manu-
factured by the Contractor and samples of at least 100-
kips capacity at normal working stresses prepared by sec-
t i o n i n g t he b ea r i n gs . As s o o n a s a l l b ea r i n gs ha v e b een
m a n u f a c t u r ed f o r a gi v en p r o j ec t , notification shall be
gi v en t o t he E n gi n eer who wi l l s el ec t t he p r es c r i b ed t es t
b ea r i n gs a t r a n d o m f r o m t he l o t . Ma n u f a c t u r er s c er t i f i c a -
tioun of the steel, elastomeric pads, prefourmed fabric pads,
TE E , a n d o t her m a t er i a l s u s ed i n t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t he
bearings shall be furnished along with notification of fab-
rication completion.
18 .8 .3.3 Test Method
The t es t m et ho d a n d eq u i p m en t s ha l l b e a p p r o v ed by
t he E n gi n eer a n d s ha l l i n c l u d e t he f o l l o wi n g require-
ments:
( a ) The t es t m u s t b e a r r a m u ged s o that the coefficient of
f r i c t i o u n o n t he first movement of the manufactomred
b ea r i n g c a n b e d et er m i n ed .
( b ) The b ea r i n g s u r f a c e s ha l l b e c l ea n ed p r i o r t o t es t -
i n g.
( c ) The t es t s ha l l b e c o n d u c t ed a t m a x i m u m wo r ki n g
s t r es s f o r t he TE E s u r f a c e wi t h t he t es t l o a d a p p l i ed
comntinuously for 1 2 ho u r s p r i o r t o m ea s u r i n g f r i c t i o n .
( d ) The f i r s t m o v em en t s t a t i c a n d d yn a m i c c o ef f i c i en t
o f f r i c t i o n o f t he t es t b ea r i n g s ha l l b e d et er m i n ed a t a
s l i d i n g s p eed o f l es s t ha n I i n c h p er m i n u t e a n d shall
n o t ex c eed t he c o ef f i c i en t o f f r i c t i o n f o r d es i gn i n Ar -
t i c l e 1 5 . 2 , Di v i s i o u n I. Des i gu i .
( e) The b ea r i n g s p ec i m en s ha l l t hen b e s u b j ec t ed t o
100 mouvements of at least 1 i n c h o f r el a t i v e m o v em en t
a n d , i f t he t es t f a c i l i t y p er m i t s , t he f u l l d es i gn m o v e-
m en t a t a s p eed o f l es s t ha n 1 f o o t p er m i n u t e. F o l l o w-
i n g t hi s t es t t he s t a t i c and kinetic coefficient of friction
s ha l l b e d et er m i n ed a ga i n a n d s ha l l n o t ex c eed t he v a l -
u es measured in (d) above. The bearing or specimen
s ha l l s ho w n o a p p r ec i a b l e s i gn o f b o n d f a i l u r e o r o t her
d ef ec t s .
B ea r i n gs represented by test s p ec i m en s p a s s i n g t he
above requirements will be approved for use in the struc-
ture subject to on-site inspection for visible defects.
18 .9 ANCHOR BOLTS
18 .9.1 Materials
Anchor bolts shall meet t he r eq u i r em en t s o f AS TM A
3 07 o r a s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s o r a s s p ec i f i ed i n t he s p ec i a l
p r o v i s i o n s .
18 .9.2 Fabrication
An c ho r b o l t s s ha l l b e s wed ged o r t hr ea d ed t o s ec u r e a
s a t i s f a c t o r y gr i p u p o n t he m a t er i a l u s ed t o embed theni mu
t he ho l es .
The Contractor shall drill holes for anchor bolts andset
t hem i n p o r t l a n d c em en t gr o u u t , o r p r es et t hem a s s ho u wn
o n t he p l a n s o r a s s p ec i f i ed o r d i r ec t ed by the Engineer.
L o c a t i o n o f a n c ho r b o l t s s ha l l t a ke i n t o a c c o u n t a n y
v a r i a t i o n f r o m m ea n t em p er a t u r e o f t he s u p er s t r u c t u r e a t
t i m e o f s et t i n g and anticipated lengthening of bottoum
c ho r d o r b o t t o m f l a m u ge d u e t o d ea d l o a d a f t er s et t i n g. t he
i n t en t i o n b ei n g t ha t , a s n ea r a s p r a c t i c a b l e. a t m ea n t em -
p er a t u r e a n d u n d er d ea d l o a d , t he a n c ho r b o l t s a t expan-
sion bearings will center their slots~. Care shall be taken
that full and free movement of the superstructure at move-
a b l e b ea r i n gs i s n o t r es t r i c t ed by a n c ho r b o l t s o r n u t s .
18 .10 BEDDING OF MASONRY PLATES
18 .10.1 General
Filler or fabric materials shall be placed as bedding
material under masonry plates when shouwn on the plans
o r s p ec i f i ed . S u c h m a t er i a l s ha l l b e o f t he t yp e s p ec i f i ed
or a s o u r d er ed o r approved by the Engineer and shall be in-
stalled to provide full bearing omn comntact areas.
Im m ed i a t el y b ef o r e p l a c i n g the bedding material and
installing bearings or masonry plates, the contact s u r f a c es
o f t he c o n c r et e a n d s t eel s ha l l b e t ho r o u ghl y c l ea n ed .
576 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.10.2
18 .10.2 Materials
Pr ef o r m ed f a b r i c p a d s u s ed a s b ed d i n g s ha l l b e c o m -
p o s ed o f m u l t i p l e l a yer s o f 8 -o u n c e c o t t o n d u c k i m p r eg-
n a t ed a n d b o n d ed wi t h hi gh q u a l i t y n a t u r a l r u b b er o r o f
equivalent and equally suitable materials compressed into
resilient pads of uniform thickness. The nuimber of plies
s ha l l b e s u c h a s t o p r o d u c e t he s p ec i f i ed t hi c kn es s . , a f t er
c o m p r es s i o n a n d v u l c a n i z i n g. The f i n i s hed p a d s s ha l l
wi t hs t a n d c o m p r es s i o m n l o a d s p er p en d i c u l a r t o t he plane of
t he l a m i n a t i o n s o f n o t l es s t ha n 1 0, 000 p o u n d s p er s q u a r e
i u m ei m wi t ho u t d et r i m en t a l r ed u c t i o u i i n t hi c kn es s o r ex -
t r u s i o n .
Sheet lead used as bedding shall be common desil-
verized lead comiforming to ASTM B 29. The sheets
shall be ouf uniform thickness and shall be free f r o m
cracks, seams, slivers, scale, and other defects. Unless
o t her wi s e s p ec i f i ed . l ea d s heet s s ha l l b e /~ inch in thick-
u m es s wi t h a p er m i s s i b l e t o l er a m m ee o f 0. 03 i n c h p l u s o r
niinuus.
Caulking nuaterial used as bedding shall be a noun-sag
p o l ys u l f i d e o r p o l yu r et ha m i e m a t er i a l c o n f o r m i n g t o t he
p r o v i s i o n s o f F ed er a l S p ec i f i c a t i o n TT-S -2 3 0, Typ e II.
Mo r t a r u s ed f o r f i l l i n g u n d er m a s o n r y p l a t es s ha l l c o n -
f o r m t o Ar t i c l e 8 . 1 4 .
18 .11 MEASUREMENT
B ea r i n g d ev i c es wi l l b e m ea s u r ed ei t her b y t he p o u n d
a s d et er m i n ed f r o n i s c a l e wei ght s o r b y a u n i t b a s i s
f o u r ea c h t yp e o f b ea r i n g a s s em b l y l i s t ed i n t he s c hed u l e
o f b i d i t em s . Scale weights a r e n o t r eq u i r ed when c a l -
c u l a t ed wei ght s a r e s ho wn o n t he p l a n s , i n whi c h c a s e t he
wei ght s s ho wn o n t he p l a n s wi l l b e u s ed a s t i m e b a s i s o f
payment.
18 .12 PAYMENT
B ea r i n g d ev i c es wi l l b e p a i d f o r a t t he c o n t r a c t p r i c e
p er p o u n d o r p er u n i t . S u c h p a ym m u en t s ha l l i n c l u d e f u m l l
c o m p en s a t i o n f o r f u r n i s hi n g a l l l a b o r , m a t er i a l s , t o u o l s ,
eq u i p m en t a n d i n c i d en t a l s , a n d f o r d o i n g a l l t he wo r k i n -
v o u l v ed i n f u r n i s hi n g, t es t i n g, a n d i n s t a l l i n g s a i d b ea r i n g
devices, complete in place, as shown on the plans., and as
specified in these specifications and the special prouvi-
s m o n s , a n d a s d i r ec t ed b y t he E n gi n eer .
Section 19
BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL
Thi s wo r k s ha l l c o n s i s t o f the furnishing and installing
o f j o i n t s ea l i n g s ys t em s i n bridge decks of the types used
where significant movements are expected across the
joint. These include compression seal joints comusisting of
p r ef o r m ed el a s t o m er i c m a t er i a l c o m p r es s ed a n d i n s t a l l ed
i n s p ec i a l l y p r ep a r ed j o i n t s a n d joint seal assemblies con-
sisting of assemblies of metal and elastomeric materials
installed in recesses in the deck surface.
Joint seals described in the plans our the specificatiomus
as pouredjoint seals shall conform to the requirement ouf
Ar t i c l e 8 . 9 , E x p a n s i o n a n d Co n t r a c t i o m i Jo i n t s .
The t yp e a n d d i m en s i o n s o r m o v em en t r a t i n g f o r
b r i d ge d ec k j o i n t s ea l s a t ea c h l o c a t i o n s ha l l b e a s s ho wn
o n t he p l a n s o r o r d er ed b y t he Engineer.
Al l j o i n t s ea l s s ha l l p r ev en t t he i n t r u s i o n o f m a t er i a l
and water through t he j o i n t s ys t em .
If n o u t gi v en o n t he p l a n s , c a l c u l a t i o n s s ho wi n g t he j o i n t
s et t i n gs f o r their installation will be required befoure ap-
proval to install joints in any bridge deck can be given.
The Contractor will submit working drawings to the En-
gimmeer showing the installation procedure amid joint as-
sembly for bridge decks using proprietary joimut systems.
Also, shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer
f o r a p p r o v a l f o r j o i n t s ha v i n g a t o t a l n i o v em en t o f moire
t ha n 1 7 4 i n c hes .
Wo r ki n g d r a wi n gs n i u s t b e a p p r o v ed b y t he E n gi n eer
prior tou performance ouf the wourk involved a n d s u c h a p -
p r o v a l s ha l l n o u t r el i ev e t he Co n t r a c t o r o f a n y r es p o n s i b i l -
i t y o m n d er t he c o u n t r a c t f o u r t i m e s u c c es s f u l c o u n i p l et i o u n o u f t he
work.
19.3 MATERIALS
Bridge deck jomimit seal mimaterials amid asseumubhies shall
counfominni tou the foillouwiuig specificatioumus:
Preformed elastomeric joint seals of multiple web de-
sign shall conform to AASHTO M 220 (ASTM D 2628).
Lubricant-adhesive for use with preformed elastomeric
seals shall conform to ASTM D 4070.
Dec k j o i n t s ea l a s s em b l i es s ha l l b e o f a n a p p r o v ed t yp e
f o r ea c h s i z e r eq u i r ed a n d s ha l l c o n f o r m t o t he s p ec i f i c a -
t i o n s p r o v i d ed b y t he m a n u f a c t u r er a t t he t i n m e o f a p -
proval.
Steel and fabricated steel components shall confourni tou
the requirements of Section 23, Miscellaneous Metal.
19.4 MANUFACTUREAND FABRICATION
19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints
Preformed elastomeric joint seals shall not be field
s p l i c ed ex c ep t when s p ec i f i c a l l y p er m i t t ed b y t he E n gi -
neer.
19.42 Joint Seal Assemblies
Expansion joint assemblies shall be fabricated by the
m a n u f a c t u r er a n d d el i v er ed t o t he b r i d ge s i t e c o u n p l et ehy
a s s em b l ed , u n l es s o t her wi s e s ho wn o u n t he plans our spec-
ified in the special prouvismons.
19.5 INSTALLATION
19.5.1 General
All joint niaterials and asseniblies, wheum stoured at the
job site, shall be proutected froum danmage amid assetumbhics
s ha l l b e s u p p o u r t ed s o m a s t o m m u m a i m u t a i m i t hei r t r u e s ha p e a n d
a l i gn m en t . Dec k o m i t s ea l s s ha l l b e c o u u s t r o m et ed a m i d i n -
s t a l l ed t o p r o u v i d e a s n i o m o u t hi r i d e. B r i d ge d ec k j o m i n i t s s ha l l
b e c o v er ed o v er b y p r o t ec t i v e m a t er i a l a f t er i n s t a l l a t i o u i
until final cleanup o f the b r i d ge d ec k.
After installatioun and prior to final acceptammee, deck
joint seals shall be tested in the presence of the Engineer
for leakage of water throomgh the jouint. Any leakage ouf tIme
jouiumt seal wi l l b e c a u s e f o r r ej ec t i o u n .
577
578
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
19.5.2
19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints
Jo u i n t s i n t he r o a d wa y a r ea o f b r i d ge d ec ks whi c h a r e t o
b e s ea l ed wi t h c o m p r es s i o n seals shall be cast to a miar-
rower width than requmired for t he p r ef o r n i ed m a t er i a l .
Souch joints in curbs and sidewalks may be c a s t t o f u l l
wi d t h. Pr i o u r t o i n s t a l l a t i o n o f compression seals in joints
who s e wi d t h i s n a r r o wer t ha n n eed ed , a gr o o v e o f p r o p er
wi d t h a n d d ep t h t o r ec ei v e t he p r ef o r m ed u n a t er i a l s ha l l b e
s a w cut along the top ouf the jouint.
When m a ki n g s a w c u t s i n t o t he b r i d ge d ec k, s p a l hi n g
s ha l l b e m i n i n m i z ed . B o t h s i d es o f a gr o o v e s ha l l b e c u l t s i -
m u n l t a n eo u s l y t o t he p r o u p er depth andalignment as shown
o n t he p l a n s . The a l i gn m en t o f t he s a w s ha l l b e c o n t r o l l ed
a t a l l t i u m m es b y a rigid guide. The width of t he gr o o m v e wi l l
d ep en d o u n t he t em p er a t o i r e a n d a ge o f t he c o m i er et e a n d
shall be as directed by the Engineer. Lip of saw cut shouuld
be bevelled tom avoid later breakage. After saw cuttimug, any
spalls, pompomuts o u r c r a c ks s ha l l b e r ep a i r ed p r i o r t o m i n s t a l -
latioun ouf the lubricant sealant. Saw cuts a r e n o u t r eq u i r ed
where armor plates are used.
At the time of imustallatiomn the joint shall be cleamm and
dry and free froum spalls a n d i r r egu l a r i t i es whi c h u n i ght
i n u p a i r a p r o u p ei n j o m i n t s ea l . Co u n c r et e o u r n i et a l s u r f a c es s ha l l
b e c l ea n , f r ee o u f r u s t , ha i t a n ee, ouils, dirt, doust, o r o u t l i er
d el et er i o u u s n i a t er i a l s . Pr em n o l d ed el a s t u u n er i e c o u u m u p r es -
sioun jouimut seals shall be installed without dammuage tom the
seal by suitable ha n d m n et hm d s o u r n i a c hi n e t o m o u l s . The l u -
b r i c a n t -a d hes i v e s ha l l b e a p p l i ed t o ) b o u t hi f a c es o u f t he j o u i u u t
p r i o u r t o i n s t a l l a t i o m n a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t i m e n i a n o m f a c -
t u r er s i n s t r o u c t i o u n s . The p r ef o u n u m u ed eha s t o u m er i c s ea l s ha l l
b e c o m p r es s ed t o t he t hi c kn es s s p ec i f i ed o n t he p l a n s o u r
a s a p p r o v ed b y t he E n gi n eer f o r t he r a t ed o p en i n g a n d a m -
b i en t t em p er a t u r e a t t he t i m e o f installation. Loose fitting
o u r o p en p o i n t s b et ween t he s ea l a n d t he d ec k wi l l n o t b e
p er m i t t ed .
19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies
Expansion joint seal assemblies shall be constructed to)
provide absolute freedoni ouf movement through a ramuge
consistent with that prescribed by the Engineer our as
shown on the design plans. Installatioun shall be in aecour-
dance with the manufacturers recomniendatiomns. F i n a l
settings o f t he d ec k j o i n t s ea l a s s em b l y a t t he t i m e o f c a s t -
i n g i n t he anchorages of time unit depend oun the relation-
s hi p of the current temperatumre ouf the superstructure tom its
expected mean temperature, and shall be as specified by
the manufacturer or Engineer our as sluowum oun the plans.
DeckJomunt seals will be nieasumred by the linear fouout ouf
acceptable joint seal coumpletely installed by mumeasure-
ments made along the slope of the centerline ouf the jouimut
seal.
Payment ouf linear feet of jomint seal as nicasured, h~our
each type of seal for which separate payment is provided.
shall include fumll comnipensatiomn four the coust ouf labour.
equipnment and niaterials tom f~omrnish amid itustall the oleek
joimut seal.
Section 20
RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL
20.1.1 Description
This work consists of furnishing all materials and con-
structing railings on structures. The types of railings in-
cluded in this work consist of handraihings, pedestrian
railings, traffic railings which are sometimes called barri-
ers, and railings for other such purposes. Railings con-
structed at each location shall conform to the type and de-
tails shown on the plans for that location. The work
includes the furnishing and placing of niortar or concrete.
anchor bolts, reinforcing steel dowels or other devices
used to attach the railing to the structure.
20.1.2 Materials
All niaterials not otherwise specified shall confortum tom
time requirenuents ouf the applicable AASHTO Material
Speo~.f~cations.
20.1.3 Construction
Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, railing
shall not be placed until the centering or falsewourk for time
span has been released, rendering the span self-supporting.
20.1.4 Line and Grade
TIme line and grade of the railing shall be true to that
shouwn on the plans and may include an allowance for
caniber in each span but shall miot follow any unevenness
in the superstructure. Unless otherwise specified or shown
on the plans, railings on bridges, whether super-elevated
our not, shall be vertical.
20.2 METAL RAILING
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing
Materials and fabrication of steel railings shall con-
form to the applicable requirements of Section II, Steel
Structures, except that formed sections may be fabri-
cated from mild steel, and pipe sections shall be of stan-
dard steel pipe. Nuts and bolts not designated as high
strength shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A
307 and steel tubing shall counform to the requirements of
ASTM A 500, Grade B.
20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing
For ahomminum railings or portions of railings, east alom-
minum posts shall conform tou the requirenments uf
AASHTO M 193 and extruded components shall coun-
form to the requirements of ASTM B 221.
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing
Metal beam rail, posts and hardware shall conform tom
the requirenments in Section 606 of the AASI-ITO Guide
Specification for Highway Construction.
20.2.1.4 Welding
All exposed welds shall be finished by grindimug our fil-
ing to give a smooth surface. Welding of alunminuni innate-
rials shall be done by an inert gas shielded, electric arc
welding process using no welding floux. Torch our flammue
cutting of aluminuim will not be pernmitted.
20.2.2 Installation
Metal railings shall be carefully adjusted priour tou fix-
ing in place to ensure proper matching at abuitting joints,
correct alignment, and camber throughount their length.
Holes for field connections shall be drilled with time rail-
ing in place on time structure at proper grade amid align-
ment.
Where aluminum alloys come in contact with outher
metals or concrete, the contacting surfaces shall be thor-
oughly coated with a dielectric aluminuni-inipregimated
calking compound, or a synthetic rubber gasket may be
placed between the two surfaces.
579
20.2.3
20.2.3 Finish
Unless outherwise specified. anehour boults, nuts and all
steel pourtiommus ouf raihimugs shall be galvamuizeol and alum
nminunu pourtioumus shall be unipainted. Galvanizing of rail el-
enuent shall coumifourmmi tom the requnirenments of AASI-ITO M
Ill (ASTM A 123) andgalvanizing of nuts andbolts shall
conforni to the requirenments oufAASHTO M 232 (ASTM
A 153). Minour abrasiouns tom galvanized surfaces shall be
repaired with zinc rich paiuut. After ereetioun, all sharp pro-
trusmouns shall be renmouved and the railing cleaned ouf dis-
colouring foureigmi umuaterials.
When painting is specified, the type amid coatimug shall
counfounun tom the requiremiments ouf Sectioun 13, Paimiting, our
the special provisions.
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING
20.3.1 Materials and Construction
Comnerete railimugs, depending cm the design, mumay be
counstrueted by the east-in-place, precast our, when ap-
prouved by the Emugimucer. the slip foinni nietimoud.
All mumaterials and counstruetiomn shall confounmn tom tIme re-
quirenuemits in Seetiomn 8, Comnerete Structures and Sec-
tion 9. Reiuufoureing Steel. Unless otherwise specified.
comncrete shall eouumfourmn tom Class AE except that Class A
may be used in areas where freeziuig seldouni ouccurs. Whemi
the mniumiumiumn thickness of the railing at auiy poimut is less
than 4 inches. Class C (AE) our, where freezing seldoni ouc-
cours, Class C counerete nmay be used. Foinuns for east-in-
place railimig shall nout be reimuouved umitil adequmate nica-
sures tou prouteet amid cure the comnerete are iii place and the
counerete has suifficiemut strength tom prevent surface ourouther
damage caused by fourni renmouval. Finish four raihiuigs coumi-
strueted with fixed forms shall be Class 2-Rubbed Finish.
Finish four railings constructed with slip foununs and for
tenupourary railings shall be Class I-Ordinary Finish.
20.4 TIMBER RAILING
Unless outherwise stated iii flue special prouvisiouns,
pousts. rails, and outher timmuber four womoud railiuugs shall be
counstrueted aceomrding tom time requmirements of Seetioui 16,
Timber Strumetumines. and Sectiomi 17, Preservative Treat-
nient ouf Womoud. When treated wououd is called for, the
preservative treatuument shall comnfomrni tom the requii-eimmeiits
ouf Section 17, Preventive Treatunent oufWomomd. The sour-
faces of all elenments ouf treated wouoden railings that are lou-
cated where contact with people could occur shall be
sealed with two coats of aim acceptable sealer. Acceptable
scalers are urethamme, shellac, latex epoxy, enammmel amid var-
nish.
20,5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS
Stone and brick railings shall eouuufortmu tom the require-
nuents ouf Section 14, Stomne Masomnry, and Section 15,
Concrete Block and Brick Masonry.
20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING
Teumuporary railings shall be counstrueted ouf mumaterials
and to the details shown on the plans our specified. Railings
shall be properly joined and aligimed at the required houca-
tions. Temporary precast barriers shall be imistalled on a
solid base. The temporary railing shall be maintaimmed in
first class condition and shall umot be remnouved until all
work requiring the railing has beencoumupleted. Previously
used units nmay be employed provided they are mi a clean
and undamaged conditiomi. After renuoval, tenupomrary rail-
ing shall countinue to be tIme property of the Contractour.
20.7.1 Measurement
Railings will be nicasured by the linear fomout between
time ends ouf the railimig our the ouuutside ends ouf end pousts,
whichever is greater. Measurenmemit will be made aloung
the sloupe ouf the railimig anol nom deduetiomns will be umuade
four eleetroulier our outher small openings called four (in the
plamus.
20.7.2 Payment
Railings will be paid four by the counitract hurices per liii-
ear fomot four the variomus types listed in the seheolule ouf bid
itenis. Such payment shall include full comnpemisatioumi four
furnishing all labour, materials, equipinent and imucidemitals
and four doming all womrk involved in coumustrumeting the rail-
ings or barriers conuphete iii place. including the fuminnish-
ing and installatioun ouf reinufoureimug steel amid steel douwels
or ammehor boults which are either placed our drilled and
bounded intom the struetumre four attacliummeuit ouf time railing.
Section 21
WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL
This womrk shall coumusist o)f furnishing anol installing nmia
terials to waterpromof or damupproof counerete or masonry
surfaces. The surfaces tom be waterpromoufed our danippromoufed
and the type ouf systeun tou be installed shall be as shouwui oumi
the plans our outimerwise specified.
21.1.1 Waterproofing
Waterprououting shall counsist ouf either a counstrueted-in-
place asphalt unemnbinane systemum our a prefomnuned nienibramme
systeni, buth ouf which inehunde appinoupriate priumuiuug nmuate-
inials and. whemi requireol. protective couverings. Uniless a
specific type ouf waterpromoutiuig systemum is shouwum oun the
plans our specificol. time type ouf systeni tom be tused will be at
time ouptioun ouf the Comntractour.
21.1.2 Dampproofing
Danippromomfiuig shall counsist ouf a comatimig ouf primmuer amiol
twou umuouppings ouf waterpromoufinig asphalt.
21.2 MATERIALS
21.2.1 Asphalt Nienibrane Waterproofing Systenu
21.2.1.1 Asphalt
Waterpromoufimug asphalt shall coumufourumi tom tIme Specifica
tiouui four Asphalt four Damuppromouti mug amuol Waterpromoufi rug.
AASIIT() M 115 (ASIM 1) 312). Type I shall be oused
belouw gromunmud and Type II useol aboive eromunol.
21.2.1.2 Primer
Prinmer fur ouse with waterpromoutinig asphalt shall eon
fomrmum tom the Specificatioun four Pruner four Use With Asphalt
iii Damuipprououfing and Waterprououting. AASIITO M II fm
(ASTM 1)41).
21.2.1.3 Fabric
The fabric shall eommufounmuu tou either time Specificatioum four
Wouveim Couttoumi Fabrics Satutrateol with B itumni iuuomoms Sub
stances four Use in Waterproofing, AASI-ITO M 117
(ASTM D 173) or the Specificatiomus for Woven Glass
Fabric Treated with Asphalt. ASIM Designation: D 1663.
The Fabric shall be stored in adry. protected place. The
roulls shall umout be stomred oumi end.
2 1.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofiiug
Systems
21.2.2.1 Primer
Prinier four use with the roubberizeol asphalt tuiciumbratme
shall be a neouprene based tumaterial, antI the pri timer four unse
with the niouditied bitummuemi numemmibramue shall be a resin our
soulvent based niaterial. Primers shall be ouf a ty~ue recoummi-
niended by tIme niuaimomfaetomrer.
21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet
Preformumed mmueumibrane sheet shall be ouf either time rub-
berized asphalt type our time ummoudified bitonuumeni type. Time
rubberized asphalt type shall comnsist ouf a roubberized as-
phalt sheet reinforced with a poilyctimylene film our uumesh.
The nioudificol bitomnuen sheet type shall courusist ouf a pouly-
mimer nioudified bitumnemi sheet reinfourceol with a stitch
bounded poulyester fabric our a fiberglass niesh. The nmeuuu-
brane sheet shall comumfourni tom the foillouwing incolouiinenmienmts:
For Surfaces Other Than Bridge Decks
Property Test
V alue
Rubberized Modified Bimu
Asphalt Type men Type
Tensite Strength ASTM D8822 20 tbs/in~ 20 tbs/in.
3
% Elongation am ASTM D8822 t50%~ 25%~
Break4
Pliabitity ASTM D t46~ No cracks No cracks
Thickness(Min.) 60 mits 60 mits
Sofuening Point AASHTO T 53 t650F 2100F
(Mm.)
(continmfod on nest page)
581
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
For Bridge Deck Surfaces
Property Test
V alue
Rubberized
Asphalt Type
Modified
Bitumen Type
Tensile Strengih ASTM D 8822 50 lbs/in
3 40 lbs/in.3
% Elongation at ASTM D 8822 tS%u t0%~
Break4
Pliability ASTM D l
46~ No cracks No cracks
Thickness (Mm.) 65 mils 70 mils
Softening Point AASHTO T53 165
0F 2t0F
(Mm.)
Breaking Factor in machine direction.
2 MethodA, I wide strip with 4 minimum initial gripseparation and
4 gage length at 2 per minute. Average 5 samples.
~at73.40F 3.60F
~ Machine Direction
1800 Bendover a I-inch mandrel at 100E
21.2.2.3 Mastic
The mastic for use with preformed rubberized sheets
shall be a rubberized asphalt cold applied joint sealant.
The mastic for use with modified bitumen sheet shall be a
blend of bituminous and synthetic resins.
21.2.3 Protective Covers
Materials four protective covers shall conform to the
foullouwing unless anouther type is shouwn our specified.
For surfaces against which backfill will be placed, the
protective cover shall consist ouf A-inch hardboard or other
material that will furuuish equivalent protection froum
dainage due to sharp comarse backfill material or froni
construetioun equipment.
Four roadway surfaces of bridge decks, the protective
cover shall couusist of a layer of special asphalt comierete as
specified in the special provisions:.
For hounizounal sumrfaces abouve which reinfomrced couui-
crete struetomres are to be commustrueted, the prouteetive couver
shall counsist ouf a ~-ineh course of concrete niortar eon-
fomrumuinug tou the requirements ouf Article 8.14 except that the
proupourtiouns shall counsist ouf I part portlatid cenient tom 3
parts of fine aggregate. This niourtar eouomrse shall be rein-
fourced nmidway betweeui its toup and bottom surfaces with
6 X 6WI.4 X WI.4 welded wire fabric, or its equiva-
lent. The toup surface shall be finished snmooth and tnme tom
grade.
2 1.2.4 Dampproofing
Time Juniuumer anti ashulialt used four olamppinououfitug shall
couuufomrumi tom that specificol iii 21.2.1
21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery
All waterproofing anddampproofing materials shall be
tested before shipment. Unless otherwise ordered by the
Engineer, they shall be tested at the place of manufacture,
and, when so tested, a copy of the test results shall be sent
to the Engineer by the chemist or inspection bureau which
has been designated to make the tests, and each package
shall have affixed to it a label, seal, or other mark of iden-
tification, showing that it has been tested and found ac-
ceptable, and identifying the package with the laboratory
tests.
Factory inspection is preferred, but, in lieu thereof, the
Engineer may order that representative samples, properly
identified, be sent to him or her for test prior to shipment
of the materials. After delivery of the materials, represen-
tative check samples shall be taken which shall determine
the acceptability of the materials.
All materials shall be delivered to the work in original
containers, plainly marked with the manufacturers brand
or label.
213 SURFACE PREPARATION
All concrete surfaces which are to be waterproofed or
dampproofed shall be reasonably smooth and free of four-
eign material that would prevent bond and from prom-
jections or holes which might cause puncture ouf the
membrane our dampproofing. The surface shall be dryand,
immediately before the application of the prinmer the
surface shall be thoromugimly eleammed of dust and lomouse
materials.
No waterproofimig our dampprooufing shall be dome in
wet weather, nor when the surface temperature is belouw
35F, or that recoummended by the manufactomrer. without
special authorizatioun froin time Engineer. Should the sur-
face ouf the concrete becoumme temuiporarily damp, it shall be
covered with a 2-inch layer ouf hot sand, which shall be al-
lowed to remnain in place froumum I to 2 hours, or long enough
to prouduce a warun amid sourface-dried coumuditioun, after
which the saud shall be swept back, uncovering soufficiemit
surface for begimmmmiuig work, and the operatioun repeated as
the work prougresses.
21.4 APPLICATION
Waterproofiuig shall not be applied to aumy surface omntil
tIme Countractor is prepared to foullouw its apphicatioumi with
time placing of the protective coverimig and backfill within
a sufficiently short tinme that time menubramue will nout be
damaged by mmmcmi our equijmmimeuit, exposure tom \veatimeriuig.
our fromin amuy outher eatise. Danmaged niemimbrane our proutee-
582
2 1.2.2.2
21.4
583
tive coveriuig shall be repaired or replaced by the Con-
tractor at his or her expense.
Care shall be taken to confimue all materials to the areas
tou be waterpromofed our dampproofed and to prevent disfig-
urenient of any other parts of the structure by dripping or
spreading of the prinmer or asphalt.
2 1.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing
21.4.1.1 General
Asphalt ummemmibrane waterprouufing shall counsist ouf a
eouat of primumer applied tom the prepared surface and a funnily
bouuided uneunbinane comniposed ouf twom layers ouf saturated
fabric and three umuouppings of waterprouofing asphalt amid,
when required, a proutective couver.
21.4.1,2 Installation
Asphalt shall be heated tom a teniperature between 300
and 350
0F. The heating kettles shall be equipped with
thermoumeters.
Imi all eases, the waterpromoufing shall begin at the bmw
pouinmt ouf time suirface tom be waterprcuoufeol. so that water will
rumi ouver and nout against our aloung the laps.
The first strip ouf fabric shall be ouf half-width: the see-
ounud shall be full-width, lappeol the full-width ouf the first
sheet: amid the third aimol each someceeding strip shall be full-
wioltim amid lapped sou that there will be twou layers ouf fabric
at all pouints with laps not less than 2 inches wide. All cud
laps shall be at least 12 imuehues.
Beginumimug at time bmw pouint ouf time surface to be water-
promoufed, a eouating ouf hmninmer shall be applied and alloiwed
tom dry befomre the first coat ouf asphalt is applied. The wa-
merprououfing shall theui be applied as foullouws.
Beginumimug at the bmw pouint ouf the surface tom be water-
promoufed. a seetiomui aboutut 20 inches wide amid tIme foull leumgth
ouf tIme somrface shall be nmmouppeol with the bout asphalt, and
there shall be roulled intom it. inmniediatehy foullouwimig time
unoupping. time first strip ouf fabric, ouf half-width, which
shall be earefoilly pressed intom place som as tom eliminate all
air bubbles and oubtaimi eloise counfoununity with the surface.
This strip and an adjacemut section of the somrface ouf a width
eqotal tou slightly umuomre than half ouf the width ouf the fabric
beiuug oused shall themi be unouppeol with bout asphalt, and a
full width of the fabric shall be rolled intou this, completely
covering the first strip, and pressed into place as before.
This second strip amid an adjacent section of the concrete
somrface shall then be moupped with hot asphalt and the
thirol strip ouf fabric shingled on scm as to lapthe first strip
not less than 2 inches. This process shall be continued
with each strip of fabric lapping at least 2 inches over the
second previous strip so that the entire surface is covered
with at least two layers of fabric. The entire surface shall
then be given a final mopping of hot asphalt.
The completed waterproofing shall be a firmly bounded
membrane compoused of two layers of fabric and three
unoppings of asphalt. together with a coating ouf primer.
Under no circumstances shall one layer ouf fabric tmueh an-
other layer at any point or tounch the surface, as there nioust
be at least three comniphete niouppings of asphalt.
In all eases the mopping oun concrete shall couver the
surface so that no gray spouts appear, and on cloth it shall
be sufficiently heavy to completely counceal the weave. On
hourizountal surfaces nout less than 12 gallons ouf asphalt
shall be oused four each 100 square feet of finished wourk.
and on vertical suirfaces nout less than 15 gallouns shall be
oused. The wourk shall be so regulated that, at the close ouf a
days work, all cloth that is laid shall have received time
final moupping ouf asphalt. Special care shall be taken at all
laps to see that they are thourougimly sealed down.
21.4.1.3 Special Details
At time edges ouf the membrane and at any pouints where
it is punctured by such appurtenances as draimus our pipes.
suitable provismouns shall be made tom prevemit water frounmi
getting between the waterpromoufing amid the waterprououfed
surface.
All flashing at curbs anol against girohers. spamudrel
walls, cue., shall be ohomie with separate sheets lappimug the
main menibraime nout less than 12 inches. Flasimiuug shall be
elousely sealed either with a inetal comunter-fiashing our by
embedding the upper edges ouf the flashing in a gromouve
poured full of jouint filler.
Joints which are essentially oupen joints but which are
nout desigimed to provide four expamisioun shall first be
caulked with omakuni and lead womoul our outimer rumaterial ap-
prouved by the Engiumeer. and then filled with bout jouint tiller.
Expansioun jomints. both hoirizomntal amid vertical, shall be
prouvided with sheet coupper our leach mi ~Uour V fourni iii
accordance with the details. After the mumembranme has beemi
placed. the jouimit shall be filled with luout jomint filler. The
meunbinane shall be carried couuitiumuomoisly aeroiss all expanm-
siomn joints.
At the ends of the structure time nucunbinamue shall be car-
ned well douwn oun the abutnients and suitable prouvisioun
made four all mnouvement.
21.4.1.4 Damage Patching
Care shall be taken to prevent injumry to the finished
membrane by the passage over it of workpersomns our equip-
ment, or by throwing any material on it. Any damage
which may occur shall be repaired by patching. Patches
584
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
21.4. 1.4
shall extend at least 12 inches beyond tIme ouutermost dani-
aged pourtiomm amid the secound ply shall extend at least 3
inches beyond the first.
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing
Systems
21.4.2.1 General
Prefournied niemuibrane waterpromoufing systenmis shall
coumusust ouf a pruner aphilied tom the prepared surface, a simi-
~le layer ouf adimerimig prefourmumed miucunbinauie sheet and,
whueui inedhuuired, a luroiteetixe couver.
2 1.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks
I~riomr tom applyimig the prinuer, aim omil resistant comnstrue
tioumi paper mumask shall be tapeol our held with atm adhesive tou
airy deck areas which will later be couvered by exfmammsiomnm
danims our hieaoleins.
TIme miucunbinamue seal aimof ashilmalt coumucrete shall be
placeol eouuutimuuomu.slv acroiss so cli ~mapernmiasks: hoiwevein.
the mmmsk amid tIme prefomnuumeol sheet shial I be cout at our nucar
time expauisiomum ouint whieni omrdereol by tIme Engineer.
The neompremue hmased primer shall be applied iii omne coma!
at a rate sofomaine feet per gallouui. The ouf approuxi nmiatelv 300
resmmi or soilvenit baseol tin mimer shall be applicol. in ounme comat.
at a rate ouf approuxi umiately I 21) sqomare feet imer gal louni.
Primer shall be a~uplieoh tom the enitire area tou hue sealed by
shmrav our squeceec mumethiouds.
All luriuuiers shall be timomrouuglmlv tuuixeol amid coumutimiom
ouomsI v agitated douriuug applicatiouni.
Priuumers shall be allouweol tou olrs tou a tack free coumuolitiomum
befoure placiuug muiemmubrane sheets.
Shiouomloh nueuuibrane sheets flout be placed ouver soul
vemut based lmninmmeol somrfaces withmini 24 huoucmrs. our mucompremue
baseol primed surfaces witlmiui 36 hmomomrs. our resimi based
hmriuumeol sominf aces withmimi 8 hicuomrs, tIme somrfaces shall be
inepri uumed.
The prefoinmumeol miucunbinanme sheets shall hue ahihuhicol tom
the primumeol somrfaces either by huamid umiethuomols our by umue
cluami cal aluhul icatomrs. ~i~hme mimenuibinamme sheet shall be placeol
iii souchi a numaumumer that a sluinmel inig eh~fect is aehmieveol iii the
dhurectioumi that svater will ohinaiui. First, a I 2much uuuimuimumomnum
width muieumubrane strihue shall be hulacedl alomuig the junuctmmre
ouf deck auiol hiase ouf harrier railimug our curb face at the bmw
siohe ouf tIme oleck ~ ithi the sheet extemiohinig omp tIme face 3
immehmes. Next. staintiuug at time gutter hue. sheets shall be
laid louuugitomolimually amiol side hahuhmeol with adjaceuit sheets
by mit less Ilium 1 imuclues amuol euuol lapped by muout less thiaui
6 imuchues A I
1iumchu mumimuiuumomnum wiolthm stri hi shahI tlmemi be
hulaceol at the junctoire ouf check amid base ouf curb our inaihi nine
at tIme high siohe ouf mIme check extemuolimig tip time face 3
inches. After being laid, the unemubrane sheets shall be
rolled with hand roullers or other apparatus as miecessary
to develop a firm and uniforun bond with the prinmed coumi-
crete surfaces. Procedures shall be used which minmnmuze
wrinkles amid air bubbles.. Ammy tears, cuts, or narrow ouver-
laps shall be patched, using a satisfactory adhesive and
by placing sections of niembrane sheet over the defective
area in such a manner that the patch extends at least 6
umuehes beyound the defect. On niodified bitunumemm sheets
with a permanemut polyester fihun, a propane tourcim shall be
useol tom nielt time poulyester filni cmii the section tom be
patched. Time patch shall then be placed ouver time heated
surface. All patches shall be roulled our pressed firmly omntom
the surface.
At all oupemi jomints. deck bleeder pipes and at outher lou-
eations when ourdereol by the Engineer. the unenmibraime
sheet shall be cut and tomnnued intom the joint our bleeder as
mumenubranme sheet is laid.
Four roubberized asphalt sheets and muuouchified bitomuuicnm
sheets, unastue shall be applied as a bead aloumug the expoused
colge ouf the uimeunbinamue sheet which exteuuols tip the ban-inter
raihimme our curb face, amid which terumuiuuates in tIme high siole
goutoer after the sheets have becnm installed.
2 1.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces
Imustal latiommi ouf lmrefouinuiiedl muiemuilminanmes omn somrfaces calmer
than bridge decks shall conmfomnnum tou the ap~ulicable reqomire-
uuments tour bridge ohecks amid the foullouwiuug:
Prefominmuicol nuiemiubramue iuuaterial shall be lilaceol vein!
callv with each successive sheet laluped tou tIme precedinig
by a muminiummunmi of 3 inches. 1-lourizoumital splices shall hue
lahuped by a unininumomumi ouf fi iuuchies.
Expoused edges ouf muieuumbinanme sheets shall have a trouw
eled beaol ouf muuaiuomfactomrers mecoumumummemmoheoh uiuastic our seal-
ing tape applicol after the mumeuumbramue ~s hulaceol.
All proectummom ~ coumudomits. slee. es our outhmer facilities
passinig thminoonghi the prelourmmueoh mimerumbramue wateinpromouhimug
shall be fiasimeol with prefabricated our fieholfabrucateol
bomouts. fitteol couxerumugs our outhier devices as nuecessarv to
provide watertiIit counistrouctioumi.
21.4.3 Protective Cover
Proutective couvers shall be imustal led somfficiemutlv somoumi
after time apphicatiomni ouf waterpromomfimig tom hurexemut airy olamum
age tou tIme waterpromoufi nig finomuim exhudusoure tom soul ight our the
weather our damuuage fromumi traffic our soubseofomemit coumustrouc
tioumi ouperatiomnms.
Hardbouaroh hmroutectixe couverimig shah I be placeol omit a
comatiuug ouf aolhuesive ouf a type recoummmmmmenided by tIme water
promoufiuig niammufacturer. The aohhesi se shall be applicol at a
rate sufficient to hold time protective covering in position
until the backfill is placed.
21.4.4 Dampproofing
Concrete, brick, our outher surfaces that are to be pro-
tected by danipproofing shall be thoroughly clean before
tIme primmer is applied. The surface tom be danipproomfed shall
be priumued and then thoroughly mopped with waterpromouf-
mug asplialt. When the first mnoppimuo of asphalt has set suf-
ficiently, the entire suuinface shall be mopped with time see-
ouuid comatimug ouf hmout asphalt . ~Special care shall be taken tou
see that there are no skips iii tIme eouatiumgs amid that all sour
faces are thoroughly covered.
Waterproofing and dampproofing will be measured by
the square yard complete in place and accepted.
Payment will be made on the basis of the nuniber of
square yards ouf waterproofing or dampproofing measured.
Paymemut four waterproofing iuucludes foull compensatioun
four the cost of furnishing all equipuument. materials, amid
labour necessary for the satisfactory conipletion ouf the wa-
terproomfiuug menubrane and the proteetioumi coiver.
Payment for damnppromoufing imuelomoles full eommpettsatiouui
four the coust ouf furnishing all equipnmiemit. mumaterials. amuol
labor necessary four the satisfactomry coumiupletiommi ouf the
dampproofing.
2 1.4.3 585
Section 22
SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL
22.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of the construction of bank and
slope proutection courses mn accordance with these specifi-
cations and in reasounably close conformity with the lines,
grades, and thicknesses shown on the plans or established
by the Engineer.
22,1.2 Types
Types ouf slope protection are designated as follows:
(I) Riprap
Hand-Placed Ripraphand-placed stones on earth
or gravel bedding.
Machine-Placed Riprapmachine-phaced stones on
earth or gravel bedding.
Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)stones placed in
wire fabric emmelosures.
Gromuted Ripraphand-plaeed riprap as described
above with voids filled with sand-cement grout.
Sacked Concrete Ripraphand-placed sacked con-
crete.
(2) Comnerete Slope Paving
Cast-in-Place Slope PaviuigPourtland cenment coui-
crete. pneunmatieally applied unourtar our, when per-
nutted, fabric fomrnis filled with strometural coumierete
oromut
(3) Precast Comncrete Slope PavingPortland cenment
concrete slabs, blocks, our shapes precast prior to place-
ment.
Whenever specified or requested by time Engineer, the
Couuutractor shall provide wourking drawimigs with design
ealeulatiomns and suppourting data in sufficient detail to per-
nut a structural review ouf the proupoused desigui ouf a sloupe
prouteetioun systeni. Wheum counerete is involved, such olata
shall include the sequence and rate of placement. Suffi-
cient copies shall be furnishedto meet the needs of the En-
gineer and other entities with review authority. The work-
ing drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of
proposed use to allowfor their review, revmsmon, if needed,
The Contractor shall not start the construction of any
slope protection system for which working drawings are
requireduntil the drawings have been approved by the En-
gineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of re-
sponsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings
or any of his other responsibilities under the contract.
22.3 MATERIALS
22.3.1 Aggregate
Aggregate for riprap shall conform tom the requirements
of Subsection 703.16 of the AASHTO Guide Specifica-
tionsfor Highssav Construction.
Aggregate for underdrains and filter blankets shall
conform to Sections 704 and 705, respectively, ouf time
AASHTOGuido Specijioatiotms for Highssav Construc~tion.
22.3.2 Wire-enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
Gabions shall be constructed of wire mesh. The wire
niesh shall be made of galvanized steel wire havimig a mini-
umum size ouf 0.120-inch diameter (U.S. Wire Gage Nou.
II). The tensile strength of the wire shall be in the range
of 60.000 to 85,000 psi, determined in accordance with
ASTM A392. The minimuin zinc coating of the wire shall
be 0.80 oz/sq ft ouf uneomated wire surface as deterumunmed iii
accordance with ASTM A 90.
Selvedge, tie, and connection wire shall uneet time samne
strength and coating requirements specified above four
wire used in the wire niesh.
22.3.3 Filter Fabric
Filter fabric shall meet the requirenmenits of Soubsectioumi
705.03 of the AASHTO Gmiidc Speoificatioius br Higlmssav
Construction.
587
588
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
22.3.4
22.3.4 Grout
Grout shall counsist ouf one part portland cement and
three parts ouf sand, thoroughly mixed with water to prom-
duce a workable mix.
22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap
Concrete four sacked councrete riprap shall consist of a
niixture of clean pitrun or washed sanol andgravel, cenient
and water. The nmixlure shall contain not less thaum 376
pouiids of pourtland cement per cubic yard and sufficient
water to oubtaimi a slumnp ouf 3 to 5 inches. Sacks for sacked
councrete riprap shall be niade of 10-ounce burlap or other
fabric having equal or greater strength. Sacks shall be
approximately 1972 immehes by 36 inches measured inside
the seammus when time sack is laid flat, with an approxinmate
capacityof 1.25 eumbie feet. Sound, reclaimed sacks niay be
used.
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete
Portland cement councrete for east-in-place sloupe
paving shall counformum tom the prouvisiomns in Seetiouui 8, Coun-
crete Strometures. four Class B our Class B (AE) counerete
using the I inch nimaxiiimumn counuibined gradiuig.
Expansiomn jouint filler shall comnfomrm tom the prouvisiomns
in Article 8.9.2.1.
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar
Materials four pneomnuatically applied niomrtar shall coin-
forun tou time requmirements ouf Seetioun 24. Pneoimatieally
Applied Mortar.
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks
and Shapes
Precast pomrtland cement counerete blocks and shapes
shall nieet the requirenieuits omfASTM C 129, C 139, or C
145. grade as specified. Materials four precast Portland cc-
memit commuerete slabs shall comnfourun to the requirenmemits in
Article 8. 13, Precast Councrete Members.
Reimufoureeuisemut shall comnfourmmi tom time provisiomns in See
tiouui 9. Reinfourcing Steel.
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain
Geoucounipousite drain shall comnsist ouf a manomfactomred
core with oune our bouth sides couvered with a layer ouf filter
fabric.
The manufactured core shall be a preformed grid ouf
embossed plastic, amat of random shapes of plastic fibers,
a drainage net consisting of a uniform pattern of poly-
meric strands forming two sets of continuous flow chan-
nels, a system of plastic pillars and interconnections form-
ing a semi-rigid mat, or other system approved by the
Engineer, which will conduct time flow of water designated
on the plans or in the special provisions.
Filter fabric shall conforni tou the requirenments of Arti-
dc 22.3.3 and shall be integrally bonded to the core ma-
terial.
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a signed
certification from the nianomfacturer stating that the
geomeoumpousite draiui propoused four use is capable ouf
withstanding desigmi lomaoliuugs at all platumued homeatiomns
without appreciably decreasing time carrying capacity ouf
the designeddrainage voids for the entire height or length
of the drain.
22.4 CONSTRUCTION
22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes
Slopes shall be shaped to allouw the foull thickness ouf
the specified sloupe prouteetioun amid any bedding our filter
gravel, where required. Slopes shall not be steeper than
the natural angle ouf repose ouf the slope specified mm the
countract. Where the slopes cannot be excavated tou umui-
distomrbed material, the omnderhying niaterial shall be
counpacted to 95-percent standard density per AASHTO
T-99.
22.4.2 Bedding
When called four omiu the plans, a layer ouf filter gravel our
filter fabric shall be placed (in time sloupe inirumeohiatehy priomr
tom placement of the riprap our slope paving. The layer of fil-
ter gravel shall be shaped to prouvide the umimminuomun thick-
ness specified.
22.4.3 Filter Fabric
When specified in the coumitract, filter fabric shall be
spread umniforunly over the prepared slope our surface. The
fabric shall be unroulled directly oun the surface tom the hues
and dinmensiouns shown. The filter fabric shall be lapped a
mimmimuni of 12 inches ins each direetioun anol shall be aim-
choured in position with approved anehouring devices. The
Contractor shall place the riprap in a nianner that will uuout
tear. pumnetomre, or shift the fabric. Tracked our wheeled
equipunent will not be perunitted ouni the fabric eomxered
sloupes.
22.4.4 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION
589
22.4.4 Geocomposife Drain
Geoucoumpousite draiuis shall be installed at houcatiouns
shown on the plans, described in the special prouvusmouns,
and where directed by time Engineer. Collection amid dis-
charge systenis shall be installed as shoiwn on the plans our
as directed by time Engineer.
Core material manufactured fromun impernicable plastic
sheeting having conmuecting courrugatiouns shall be placed
with the corrugatioumus approuximmuately perpendicomlar tom the
drainage collection systeni.
When only one side of the geoconupousite draimi is couv-
ered with filter fabric, the drain shall be installed with the
filter fabric side facing tIme embanknment. The fabric fac-
ing the embankment side shall overlap a miniumuomumi ouf 3
inches at all joints amid wrap aroumud the exterior edges a
muminimnuni ouf 3 inches beyound the exterior edge. If addi-
tiounal fabric is mmeeded tom prouvide ouverlap at joimuts and
wrap-aromund at edges, the added fabric shall overlap flue
l~abrie on tIme geoconuposite drain at least 6 inches and be
attached thereto.
Shomuld the fabric oun time geoucoumiupousite drain be tourn our
punctured, the danmaged section shall be replaced ecum-
pletely or repaired by placing a piece of fabric that is large
enomugh tom couver time daimmaged area and provide a 6-inch
overlap all aromund the danuaged area.
22.4.5 [land Placiiig Stones
Where hand phacimig ouf stoumes is specified, tIme larger
stounes shall be placed first with eloise jomimits. The larger
stouuues shall be placed in time fououtimmg trench. Stoumies shall
be placed with their loungitudiuial axis miouruuuaI tom tIme cmii-
bauukmnciut face and arramiged sou that each stoune abouve tIme
fomundatioumi comurse has a three-pouint bearimig oun the ommuder-
hyimug stomnes. The fomuuidatioumi comomrse is the comurse placed
omum the sloupe iii countact with time grosmnd surface. Bearing
oun snmualler stounes that ummay be unsed four chinking vouids will
not be acceptable. Placing of stomues by dumping will not
be permitted. Interstices shall be filledwith snialler stommues
and spalls.
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement
Machine-placed stomnes shall be som placed som as tom prom-
vide a nminiumuumn of voids, and the larger stounes shall be
placed in the tome comurse and on the ouutside somrface of the
slope protectioum. The stoume may be placed by dumping
and may be spread in layers by bulldozers or other suit-
able equipment. At the counipletiomn of slope proutectioun
wurk, the fouoting trench shall be filled with excavated nia-
terial, and compaction will not be required.
22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement
When placed under water, free duniping will nout be
permitted without written permission of the Engineer.
Placeunemit shall be by comntroulled niethods using bouttoum
dunip buckets our wire rope baskets lowered through the
water tom the pouint ouf placenment.
22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
22.4.7.1 Fabrication
The wire niesh shall be twisted to form hexagonal
oupenings omfunifouruum size. The imuaxinuommim limmear dimensiouni
of the mesh opening shall not exeecol 4? inches and the
area ouf time meshopening shall miout exceed 8 sqomare inches.
The mesh shall be fabricated iii such a nianner as to be
nonravelling. Nomnravelling is defined as the ability to re-
sist pulling apart at any of the twists our counneetiouns fomrni-
ing time mesh when a simugle wire strand in a sectuoun us cut.
Gabions shall be fabricated so the sides, ends, lid, amid
diaphinagnis can be asseuiubled at the counstrouctioun site untom
rectangular baskets ouf the specified size. Gabions shall be
of single unit construcliounbase, lid, ends, and sides
shall be either woven into a single umnit or omne edge ouf
these members connected to the base section of the gabiomi
in a manner that strength and flexibility at the point ouf
connectiomi is at least equal to that of the nuesh.
Where the length ouf the gabion exceeds its horizomntal
width, the gabion shall be equally divided by diaphuragnis
of the same mesh and gauge as the boudy of the gabiouus,
into cells the length of which does not exceed the houni-
zontal width. The gabion shall be furnished with the iuec-
essary diaphragms secured in prouper positiomn oun the base
in a nianner that no additional tying at this junetiouim will
be necessary.
All periuuieter edges of the mumesh fouruuming the gabioun
shall be securely clip bomummid our selvedged scm that the jouiuits
formed by tying the selvedges have at least the saumme
strength as the body of time mesh.
Selvedge wire used through all the edges (perimeter
wire) shall not be less than 0.148-iuuch dianieter (U.S.
Wire Gage No. 9) and shall uneet the samne strength amid
coating specifications as the wire mesh.
Tie and connection wire shall be supplied in sufficient
qumantity to securely fasten all edges of the gabiomi and di-
aphragimms and to provide for at least four cross counneeting
wires in each cell whose height is equal to the width and
at least two cross-comineeting wires in each cell whouse
height is one-halftime width of the gabion. Crouss-counneet-
590
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
22.4.7.1
ing wires will not be required when the height of the cell
is one-third the width of the gabion. Tie and connection
wire shall meet the same strength and coating specifica-
tions as the wire used in the mesh, except that it may be
as much as two gages smaller.
In lieu of tie wire, two gauge galvanized hog rings may
be used to connect adjacent baskets and to secure basket
lids. Spacingof the hog rings shall not exceed 6 inches.
V erticaljoints in the completed work shall be staggered
at approximately i~ or Y
2 the length of the full baskets.
22.4.7.2 Installation
The gabions shall be placed on a smooth foundation.
Final line and grade shall be approved by the Engineer.
Each gabion unit shall be assembled by binding to-
gether all vertical edges with wire ties on approximately
6-inch spacing or by a continuous piece of connecting
wire stitched around the vertical edges with a coil about
every4 inches. Empty gabion units shall be set to line and
grade as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engi-
umeer. Wire ties, hog rings, or connecting wire shall be
used to joins the units together in the same manner as de-
scribed above for assembling. Internal tie wires shall be
u n i f o r u n hy s p a c ed a n d securely fastened in each cell of the
structure.
A standard fence stretcher, chain fall, or iron rod may
be used to stretch the wire baskets and hold alignment.
The gabions shall be filled with stone carefully placed
by hand or machine to assure alignment and avoid builges
with a minimum of voids. Alternate placing of rock and
connection wires shall be performed until the gabion is
filled. After a gabion has been filled, the lid shall be bent
o v er u n t i l i t m eet s t he s i d es a n d ed ges . . The l i d s ha l l t hen
b e s ec u r ed t o u t he s i d es , en d s a n d d i a p hr a gn i s wi t h t he wi r e
ties our connecting wire iii the nianner described above for
assenibling.
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap
Stones shall be placed omi the sloupe as specified in Ar-
t i d e 2 2 . 4 . 5 a b o v e a n d s ha l l b e t ho r o u ghl y m o i s t en ed wi t h
water after placenment. Grout shall be applied while the
stone is moist and shall be worked into the interstices to
completely fill the voids.
Where the depth is in excess of 12 inches, the stone
shall be placed in 12-inch lifts and each lift grouted prior
to placement of the next lift. Succeeding lifts shall be
c o n s t r u c t ed a n d gr o u t ed b ef o r e gr o u t i n t he p r ev i o u s l i f t
ha s s et .
Grout shall be placed only when the weather is suitable
and shall be protected from freezing for at least 4 days.
The surface shall be cured by covering with moist earth,
wet rugs or curing blankets for at least 3 days after grout
placement.
Weep holes shall be provided through the riprap as
shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer.
22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap
Sacks shall be filled with approximately 1 cubic foot of
concrete, leaving room at the top to fold the sacks and re-
tam the concrete during placement. Immediately after
beingfilled, the sacks shall be placed andlightly trampled
to conform with the earth face and with adjacent sacks.
The first two courses shall provide afoundation of dou-
ble thickness. The first foundation course shall consist of
a double row of stretchers (long dimension of sack paral-
lel to contour of slope) laid level and adjacent to each
other in a neatly trimmed trench. The trench shall be lo-
cated as shown on the plans, or as directed by the Engi-
neer, cut to the proper depth and width to accommodate
p l a c em en t of the first two foundation courses, and cut
back into the slope a sufficient distance to enable proper
subsequent placement of the riprap. The second founda-
tion course shall consist of a row of headers (long dimen-
sion at right angles to the stretchers) placed directly above
the double row of stretchers. The remaining courses shall
consist of stretchers and shall be placed with staggered
joints.
Dirt and debris shall be removed froni the top ouf the
sacks before the next course is placed. Stretchers shall be
placed so that the folded ends are nout adjacent. Headers
shall be placed with the foulds toward the earth face. Nout
more than four vertical courses of sacks shall be placed in
any tier until initial set has taken place in the first comurse.
When there will not be proper bearing our bond four the
concrete because of delays in placing succeeding layers ouf
sacks, a small trench shall be excavated back of the row
of sacks and filled with fresh concrete before the next
layer of sacks is laid. Header courses may be required at
any level to provide additional stability.
Sackedconcrete riprap shall be cured with ablanket of
wet earth or by sprinkling with a fine spray of water every
2 hours during the daytime four 4 days.
Weep holes shall be prouvided through the riprap as
shown on the plans or as directed by the Engimmeer.
22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving
22.4.10.1 General
This work shall consist of constructing cast-in-place
andprecast portlandcement concrete slope paving. At the
option of the Contractor, the cast-in-place slope paving
shall be constructed of either portland cement concrete or
22 .4. 10.
591
pneuimmatically applied mortar. Where specified or permit-
ted by the Engineer, this work shall also include woven
fabric fourms filled with fine aggregate portland cenuent
concrete grout.
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving
Councrete shall be nmixed and placed in counfourmnauuce
with the provisions in Section 8, Concrete Structures,
and shall be spread andtamped until it is thoroughly coni-
pacted and mortar flushes to the surface. If the slope is too
steep to permit the use of councrete sufficiently wet to flush
with tamping, the concrete shall be taniped until ecunsouhi-
dated and a mourtar somrface /~-inch thick, troweled cm mmn-
immediately. The unortar shall comnsist of one part portland
cemeuit and three parts of fine aggregate. The inourtar sur-
face shall be considered as a part of the concrete and no
separate payment will be made therefore.
Af~ter striking off tom grade, time concrete shall be hand
floated with woodeui fiouats. The entire surface shall be
broomned with a fine texture hair push broom tou produce a
unifourm surface with the brouounm niarks parallel tom time
edges ouf the panel. Edges andjoiuits shall be edged with a
7
4-imuch radius edger priour to the broonming.
Pneumatically applied unortar shall be placed and fin-
ished in accordance with the provisiouuis in Sectioun 24.
Pneumatically Applied Mortar.
Expansion joints shall be installed trammsversely at in-
tervals ouf 20 feet. Loumigitoudinal expamusion joints shall be
mnstalled at the lomeatiomns shouwn ouui the plans. Expanision
jomints shall be filled with expansiouui jominit filler 72-iumeim
thick.
Cast-in-place commucrete and puicomunatically applied
mimortar shall be cured as pinouvided in Sectiouns 8 amid 24. re-
spectively.
Weepholes shall be prouvided throutugim the sloupe paviiig
as showum oumi the plans or as directed by the Engiuucer.
When peinmumitted or speciticol. the Cmntractor niay use
wovenm fabric forms filleol with poimmupable fine aggregate
pourthauud ceuument councrete gromout as the sloupe proutectiomn
sxstenmm. The request by time Countractour tom ouse a particumlar
systeni must be in writing accommmpauuied by wourking draw-
ings and couniplete infourtumatioun as tom the mumaterials, coin-
structioumi and performance characteristics ouf the propused
syste tim.
Perviomums backfill umuaterial. if required by the plaims.
shall be placed as shown. Twom cubic feet ouf perviouus back-
fill material wrapped in filter fabric shall be placed at each
wee~i houle and drain homle.
At time coumpletion of time work. fomotimig trenches shall
be filled with excavated tumaterial and comunpaction will not
be required.
224.10.3 Precast Slope Paving
Precast slabs, blocks, and shapes shall he laid on a 3-
inch bed of cushion sand in the pattern shown on the
plans. Blocks and shapes shall be thoroughly rammed in
place to provide a uniformly even surface and solid bed-
ding under each block or shape.
In the areas where grouting is called for, the bloucks
shall be laid in running bond with time length parallel
to the slope and with /1,-inch joints. Following the laying
of the blocks, in the area to be grouted, sufficient
niortar sand shall be spread over the surface and
swept intom time jouints to fill the latter tom 4 inches froni
time surface. The bloucks shall be wetted tou time satisfac-
tioun of the Engineer before any grout is placed. The
jouints shall be filled with grout flush with time tomp ouf the
block.
After grouting has been conipleted and the gromut has
sufficiently hardeneol, the bloucks shall be wetted, couvered
and conned with coming blankets or couvers four the first 7
days after grouting. Gromut shall not be pouured during
freezing weather.
22.5.1 Method of Measurement
22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket
1-lamud-placed riprap, muuachine-placcd riprap. gromouted
riprap. and filter blansket aggregate will be mumeasurech by
the square yard, cubic yard, or toun. as listed in time sched-
ule of bid itenis. The area will be that actomally placed tom
the liunitimig dinmensiouuis shouwn oumi the plans. our the plaum di
menstouus as may have been revised by time Engineer. uuica-
sured along the oupper surface. If mneasured by time combic
yard, the vouloume will be commnpouted omn the basis ouf the
nicasured area and the thickness specified oun time plans. If
measomred by the touni, the qumanitity shall be the miuuuiber ouf
toumis, lomouse nicasure, imicorpominateol imutom the wourk.
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap
Sacked concrete riprap will be ummeasomred by tIme cubic
yard ouf comnerete placed. Measuremiment will be based oumi
unixer volunmes.
22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
Wire-emmeloused riprap (gabiomns) will be umeasomred as the
number of square yards ouf sourface area.
22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving
Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied mor-
tar slope paving will be measured on a square yard or
cubic yard basis. The area will be that actually placed to
the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan
dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer,
measured along the upper sloped surface. If measured by
the cubic yard, the volume will be computed on the basis
of the measured area and the thickness shown on the
plans. Noadditional conupensation will be allowed for ad-
ditional concrete or pneumatically applied mortar placed
by reason of low foundation.
22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving
Precast concrete slabs, blocks, or shapes placed as
slope paving will be measured in square yards coniputed
from the payment lines shown on the plans, or as directed
by the Engineer.
Filter fabric will be measured by the square yardon the
ground surface, excluding overlaps, complete in place.
22.5~2 Payment
22.5.2.1 General
Payment four slope protection of the various classes at
the unit prices bid will include full conipensation for all
labor, materials, equipment, or other imucidentals in con-
nection with the preparation of subgrade (except for the
furnishing and placement of filter blanket material and fil-
ter fabric), excavating and backfihhing toe trenches where
required, furnishing and placing the stones, slabs, blocks,
shapes, grout, mortar, Portland cement concrete, pneu-
matically applied mortar, reinforcing steel, expansion
joint filler, if required, and all other work and incidental
material required to complete the work in accordance with
the plans atud specifications.
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap
Hand-placed riprap. machine-placed riprap, and
grouted riprap measured in accourdance with Article
22.5.1. I will be paid for at the price bid per square yard,
per cubic yard. or per ton as set fourth iii the schedule ouf
bid items.
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap
Sackedcouncrete riprap nicasured in accordance with Art-
icle 22.5.1.2 will be paid four at the price bid per combic yard.
22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
Wire-enclosed riprap (gabions) measured in accor-
dance with Article 22.5.1.3 will be paid for at the price bid
per square yard. Such price shall include wire baskets, con-
nection hardware, anchors, aggregate filling, andany other
materials, labor, and equipment necessary to complete the
work in accordance with the plans and specifications.
22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving
Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied
mortar slope paving measured in accordance with Art-
ide 22.5. 1 .4 will be paid for at the price bid per square
yard or per cubic yard as set forth in the schedule of bid
items.
22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving
Precast concrete slope paving measured in accourdance
with Article 22.5.1.5 will be paid for at the price bid per
square yard. Such price shall include cushion sand and
shall include portland cement grout or mortar, if required
by the plans or specifications.
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket
Filter blanket or filter gravel measured in accordance
with Article 22.5.1.1 will be paid for at the price bid per
square yard, per cubic yard, or per ton as set forth in the
schedule of bid items.
Filter fabric measured in accordance with Art-
ide 22.5.1.6 will be paid for at the price bid per square
yard.
22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System
Geocomposite drain systeumi will be paid for omn time
basis of a contract lunup suin price. Such lumnp stun price
shall include full conipensation for furnishing all labour.
materials, tomols, equipmeumt, and incideuitals, andfor doing
all the work involved in constructing geocomposite drain
systems complete in place immeluding geocomposite drain.
collection and discharge systems as shown on the plaums.
as specified mu the special provisions and as directed by the
Engineer.
Section 23
MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing
metal items in structures which are not otherwise pro-
vided for. Such work includes but is not limited to the fol-
lowing items:
(1) Expansionjoint armor in bridge decks, and sliding
plate and finger type expansion joints.
(2) Manhole frames and covers, drainage pipes,
frames and grates, ladders or ladder rungs, access
opening covers, and access door assemblies.
(3) Other items specifically identified as miscella-
neous metal on the plans or in the specifications.
practice in modern commercial shops. Buns, rough and
sharp edges, and other flaws shall be removed. Warped
pieces shall be straightened after fabrication and galva-
nizing.
23.4 GALVANIZING
Unless otherwise specified all steel items, which are
not embedded at least 2 inches in concrete, and all cast
iron sidewalk frames and covers shall be galvanized in ac-
cordance with Articles 11.3.2.4 and 11.3.7 of Section 11,
Steel Structures. Assenublies shall be galvanized after
fabrication.
23.2 MATERIALS
Miscellaneous metal items shall be constructed of ma-
terials conforming to the following AASHTO (or ASTM)
material specifications:
Material
Steel Bars, Plates and
Shapes
Bolts and Nuts
Specification
AASHTO M 183
(ASTMA36)
ASTM A 307
23.5 MEASUREMENT
Measurement of miscellaneous metal shall be by
the scale weight. When requested by the Engineer,
each delivery shall be accompanied with a certified
weighmasters weight ticket. Scale weights are not re-
quired when calculated weights are shown on the plans, in
which case these weights shall be used as the basis of
payment.
High-Strength Bolts, Nuts
and Washers
Steel Castings
Grey Iron Castings
Sheet Metal
AASHTO M 164
(ASTM A 325)
As per Article 11.3.5
AASHTO M 105
(ASTM A 48), class 30
Commercial quality
23.3 FABRICATION
Fabricatioun ouf umuiscehlanmeous metal items shall be per-
fourmed iii a workunanhike nianner in conforunance with the
23.6 PAYMENT
Miscellaneomums nietal will be paid four by the comitract
unit price per pouund. Such payment shall include fuill
compensation four furnishing all labor, materials, toomls.
equipment and incidentals, and for doing all time work in-
volved in furnishing and iuistalhing miscellaneomoms metal.
complete in place, as shown on the plans. and as specified
in these specifications amid the special provisiouns. and as
directed by time Engineer.
593
Section 24
PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.1 DESCRIPTION
24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs
This work shall counsist ouf the fumrnishing and placitug
of pneumatically applied mourtar four the construction of
portions of structures, repainting concrete structures,
texturing concrete surfaces, encasenment of structural
steel members, lining ditches andchannels., paving slopes
and for other miscellaneous work, all as shown on the
plans.
This work alsom includes the preparation of somrfaces to
receive the niortar and the furnishing and placing of ammy
reinfourciuig steel and anchors four reinforcement.
Pneumatically applied mortar shall counsist of either
dry unixed fine aggregate amid portlamid ceuument pneumati-
cally applied by a suitable niechanism, to which niixture
the water is added immediately previouus to its expulsioumi
frouni the nozzle, our mortar prenmixed by unechanical nieth-
ouds and pumeummiatically applied thromugh a nouzzle ouuitom the
prepared surface.
24.2 MATERIALS
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water and
Admixtures
Cenmemit, aggregate, water and adnuixtures, whemi used,
shall comnfourmum to the requirermients ouf Section 8. Concrete
Structures. Aggregate shall be fine aggregate, except that
omp tou 3t) percent coarse aggregate. counfoinnuing to
AASHTO M 43 for size A inch tou No. 8 our No. 16, nmay
be substituted for fine aggregate.
Recovered rebomund which is clean and free of foureign
niaterial umuay be reused as fine aggregate in quantities not
to exceed 20 percent ouf the total fine aggregate require-
nine nts.
Reinfoureimig steel shall couuifomrni tom the requmirenments ouf
Section 9, Reinforcing Steel.
Amuchor studs tised to support reiuifomrcing wire fabric our
bars whemi placing niortar against existing councrete or
rouck shall ecunsist of .~-ineh mininmuni diameter expansioumi
hook boults placed mi drilled holes. Each boult shall have
sufficient engagement in sound masonry to resist a pumll-
out force of 150 lbs.
When permitted by the Engineer, driven steel studs ouf
miout less than ~inehdianmeter and a muiininmommmm length ouf 2
inches may be used. The equipnment oused four driviuig such
studs shall be of time type which uses an explosive four the
driving force, and shall be capable of insertimug the stuol our
pin tom time required depth withomut damage tou the surrounud-
mo concrete.
t
24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING
24.3.1 Proportioning
The Contractor shall subnuit time propoused mmmix design
to the Engineer for approval prior to start ouf the wourk.
Unless otherwise specified. the nix desigum shall prom-
vide a cement to aggregate ratio, based on dry homouse voul-
umes, ouf nout less than 1:3.5 for time comnstruetiomum amid repair
ouf couuuerete structures and four eneasimig steel mneuumbers. our
not less than 1:5 for lining ditches and channels and four
paving shoupes.
The water countent shall be as louw as practical amid shall
be adjusted som that the mix is sufficiently wet tou aohhere
prouperly and sufficiently dry sou that it will miout sag our fall
froum vertical our inclined surfaces our separate in homnizoumi-
tal wourk.
243.2 Mixing
Mixing shall be dome either by the dry umuix our wet mumix
process. Befoure being charged into time placimig equipimuent,
the niaterials shall be thoromungimly and unifourmly nmixed
using a nmixer designed four use with pneummatie applica-
tion. It may be either a paddle type our druni type umuixer.
Transit mmmix equiptument and methouds may be oused four tIme
wet process.
595
596
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
24.4
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION
24.4.1 Earth
When puicutimuatically applied ummourtar is tom be placed
agaiuust earth, the area shall be aceourately gracleol tom time
plan dirumemisiouns amid shall be thouromomomimly counpacted, with
soifficienit miuouisture tom lmrouxide a firni fomomuidatioun and tom
prevent absourptioumu ouf water fromun the umuourtar, but shall muot
contain free surface water.
When shuouwn oun time plans, jouimuts, side fourms. headers
amid shiomoutitug strips shall be prouvided four backinig our pan
chug. Ciromumud our gagimug wires shall be used where neces-
sary tou establish thicknesses, surface planes, amid finish
Ii uues.
24.4.2 Forms
WIicmm uumoirtar us tou be placeol agaimist fourmums, time fomrmums
shall conformum to the requireunent of Section 3, Tenipom-
rary Works.
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock
Wheum umuourtar us tom be placed agaiuust couumerete our rock.
all deteriourated our lomouse umuaterial shall be reunoved by
chipping with pumeuniatie our huamud tomouls. Square or slightly
uuudercut shoulders shall be cut approuximnatehy I-inch deep
alomig tIme perinueter ouf repair areas. Time surface shall be
sandbhasted as necessary to clean all roust from exposed
steel and tom produce aclean rough-textured surface cm time
councrete or rock. The surface against which mountain is tom
be placed shall be kept wet four at least I houmin andtheui al-
lowed to dry to a surface dry condition just prior to
application of the mortar.
24.5 INSTALLATION
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing
Reimifoureimig steel, whemi required, shall be iuistalled iii
coumifourniamice with time requiremmienits ouf Seetioun 9, Rein-
forcing Steel.
Reinfoureemmuemut in nmew counstructioun shall be placeol as
specificol iii tIme plans amid secured tom insure nom displace-
ment froni imnpaet of the pneumatically placed mmmortardur-
ing application.
Four repair work, the reinfoureimig steel shall be suip-
ported by ancimomr studs imustalled in the existing niasonry
except where existing reiiiforcing steel in the repair area
us couisidered by the Engiuucer tom be satisfactoury for this
purpose. Auiehors shall be spaced no numoure than 12 inches.
cemiter lou center, on overhead surfaces; 18 inches. center tom
center, on vertical surfaces: and 36 inches. center tom cen-
ter, curt tomp homnizouuital surfaces. At least three anchors shall
be used in each individual patch area.
The Engineer shall be muoutified in advaimee ouf the date
when installatioum ouf anchor studs is to begin. Time louca-
tiomns of the studs shall be such that damumage will nout ouccomr
tom prestressimug tendons or counduits enibedded iii time coun-
crete.
Unless otherwise shown or specified, for repair wourk,
all areas where the thickness ouf the ummortar exceeds IA
inches shall be reinfoureed with a single layer ouf either 2 X
2WI X WI or3 X 3 WI.5 x WIS weldedwire fab-
rue. Four areas where the thickness ouf the unourtar execeols 4
inches, a single layer of wire fabric shall be used to rein-
fomrce each 4-inch thickness ouf patch or fractiounal part
thereof. All fabric shall be placed parallel tom the prompoused
finished surface. Each layer of fabric shall be conipletehy
encased in niortar whichhas takeui its initial set, befoure the
succeeding layer of fabric is installed. Fabric suppourted
adjacent to the prepared niasonry surface shall be miom
closer than /12 inch to said surface. Fabric shall be carefully
prebeuut before installatiomi to fit around corners amid intom
re-entrant angles, and shall in nou case be sprung into
place.
All steel items, including anchors, reinfoureing bars and
wire fabric, shall be no douser than 1 inch tom the finished
surface of the niortar.
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar
Only experienced fourenien. gunnien, nozzlemmmen. and
rodmen shall be eunployed. and satisfactory evidemuce ouf
such experience shall be furnished when requested by the
Engimmeer.
The mortar shall be applied by pneunmatie equipnuenmt
that sprays the mix (unto the prepared sourface at a high
velocity as needed to produce a coumpacted dense hommumo-
geneous mass. The air conupressor and delivery hose lines
shall be of adequate capacity and size to provide a nmmni-
mum pressure of 35 psi at the nozzle for 1-inicim nouzzles
and proupourtio)mially greater four larger nozzles. The velouc-
ity of the niaterial as it leaves the nozzle moist be mnammi-
tamed uniforni at a rate deteinnmined for the givenjoub coun-
ditions to produce minimomun reboumid.
Water which is added at the nozzle shall be supplied at
a uniform pressumre ouf muout less than 15 psi greater thami tIme
air pressure at the nouzzle.
The mortar shall be applied as dry as practicable tom pine-
vemst shrinkage cracking. Shomoting strips shall be cmii-
ployed to insure squiare corners, straight lines, and a hulaume
surface of mortar, except as otherwise pernmitted by time
plaums or approved by the Engineer. They shall be so placeol
24.5.2 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 597
as tom keep the trapping of rebomund at a nuininmuni. At the
end ouf each days wourk, our sitnilar stopping periouds re-
qouinimug cosnistruetioun jouints. the nimortar shall be sloped cuff
to) a thin edge. Before placing an adjacenit seetioun, eon-
struetiomn jouints shall be thoirougimly cleaned amid wetted as
required under Article 24.4. In shououtiuug all surfaces, the
stream ouf flouwimig material frouni the nouzzle shall impinge
as nearly as poussible at right angles tom time surface being
couvered, amid tIme nmouzzle shall be held frounm 2 tos 4 feet froitim
the wourkimig sourface.
A sufficient numumber ouf ummourtar couats shall be applied tou
oubtain time reqomired thickmiess. 0mm vertical amid omverheaol
soirfaces. the thickness ouf each comat shall be umout greater
than I much, except as approuved by the Engiumeer, amid shall
be sou placed that it will neither sag nour decrease the bouuud
ouf the preceding comat. The time interval between succes-
sive layers in sloupimig, vertical our ouverhanging womrk shall
be soifficiemut tou allouw imuitial but muout fitial set tom develoup. At
the timmme the initial set is develoupimig. the surface shall be
cleaned tom reniouve the thin filni of laitanee imi omrder tom prom-
vide for a bond with succeeding applicatiouuus.
Rebound our aecomniulated loose sand shall be remnouved
froummi the surface tou be covered priour lou placing of the osrig-
inal our someceeding layers ouf unourtar and shall not be em-
bedded in the wourk.
Materials that have been mixed four more than 45 mimi-
utes amid have muot been ineourporated in the work shall nout
be used, unless outherwise permitted by the Engineer.
After curing and befoure final acceptance, all repaired
areas shall be somunded. All unsomumnd and cracked areas
shall be renmouved and replaced.
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations
Pneutuiatically placed mortar shall not be ptaced dun a
frozen surface micur when the ammmbietut teuiupeinature is less
than 40
0E; nour shall it be placed wheti it us antuempated that
the teimuperature during the foullowino ~4 houurs will droup
belouw 320E.
The apphicatioun ouf pneuniatically placed niourtar shall
be sunspenoled if high winds prevemut prouper apphicatiouui. or
rain ouceomrs which womuld wash out the pimeuniatically
placed mourtar.
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work
[)uring pincugress of the womrk. where appearaumee us im-
portant, adjacent facilities which may be permnanemutly dis-
eoulored, stained, our outherwise daumuaged by ouverspinay. dust
our rebouund. shall be adequately proutecled and, if coun-
tacted, shall be eleatued by early scinapmmug. brushimug. our
washimig, as the suinromunidimigs peruuuit.
24.5.3 Finishing
After inourtar has beemi placed tom desired thickumess, all
high spouts shall be cut ouff with asharp tinouwel, our screeched
tom a trume plane as deterumuimied by shomouting strips our by
tIme ourigiumal nmiasoummry surface, our as directed. Coittimig
sereeds, where omsed, shall be lightly apphicol to) all
surfaces som as nout tom distomrb the uimourtain four aim appreciable
depth. amid they shall be womrked iii ami upward ohirectiouui
when aphulied ouui vertical surfaces. Umiless outhmerv~ ise
directed, tIme finished mimoirtar surface shall be giveum a timmal
flash comat ouf abomut inch ouf numourtar. Special care shall be
takemi to) oubtaimi a unifouruim appearance oun all expoused
surfaces.
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting
Pucunmatically placed niourtar shall be water cured iii
confoinnianee with the requuirenueuits ouf Article 8. 11.3.2.
The minimnuns water euriuug duratiomn shall be 96 hours.
The nmuourtar shall be prouteeted fromum freezimig doming the
curing perioud.
The quantity out pumeummiatmeally applied unomrtar will be
numeasured either by the sqomare fomout our by the cubic fosout as
indicated in the schedule of bid items.
Square fouout mneasureumments wilt be based out! nucasomine-
nuemuts of the surface area ouf acceptable numourtar placed in
tIme wourk imuade aloung the plamie our curve ouf each surface.
Cubic fomout nicasureineost will be based cm time dinmensioumis
of such work shouwn in time plans our ourdered by the
Engiimeer.
Pneuniaticahly applied umiourtar will be paid four by the
contract price per square fomout our cubic yard. Such paynment
shall be considered to be full counipeuusatioun for the coust ouf
furnishingall labour, materials, equipunent, imicichemitals, and
for doiuig all wourk involved in preparing the surface and
installing the niourtar, reinfoureimig steel, anchour stouds. head-
cr5, jouint fillers, and other itetTis as shouwui on the plauis our
specified.
Section 25
STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE
These specifications arc intended to cover the installa-
tioun of tunnel liner plates in tunnels counstructed by coun-
ventiounal tunnel niethods. Four the purposes of these spec-
ifications, tunnels excavated by full face, headiuig and
beimeb, our unultiphe drift proucedures are couisidered coin-
ventional methouds. Liner plates uised with any counstrue-
tion procedure utilizing a full or partial shield, a tunnelimig
machine, our outher piece of equipment which will exert a
fomree oun the liner plates for the purpose ouf proupelhing,
steering, our stabilizing the equuipnient are considered spe-
cial cases and are not couvered by these specificatiomns.
25.2 DESCRIPTION
25.2.1 This work shall counsist ouf furmuishing could-fournied
steel tunnel liner plates our precast counerete plates eon-
fourming tou these specificatiouns anol of the sizes and di-
mensiomns reqouired oun the plans, and installing sumeim plates
at the houcatiouns designated on the plamis by time Engiuucer,
and in counfomrmity with the lines andgrades established by
the Engimmeer. The counipleted liner shall counsist of a series
ouf liner plates assembled with staggered longitoudinal
jomi nt
Steel tunnel liner plates shall preferably be of a type
which is commercially available. Precast concrete touumnel
liner plates shall be such that their size and shape suits time
method and equipmenut being used to install linens.
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION
Liner plates shall be fabricated to fit time erouss section
of the tunnel.
25.3.1 General
Steel liner plates herein described must niect the See-
tional Properties of thickness, area, and moment of iner-
tia shown on the plans. If not shown on the plans, the
properties shall be as listed in Division I, Article 16.3.
All steel plates shall be connected by bolts on both lon-
gitudinal and circumferential seams orjoimuts and shall be
so fabricated as to permit conuplete erection frouni the
inside of the tumumuel. Bolt sizes and properties shall be in
accordance with the manufacturers stamudard but nout less
than those specified in Division I, Article 16.7.
Grount holes 2 inches or larger in dianieter shall be
provided as shown omi the plans to permit grounting as the
ereetioun ouf tumid liner plates progresses.
Precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall comuform to the
details shown on the plans and the requireunents ouf
Section 8, Concrete Structumres. If such details are not
provided and the plans or the specifications allow the
Contractomr lou propouse the use ouf concrete liimer plates, the
Contractor shall submit working drawings and specifica-
tions to the Engineer four approuval. Such drawings and
specifications shall describe niaterials tom be useol, plate
dimensions. reinfoureement details, connecting details, auuol
erectioui proucedures. The fabricatioun of Countractor
prouposed types of coumierete tunnel liner plates shall muout
begin until the working drawimigs have been approuved.
Such approval shall not relieve the Contractour ouf any
responsibility under the contract four the suceessftml
cotumpletion ouf the wourk.
25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates
All plates shall be formed tom prouvide circumferential
flanged joints. Longitudinal jouints niay be flanged our of
the offset lap seam type. All plates shall be punched four
bolting on both longitudinal andcircumferential seams our
joints. Bolt spacing in circumferential flanges shall be in
accordance with the manufacturers standard spacing and
shall be a multiple of the plate length so that plates hav-
ing the same curvature shall be interchangeable and will
permit staggering of the longitudinal seams. Bolt spacing
at flanged longitudinal seams shall be in accordance with
the manufacturers standard spacing. For lapped longi-
tudinal seams, bolt size and spacing shall be in accordance
with the manufacturers standard but not less than that
required to meet the longitudinal seam strength require-
ments of Division I, Article 16.3.2.
599
600
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
25.4
25.4 INSTALLATION
25.4.3 Grouting
25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates
All steel liner plates for the full length of a specified
tunnel shall be of one type only, either the flanged or the
lapped seani type of construction.
Liner plates shall be assembled in accordance with the
manufacturers instruction.
Coated steel plates shall be handled in such a man-
ncr as to prevent bruising, scaling, or breaking of the
coating. Any plates that are damaged during handling
or placing shall be replaced by the Contractor at his
expense, except that small areas with minor damage
may be repaired by the Contractor as directed by the
Engineer.
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates
Installation ouf precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall
not start prior tom receipt of approval of working drawings
and specificatiomus subunitted as required by Article 25.3.1.
Installatioun shall confourni tom the specified our approuved
ereetioun procedures.
When directed by the Engineer, voids occurring be-
tween the liner plate and the tunnel wall shall be force-
grouted. The grout shall be forced through the grouting
holes in the plates with such pressure that all voids will be
completely filled. Full compensation for back packing or
grouting shall be considered as included in the contract
price paid for tunnel and no separate payment will be
made therefore.
25.5 MEASUREMENT
The length of tunnel liner to be paid for will be the
length measured along the tunnel liner plate invert.
25.6 PAYMENT
Payment for the length of each size of tunnel as deter-
mined under measurement shall be at the contract unit
prices per linear foot bid for the various sizes, which pay-
ment shall include full compensation for furnishing all
labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals to coni-
plete this item, including the force-grouting of voids.
Section 26
METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL
26.3 MATERIALS
26.1.1 Description
26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe
This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricatimig, and
installing metal pipe, nietal structural plate pipe, arches,
pipe arches, and box structures in conformance with these
specifications, the special provisions, and the details
shown on the plans. As used in this specification, long-
span structures are metal plate horizontal ellipse, inverted
pear and unultiphe radius arch shapes as well as special
shape culverts as defined in Division I, Section 12, Soil-
Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Systems. The
terms metal pipe and metal structural plate pipe shall
include both circular pipe arch, underpass and elliptical
shapes. Metal structural plate arches consist of a metal
plate arch supported on reinforced concrete footings at its
base (ends) with or without a paved invert slab. Pipe
arches are counstructed to form a pipe having an arch-
shaped crown and arelatively fiat invert. Metal structural
plate boux strouctumres are conduits, rectangular in cross
sectioun. couistrueted ouf metal plates.
Whenever s
1ueeified or requested by the Euigineer. the
Countractor shall prouvide nianufacturers assetuibly in-
struetiouns our wourking drawings with souppourting data in
suifficient detail tom persumit a strumetural review. Sufficient
compies shall be furnished tom meet time nseeds ouf the Engi-
nicer amid outhuer entities with review aunthomnity. The womrkimug
drawiuues shall be submimitted soufficieuuthy iii advamice ouf
juroupoused ouse tom allouw four their review. revisuomui. if umeeded.
ammol approuval withomuit delay tom the wourk.
Time Coumitractomr shall nout start the counstruetiouui ouf any
nietal culvert four which wourkiuig drawings are required
umutil the drawings have been ahupinoved by the Emigiuucer.
Such appinouval will umout relieve the Comntractour ouf respounisi-
bihitv four resomlts oubtainmeol by omse ouf these olrawins our airy
ouf his our her outhuer respoumisibilities oundein the couuutract.
Steel pipe shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 36.
Aluminum pipe shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 196.
26.3,2 Structural Plate
Steel structural plate shall conforun to the requirememits
ofAASHTOM 167.
Aluminum alloy structural plate shall conform tom time
requirements of AASHTO M 219.
26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts
Nuts and bolts for steel structural plate pipe, arches.
pipe arches, and box structures shall conform to the re-
quirements of AASHTO M 167. Nuts and bolts four alu-
minum structural plate shall be aluminuumi confornuing to
ASTM Specification F 468 our standard strength steel coin-
forming to ASTM A 307.
26.3.4 Mixing of Materials
Alommumiumuumi and steel imuaterials shall nout be umuixed iii
aumy installatiouui omumless they are adequately separated our
protected to avouid galvanic reactioumus. h-loutdip galvauuizinig
prouvides such prouteetiomnm. Hout-olip galvaimized steel amid
staimuless steel boults amid nuts are acceptable four alomumuinuuum
structural plate.
26.3.5 Fabrication
Plates at lomuugitoudinmal amuol cireommumferemmuiiah seanus shall
be counuuected by boults with the seanims staggered scm that nout
umuoure tliani three plates comic tougether at auuy oumue pouimut.
601
602 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.3.6
26.3.6 Welding
Welding ouf steel, if required, shall commforni to the
ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code DJ.5. All
welding ouf steel plates, other than fittings, shall be per-
formed priomr tou galvanizing.
Welding of aluminum, if required, shall confourtui tou the
AWS Dl .2. Structural Welding Code.
26.3.7 Protective Coatings
When requuired by the plans or the special provisions.
metal pipes and strumetumral plate shall be protected with bi-
tuminous coating our have the invert paved with bitunmi-
nous material. Bituminouus couatings shall be applied as
provided in AASHTO M 190, Type A. unless otherwise
specified. Bitunminouus paviuugs, if required, shall be ap-
plied over the bituminous coatings tom the inside bottoum
portion of pipe as provideol in AASHTO M 190, Type C,
unless otherwise specified. The portion of all nuts and
boults used four assembly ouf comated strometomral plate project-
ing ouutside the pipe, shall be coated after installation. TIme
pourtions of the nuts and bolts projecting imuside the pipe
need nout be eouated.
Polymeric comatings, when called four on the plans our in
the special provisions, shall conforun to the requirenments
ouf AASHTO M 246. The polymnerie coating shall be ap-
plied to the galvanized sheet prior tom corrugatimig and, un-
less outherwise specified, the thickness shall be nout less
thami 0.010 much. Any piuuhoules, blisters, cracks, or lack ouf
bond shall be cause for rejection. Polymeric coatings will
not be permitted dun structural plate pipes.
26.3.8 Bedding and Backfill Materials
26.3.8 .1 General
Bedding nuaterial shall be loose muative or granular ma-
terial with a maxiniummi particle (our ehunip) size nout tom ex-
ceed one-half the corroigation depth. Backfill for metal
culverts shall be granular niaterial as specified in the plans
and specifications and shall be free of organic material,
stones larger than 3 inches in the greatest dimension,
frozen lumps. or moisture in excess of that perunittino
thorough compaction. As a minimum, backfill materials
shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 four A-I,
A-2, or A-3.
26.3.8 .2 Long-Span Structures
Bedding and backfill nuaterials shall meet the general
requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimum backfill
materials for structures with less than 12 feet of cover shall
meet the requirements of AASHTOM 145 for A-I, A-2-4,
A-2-5, or A-3. Minimum backfill requirements four struc-
tures with 12.0 feet or more cover shall meet AASHTO M
145 requirements for A-I orA-3.
26.3.8 .3 Box Culverts
Bedding and backfill materials shall meet the geuueral
requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimuumi, backfill
shall nieet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-I,
A-2-4, A-2-5, or A-3.
26.4 ASSEMBLY
26.4.1 General
Corrugated metal pipe and structural plate pipe shall be
assembled in accordance with the nuanufacturers imustrouc-
tions. All pipe shall be unloaded and hamidled with rea-
sonable care. Pipe our plates shall uuot be rolled or dragged
over gravel or rock and shall be prevented froum striking
rock or other hard objects during placemnemut in trench our
on bedding.
Corrugated metal pipe shall be placed in the bed start-
ing at the downstream end. Pipes with circumferential
seams shall be installed with their inside circuniferential
sheet laps pointing downstreanu.
Bituminous coated pipe. pouhynmer couated pipe. anol
paved invert pipe shall be installed ins a similar tumanner tom
corrugated metal pipe with special care in handling to
avoid damage to coatings. Paved invert pipe shall be in-
stalled with the invert pavement placed and centered omn
the bouttom.
Structural plate shall be assembled and installed in ac-
cordance with the plans anddetailed erection instructiouns.
Copies ouf the manumfacturers assembly instructions shall
be furnished as specified in Article 26.2. Bolted longitu-
dinah seams shall be well fitted with the happing plates
parallel to each other. The applied boult torque four -inch
diameter high-strength steel bolts (A 449) four the asseni-
bly of steel structural plate shall be a miniunuumi ouf 100 ft-
lbs and a maximum of 300 ft-lbs. Aluminum structural
plate shall be assembled using /1~-ineh diamneter alunminomni
bolts (F 468) our standard strength steel bolts (A 307j
which shall be torqued tou a minimnum of 100 fl-lbs and a
maximum of 150 ft-lbs. When seam sealant tape or a shop
applied asphalt coating is used, boults should be retight-
ened no more than once. Generally, retightening is dome
within 24 hours. There is no structural requirement for
residual torque; the important factor is the seam fit-up.
26.4.2 Joints
Joints for corrugated metal culvert and drainage pipe
shall meet the following performance requirenients.
DIV ISION LICONSTRUCTION
26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions
Transverse field joiuits shall be ouf such design that the
successive comnneetion of pipe sectiouuis will form a coun-
tinuosms himie free frouni appreciable irregularities in the
fiouw line. lii additioun. the jomimits shall uneet the geumeral per-
fourtumamice requiremeuits described in Articles 26.4.2.2 and
26.4.2.3. Suitable transverse field jomints. which satisfy the
reqouirenmuemits for one or mimoure of the subseqomenthy defined
jouinit perfomrumiamice categouries can be oubtained with time foul
louwing types ouf couuuneeting banids furnished with tIme suit-
able baud-end fastening devices:
a) Couurugated bamids.
(b) Bands with proujectioumis.
(C) Flat baimds.
(d) Bands ouf special design that engage factory re-
fourmuied ends ouf courrugateol pipe.
(c) Other equally efTective types ouf field jomints may be
used with the approuval ouf the Emigiuucer.
26.4.2.2 Joint Types
Applicatiomns ummay reqouire either Standard our Spe-
cial joimuts. Standard jouints are four pipe not subject to
large soul inouveunents our disjouinting forces: these jouints are
satisfactomry for omindinary installations, where simple ship
type joumnts are typically used Special joints are for more
adverse requirenients such as the need to withstand soil
mouvemmueuits cur resist disjointing fourees Special designs
niust be considered for unusual conditiouns as in poomin
fomundatioun coumuditiouns. Downdrain joints are reqouired tom
resist loungitudinal hydraulic forces. Exaniphes ouf this are
steep slopes and sharp curves.
(a) The requirenments ouf the joints are dependent oun the
soul conditions at the comnstruetiomn site. Pipe backfill which
us noul subject tom piping aetioun is classified as nomneroudi-
ble. Such backfill typically ineloudes granular soul (with
grain sizes equivalent to comarse sand. sniall gravel. our
larger) and couhesive clays.
(b) Backfill that is soubjeet to piping aetiomn, and wounId
tend to either infiltrate the pipe our to be easily washeol by
exfihtratioun ouf water from the pipe, is classified as ~Eromdi-
ble. Such backfill typically includes fine sands and silts.
(e) Special jouints are required when poour soil comnditiouns
are encountered such as when the backfill our fomomndatioum
material is characterized by large souft spots our vouids. If
constrouction in sunch soil is unavouidable, this couudition can
only be tolerated four relatively low fill heights. because the
pipe niust span the soft spots and support imposed louaohs.
Baekfilhs of organic silt, which are typically seuiui-fluid dur-
ing installation. are included in this classification.
26.4.2.4 Joint Properties
The requnirenments for joint properties are divided into
the six categories given on Table 26.4. Prouperties are de-
fined and requirements are given in time foullowing para-
graphs (a) through ff). The values for variomus types ouf pipe
can be determined by a ratiomnal analysis our a suitable test.
(a) Shear StrengthThe shear stremmgth reqouired ouf time
jouimut is expressed as a percent ouf the caheumlated shear
strength ouf the pipe oim a transverse crouss-seetioumi remoute
froni the jouint.
(b) Monment StreumgthiThe momnent strength required
of the joint is expressed as a percemit of the ealeumlateol niom-
TABLE 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints
Soil Condition
Nonerodible Erodibte
Joint Type Joint Type
Standard Special Standard Special Downdrain
Shear 2% 5% 2% 5% 2%
Moments 5% 15% 5% 15% 15%
Tensile 0 in.42 in. dia.
48 in.84 in. dia.
Joint Overlap (mm.)
Soiltightness~
Watertightness
0 5,000 lbs . 5,000 lbs
10,000 lbs 10,000 lbs
10-1/2 in. NA 10-1/2 in. NA
NA NA 0.3 or 0.2 0.3 or 0.2
See Article
26.4.2.4(f)
5,000 lbs
10,000 lbs
NA
0.3 or 0.2
~Article 26.4.2.4(b).
Altemate requirement. See Article 26.4.2.4(e).
Structural plaoe pipe, pipe-arches, and arches shall he installed in accordance with the plans and detailed erection instructions.
ratio of D~ soil size to size of opening0.3 for medium to fine sand and 0.2 for uniform sand.
26.4.2.1
26.4.2.1 Field Joints
603
604 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.2.4
nient capacity ouf the pipe omn a transverse cross section re-
indite froum the jouimit.
(e) Tensile Streumgthu Tensile stremigth is required in a
jouint when the poussibihity exists that a loungitudinal lomad
couuld develop which wounld tend to separate adjacenit pipe
sect iouns.
(d) bunt OverlapStandard jouints which dom nout nicet
the unomnmemit streumgth alternatively shall have a nminimnuumm
sleeve width ouverlappiuug time abutting pipes. The nmmni-
niuni toutal sleeve width shall be as given in Table 26.4.
Amuy jouint umucetimug the requirements four aspecial jouint nmay
be used mi lieu ouf a standard jomimit.
(e) SouiltighutnessSoiltightness refers to oupenings in
the joint throungim which soil may infiltrate. Souih tightumess
us imifluenced by the size ouf the openiuig (umuaxiumiunum di-
niensiomn nouininal tom the direetioun that the soul may infil-
trate) and the length ouf the channel (length of the path
along which the soil may infiltrate). Nom openimig may ex-
ceed 1 inch. In addition, four all categories, if the size of
the oupening exceeds A inch, time length of the channel
niust be at least fouur tunes the size of the oupening. Fur-
therunomre, four nouumeroudible or erodible soils. the ratiom ouf D,,~
souil size tom size ouf ompening must be greater than 0.3 four
mediumun tou fine sand our 0.2 for uuuifourm sand; these ratios
need muout be niet four cohesive backfills where the plastic-
ity index exeecols 12. As a general guideline, a backfill
nuaterial countaimming a high percentage offine grained soils
requmires investigalioun for the specific type ouf joint tom be
used tom guard against soul imifiltratiomn. Alternatively, if a
omit denmounstrates its ability to pass a 2-psi hydroustatie
test withount leakage. it will be counsidered souil tight.
NOTE: Jouimmts that dom not umuect these requirements may
be made soil tight by wrapping with asuitable geotextile.
(f) WatertightnessWatertightness nuay be specified
for joints of any category where needed to satisfy other
criteria. The leakage rate shall be measured with the pipe
in place our at an approuved test facility. Time adjoining pipe
ends in aumy jomint shall not vary niore thami 0.5 inch in di-
ameter our nioure than I .5 inches in circumference for wa-
tertight joints. These toulerances may be attained by proper
productioun comntrouls our by match-marking pipe ends.
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures
Loung-spamm structures may require deviation from the
normal good practice of lomose bolt assembly. Unless held
in shape by cables, struts, our backfill, longitudinal seams
should be tightencd when the plates are hung. Care must
be taken to align plates to ensure properly fitted seanis
prior tou bolt tightening. This may require tempomrary
shouring. Follouw the manufacturers instructions. The van-
atioun befoure backfill shall nout exceed 2 percent ouf time span
our rise, whichever is greater, hut shall not exceed 5 inches
except four hounizountal ellipse shapes havimug a ratiou ouf toup
tom side radii of 3 or less where only the
9-pereent restric-
tiomn shall apply. The rise ouf arches with a ratio) ouf toup lou
side radii of three or niore shomuld not deviate froum time
specified diniemisions by mumoure than 1 percent of the span.
Reinforcing ribs, when required to satisfy the struetomral
design, shall be attacheol tom time structural plate courrugatiouti
crown priour to baekfihhing using aboult spacing ouf muout uumomre
than 12 inches. Legible identifvimig letters our miunuhers
shall be placed cm each rib tom desigmuate its promper pousitiomn
in the finished struetomre.
Reinforcing ribs, wheum required omnly as a means ofeoun-
troulhing structoure shape olumning installatioumi. shall be spaced
amid attachedtom time comrrougatedplates at the ohiscret join ouf the
manufaettmrer with the approval ouf the Emugineer.
26.5 INSTALLATION
26.5.1 Placing CulvertsGeneral
For trench counditions. the trench shall be excavated tom
the width, depth, and grade shown on the plans and ap-
prouved by the Enginmeer.
Proper preparatioun of foundatioun, placenment ouf fomun-
datioun musaterial where required, amid placement ouf bedding
niaterial shall precede the installation ouf all culvert pipe.
This shall iuuelude muecessary leveling of the native trench
bottom our the top of time fomundation material as well as
placemument and comnipactioun of required bedding nuaterial
to a umuiformn grade so that the entire length of pipe will be
supported on a unifomrni base. The backfill nuaterial shall
be placed amid compacted aroumnd the pipe mm a manner tom
ummeet the requirements specified.
All pipes shall be protected by sufficiemit couver befoure
pertuitting heavy construetioun equmipnment to pass ouver
them during construetiommm.
Soil nmigration can weaken our destrouy the support ca-
pabilities ouf the soils aromund the pipe. Materials used four
fomundation improvements, bedding and structure backfill
umiust have gradatiouns conupatible with adjacent soils tou
avouid migration. Where material gradations can not be
properly controlled, adjacent niaterials must be separated
with a suitable geotextile.
26.5.2 Foundation
The foundatioum under the pipe and strouctumre backfill
shall be investigated for its ability to souppourt the loads. A
fouundation shall be provided such that the structure back-
fill does not settle more than the pipe to avoid dragdown
loads on the pipe.
The foundation muist provide unifoinni suipport four the
pipe invert. Boumhders our rouck under the pipe or souft spots
26.5.2
605
T R E N C H C O N D I T I O N
EMBANKMENT CONDITION
L
STANDARD ROAD FILL / EMBANKMENT
(AS REOUIRED) ~
V /
,pHINIMLTh4 STRUCTURAL BACKFILL OVER THE
(ARTICLES 26.5.41 AND 26.5.43)
K
FOUNDATION (ARTICLE 26.5.2)
BEDDING (ARTICLE 26.5.3)
FIGURE 26.5 Typical Cross-SectionShowing MaterialsAround the Pipe
shall be excavated to a suitable depth and filled with back-
fill material compacted sufficiently to provide uniformity
as shown in Figure 26.5.2A.
Where the natural foundation is judged inadequate by
the Engineer to support the pipe or structure backfill, it
shall be excavated to a suitable depth and replaced by
backfill material as shown in Figure 26.5.2B.
For shapes such as pipe arches, horizontal ellipses or
underpasses. where relatively large radius inverts adjoin
small radius corners or sides, the foundation must support
the radial pressures exerted by the smaller radius portions
of the pipe. These pressures, quantified in Division I, Sec-
tion 12, Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Sys-
tems. may be two tt) five times the loading pressures on
top of the pipe. depending on the specific pipe shape. The
principal foundation support must be provided in the areas
extending radially outward from the smaller radius areas.
The larger radius inverts exert proportionately lower
pressures. When corrective meastires are necessary. provid-
ing less support under the invert allows the pipe to maintain
its shape as minor settlements occur. (See Figure 26.5.2C.)
Under high fills, where pipe settlements will not main-
tain the necessary grade. pipe may be cambered to an
amount sufficient to prevent excessive sag or back slope.
The amount of camber must be determined by the engi-
nccr based on considerations including the flow line gra-
dient, fill height, the compressive characteristics of the
foundation materials and the depth to rock or other in-
compressible materials. A camber detail is provided in
Figure 26.5.2D.
I N SI T U
SO I L
606
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.5.3
NOTE:
d =1/2 in. per foot of fill over p ip e, with a24in. maximum.
Section B-B is applicable to all continuous rock foundations.
(A) P roviding a uniform foundation where rock
or localized soft spots are encountered.
For pipe-arch, excavate under pipe and replace with
g ranular material only as deep as is necessary to
obtain stable bed to install pipe.
W 0tor Round P ipe
W =Width of Flat Bottom Arc ot P ipe-Arch
(B) Correcting an inadequate, soft foundation
(C) P roviding necessary support outside of small radius corner
or side plates (used only when the natural foundation will
not support the corner or side plate pressures)
FIGURE 26.5.2 A-I): Foundation Iniprovement Methods when Required
26.5.3 Bedding
The pipe bedding is a relatively thin layer of loosely
placed material to cushion the pipe invert and allow the
corrugation to rest or seat into it. thus supporting the cor-
ruoation. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural
soil does not provide a suitable bed, a beddine blanket
with a minimum thickness of twice the cornieation depth
shall be provided.
Pipe arch, horizontal ellipse and underpass shapes sx ith
spans exceeding 12 feet should he placed on a shapedbed.
The shaped area, centered beneath the pipe should have a
minimum width of the span for pipe arch and under-
pass shapes and the span for horizontal ellipse shapes.
Compacted
Backfill
Material
Section A-A Section B-B
Corner Support Soil fine g raded to shape of
Zone Structure bottom of pipe-arch on bedding
Backfill Material blanket of g ranular material
Compacted shaped with template
Excavate soft soil
and replace with
hig hly compacted
g ranular material
Bedding
(Shape Bottom
for P ipe-Arch)
Soil
Soil
(D) P roviding camber under hig h fills (used only where
the foundation will not maintain adequate g rade)
26.5.3
607
Preshaping may consist of a simple V graded into the
soil as shown in Figure 265.3.
26.5.4.1 General
Correct placement of materials of the proper quality
and moisture content is essential Sufficient field testing
must be used to verify procedures, but is no substitute for
inspection that ensures that the proper procedures are fol-
lowed. This is of extreme importance because the struc-
tural integrity of the corrtigated metal structure is vitally
affected by the quality of construction in the field.
Backlill material shall meet the requirements of Arti-
cle 26.3.8 and shall be placed as shown in Figtire 26.5.11)
in layers not exceeding 8-inch loose lift thickness to a
minimum 9t)-percent standard density per AASI-ITO T 99.
Equipment used to compact backfill within 3 feet from
sides of pipe or from edge of footing for arches and box
culverts shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use.
Except as proxided below for longspan structures, the
equipment used for etimpacti ng backfill beyond these Ii iii-
its may be the same as tised for compacting embankment.
The backfill shall be placed and compacted with care
under the haunches of the pipe and shall be brought up
evenly on both sides of the pipe by working backfill op-
erations from si(le to side. The side to side backfill (lifter
ential shall not exceed 24 inches or of the size of the
structure, whichever is less. Backfill shall continue to not
less than I foot above the top for the full length of the
pipe. Fill above this elevation may be material for em-
bankment fill or other materials as specified to support the
pavement. The width of trench shall be kept to the mini
mtini width required for placing pipe, placing adequate
bedding and sidefill, and safe working conditions. Pond-
ing or jetting of backfill will not be permitted except upon
written permission by the Engineer.
Where single or multiple structures are installed at a
skew to the embankment (i.e. cross the embankment at
other than 90 degrees), proper support for the pipe must be
provided. This may be done with a rigid, reinforced con-
crete head wall or by warping the embankment fill to pro-
vide the necessary balanced side support. Figure 26.5.4
provides guidelines for warping the embankment.
26.5.4.2 Arches
Arches may require special shape control considera-
tions during the placement and compaction of structure
backfill. Pin connections at the footing restrict uniform
shape change. Arches may peak excessively and experi-
ence curvature flattening in their upper quadrants. Using
lighter compaction equipment, more easily compacted
structure backfill, or top loading (placing a small load of
structure backfill on the crown) will aid installation.
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures
Backfill requirements for long-span structural-plate
structures are similar to those for smaller structures. Their
size and flexibility require special control of backfill and
continuous monitoring of structure shape. Prior to begin-
ning construction, the manufacturer shall provide a pre
ct)mistruction conference to advise the Contractor(s) and
Engineer of the more critical functions to be performed.
Equipment and construction procedures used to back-
fill longspan structural plate structures shall be such that
excessive structure distortion will not occur. Struettire
shape shall be checked regularly during backlilling to ver-
fy acceptability of the construction methods used. Mag-
nitude of allowable shape changes will be specified by the
manufacturer (fabricator of longspan struettires ). The
manufacturer shall pros ide a ~Iu aliti ed sh ape control in-
spector to aid the Engineer during the placement of all
structural backfill to the minimtmm cover level over the
structure (as require(l by the design to carry full highway
loads). The Inspector shall advise the Engineer on the ac-
cept ability of. all backfill material and const rue t i 0ri lii~t Ii
ods and the proper monitori rig of the shape. Structure
backfill nm ateriaI shall be placed in hon /onta I u n i Ii irni lax
ers not exceeding an 8-inch loose lift thickness and shall
be brought up uniformly on both sides of the structure.
Each layer shall be compacted to a density not less than
90 percent per AASHT() V 180. The struettire backfill
shall be constructed to the mimi jmntim lines aiid grades
shown on the plans. keepine it at or belowthe level of ad-
jacent soil or embankment. Pernuissihle exceptions to ic
quired structure backfill density are: the area under the iii-
vert. the 1 sinch to I 8inch width of soil immediately
adjacent to the large radius side plates of high-profile
FIGURE 26.5.3 VShaped Bed (Foundation)
for Larger Pipe Arch, Horizontal Ellipse
and Underpass Structures
26.5.4 Structural Backfill
arches and inverted pear shapes, and the lower portion of
the first horizontal lift of overfill carried ahead of and
under the small, tracked vehicle initially crossing the
structure.
26.5.4.4 Box Culverts
Metal box culverts are not long-span structures in that
they are relativelystiff, semi-rigidframes. They do not re-
quire a preconstruction conference or shape control con-
siderations beyond those of a standard metal culvert.
Structural backfill material shall be placed in uniform
horizontal layers not exceeding an 8-inch maximum loose
lift thickness and compacted to a density not less than 90
percent per AASHTO T 180. The structural backfill shall
be constructed to the minimm.mm lines and grades shown on
the plans. keeping it at or below the level of the adjacent
soil or embankment.
26.5.4.5 Bracing
When required, temporary bracing shall be installed
and shall remain in place as long as necessary to protect
workmen andto maintain structure shape during erection.
For long-span structures which require temporary
bracing or cabling to hold the structure in shape, the sup-
ports shall not be removed until backfill is placed to an ad-
equate elevation to provide the necessary support. In no
case shall internal braces be left in place when backfilling
reaches the top quadrant of the pipe or the top radius arc
portion of a long span.
26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls
Substructures and headwalls shall be designed in ac-
cordance with the requirements t)f Division I.
The ends of the corrugated metal arch shall rest in a
keyway formed into continuous concrete footings, or shall
rest on a metal bearing surface, ustially an angle or chan-
nel shape, which is securely anchored to or embedded in
the concrete footing.
The metal bearing when specified may be a hot-rolled
or cold-formed galvanized steel angle or channel, or arm
extruded aluminum angle or channel. These shapes shall
be not less than Y ~ inch in thickness and shall be se-
curely anchored to the footing at a maximum spacing of
24 inches. When the metal bearing member is not com-
pletely embedded in a groove in the footing, one vertical
P ROP ER BALANCE FOR
SINQ EE STRUCTURE
P ROP ER BALANCE FOR
MULTIP LE S1RUCTJRE
=1.5 (Rise + Cover)
FIGURE 26.5.4 End Treatment ofSkewed Flexible Culvert
leg shall be punched to allow the end of the corrugated
plates to be bolted to this leg of the bearing member.
Where an invert slab is provided which is not integral
with the arch footing, the invert slab shall be continuously
reinforced.
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS
These structures can carry legal highway loads once
the backfill is placed and compacted to the minimum
cover level over the pipe as defined by Division I, Section
12, ~Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction. For
heavier construction loads, additional cover may be re-
quired. Table 26.6 provides guidance for smaller struc-
tures. Consult the Engineer or the manufacturer for guid-
ance on structures or axle loads not listed.
TABLE 26.6 Minimum Cover for
Construction Loads
(Round, Pipe-Arch, Ellipse and Underpass Shapes)
Pipe Span, in.
Minimum Cover (ft) for Indicated Axle Loads
(thousands of pounds)
18 50 5075 75110 110-150
1242 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0
4872 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.0
78120 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0
1261~ 3.5 4.0 4.5 4.5
*Minimum cover may vary, depending on local conditions. The
contractor must provide the additional cover required to avoid
damage to the pipe. Minimum cover is measured fromthe mop of
the pipe to the top ofthe maintainedconstruction roadway surface.
In unpaved situation, the surface must be maintained.
The structure must be protected from hydraulic forces
during construction, prior to the completion of permanent
erosion control and end protection. Hydraulic forces may
cause erosion, shape distortion, flotation or washout.
Backfill and other earth loads must be kept balanced.
(See Article 26.5.4.)
26.7 MEASUREMENT
Corrugated metal and structural plate pipe, pipe arches,
arches andbox culverts shall be measured in lineal feet in-
stalled in place, completed and accepted. The number of
lineal feet shall be the average of the top and bottom cen-
ter line lengths for pipe, the bottom center line length for
pipe arches and box culverts, and the average of springing
line lengths for arches.
26.8 PAYMENT
Separate pay items or provision for including excava-
tion, backfill, andconcrete for arches must be providedfor
in the contract.
The lengths as measured above will be paid for at the
contract prices per lineal foot bid for corrugated metal and
structural plate pipe, pipe-arch, arch or box culvert of the
sizes specified. Such price and payment shall constitute
full compensation for furnishing, handling, erecting, and
installing the pipe, pipe-arches, arches or box culverts,
and for all materials, labor, equipment, tools and inciden-
tals necessary to complete this item. Such price and pay-
ment shall also include excavation, bedding material,
backfill, concrete headwalls. endwalls and foundations for
pipe, pipe-arches andbox culverts. Separate payment will
be made for excavation, backfill, and concrete or masonry
headwalls and foundations for arches.
26.5.5
609
Section 27
CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL
This work shall consist of fabricating, furnishing, and
installing buried precast concrete culverts conforming to
these specifications, the special provisions and the details
shown on the plans. Precast reinforcedconcrete pipe shall
be circular, arch or elliptical, as specified. Precast rein-
forced concrete box sections shall be of the dimensions
specified or shown on the plans.
When complete details are not provided in the plans. or
when required or permitted by provisions in the contract.
the Contractor shall prepare and submit to the Engineer
wt)rkimlg drawings of the structure or installation system
proposed for use. Fabrication or installation of the strtmc-
ture shall not begin until the Engineer has approved the
drawings. The working drawings shall show complete de-
tails and substantiating calculations of the structure, the
materials, equipment and installation methods the Comi
tractor proposes to use.
Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in
advamice of the start of the affected work to allow time for
review by the Engineer and correction of the submnittal by
the Contractor without delaying the work. Approval by the
Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsi-
bility under the contract for the successful completion of
this work.
27.3 MATERIALS
27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts
The materials for reinforced concrete culverts shall
meet the requirements of the following specifications for
the classes and si/es specified above.
Precast Reinforced
Concrete
Circular Pipe AASHTO M 170 or
AASHTO M 242
(ASTM C 76 or C 655)
Arch Pipe AASHTO M 206
(ASTM C 506)
Elliptical Pipe AASHTO M 207
(ASTM C 507)
Box Sections AASHTO M 259 and
AASHTO M 273
(ASTM C 78 9 and C 8 50)
27.3.2 Joint Sealants
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar
Mortar shall be composed of one part portland cement
and two parts sand by volume. Sand shall be well graded
and of such size that all will pass a No. 8 sieve. The ma-
terials shall be mixed to aconsistency stiitable for the pur-
pose imitended and used within 30 minutes after the mix-
ing water has been added. Admixtures. if any. shall be
approved by the Engineer prior to use.
27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskefs
Flexible watertight gasketed joints shall conform to the
requirements ofAASHTO M 198 and shall be flexible amid
capable of withstanding expansion, contraction, and set-
tlement of the pipeline.
All rubber gaskets shall be stored in as cool a place as
practicable, preferably at 70
0F or less.
Rubber gaskets. of the type requirimig lubrication. shall
be Itibricated with the lubricant recommended and sup-
plied by the manufacturer of the pipe.
611
612
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.3.2.3
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials
Other joint sealant materials shall be submitted for test-
ing in advance of their use and shall not be used prior to
receiving approval by the Engineer.
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill
or Overfill Material
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular,
Arch, and Elliptical Pipe
Bedding, haunch, lower side and overfill material shall
conform to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D
which define soil areas and critical dimensions, and Tables
27.5A and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and mini-
mum compaction requirements, and minimum bedding
thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types. The
AASHTO Soil Classifications and the USCS Soil Classi-
fications equivalent to the generic soil types in the Stan-
dard Installations are presented in Table 27.5C.
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete
Box Sections
For precast reintorced concrete box sections, bedding
and backfill material shall conform to Figure 27.5E with
the following exceptions. Bedding material may be sand
or select sandy soil all of which passes a U.S. Standard
s-inch seive and not more than 10 percent of which
passes a U.S. Standard No. 200 sieve. Backfill may be se-
lect material and shall be free of organic material, stones
larger than 3 inches in the greatest dimension, frozen
lumps, or moisture in excess of that permitting the speci-
fied compaction.
27.4 ASSEMBLY
27.4.1 General
Precast concrete units or elements shall be assembled
in acct)rdance with the manufacturers instructions. All
units or elements shall be handled with reasonable care
and shall not be rolled or dragged over gravel or rock.
Care shall be taken to prevent the units from striking rock
or other hard objects during placement.
Cracks in an installed precast concrete culvert that ex-
ceed 0.01-inch width will be appraised by the Engineer con-
sidering the structural integrity. environmental conditions,
and the design service life of the culvert. Generally in non-
ct)rrosive environments, cracks 0.10 inch or less in width are
considered acceptable: in corrosive environments, those
cracks 0.01 inch or less in width are considered acceptable
without repair. Cracks determined to be detrimental shall be
sealed by a method approved by the Engineer.
27.4.2 Joints
Joints for reinforced concrete pipe and precast rein-
forced concrete box sections shall comply with the details
shown on the plans, the approved working drawings, and
the requirements of the special provisions. Eachjoint shall
be sealed to prevent infiltration of soil fines or water as re-
quired by the contract docments. Joint sealant materials
shall comply with the provisions of Article 27.3.2.
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a certifi-
cate of compliance that the material being furnished con-
forms to the joint property requirements. Field tests may
be required by the Enginer whenever there is a question
regarding compliance with contract requirements.
27.5 INSTALLATION
27.5.1 General
Trenches shall be excavated to the dimensions and
grade specified in the plans or ordered by the Engineer.
The Contractor shall make such provisions as required to
insure adequate drainage of the trench to protect the bed-
ding during construction operations. Proper preparation of
foundation, placement of foundation material where re-
quired, and placement of bedding material shall precede
the installation of the culvert. This shall include necessary
leveling of the native trench bottom or the top of founda-
tion materials as well as placement and grading of re-
quired bedding material to a uniform grade so that the en-
tire length of pipe will be supported on a uniform slightly
yield bedding. The backfill material shall be placed
around the culvert in a manner to meet the requirements
specified.
27.5.2 Bedding
27.5.2.1 General
If rock strata or boulders are encountered under the
culvert within the limits of the required bedding, the rock
or boulders shall be removed and replaced with bedding
material. Special care may be necessary with rock or other
unyielding foundations to cushion pipe from shock when
blasting can be anticipated in the area. Where, in the opin-
ion of the Engineer, the natural foundation soil is such as
to require stabilization, such material shall be replaced by
a layer of bedding material. Where an unstmitable material
27.5.2.1 DIV ISION 11CONSTRUCTION 613
If)
i~ C\i
EN .~
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2 7.5.2 .1
DIVISION ITCONSTRUCTION
615
~W ~
Orerlill SW. ML. or CL I U
Bc/6
liii ~4Haunch
Spring Line l....~L......lE.zl See Table 27.58
~ Side -
See bOle 27.58
Bedding See Table 275B~~ I I ~U,ddle Bedding
Outer Bedding I I loosely placed
i~2ter als ~ uncornpacted bedding
compaction each
side, same
requirements
at haunch
/ Foundamion
LEGS NO:
Bc Outside Diameter
H = Backfill corer obove
109 of pipe
Overl,li - SW ML or
Bc/6(Uin
Spring Line
Bedding See Table
272~~I
Outer Bedding I I
materials and
compaction each
side, same
requwernents
as haunch
Foundat,on
27 58
~Cr5dC 58
Middle Bedd.ng
loosely placed
uncampocied bedding
LLG ~NO:
Be Outside Diameter
H = Backlill corer abone
lop 01 pipe
HORIZONTAL ELLIP liCAL P IP E
~-~---~~--
Onerl SW ML a
Sprng
A
VERTiCAL ELUP ilCALP IP E
BcfMin.)
Haunch
~ See Table 27 SB
Laser Side
See Table 2758
tIG END:
H = Backlill caner abore
top at pipe

Bedding - See Table 2758 ] Middle Bedding
Outer Beddielg II loosely placed
materials a~ ,fls.L 4...4 uncanipacted bedd.ng
compaction each
side, same
requirements
as haunch roundalion
ARCHP IP E
FIGURE 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
(peat, muck, etc.) is encountered at or below invert eleva-
tion during excavation, the necessary subsurface explo-
ration and analysis shall be made andcorrective treatment
shall be as directed by the Engineer.
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular
Arch and Elliptical Pipe
A bedding shall be provided for the type of installation
specified conforming to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and
27.5D which define soil areas andcritical dimensions, and
Tables 27.SA and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and
minimum compaction requirements, and minimum bed-
ding thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types.
Box Sections
A bedding shall be providedfor the type of installation
specified conforming to Figure 27.5E unless in the opin-
ion of the Engineer, the natural soil provides a suitable
bedding.
27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections
Unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, the lay-
ing of culvert sections on the prepared foundation shall be
started at the outlet and with the spigot or tongue end
pointing downstream and shall proceed toward the inlet
616
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.5.3
OcrIll SW. ML. or CL
Bc/6 Mm.) Bc Bc Mm.
Haunch
See Table 27SA
Spring Laser Side
See Table 275A
Bedding See Table 275A./~ Middle Bedding
Outer Bedding loosely placed
materials and uncompacted bedding
campa~tian each Bc/3
sidp, same
requrements Foundation
an haunch
LIG ENO:
H = Backfill cover above
top at pipe
HORIZONTAL ELUP liCALP IP E
Bc/ Mm. Bc H Bc Mm.
Bedding See Table 27.SA M.ddle Bedding
materials and Bc/3 uncompacted bedding
compaction each
side, same
requirements ,. Foundation
as haunch /
Overfill SW. ML or CL.
Spring L~ne~~\
Haunch
See Table 27.5A
Lower Side
See Table 27.5A
Bedding - See Table 27.5A Ididdle Bedding
loosely placed
Outer Bedd~n~ ~ uncompacted bedding
can1paO,~n each
r*quwente~li
as hounch
LfG END:
Fow,dOton Bc Outside Diameter
H BarkIll caner above
top at pipe
VE~1CALEWP TICAL P IP E
LEG END:
Bc Outside Dameter
H Backfill corer above
top at pipe
ARCHP IP E
FIGURE 27.5D Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
end with the abutting sections properly matched, true to
the established lines and grades.. Where pipe with bells is
installed, bell holes shall be excavated in the bedding to
such dimensions that the entire length of the barrrel of the
pipe will be supported by the bedding when properly in-
stalled. Proper facilities shall be provided for hoisting and
lowering the sections of culvert into the trench without
disturbing the prepared foundation and the sides of the
trench. The ends of the section shall be carefully cleaned
before the section is jointed. The section shall be fitted and
matched so that when laid in the bed it shall form a
smooth. uniform conduit. When elliptical pipe with circu-
lar reinforcing or circular pipe with elliptical reinforcing
is used, the pipe shall be laid in the trench in such position
that the markings Top or Bottom. shall not be more
than 50 from the vertical plane through the longitudinal
axis of the pipe.
Multiple installations of reinforced concrete culverts
shall be laid with the center lines of individual barrels par-
allel at the spacing shown on the plans. Pipe and box
sections used in parallel installations require positive
lateral bearing between the sides of adjacent pipe or box
sections. Compacted earth fill, granular backfill, or grout-
ing between the units are considered means of providing
positive bearing.
27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill
27,5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular
Arch and Elliptical Pipe
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material
Haunch material shall be installed to the limits shown
on Figure 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.51).
DIVISION LICONSTRUCTION
TABLE 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements
Haunch and Outer
Bedding Lower Side
Type I B~/24 minimum,
not less than
3. Ifrock
foundation, use
B~/t 2 minimum,
not less than 6
95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML
or
100% CL
Type 2
(See Note 3.)
Bj24 minimum,
not less than
3. Ifrock
foundation, use
B~/l2 minimum,
not less than 6
90% SW
or
95% ML
85% SW, 90% ML
or
95% CL
Type 3
(See Note 3.)
B~/24 minimum,
not less than
3. Ifrock
foundation, use
B~/l2 minimum,
not less than 6
85% SW, 90% ML, or
95% CL
85% SW, 90% ML
or
95% CL
Type 4 No bedding required,
except if rock foundation,
use Bjt2 minimum,
not less than 6
No compaction
required, except if CL,
use 85% CL
No compaction
required, except if
CL, use 85% CL
NOTES
:
t. Compaction and soil symbolsic. 95% SW refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proc-
tor compaction of 95%. See Tabte 27.5C for equivaleni modified procior values.
2. Soit in the outer bedding, haunch, and lower side zones, except within Bj3 from the pipe springtine, shalt
be compacted to at least the same compaction as the majority ofsoit in the overfill zone.
3. Only Type 2 and 3 instaltalions are available for horizontal ettipticat, vertical ellipticat and arch pipe.
4. SUBTRENCHES
4. t A subirench is defined as a trench with its mop below finished grade by more than 0.1 H or. for roadways. its
top is at an elevation lower than 1 below the bottom of the pavement base material.
4.2 The minimutn width of a sublrench shall be 1.33 B,., or wider if required for adequate space in atmain mIsc
specified compaction in the haunch and bedding zones.
4.3 For subtrenches with watts of natural soil, any portion of the tower side zone in the subsrench wall should
be at least as firm as an equivatent soil placed to the compaction requirements specitied for the lower side
zone and as firm as the majority of soil in the overfill zone, or shalt be rensosed and replaced with soil com-
pacted mo the specilied level.
27.5.4.1.1 617
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Haunch and Outer
Bedding Lower Side
Type I Bj24 minimum,
not less than
3. If rock
foundation, use
B~/l2 minimum,
not less than 6
95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML
100% CL, or
natural soils of
equal firmness
Type 2
(see Note 3)
B ~/2 4 minimum,
not less th an
3. tf r ock
foundation, use
B J12 minimum,
not less th an 6
90% SW
or
95% ML
85% SW, 90% ML
95% CL, or
natural soils of
equal firmness
Type 3
(see Note 3)
B,I24 minimum,
not less than
3. Ifrock
foundation, use
B~/l 2 minimum,
not less than 6
85% SW, 90% ML, or
95% CL
85% SW, 90% ML
95% CL, or
natural soils of
equal firmness
Type 4 No bedding required,
except if rock foundation,
use B~/l2 minimum,
not less than 6
No compaction
required, except if CL,
use 85% CL
85% SW, 90% ML
95% CL, or
natural soils of
equal firmness
NOTES
:
I. Compaction and soil symbolsi.e. ..95~3f SW~ refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proctor
compaction of 95%. See Table 27.5C for equivalent modified proctor values.
2. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than .0.1 H below finished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be
no lower than an elevation of I below the bottom of the pavement base material.
3. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe.
4. Soil in bedding and haunch zones shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the ma-
jority of soil in the backfill zone.
5. The trench width shalt be wider than shown if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction
in the hauneh and bedding zones.
6. For trench walls that are within tO degrees of vertical, the compaction or firmness of the soil in the trench
walls and lower side zone need not be considered.
7. For trench walls with greater than 10-degree slopes that consist of embankment, the tower side shall be com-
pacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the soil in the backfill zone.
618
27.5.4.1.1
DIVISION 11CONSTRUCTION 619
TABLE 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for SIDD Soil Designations
SIDD Soil
Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction
USCS AASHTO
Standard
Proctor
Modified
Proctor
Gravelly
Sand
(SW)
SW, SP
GW, GP
AI,A3 100
95
90
85
80
61
95
90
85
80
75
59
Sandy
Silt
(ML)
GM, SM, ML
Also GC, SC
with less than 20%
passing No. 200 sieve
A2, A4 100
95
90
85
80
49
95
90
85
80
75
46
Silty
Clay
(CL)
GL, MH
GC, SC
AS, A6 100
95
90
85
80
45
90
85
80
75
70
40
CH A7 100
95
90
45
90
85
80
40
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material
Lower side material shall be installed to the limits
shown on Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D.
27.5.4.1.3 Overfill
Overfill material shall be installed to the limits shown
on Figures 27.5A. 27.5B. 27.5C, and 27.5D.
Box Sections
27.5.4.2.1 Backfill
Backfill material shall be installed to the limits shown
on Figure 27.5Efor the embankment or trench condition.
Trenches shall have vertical walls and no over-excavating
or sloping sidewalls shall be permitted.
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and
Backfill or Overfill
Generally, compaction of fill material to the required
density is dependent on the thickness of the layer of fill
being compacted, soil type, soil moisture content, type of
compaction equipment, and amount of compactive force
and the length of time the force is applied. Fill material
shall be placed in layers with a maximum thickness of
8 inches and compacted to obtain the required density. The
fill material shall be placed and compacted with care under
the haunches of the culvert and shall be brought tip evenly
and simultaneously on both sides of the culvert. For the
lower haunch areas of Type 1, 2, and 3 Standard Installa-
tions, soils requiring 90 percent or greater Standard Proc-
tor densities shall be placed in layers with a maximtimn
thickness of 4 inches and compacted to obtain the required
density. The width of trench shall be kept to the minimum
required for installation of the culvert. Ponding or jetting
will be only by the permission of the Engineer.
2 7.5.4.1.2
620
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.5.4.4
Backfill
Ex,gting g round
or fill
BOX SECTIONS
EMBANKMENT BEDDING
Bedding
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction
Culverts shall be protected by a minimum of 3 feet of
cover to prevent damage before permitting heavy con-
struction equipment to pass over them during construction.
27.6 MEASUREMENT
Culverts shall be measured in linear feet installed in
place, completed, and accepted. The number of feet shall
be the average of the top and bottom center line lengths
for pipe and box seettons.
27.7 PAYMENT
The length determined as herein given shall be paid for
at the contract unit prices per linear foot bid for culverts
of the several sizes and shapes, as the case may be, which
prices and payments shall constitute full compensation for
furnishing, handling, and installing the culvert and for all
materials, labor, equipment, tools, and incidentals neces-
sary to complete this item. Such price and payment shall
also include excavation, bedding material, backfill, rein-
forcedconcrete headwalls andendwalls, and any required
foundations.
Compacted
G ranular
Material
BOX SECTIONS
TRENCH BEDDING
FIGURE 27.5E
Section 28
WEARING SURFACES
28 .1 DESCRIPTION
This work shall consist of placing awearing surface of
durable and impervious material on the roadway surface
of bridge decks. It also includes the preparation of the sur-
faces of either existing or new decks to receive such an
overlay of surfacing material.
The type and thickness of the wearing surface shall be
as designated on the plans. The materials and installation
requirements for wearing surfaces of types other than
latex modified concrete shall be as specified in the special
provisions~. Latex modified concrete wearing surfaces
shall be furnished and installed in accordance with these
specifications.
28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE
WEARING SURFACE
28 .2.1 General
All equipment used to prepare the surface and to pro-
portion, mix, place and finish the latex concrete shall be
subject to approval by the Engineer prior to use. This ap-
proval will be contingent on satisfactory perfortnance and
will be rescinded in the event such performance is not
being achieved. Eqtiipment shall be on hand sufficiently
ahead of the start of construction operations to be exam-
ined and approved. Any equipment leaking oil or any
other containment onto the deck shall be immediately
removed from the job site until repaired.
A technician who is well experienced in the propor-
tioning. mixing. placing and finishing of latex modified
concrete shall be employed by the Contractor and shall be
present and in technical control of the work whenever
these operations are underway. The qualifications of this
technician which includes a list of projects on which the
technician was employed and the technicians level of re-
sponsibility on each shall be submitted to and approved by
the Engineer prior to the start of these operations.
Approval by the Engineer of equipment or technicians
shall not relieve the Contractor of anyresponsibility under
the contract for the successful completion of the work.
If not otherwise shown on the plans, the minimum
thickness of latex modified concrete wearing surfaces
shall be 11/4 inches.
28.2.2 Materials
28 .2.2.1 Portland Cement
Portland cement shall conform to the requirement of
Article 8.3.1 of Section 8, Concrete Structures, except
that only Types I or II shall be used.
28.2.2.2 Aggregate
Aggregate shall ct)nfortTi to the requirements of
AASHTO M 6 for fine aggregate and to AASHTO M 80
for coarse aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall be graded
/2 inch to No. 4 per AASHTO M 43.
28.2,2.3 Water
Water for mixing concrete shall conforni to the
requirements of Article 8.3.2.
28 .2.2.4 Latex Emulsion
Formulated latex emulsion admixture shall be a non-
hazardous, film forming. polymeric emulsion in water to
which all stabilizers have been added at the point of
manufacture and shall be homogeneous and uniform in
coFnpoSition.
Physical PropertiesThe latex modifier shall conform
to the following requirements:
Polymer Type Stabilizers Styrene Butadiene
(a) Latex Nonionic Surfactants
(b) Portland Cement
Composition Polydimethyl Siloxane
Percent Solids 46.049.()
Weight per Gallon (lbs at 25
0C) 8.4
Color White
621
622
ACertificate of Compliance signed by the manufacture
of the latex emulsion certifying that the material conforms
to the above specifications shall be furnished for each
shipment used in the work.
Latex admixture to be stored shall be kept in suitable
enclosures which will protect it from freezing and from
prolonged exposure to temperatures in excess of 85
0F.
Containers of latex admixture may be stored at the bridge
site for a period not to exceed 10 days. Such stored con-
tainers shall be covered completely with suitable insulat-
ing blanket material to avoid excessive temperatures.
28.2.2.5 Latex Modified Concrete
The latex modified concrete for use on this project
shall be a workable mixture and meet the following
requirements.
Material or Property ________
Cement (Parts by weight) (Note 3)
Fine Aggregate (Parts by weight) (Note 3)
Coarse Aggregate (Parts by weight) (Note 3)
Latex Emulsion Admixture-
(GaIs/Bag Cement)
Air Content of Plastic Mix,
% (AASHTO T 152)
Slump, Inches (Notes 1 and 2)
NOTES:
Following sampling of the discharged. normally
mixed material, the commencement of the slump
test shall be delayed from 4 to 5 mintites.
2. Water may be added to obtain slLimp within the pre-
scribed limits.
3. The dry weight ratios are approximate and should
produce good workability, but due to oradation
changes may be adjusted within litnits by the Engi-
neer. The parts by weight of sand may be increased
by as much as 0.2 if the coarse aggregate is reduced
by an equivalent volume.
28 .2.3 Surface Preparation
28 .2.3.1 New l)ecks
The surfaces of new decks Lt~Ot1 which a wearirmgsur-
face overlay is to be placed shall be finished to a rotigh
texture by coarse brooming or other approved tnethods.
After etiring tsf the deck concrete is complete and be-
lore placing the overlay, the entire area of the deck surface
and the vertical faces of ctmrbs. concrete parapets, barrier
walls, etc., up to a height of 1 inch above the top elevation
of the overlay shall be blast cleaned to a bright, clean ap-
pearance which is free from laitance. curing compound,
dust, dirt, oil. grease. bituminous material, paint, and all
foreign matter. The blast cleaning of an area of the deck
shall normally be performed within the 24-hour period
preceding placement of the overlay on the area. The blast
cleaning may be performed by either wet sandblasting.
high pressure water blasting, blasting grits, shrouded dry
sandblasting with dust collectors, or other method ap-
proved by the Engineer. Water blasting equipment shall
operate with a minimum pressure of 3,500 psi. The
method used shall be performed so as to conform to ap-
plicable air and water pollution regulations and to applic-
able safety and health regulations. All debris, ineltiding
dirty water, resulting from the blast cleaning operations
shall be immediately and thoroughly cleaned from the
blast-cleaned surfaces and from other areas where debris
Concrete may have accumulated. The blast cleaned areas shall be
protected, as necessary, against contamination prior to
1placement of the overlay. Contaminated areas and areas
2.5 exposed more than 36 hours after cleaning shall be blast
2.0 cleaned again as directed by the Engineer at the Contrac-
tors expense.
Just prior to placement of the overlay, all dust andother
debris shall be removed by flushing with water or blow-
3-6 ing with compressed air. The prepared surface shall then
3-6 be soaked with clean water for not less than 1 hour prior
tt) the placement of the latex overlay. Before the overlay
is applied, all free water shall be blown out anLI off, and
this procedure shall continue until the surface appears LIrY
or barely damp.
The air supply system for blast cleaning and blowimmg
shall be equipped with an oil trap in the air line, amid pro-
visions shall be made to prevent oil or grease contamimla
tion of the surface by any equipment prior to placement of
the overlay.
28.2.3.2 Existing Decks
The surface of existirmg decks that have become conta-
minated by traffic usage or by deicing salts shall be scar-
ified to the depth shown on the plaits or specified. If no
depth is shown or specified, a mninimtmm of - inch of ma-
terial shall be removed by scarification.
Prior to beginning scarification and until operations are
ct)mpleted. all deck drains, expansion joints and other
openings where damage could result. as determined by the
Engineer, shall be temporarily covered or plugged to pre-
vent entry of debris.
Scarifying shall be done with power-operated mnecharm-
meal scarifiers, or other approved devices, capable of urmi-
fonmnly removing the existing surface to the depths re-
2 81.3.2
623
quired without damaging the underlying concrete. Ma-
chine scarifiers shall not be operated so as to damage hard-
ware such as drain grates and expansion joint armor. In
areas where machine scarifying cannot reach and in areas
t)f spalling and where steel reinforcement is exposed,
scarifying and the removal of deteriorated or unsound
concrete shall be acconiplished with hamid tools. Pnue-
matic hammers heavier than nominal 45 pounds shall not
be used.
No scarifying or chipping will be allowed within 6 feet
of a new overlay until 48 hotirs after its placement.
In areas where deteriorated or unsound concrete is en-
courmtered. as determined by the Engimieem. the concrete
shall be removed to a depth of 4-inch below the top mat
of reinforcimig steel. A minimum oh 4inch clearance shall
be required around the reinforcing steel except where
lower bar mats make this impractical. Care shall be exer-
cised to prevent damaging the exposed reinforcing steel.
All reinforcing steel shall be blast-cleaned. The repair
areas am-c to be filled during the overlay operation.
After scarificatiomi and removal of tmnsound concrete
has been completed. the deck surface shall be blast
cleaned and prepared as specified for rmew (leeks.
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing
The Conlractor shall submit to the Engimicer for ap-
proval. 14 calendar (lays prior to date of placement. the
propose(l mix design in writing and samples of all mix
materials in sufficient quantity to produce a minimum of
3 cubic feet of concrete for laboratory mix (Iesign testing.
Proptirtioning and mixing equipment shall be of a self
contained. mobile. comitinLmousmiximic. volumetric pro
portimning type mixer.
Continuoustype mnixers shall be eqttippe(l so that the
proportions of the cement, natural sand, and coarse ag-
gregate can be fixed by calibration of the mnixer and can-
not be changed without (lestroving a seal or other indicat-
inc device affixed to the mixer. In additiomi to being
equipped with a flow meter for calibratimig the water sup
ply portion of the miii xer. the mu ixer shall also be equipped
with a cummulatix ctype water tneter which can be reai.f to
the nearest t). 1 gallon. The water miieters shall be readily
accessible, accurate to with imi 1 percent. and easy to read.
l3oth water meters shall be subject to checking by the En
eiiieer each time the miii xer is calibrated. A
1i1iroved meth-
ods for adding the admi xttire shall be provided. The ad
mixtures shall be added so as to be kept separated as far
as i pract icahile. The conti iiuous type milixer shall be cal-
ibrated to the satisfactiomi of the F.ncimi ccr ~ or to starting
the xx ork. Yield checks norniallv will be nmade for each
51) cubic yards of mu ix. Recalibratiomi will be riecessars
when imiLhicated bx ttie yield checks, amid at ~mvut her times
the Engineer deems necessary to ensure proper propor-
tioning of the ingredients. Continuous type mixers which
entrap unacceptable volumes of air in the mixture shall
not be used.
The mixer shall be kept cleati and free of partially dried
orhardened materials at all titnes. It shall consistently prss-
duce a uniform. thoroughly blended mixture withiii the
specified air content amid slump limits. Malfunctionitig
mixers shall be imniediately repaired or replaced with ac-
ceptable units.
Aggregate stockpiles being used shommld be of unifortii
moisture content.
Mixing capability shall be sLich that fimiishinc opera-
tions can pr(iceed at a steady pace with final finishimic
completed before the forniation of the plastic surface film.
28.2.5 Installation
28 .2.5.1 Weather Restrictions
The placernemit of latex niodified comicrete shall not be
started when the temperature is, or is expected to fall
below 45
0F or rise above 800F. or when high xvitids, rain
or low humidity conditions are expected prior to tinal set
tif the comicrete. If any of these comiditiomis (icctlr dLmrimic
placenient. the placenient shall be terinirmated and a
straight comistruictiomi joitit fornied. Placemiiemit at miiglit iiiay
be miecessary xvliemi daytimiie comiditions are not favorable.
Ifplacement is performed am miiglit. adeqtmate lighting shall
be pr(ivided by the Contractor.
28.2.5.2 Equipment
Placi mig amid timlishiimig eqLmifuiiicmit shall imiel tide humid
t(i(il s for placenietit amid brLmshimigimi freslil v mixed latex
modified comicrete amid for distributimig it to approx match
the correct level for strikingoff xuitli the screed. V lamido
1i-
erate(l vibrators. screeds amid floats shall be Lised for comi
ssihidati tic and finishing smiiall areas.
c iiiaehi Ami approved titiishi in tie comuplvimig xx ith the
folloxx imic reqtsiremiierits shall be used for timii sliimic all large
areas of work:
The tiiiishiimi c miiaehine shah be sel fprohiel led amid ca
1uahle of forward amid reverse iioxemiiemit under
pLisilixe control. The lertethi (if the screed shall be
suiffic emit t(i extemid at least 6 inches bevomid the
eLlce (if both emi(ls (if the seetiomi beimig placed. The
finishing miiachimie shall also be capable of consol
dati tic the cotierete by v ibratioti and of rai simig all
screeds to clear the comicrete for travelituc iii reverse.
The machi tie shall be either a rotatimig ref ILr Ivhuc or
arm (iscillatitic screed type.
624
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
28 .2.5.2
Rotating roller-type niachines shall have one or more
rollers, augers, and 1,500 to 2,500 vpm vibratory
pans.
Oscillating screed-type machines shall have vibra-
tors on the screeds whose frequency of vibration
can be varied between 3,000 and 15,000 vpm. The
bottom face of the screeds shall be not less than 4
inches wide and shall be metal.
Rails will be required for the finishing machine to travel
on. Rails shall be sufficiently rigid to support the weight of
the machine without appreciable deflection and shall be
placed outside of the overlay area. Rail anchorages shall
provide horizontal and vertical stability and shall not be
ballistically shot into concrete that will not be overlaid.
Asuitable portable lightweight or wheeled work bridge
shall be furnished for use behind the finishing operation.
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints
Planned construction joints shall be formed by bulk-
heads set to grade. Before placing concrete against previ-
ously placed overlay material, the construction joint shall
be sawed to a straight vertical edge. Sawing ofjoints may
be omitted if the bulkhead produces a straight, smooth,
vertical surface. The face of the joint shall be sand or
water blasted to remove loose material.
Longitudinal construction joints will be permitted only
at the center line of roadway or at lane lines unless other-
wise shown on the plans or permitted by the Engineer.
In case of delay in the placement operatmon exceeding I
hour in duration. an approved construction joint shall be
formed by removing all niaterial not up to finish grade and
sawing the edge in a straight line. During minor delays of
1 hour or less, the end of the placement may be protected
from drying with several layers of clean, wet burlap.
28. 2. 5.3.2 Placing
The finishing niachine shall be test run over the entire
area to be tiverlayed each day before placement is started
to ensure that the required overlay thickness will be
achieved.
Imniediately ahead of placimig the overlay niixture, a
thin coating (if the polymer modified concrete mixture to
be used for the overlay shall be thoroughly brushed and
scrubbed onto the surface as a grout-bond coat for the
overlay. Coarser particles of the niixture which cannot be
scrubbed into contact with the surface shall be renioved
amid disposed of in a tiianner approved by the Engineer.
Care shall be taken to insure that all vertical as well as hor-
izontal sLirfaces receive a thorough. even c(iating and that
the rate of progress is limited so that the material brushed
on does not become dry before it is covered with the full
depth of latex modified concrete.
The latex modified concrete shall be placed on the pre-
pared and grout-coated surface immediately after being
mixed. The mixture shall be placed and struck off ap-
proximately 1/4 inch above final grade then consolidated
by vibration and finished to final grade with the appr(ived
finishing machine. Spud xibrators will be required in deep
pockets, along edges, and adjacent to joint bulkheads.
Supplemental vibration shall be provided along the meet
lines where adjacent pours come together and along curb
lines. Hand finishing with a float may be required along
the edge of the pour or on small areas of repair.
Screed rails and construction bulkheads shall be sepa-
rated from the newly placed material by passing a pointing
trowel along their inside face. Expansion dams shall not be
separated from the overlay. Care shall be exercised to en-
sure that this trowel cut is made for the entire depth and
length of rails after the mixture has stiffened sufficiently.
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing
The finishing equipment shall be operated so as to pro-
duce a uniform, smooth, and even-textured surface. The
final surface shall not vary more than /~ inch from a
10-foot straightedge placed longitudinally thereon. Before
the plastic film forms, the surface shall be textured by tin-
ing in accordance with the requirements of Article 8.10.2.3.
28 .2.6 Curing
The surface shall be promptly covered with a single
layer of clean, wet burlap as soon as the surface will sup-
port it without deformation.
Within 1 hour of covering with wet burlap. the burlap
shall be rewet if necessary and a layer of 4-mil polyethyl-
ene film, or wet burlap-polyethylene sheets, shall be
placed on the wet burlap, and the surface cured for 24
hours. The curing niaterial shall then be removed for an
additional 72 hours of air cure. If the temperature falls
below 450 during curing, the duration of the wet cure shall
be extended as directed by the Engineer.
The overlay shall be protected frotii freezing during the
cure period.
Traffic will not be permitted on the overlay while it is
curing.
28.2.7 Acceptance Testing
After curiiig is conipleted, the (iverlay will be xisually
imispected f(ir crackimig or other damage. and imispected for
Lielamimiatitins and bond failuires by the use of a chain drag
~irother suitable (levice.
Surface cracks not exceeding ~/8 inch in depth shall be
sealed with an epoxy penetrating sealer followed by an
application of approved sand.
Any cracks exceeding V s inch in depth shall be
repaired by methods approved by the Engineer, or the
affected portions of the wearing surface shall be removed
and replaced. Any delaminated or unbonded portions of
the wearing surface or portions damaged by rain or freez-
ing shall be removed and replaced.
After completion of the wet cure, the surface shall be
tested for flatness and corrected, if necessary, as provided
in Article 8.10.2.4.
All corrective work will be at the Contractors expense.
Wearing surfaces and areas requiring scarification will
be measured by the square foot based on dimensions of
the completed work.
Wearing surfaces will be paid for at the contract price
per square foot. Except as otherwise provided, the
payment per square foot for wearing surfaces shall be
considered to be full compensation for the cost of
furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, incidentals,
and for doing all work involved in preparing the surface
and constructing the wearing surface as shown on the
plans and specified.
When a separate item is included in the bid schedule
for scarifying bridge decks, scarifying will be paid for by
the contract price per square foot. Such payment shall be
considered to be full compensation for all costs involved
with the scarifying work including removal and disposal
of debris.
The removal of unsound concrete which is encountered
belowthe depth specified for scarifying will be paid for as
extra work.
28.2.7
625
Section 29
EMBEDMENTANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION
29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
This specification covers installation and field testing
(if cast-in-place, grouted. adhesive-bonded, expansion
and undercut steel anchors.
29.2 PREQUALIFICATION
PreqLlahify all concrete anchors, includimig cast-in-
place. all bonded ammehior systems (including grtiut, chemn-
teal compounds, and adhesives), and mndercut by univer-
sal test stamidards designed to allow approved anchor
systenis to be employed for amiy construction attachnient
use.
Comiduct test for a(hhiesive-b(inded aiid tither bonding
c(inip(iunds iii accordance with ASTM F 15 12 (Standard
Test Methods for Testimic Bond Performance (if Adhesive-
Bonded Anchors).
Test expamisiomi types to ASTM E 488 standards (Stan-
dard Test Methods for Stremigtli (if Anchors iii Concrete
and Masonry Fleniemits).
Comply with ACI 349-85 (Code Requiremnemits for
Nuclear Safety Related Concrete StructuresAppendix
B. Steel Embedmiiermts).
Provide certified test reliorts prepared byan indepemi-
detit laboratory LI(icumiiemi titig that the systemii (except mug
chanical expansiomi amichiors 1 is capable (if achievimic the
mimii tiititii tetisi he stremigth tif the embedmimerit steel.
29.3 MATERIALS
Provide mull test reports cert i k imig ~~hiysicah properties.
chemiiistrv. and stremigths.
The chiemii cal coumpoumids acceptable for adhesi ye ami
chiors may iiicltmde epoxies.
1iohyesters. or vimivhesters Ad
liesi ye comiipotmmids su hiichm are muioisturemiisemismtm ye. high
timoLlulus. hi i ghistremiethi. amid howshrinkage should be
ii~td.
The use of aduf it ix es to g rout. ami ul bomid i ng ni ateri aIs
which will be corrosive t steel or ~inc/cadmiiiittii coatmmigs
is prohibited.
Provide adequate edge distance, embedment depth and
spacimig to develop the required strength of the enibed-
ment anchors. Use the correct drill hole diameter as per
manufacturers instructions. Use rotary impact drilling
equipment unless diamond core drilling has been speci-
fied and tested. If reinforcing bar is encountered during
the drilling operation, move to a different location, or drill
through the reinforcing steel using a diamond core bit as
directed by the Engineer. Patch abandoned holes with ami
approved bonding material. Clean holes thoroughly as
recomniended by the nianufacttinrer. Remove all loose dust
and concrete particles froni hole. Prepare bonding mater-
ial and install anchors according to instructions provided
by the manufacturer tir approved by the Emigineer.
Embedded anchors which are iniproperly imistalled uir
which do not have the reqtired strength shall be remiioved
and replaced to the satisfactiomi of the Emucineer at the
Contractors expense.
29.5 INSPECTION ANDTESTING
Where specified. condtmct sacrificial tests of the anchor
system on the .Iob site to umhtimimate loads to h(icumiiemit the
capability of the system to achieve puhhomt loads equahimug
the full miiimiimumm temisile value of the amichor eniploved.
Test the amichor (iii ftthhx cured etimierete samiiples. h/miless
specified titlierwise. test rio fewer thati three 3) anchors by
ASTM E 488 methods. The Comitractor may use an~ p~
qualified amichior systemiis miueetmmig the above reqLiireniemits.
Provide, without delax in progress. for an alternate sx s
temii that will reach the uhesi gmiated pullri nt red~Li i remiiemit it
the ob site proofloadirig proves incapable of achuievi tie
miiimiirnuni temisile xaltmes or the desi giier~s required load if
too little comucrete exists in xvhichi to develop tLlh I uhiict he
loads~.
After imustalhimuc the curi tic of bomuding material. torqume
each anchor svstemii t(i values specified. If t(iruhue values
are riot sped tied. use vahLmes rccouiitiiemided by the mann
facturer dir provided by the Etugmneer.
62 7
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
29.6 MEASUREMENT 29.7 PAYMENT
Count and summarize each embedment anchor type
satisfactorily installed for the Contract, according to an-
chor system, orientation (vertical, diagonal, and horizon-
tal). and size (diameter).
Payment for the quantity of embedment anchors deter-
mined under measurement for each embedment anchor
type, shall include full compensation for furnishing all
labor, materials, tools, equipment, testing, and incidentals
necessary to place each anchor type.
628
296
APPENDIX A
LOADING H 15-44(Ml 3.5)
TABLE OF MAXIMUM MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS
SIMP LE SP ANS, ONE LANE
Spans in feet; moments in thousands of foot-pounds; shears and reactions in thousands
of pounds.
These values are subject to specification reduction for loading of multiple lanes.
Impact not included.
End shear End shear
and end and end
Span Moment reaction (a) Span Moment reaction (a)
6.0(b) 24.0(b) 42 274.4(b) 29.6
2 12.0(b) 24.0(b) 44 289.3(b) 30.1
3 18.0(b) 24.0(b) 46 304.3(b) 30.5
4 24.0(b) 24.0(b) 48 319.2(b) 31.0
5 30.0(b) 24.0(b) 50 334.2(b) 31.5
6 36.0(b) 24.0(b) 52 349.1(b) 32.0
7 42.0(b) 24.0(b) 54 364.t(b) 32.5
8 48.0(b) 24.0(b) 56 379.1(b) 32.9
9 54.0(b) 24.0(b) 58 397.6 33.4
10 60.0(b) 24.0(b) 60 418.5 33.9
II 66.0(b) 24.0(b) 62 439.9 34.4
12 72.0(b) 24.0(b) 64 461.8 34.9
13 78 .0(b) 24.0(b) 66 48 4.1 35.3
14 8 4.0(b) 24.0(b) 68 506.9 35.8
15 90.0(b) 24.0(b) 70 530.3 36.3
16 96.0(b) 24.8(b) 75 590.6 37.5
17 102.0(b) 25.1(b) 80 654.0 38.7
t8 108.0(b) 25.3(b) 85 720.4 39.9
19 114.0(b) 25.6(b) 90 789.8 41.1
20 120.0(b) 25.8(b) 95 862.1 42.3
21 126.0(b) 26.0(b) 100 937.5 43.5
22 132.0(b) 26.2(b) 110 1,097.3 45.9
23 138.0(b) 26.3(b) 120 1,269.0 48.3
24 144.0(b) 26.5(b) 130 1,452.8 50.7
25 150.0(b) 26.6(b) 140 1,648.5 53.1
26 156.0(b) 26.8(b) 150 1,856.3 55.5
27 162.7(b) 26.9(b) 160 2,076.0 57.9
28 170.1(b) 27.0(b) 170 2,307.8 60.3
29 177.5(b) 27.1(b) 180 2,551.5 62.7
30 185.0(b) 27.2(b) 190 2,807.3 65.1
31 192.4(b) 27.3(b) 200 3,075.0 67.5
32 199.8(b) 27.4(b) 220 3,646.5 72.3
33 207.3(b) 27.5 240 4,266.0 77.1
34 214.7(b) 27.7 260 4,933.5 81.9
35 222.2(b) 27.9 280 5,649.0 86.7
36 229.6(b) 28.1 300 6,412.5 91.5
37 237.1(b) 28.4
38 244.5(b) 28.6
39 252.0(b) 28.9
40 259.5(b) 29.1
(a) Concentrated load is consideredplaced at the support. Loads used are those stipulated for shear.
(b) Maximum value determinedby Standard Truck Loading. Otherwise the Standard Lane Loading governs.
629
630
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. A
LOADING HS 15-44(M13.5)
ofpounds.
End shear End shear
and end andend
1 6.0(b) 24.0(b) 42 364.0(b) 42.0(b)
2 1 2 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 4 4 3 9 0. 7 ( b ) 4 2 . 5 ( b )
3 1 8 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 4 6 4 1 7 . 4 ( b ) 4 3 . 0( b )
4 2 4 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 4 8 4 . 4 4 . 1 ( b ) 43.5(b)
5 3 0. 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 5 0 4 7 0. 9 ( b ) 4 3 . 9 ( b )
6 3 6 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 5 2 4 9 7 . 7 ( b ) 4 4 . 3 ( b )
7 4 2 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 5 4 5 2 4 . 5 ( b ) 44.7(b)
8 4 8 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 5 6 5 5 1 . 3 ( b ) 4 5 . 0( b )
9 5 4 . 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 5 8 5 7 8 . 1 ( b ) 4 5 . 3 ( b )
1 0 6 0. 0( b ) 2 4 . 0( b ) 6 0 6 04 . 9 ( b ) 4 5 . 6 ( b )
II 66.0(b) 24.0(b) 62 631.8(b) 45.9(b)
12 72.0(b) 24.0(b) 64 658.6(b) 46.1(b)
13 78.0(b) 24.0(b) 66 685.5(b) 46.4(b)
14 84.0(b) 24.0(b) 68 712.3(b) 46.6(b)
1 5 9 0. 0( b ) 2 5 . 6 ( b ) 7 0 7 3 9 . 2 ( b ) 4 6 . 8 ( b )
16 96.0(b) 27.0(b) 75 806.3(b) 47.3(b)
1 7 1 02 . 0( b ) 2 8 . 2 ( b ) 8 0 8 7 3 . 7 ( b ) 4 7 . 7 ( b )
1 8 1 08 . 0( b ) 2 9 . 3 ( b ) 8 5 9 4 1 . 0( b ) 4 8 . 1 ( b )
1 9 1 1 4 . 0( b ) 3 0. 3 ( b ) 9 0 1 , 008 . 3 ( b ) 4 8 . 4 ( b )
20 120.0(b) 31.2(b) 95 1,074.9(b) 48.7(b)
21 126.0(b) 32.0(b) 100 1,143.0(b) 49.0(b)
22 t32.0(b) 32.7(b) 110 1,277.7(b) 49.4(b)
23 138.0(b) 33.4(b) 120 1,412.5(b) 49.8(b)
24 144.5(b) 34.0(b) 130 1,547.3(b) 50.7
25 155.5(b) 34.6(b) 140 1,682.1(b) 53.1
2 6 1 6 6 . 6 ( b ) 3 5 . 1 ( b ) 1 5 0 1 , 8 5 6 . 3 5 5 . 5
2 7 1 7 7 . 8 ( b ) 3 5 . 6 ( b ) 1 6 0 2 , 07 6 . 0 5 7 . 9
2 8 1 8 9 . 0( b ) 3 6 . 0( b ) 1 7 0 2 , 3 07 . 8 6 0. 3
2 9 2 00. 3 ( b ) 3 6 . 6 ( b ) 1 8 0 2 , 5 5 1 . 5 6 2 . 7
30 211.6(b) 37.2(b) 190 2,807.3 65.1
3 1 2 2 3 . 0( b ) 3 7 . 7 ( b ) 2 00 3 , 07 5 . 0 6 7 . 5
3 2 2 3 4 . 4 ( b ) 3 8 . 3 ( b ) 2 2 0 3 , 6 4 6 . 5 7 2 . 3
33 245.8(b) 38.7(b) 240 4,266.0 77.1
34 257.7(b) 39.2(b) 260 4,933.5 81.9
3 5 2 7 0. 9 ( b ) 3 9 . 6 ( b ) 2 8 0 5 , 6 4 9 . 0 8 6 . 7
36 284.2(b) 40.0(b) 300 6,412.5 91.5
37 297.5(b) 40.4(b)
38 310.7(b) 40.7(b)
39 324.0(b) 41.1(b)
40 337.4(b) 41.4(b)
(a) Concentrated load is considered placed at the support. Loads used are those stipulated for shear.
( b ) Ma x i m u m v a l u e d et er m i n ed b y S t a n d a r d Tr u c k L o a d i n g. O t her wi s e t he S t a n d a r d L a n e L o a d i n g go v er n s .
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
LOADING H20-44(M 18 )
of pounds.
End shear End shear
and end and end
8 .0(b) 32.0(b) 42 365.9(b) 39.4
2 16.0(b) 32.0(b) 44 385.8(b) 40.1
3 24.0(b) 32.0(b) 46 405.7(b) 40.7
4 32.0(b) 32.0(b) 48 425.6(b) 41.4
5 40.0(b) 32.0(b) 50 445 .6(b) 42.0
6 48.0(b) 32.0(b) 52 465.5(b) 42.6
7 56.0(b) 32.0(b) 54 485.5(b) 43.3
8 64.0(b) 32.0(b) 56 505.4(b) 43.9
9 72.0(b) 32.0(b) 58 530.1 44.6
10 80.0(b) 32.0(b) 60 558.0 45.2
11 88.0(b) 32.0(b) 62 586.5 45.8
12 96.0(b) 32.0(b) 64 615.7 46.5
13 104.0(b) 32.0(b) 66 645.5 47.1
14 112.0(b) 32.0(b) 68 675.9 47.8
15 120.0(b) 32.5(b) 70 707.0 48.4
t6 128.0(b) 33.0(b) 75 787.5 50.0
17 136.0(b) 33.4(b) 80 872.0 51.6
18 144.0(b) 33.8(b) 85 960.5 53.2
t9 152.0(b) 34.1(b) 90 t,053.0 54.8
20 160.0(b) 34.4(b) 95 1,149.5 56.4
21 t68.0(b) 34.7(b) 100 1,250.0 58.0
22 176.0(b) 34.9(b) 110 1,463.0 61.2
23 184.0(b) 35.1(b) 120 1,692.0 64.4
24 192.0(b) 35.3(b) 130 1,937.0 67.6
25 200.0(b) 35.5(b) 140 2,198.0 70.8
26 208.0(b) 35.7(b) 150 2,475.0 74.0
27 216.9(b) 35.9(b) 160 2,768.0 77.2
28 226.8(b) 36.0(b) 170 3,077.0 80.4
29 236.7(b) 36.1(b) 180 3,402.0 83.6
30 246.6(b) 36.3(b) 190 3,743.0 86.8
31 256.5(b) 36.4(b) 200 4,100.0 90.0
32 266.5(b) 36.5(b) 220 4,862.0 96.4
33 276.4(b) 36.6(b) 240 5,688.0 102.8
34 286.3(b) 36.9 260 6,578.0 109.2
35 296.2(b) 37.2 280 7,532.0 115.6
36 306.2(b) 37.5 300 8,550.0 122.0
37 316.1(b) 37.8
38 326.1(b) 38.2
39 336.0(b) 38.5
40 346.0(b) 38.8
App. A 631
(a) Concentrated load is considered placed at the support. Loads used are those stipulated for sheat
(b) Maximum value determined by Standard Truck Loading. Otherwise the Standard Lane Loading governs.
632
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. A
LOADING HS 20-44(MS18 )
Spans in feet; moments in thousands offoot-pounds; shears and reactions in thousands
ofpounds.
End shear End shear
and end and end
Span Moment reaction(a) Span Moment reaction (a)
8.0(b) 32.0(b) 42 485.3(b) 56.0(b)
2 16.0(b) 32.0(b) 44 520.9(b) 56.7(b)
3 24.0(b) 32.0(b) 46 556.5(b) 57.3(b)
4 32.0(b) 32.0(b) 48 592.1(b) 58.0(b)
5 40.0(b) 32.0(b) 50 627.9(b) 58.5(b)
6 48.0(b) 32.0(b) 52 663.6(b) 59.t(b)
7 56.0(b) 32.0(b) 54 699.3(b) 59.6(b)
8 64.0(b) 32.0(b) 56 735.1(b) 60.0(b)
9 72.0(b) 32.0(b) 58 770.8(b) 60.4(b)
10 80.0(b) 32.0(b) 60 806.5(b) 60.8(b)
II 88.0(b) 32.0(b) 62 842.4(b) 61.2(b)
12 96.0(b) 32.0(b) 64 878.1(b) 61.5(b)
13 104.0(b) 32.0(b) 66 914.0(b) 61.9(b)
t4 112.0(b) 32.0(b) 68 949.7(b) 62.1(b)
15 120.0(b) 34.t(b) 70 985.6(b) 62.4(b)
16 128.0(b) 36.0(b) 75 1,075.1(b) 63.1(b)
17 136.0(b) 37.7(b) 80 1,164.9(b) 63.6(b)
18 144.0(b) 39.1(b) 85 1,254.7(b) 64.1(b)
19 152.0(b) 40.4(b) 90 1,344.4(b) 64.5(b)
20 160.0(b) 41.6(b) 95 1,434.1(b) 64.9(b)
21 168.0(b) 42.7(b) 100 1,524.0(b) 65.3(b)
22 176.0(b) 43.6(b) 110 1,703.6(b) 65.9(b)
23 184.0(b) 44.5(b) 120 1,883.3(b) 66.4(b)
24 192.7(b) 45.3(b) 130 2,063.1(b) 67.6
25 207.4(b) 46.1(b) 140 2.242.8(b) 70.8
26 222.2(b) 46.8(b) 150 2,475.1 74.0
27 237.0(b) 47.4(b) 160 2,768.0 77.2
28 252.0(b) 48.0(b) 170 3,077.1 80.4
29 267.0(b) 48.8(b) 180 3,402.1 83.6
30 282.1(b) 49.6(b) 190 3,743.1 86.8
31 297.3(b) 50.3(b) 200 4,100.0 90.0
32 3t2.5(b) 51.0(b) 220 4,862.0 96.4
33 327.8(b) 51.6(b) 240 5,688.0 t02.8
34 343.5(b) 52.2(b) 260 6,578.0 109.2
35 361.2(b) 52.8(b) 280 7,532.0 115.6
36 378.9(b) 53.3(b) 300 8,550.0 122.0
37 396.6(b) 53.8(b)
38 414.3(b) 54.3(b)
39 432.1(b) 54.8(b)
40 449.8(b) 55.2(b)
(a) Concentrated load is considered placed at the support. Loads used are those stipulated for shear.
(b) Maximum value determined by Standard Truck Loading. Otherwise the Standard Lane Loading governs.
APPENDIX B
TRUCK TRAIN AND EQ UIVALENT LOADING S 1935 SP ECIFICATIONS
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIG HWAY OFFICIALS
81
OH ii
I N
tsTON~tJCK I I 2OTONTRUG K I jjTR~c~J
p ~
30 14 30 14 30 14 30 30
H-20-35 LOADING
oj 0
~ mlv.rONTRL)cK I L2~I2~Tn~J mlTONTRtJCK j 1l~TONTRUCK j
C) p C)
30j 14 30 f 14 30 141 30 14 30
H-15-35 LOADING
TRUCK TRAIN LOADING
iSTON TRUCK I
0~ ~Q
4.144
C O N C E N T R A T E D LO A D I 18,O O O LB S. FO R M O M E N T
12 6,000 LB S. FO R SHE A R
1~U N lFO R M LO A D 640 LB S. PE R LI N E A R FO O T O F LA N E
H-2 0-35 LO A D I N G
C O N C E N T R A T E D LO A D 413,500 LB S. FO R M O M E N T
U 9500 LB S. FO R SHE A R
frUNIFORM L OAD 48 0 LBS. P ER LINEAR FOOT OF LANE
H-15-35 LOADING
EQ UIVALENT LOADING
LANE WIDTH 10 FEET
Cr)
a
633
APPENDIX C
C )
z
ZJ tl~
~3O>
C
o-Q~
0~
Q -Jc~~
LL<6
Oz~
LL
0
0
cuk
LLIO..
0
(0
c\J
C
cc co ~i~ c~J 0 cc to ~ e~ 0
1~
634
APPENDIX C (Continued)
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K
The E f f ec t i v e L en gt h o f a c o l u m n , K L , ha s b een u s ed
in the equations for allowable compression stress in the
coluiimn. K is the ratio of the effective length of an ideal-
ized pin-end c(ihumn to the actual length of acolumn with
various other endconditions. KL represents the length be-
tween inflection points of a buckled column. Restraint
against rotation and translation of column ends influences
the position of the inflection points in a ctilumn. Theoret-
ical values (if K for some idealized column end conditions
are given in Table C-I. Since column end conditions sel-
dom comply fully with idealized restraint against rotation
a n d t r a n s l a t i o n , t he recommendedvalues suggested by the
Column Research Council are higher than the idealized
values.
Columns in continuous frames unbraced by adequate
attachment to shear walls, diagonal bracing, or adjacent
structures depend on the bending stiffness of the rigidly
connected beams for lateral stability. The effective length
factor, K, is dependent on the amount of bending stiffness
supplied by the beams at the cohunin ends. If the am(iunt
of stiffness supplied by the beams is small, the value of K
could exceed 2.0.
TABLEC-i
EFFECTIVE LENG TH FACTORS, K
BUCKLED SHAP E OF
COLUMN IS SHOWN BY
DASHED LINE
(a)
3
S
T
(b)
r
t
(c)
1
/
/
/
(d)
2
(e)
I
I
r
(f)
1
I
/
i
THEORETICAL K VALUE 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
DESIG N VALUE OF K WHEN
IDEAL CONDITIONS ARE
AP P ROXIMATED(
1)
0.65 0.8 0 1.2 1.0 2.1 2.0
END CONDITION CODE
1
~
?
ROTATION FiXED TRANSLATION FIXED
ROTATION FREE TRANSLATION FIXED
ROTATION FIXED TRANSLATION FREE
ROTATION FREE TRANSLATiON FREE
For riveted and bolted truss members (parmiatty restrained), use K 0.75. For pinned connections in truss members use
K =0.875 (pin trictionf.
635
636 HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. C
TABLE C-2
K
20.0~
10.0-~
5.0-
4.0-
3.0
2.0-
1.5
I
100.0
50.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.13
5.0
4.0
3.0
1.0
1.0-
SIDESWAY P ERMITTED
FOR COLUMN ENDS SUP P ORTED BY BUT NOT RIG IDLY
CONNECTED TOA FOOTING OR FOUNDATION, G IS
THEORETICALLY EQ UAL TO INFINITY, BUT UNLESS
ACTUALLY DESIG NED AS A TRUE FRICTIONLESS P IN,
MAY BE TAKEN EQ UAL TO 10 FOR P RACTICAL DESIG N.
IF THE COLUMN END IS RIG IDLY ATTACHED TO A
P ROP ERLY DESIG NED FOOTING , G MAY BE TAKEN
EQ UAL TO 1.0. SMALLER VALUES MAY BE TAKEN IF
JUSTIFIED BY ANALYSIS.
G b G a
0-
100.0
50.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
9.0
8.0-
7.0
6.0
5.0-.
4.0 -
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
2.0
0
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
If it is assumed that elastic action occurs and that all
columns buckle simultaneously in a frame, it can be ra-
tionally shown that*
36 _ milK
6(G, G
5) tanQrr/K) (C- 1)
where subscripts a and b refer to the two ends of the
column.
G ~(I~JL~
)
= summation of all members rigidly connected to
an end of the column in the plane of bending;
moment of inertia of column;
*5cc Steel Stmcmurcs Design and Behavior by Charles G. Salmon
and John E. Johnson. published by Intemationat Text Book Company,
1971.
= unbraced length of column;
=moment of inertia of beam or other restraining
member;
unsupported length of beam or other restraining
member;
K =effective length factor.
Table C-2 is a graphical representation of the relationship
(C-2) between K, G~, and G5, and can be used to obtain the value
of Keasily. In frames which have columns that fall in the
inelastic buckling range, (i.e., KLIr < C. (
2 mT 2 E/F~ 1/2),
K may often be reduced. The procedure for reducing K
can be found in Effective Length of Columns in Un-
braced Frames by Joseph A. Yura, AISC Engineering
Journal, published by the American Institute of Steel
Construction, 101 Park Avenue, New York, New York
10017.
App. C 637
COMPUTATION OF PLASTIC SECTION
MODULUS Z*
The plastic modulus Z is the statical first moment of
one half-area of the cross section about an axis through the
centroid of the other half area.
When a section is built up from plates or shapes of
more than one yield point, the plastic moment should be
computed on the basis of equilibrium on the cross sectton
with all fibers stressed to the appropriate yield point in
either tension or compression.
*tnf,jrnlation in tbis Appcndis is obtained from sbc Commentars of
AISI Bulletin t 5. V alues ofZ for rotted sections are listed in tbe Manual
ofSleet Constru,iion, Eighth Edition. 198t), American tnstitute ofSteel
Construetioti.
APPENDIX D
a
A
1 (shaded) = A2 (clear) = A12
a = distance between centroid of A3 and A2
Z = aA, = aA2
638
APPENDIX E
METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS
U.S. Customary Metric
U.S. Customary
Length
1/16 In.
1/4 In.
3/8 In.
1/2 In.
3 /4 In .
1 In.
2 In.
3 In.
6 In.
8 In.
9 In.
10 In.
12 In.
3 Ft.
10 Ft.
40 Ft.
800 Ft.
0.12 In.
0.23 In.
0.40 In.
0.80 In.
Stress (Pressure)
1.6 mm
6.6 mm
9.5 mm
12.7 mm
19.1 mm
25.4 mm
50.8 mm
76.2 mm
152.4 mm
203.2 mm
228.6 mm
254.0 mm
304.8 mm
0.915 m
3.048 m
12.192 m
243.840 m
3 mm
6 mm
II mm
20 mm
Load
600 Lb.
800 Lb.
1,020 Lb.
1,260 Lb.
1,520 Lb.
1,790 Lb.
2,100 Lb.
2.420 Lb.
2,770 Lb.
10,000 Lb.
24,000 Lb.
16 Tons
20 Tons
50 Tons
50 Lb/Fm.
12 Lb./Ft.
100 Lb/Ft.
130 K/In.
20 K/Ft.
50 K/Ft.
6 psf
20 psf
75 Lb./Sq.Ft.
1 kip/Sq.Ft.
2,669 N
3,558 N
4,537 N
5,604 N
6,761 N
7,962 N
9,341 N
10,764 N
12,321 N
44.48 kN
108 kN
142 kN
178 kN
445 kN
74.45 kglm
175 N/in
1,460 N/in
23.13 MN/in
292 kN/m
730 kN/m
287.28 Pa
957.6 Pa
366 Kg/rn
2
47,8 8 0 Pa
36 psi
75 psi
100 psi
150 psi
200 psi
300 psi
360 psi
500 psi
1,000 psi
1,200 psi
1,650 psi
2,000 psi
3,000 psi
4,000 psi
5,000 psi
10,000 psi
20,000 psi
30,000 psi
36,000 psi
40,000 psi
50,000 psi
60,000 psi
100,000 psi
10,000,000 psi
25,000,000 psi
29,000,000 psi
Weight (Density)
30 Lb. /Ft.3
50 Lb/Ft.3
60 Lb/Ft.3
90 Lb/Ft.3
100 Lb/Ft.3
115 Lb./Fti
120 Lb/Ft.3
140 Lb/Ft.3
145 Lb./Ft~
150 Lb/Ft.3
155 Lb/Ft.3
170 Lb. /Ft.3
175 Lb/Ft.3
200 Lb/Ft.3
450 Lb/Ft.3
490 Lb/Ft.3
Metric
.248 MPa
.517 MPa
.690 MPa
1.034 MPa
1.379 MPa
2.068 MPa
2.482 MPa
3.447 MPa
6.895 MPa
8.274 MPa
11.376 MPa
13.790 MPa
20.684 MPa
27.579 MPa
34.474 MPa
68.947 MPa
137.8 95 MPa
206.842 MPa
2 4 8 . 2 1 1 MPa
275.790 MPa
344.737 MPa
413.685 MPa
689.470 MPa
68 ,947 MPa
172,369 MPa
199,948 MPa
480 kg/rn3
801 kg/rn3
961 kg/rn3
1,441 kg/in3
1 .602 kg/in3
1,842 kg/rn3
1,922 kg/in3
2,243 kg/in3
2,320 kg/in3
2,403 kg/rn3
2,482 kg/rn3
2,723 kg/rn3
2,803 kgim3
3,204 kg/in3
7,208 kg/rn3
7,849 kg/in3
639
640
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
U.S. Customary
Temperature
~60O F
~~310 F
~300 F
00 F
10 F
300 F
350 F
400 F
450 F
1150 F
1200 F
3000 F
Miscellaneous
mph
mph
Ft/s
2
Sq.In./Ft.
Sq.In./Ft.
Sq.In./Ft.
In/Ft.
InaTon
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 2.7.4.3
133
A
499
A
A
Metric
~510 C
350 C
3440 c
~17.8 0 C
- 17.00 C
~1.10 C
1,70 C
3,40 C
7.20 C
46.10 C
48 .90 C
148 .90 C
60
100
32.2
.11
1/8
.25
5/8
1- 1/4
H 15
H 20
HS
HS 15
HS 20
Tons
km/hr.
km/hr.
in/s2
inin2/m
inin2/m
inin2/rn
in/in
in/I ,000 kg.
96.5
160.9
9.81
232.77
264
529
.053
.035
M13.5
M18
MS
MS 13.5
MS 18
Metric Tons
EXPRESSIONS
METRIC
l3~300[l l.43(~ J
1,106 [I I.43(~)]
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
641
EXPRESSIONS (Continued)
(30 + M~=)(55~W)
1-I- h _ 33
0.457 18
15.24
L + 38
0.79 ~2
R
(1,435 +
4h~9Q 16.7W
L 15.2 J
Article 3.21.1.3
0.32
Article 3.24.3
(S + .61
~ ,) ~i8
( S + .61
9.74
U.S. CUSTOMARY
7 000
~2~~
METRIC
581
20,000,000 Af
dF~
199. 2b
Figure 2.7.4B
137,640 A~
d F ~
h 33
1+ 18
Article 3.8 .2
50
L + 125
Article 3.19
6.68S
2
R
Article 3.14.1
( S
( S
) P
13 ~
642 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
METRIC
0.8X + 1.143
0.35X + .98
55
121
P[.51 log
10s K]
j~ [i~ Ml
x I ~ + ~ I
0PL R
0 MDJ
P1.51 logio(
39.36s)
R
x I ~
~PL R
0
P I
( 2s) (s20)
PS
( 1,600 ) (S 10)
( ~)
( PS 40 ) (s
[PS ] [ (s30) ]
0.50)
0.25)
Ps ] f (s.75
)
[20 j[ (s.25)]
Article 4.4.12.2
Article 8.5.3
0.OOOOO6perdegF
0.OOOOlO8perdegC
win
5 (0.0428) \/i7
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 3.24.5.1
0.8X + 3.75
0.35X + 3.2
Article 3.24. 10.2
100
220
Article 3.25.1
sV i~
.415 V ~
Article 8 .7.1
35
w.
57,000 \/iT~
4,729.77 V iY
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
643
METRIC
.623 W
.523 W
.456 W
.079 W
~0.l33 f~
0.75 f~+7.58~~(~)
Article 8 .15.5.2.2
0.0006 ~g)W
10.0004
10.84 [.0068 + .0006( ~)] V~
10.84 [.0068 + .004 (
N)]W
.125W
1.5W
.166W
2W
4W
.332 W
Article 8 .15.5.6.3
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 8 .15.2.1.1
7.5W
6.3W
5.5W
Article 8 . 15.5.2.1
0.95 \/i7
0.9 (1
Article 8 .15.5.2.3
0.9 (
Article 8 .15.5.3.4
Article 8 .15.5.3.8
Article 8 .15.5.3.9
( 0.8+ r
3~)W~1.8W
(.o~ +
.149W
644
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
U.S. CUSTOMARY
0.9W
3W
Article 8 . 15.5.7
Vd
W+ 2,200 p M
1.8W
.4W
1.2W
Vd
.083W+ ls.l
68p-~
.149W
.116W
.100W
Article 8 .16.3.2.2
( 87,000+ f~)
O.8S~m ~ ( 599. 843
599.843 + f~)
Article 8 .16.3.3.3
( 87,000
87,000+f~) +
Article 8 .16.3.4.1
) ( 87,000f~
)
0.85
0(i.~d\ ( 599.843
599.843 + f~ )
[0.85 l~m f~ ~ \1
k 87,000+ f )] +
87~000[l
[0.85 ~.3i(f~)( 599.3843 )] + p (I F)
599.8 43 [1 4=)~2 2 2 ~~~2 .iz&\l
[ \dJ ( 599.843
Article 8 . 15.5.6.4
METRIC
.075 W
.249 W
Pf)
0.8 5
Article 8 .16.3.4.3
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
645
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 8 .16.6.2.1
l.9W+ 2~500P~( ~ )
2W
3.5W
2 (1+ 2,000Ag)~
2W
24.1 (.0068 +
2,000 Ag )W
.166W
N~
24.1 (.0068 + 500 Ag )C
.249 W
.332 W
Article 8 .16.6.3.9
8W
Article 8 . 16.6.6.2
(2
Article 8 .16.6.6.3
METRIC
Article 8 .16.6.2.2
.166W
.291 W
Article 8 .16.6.2.3
2 (1+
Article 8 .16.6.3.4
3W
Article 8 .16.6.3.8
4W
.08 3 (2 +
6W
.332W
.498 W
2W
.166W
646
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
V ~d
2.14W+4,600p
4W
3W
2.5W
.178W+
31,716~ V ~d
U
.332 W
.249 W
.208 W
Article 8 .16.8 .3
21 0.33 ~n,in+ 8 (r/h)
144.790 0.33 ~min+ 55.12 (r/h)
Article 8 .19.1.2
Article 8 .25.1
5.8 x 10~2 dbfY
0.026f
W
W
0.361 dbfY
W
Article 8 .25.2
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 8 .16.6.7.1
METRIC
50b~s
f
y
.344750 b~s
f
y
W
0.0004 dbf~
18.97 Abf~
W
0.11 f
C
0.03 dbfY
W
6.7W
.556 W
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
647
U.S. CUSTOMARY
0.02 dbf~
W
0.0003 dbfY
0.03 db(f 20,000) 0.36 db(fY 137.895
)
W
A f
swvv
C
2.4 A~ ~iL~
Article 8 .30.2.1
A f
0.27 ...YL .......L..
SW;-
C
3.24 A~ f
Article 9.15.2.1
Article 9.15.2.2
Article 9.15.2.3
Article 8 .26.1
METRIC
Article 8 .30.1.2
0.240 d b f ~
W
.043 d ~f Y
3W
7.5W
6W
3W
.249 V ~
.623 V~J
.498 W
.249 W
.623 W
.523 f,1
7.5W
6.3W
s.sW
.457 W
648
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
U.S. CUSTOMARY
17,000 150 RH
0.80(17,000 150 RH)
117.21 1.034 RH
0.8 0 (117.21 1.034 RH)
Article 9.16.2.1.2
0.043w~ ~
Article 9. 16.2.1.4
20,000 0.4E5 0.2(SH + CR C)
20,000 0.3FR 0.4E5 0.2 (SH + CK)
18,000 0.3FR 0.4E5 0.2 (SH + CRC)
fse + 15,000
Lx 2
+ f
D 3
137.9 0.4E5 0.2 (SH + CRC)
137.9 0.3FR 0.4E5 0.2 (SB + CRC)
124.10 0.3FR 0.4E5 0.2 (SB + CRC)
fse + 103.421
Lx 2
6.895 + fse
d 3
0.6Wbd+V d+ C
1.7 Wbd
~ f(; + ~ fd)
Article 9.20.2.3
(3.5 f~ + 0.3 f~) bd --
V iMcr
4.98x10~Wbd+V d+ Mmax
218.76 Wbd
(0.498 W~ fd)
Article 9.16.2.1.1
METRIC
33w
312 W
Article 9.17.4.1
Article 9.17.4.2
Article 9.20.2.2
lOx 10~I(.29 f~ 0.3f~)bd1-t-V ~
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
649
U.S. CUSTOMARY
8 Wbd
4 Wwc~
50 bs
fsy
6.895 (f~
1 ~ fse)D
0.0000065 per deg F
12 x 106 per deg C
29,000,000 psi
200,000 MPa
l4bD
v~/tw
7,500b
0.O2L2Fy( 1,000 R~
EY~\ 850 1
37bD
v.p ; t] it~
51,700b
0.O2L2Fy (305~ R
)
Article 10.16.11
Article 9.20.3.1
METRIC
Article 9.20.3.2
.664 Wbd
Article 9.20.3.3
Article 9.27.1
.332 Wbd
.345 bs
(fZ1
fse)D
Article 10.2.2
Article 10.15.2.1
Article 10.15.3
11000
913
650
HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. E
EXPRESSIONS ((ontinued)
U.S. CUSTOMARY
(0.2272L 11)
5d
(0.059L 0.64) 5d~
tfbf
0.08WS~
(O.338L 4.98) Sj~
(0.1069L 0.353) Sdm/2
6MCb
tfbf
Article 10.20.2.2
l.l4WSd
Article 10.25.3
[3/4 + (yield point of steel) ]
[3/4 + (yield point of steel) )
Table I0.32.lA
50 x 106 Cb(!~ 0.772J (d\2
\e/ ~ + 9.87
16,980 0.53 (KL/r)2
23,580 1.03 (KL/r)2
33,020 2.02 (KL/r)2
47,170 4.12 (KL/r)2
42,450 3.33 (KL/r)2
135,000,740
(KLir )2
117.1 0.00368 (KL/r)2
162.6 0.00710 (KUr)2
2 2 7.7 0.0139 (KL/r)2
325.2 0.0284 (KL/r)2
292.7 0.0230 (KIJr)2
Article 10.32.3.3
3b _ t~1T
E 8a 201 E
3b t3 1
328 ,000J~
Article 10.20.2.1
METRIC
App. E HIGHWAY BRIDGES 651
U.S. CUSTOMARY
13,000 x 600d
20,000
x 3,000 \4F
20,000
W
3,250
1 625
W
Article 10.34.2.2.4
Article 10.34.3.1.1
Article 10.34.3.2.1
Article 10.34.4.1
Article 10.32.4.2
METRIC
Article 10.34.2.1.3
89.50
137.90
x 4.137d
137.90
Article 10.34.2.1.5
270
W
Article 10.34.2.2.2
270
135
1,625
135
D W
23,000
D W
46,000
DV~
1,910
DV i~
3,8 20
7.33 x iO~
(D/t~)
2
505,000
(D /t~)2
652
U.S. CUSTOMARY
6,OOOV k
7,500A
4.5 x 10
7k
(DIt~)2F
5
Article 10.34.4.4
(0.754 o.34k)
Article 10.34.5.2
bW
2,250
Article 10.34.6.1 and 10.34.6.2
33,000
($ ) F~
P 100 _________
100 If\ +
+ 10 3,300,000
1 625
W
4 000
W
P 100
100 (~) + 10 +
134,900
vi~
332
W
Article 10.34.4.2
METRIC
498.2 A
622.8 v~
A;
310,000 k
(Dlt~)
2F~
bV ~
186.8
Article 10.35.1
227.54
Article 10.35.2.3
22,754
Article 10.35.2.5
U.S. CUSTOMARY
5 000
V fa
W
5 000
W
Article 10.37.2.2
Article 10.37.2.3
Article 10.37.2.4
623
W
Article 10.37.3.1
Article 10.37.3.2
Article 10.35.2.7
METRIC
Article 10.35.2.9
415
W
Article 10.37.2.1
498
W
415
W
10000
W
1,625
fa + fb
830
W
135
f fb
a
353
135
~a+~b
654 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
U.S. CUSTOMARY METRIC
Article 10.38 .5.1.1
0.175 Bw
Article 10.38 .5.1.2
i 2
6.89 x lOad
ad
2
sso(h~)WW
45.7 (h +
!~w~/i7
2 /
w312 33 W
Article 10.39.2.1
Article 10.39.4.2.1
w32 (.0428) W
W~/12
W~/3 .66
510
6 140
Article 10.39.4.2.2
.55F~ 0.224F~ sin
13,300 b
7,160
55F~ 0.224
1
Lrr 1,104b F~
[Isin ~jFx 594 J
Article 10.39.4.2.3
1,104
57.6(~) x 106 397,000 (t)2
Article 10.39.4.3.2
255
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
655
U.S. CUSTOMARY
METRIC
Articles 10.39.4.3.4 and 10.39.4.4.4
552A
A
55F~ ~0.224FY[l sin 6,650 V~7 j.
1L) ]
.55F~ 0.224F~
x 106 14.4k (i;) 2
1 si
w F~\1
552 k-~i7
297 k ji]
9.93 k (t)
2 ~ 106
Article 10.39.4.4.3
3,070AI
Article 10.39.4.4.4 and 10.39.4.4.5
6,650\/kI
Article 10.39.4.4.5
14.4k
1() x 106
9.93k1() x 10~
Article 10.39.4.5.1
Article 10.41.2
A
20 + 2t
8 +2t
216
A
508 +2t
203 + 2t
Article 10.41.4.6
1,500 2,700F
83.0 F~
255
A
552vii
A
1,500 2,700F
1,000 F~
656
U.S. CUSTOMARY
vii;
.!.22L0
33,650
[3.6 2.2(M
1IM~)] x 106 24,800 15,200(M1/M~
)
Article 10.48 .2.1
183
15A0A2
20,000,000 A~
F~d
[DC _____
X = 15,400
X = 12,500
J
I~l 0.772+ 98 7
\Lb/ Lb
627,000 C, (~) <0.772 A +
ye
Th?~Q
1,515
E
572 x 106 I1,~d]i~
FYSXCJ
3,030
V
Article 10.48 .1.1
METRIC
171
1,597
2,795
Article 10.48 .4
1-0002 (Dctw
)
1,28 0
138 ,000 A~
F~d
91 x 106 Cb
x = 1,280
x = 1,040
9.87
Article 10.48 .5.1
E
3,944,000 I~d]i/2
2&9~
S
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 10.48 .5.3
Article 10.48 .6.1
METRIC
2 600
A;
712~
216
A;
6,060
A;
Article 10.48 .6.3
doW
23,000
d
0V ~
1,910
Article 10.48 .8 .1
0.8 7(1 C)
+ I + (doID)
2
V ,, =0.58 F YDt W
6,000 \/j~~~
4.5 x iO~ k
(Dlt~)2 F~
Article 10.49.2
18,250
498 Vi~
623 vi~
310,000 k
(D/t~)2 F~
1,515
Article 10.49.3.2
3,030
A;
Article 10.50
2,200
vTh~
18,250
36,500
19,230
A;
183
Vi7~T~
1,515
A;
3,030
1,597
658
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 10.51.5.1
510
A
Article 10.51 .5.2
1,104
A
13,300 b
t y
7,160
1,104 b
t y
594
Article 10.51.5.3
1,104
724,000
Article 10.51.5.4.1
Article 10.51.5.4.2
A
A
255 1k
A
552
A
6,650 VF~ A
3,58 0 \/iE
552V i -
t y
297 A
Article 10.51.5.4.3
26.2k (t)
2 x 106
A
181,000 k (t)2
552 ~
A
Article 10.51.5.5
216
A
METRIC
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
659
U.S. CUSTOMARY
W
W
W
2,200
3
fb
~a+ fb
Insert for Figure 10.39.4.3A
bv~- 6,140
t
b
= 510
t y
8,200
t
b
= 681
t y
bA- = 10,060
b
= 835
t y
Article 13.3.3.2
Article 10.55.2
METRIC
560
W
843
vi~
1,121
Article 10.55.3
183
3
Article 10.56.2
473
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3
183
W:v~
-
1T
[8a 328 ,0001
3
8
L + 0.010
L L
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
f~ [f(k~~)]
Article 17.7.4.7
660
U.S. CUSTOMARY
Article 13.3.7.1
App. E
(l2/d)~
9
Article 16.3.4
METRIC
(.3/d)9
98
fffux kD \2~
u14~ (3.28 r)]
17.2
d~A
Index
A
Abutments
backfill, 157, 428429
drainage, 157
full depth, 156
integral, 157
load, 155, 157, 158, 160
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, 157159
on modular systems. 159
notations, 155
partial depth. 156
reinforcement, 157, 16t)
seismic design, 4074t)8, 410, 411-412,418-421
settlement, 155
stability, 157
stub, 156
wingwatls, 159160
Admixtures, 506
concrete, 472473, 474, 595
Aggregates
etincretes. 472. 474
slope protectit)n, 587
Allowable stresses. See also Loads
anchor bolts, 28
bearing stiffeners, 255
bolts, 28, 249
bronze, 255
cast iron, 255
cast steel, 255
concrete, 169
copper-alloy. 255
ductile iron, 255
expansion rockers, 254
fasteners. 249256
footings, 4957, 6263, 9798
foundations, 43
malleable castings, 255
masonry, 255256
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, 136, 138, 141
nongravity canmilevered remainimig walls. 148, 150
piles. 73. 444446
pins. 254
prefabricated iiiodular retaining watts. 143144
prestressed concrete, 202203
prestressing steel. 202203
retaining walls/systems, 113
rigid gravity/semi-gravity remaining watts, 148, 1St)
rivets, 249
rollers, 254
solid rib arches, 263265
steel. 249
structural steel, 226, 227229
timber structures, 335, 337338, 339
weld metal, 249
Aluminum
alloys, dead load weight, 20
corrugated pipe, 302305
design, 297
railings, 579
spiral rib pipe, 3053t)6
Anchorages
approximate methods, 214216
bursting forces, 21S
compressive stresses, 2h421S
diaphragms. 213
edge-tension forces, 2 15216
elastic stress analysis, 214
elastomeric bearings, 347
footings, 9394
forms, 43S
general zone, 210216
local zone 2l6~17
mechanical, 193
multiple slab, 213
nodes, 214
post-tensioned, 210217. 218, S00
pretensioned zones. 217
responsibilities, 210
struts, 213214
ties, 213214
Anchored retaining watts See also Retaining walls/systems
anchor design, 133, 134
anchor load testing and stressing, 133
applications, 112
corrosion protection. 133
drainage, 130
earth pressure, 129130
general structure design. 132133
seismic pressure. 131
stability. 13 1132, 133
surcharge loadings, 129130
terminology. 129
water pressure, 130
Anchors. See also Ground anchors
anchored retaimiing watts, 133
bolt stresses. 28
embedment. 627628
footings, 49
placing mortar. S9S
Angles
bearing stiffeners, 2S2
closed sections, 242
effective area in tension, 232
661
662
INDEX
flange, 238
floorbeam/stringer end contiections. 239241)
lateral bracimie. 24t~~4i
(iutstanding legs. 232
width, 237
Anmicaling 91 9~91fl
Approach emitbankmiicnts, 156
Arches
backfill. 607608
concretc. 168169, 479
metal culverms, 61)8609
remnlorced concrete. cast-imvptacc. 37()37 I
soit-corrtieated metal strtmcture toteractiomi systems, 31)1)
solid rib ~63~.165. 291
static masonry comistruction. 545. 548
wind toad. 26
Ashlar niason ry. Ye also NI asonry
construction. 546
description, 543
maiiu tac tu ~ of stotie Br. 544.545
mamcriat,..543
Asphalt, dead load wejehi. 20
Asphalt waterhirootino 581 ~581. 583584
B
Back(ii I
abutmitents. 157
arches. 61)761)8
Cotterete culverts. 616, 619621)
drainie 4~7
footins 4~
7~4i8
mnamcriuls. 427. 428
metal cal s crt~ 602. 607
nomir is its mides ered retainine watt base. 151
retaimimmi salk 465. 468
riemd mas ty/scmi-eravit) retaininC walls. 125. 150
soil rcimitom rcd ..oncrete struetitre imimeraction systems. 375
workin drmwmn~s, 427
Batter ptks 69 11)4
Battem ~hit Is 78
Beans .,Sc it/so c; i mdc rs
composite
toad factor deBo i83~i86
overload. 293
depth ratio. 226
floor
hiendirig miionicot. 33
di stribimt it~ti of laid 3,39
toneitudinal Wee. 37
osutti-beam deck,. 3435
ii one omii posi Ic. overload. 293
outside roadwas. 33
syosmetricil _78i8 3
unsymmetrical. 283
ss imid load. 26
Bearine areas
expansiomi roeker~. 254
tasteiier~. 243. 249
pins. 254
rollers. 254
Bearings
anchor bolt. 247248. 575
bedding, 575576
bronze. 247, 573
construction, general, 563564
copper-alloy. 247. 573
devices, 218A
disc, 385386, 569572
etastomeric..343348, 564569
expansion. 247248. 349351). 383. 385
fixed, 247248, 349350, 383. 385
masonry. 247. 573
miieasuretiiemit ..976
payment. 576
pedestal. 248
potytetrafluoroethylene ITFE) surface. 573575
pot, 3833 84. 569572
rocker. 572573
roller. 247. 572573
shimn plates for. 573
shoes. 248
shidimio 971573
s(itC plates, 247, 573
spherical, 573
Bearing smiffe ners
girders. 282
plate girders. 160..161
rolled beams, 255
Bedding
concrete cutserms, 612, 615
nietat culverts. 606607
Bemids. 188
Bent tilates, 516517
Bents. 68. 237238
caps. 75. 166. 557
framiied. 557
seisniie desigmi.416417
Bicycle bridges. 26
Bicycle railings. II I 2
Bituniitsotis coatimis 60_
Blast cleanimig. metal surtaccs.538539
l3tast protection. 45
Bolts See also Fastetiers: Hi ehisren~th fasteners
allowable stresses _49194
amiehor. 28. 575
fatigue. 254
holes
structural steel. 517519
types. 243244
load factor design _9l~~93
match roarkin 51_3~94
miiaterials. 223
metal culvert,.. 6111
salvage. 431
size. 244
spacing. 244245
steel Itimimiet liner plate .354
structural steel. 243246. 517519
timmiber structure. 556557
svasher requiretlictits. 244
Bos eirders
comliposite
INDEX 663
allowable stress 168~274
load factor desien. 286288
concrete
bottom slab reinforcement, 185
compression flange. 166. 175176
deck slab reinforcement. 185
diaphragmiis. 167. 21)tf
flanges, I 99200
flexural tension reinforcement, 184185
segmental. 1992(8). 2t)t
slab amid web thickness, 166167
tension reinforcement, 184185
web thickness. 2t)t)
diaphiragnis. 167, 200
flanges, 269, 273
Bracing
ci)lumnns, 237
composite box girders. 273274
lateral, 24l~24~
metal culverts, 6t)8
portal/sway, 235
towers. 237
trusses, 235
Brackets
reinforced concrete. 173174. 182--I 83
shear calculations, 173174. 182183
sidewalk. 248
Brick. See Masonry, brick/block
Bronze bearings, 247. 573
Bronze castings, 225, 255
Bundling. 218
Buoyancy, 31
piles, 74, 102
Buttresses
nongravity canmitevered retaining wall base, 1St)
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining waIls, 123. 1St)
C
Camber
girders, steel, 233
steel grid floors, 534
trusses, 235
Cantilever slabs, 36--37
Carbon steel, 512
Castings
bronze, 225, 255
cast iron, 225, 255
copper-alloy, 225, 255
malleable, 225, 255
tiniber construction. 554
Cast iron, 225, 255
dead load weight, 2t)
Cellular walls, 465
Cements, 471473, 474, 492
ground anchors, 455, 458
Centrifugal forces, highway toads, 25
Channel training, 3
Cleaning
castings, 515
metal surfaces, 538539
Clearance
curbs, 8
depressed roadways. tO
falsework, 434
navigational, 7
railroa(l t)verpasses. 4
sidewalks, 8
tunnels. 810
underpasses, highway, 8
vehicular. 8Il)
vertical, 7
Cofferdams, 429. 437. 438
Collision protecmi(in, piers. 156
Colummis Seea/so Piers
concrete, manufacturing. 478479
footings on, 6768
footings stipporting, 45
round. 340
seismic design, 416, 417, 421-423, 424
shafts supporting, 90
splices, structural steel, 238
tapered, 34t)
timber, 33 1334
transfer of force at base, 6768
Composite members
flexurat, 168, 172, 175, 181, 184185 10l~~~tP
steel
beams, 283286, 293
box girders, 268274, 286-288
girders. 265268. 283286, 293
wt)od-concrete
bending moment, 40
distribution of load, 4t)
elasticity calculation, 40
Compression members
reinforced concrete, 169170, 176178, 185186
structural steel, 231, 261263, 289290
timber structures. 338340
Concrete. See also Concrete structures; Prestressed concrete;
Reinforced concrete
admixtures, 472473, 474
aggregates, 472, 474
classes, 471
cofferdams, 429, 437, 438
cold weather protection, 477
curing, 485487, 489, 493
dead load weight, 20
elasticity, 165
epoxy bonding, 490-492
footings
pedestals, 68
unreinforced, 68
forms, 435
handling, 478481
hot weather protection, 477
latex modified, 621625
manufacture, 474476
masonry cores and backing, 546
painting, 54 1542
placing, 452, 478481
precast, construction, 488492
proportioning, 473474
664
INDEX
protection during curing. 477-478
rain protection, 477
shafts, drilled, 449, 452
underwater placement, 480
Concrete block. See Masonry, brick/block
Concrete structures
application (if loads, 493
arches, 479
box culverts, 479
brackets, 173174, 182183
construction joints, 481
contraction joints, 481-483
corbels, 173174, 182183
culverts. 173, 182, 611620
disposal, 432
expansion joints, 481-483
finishing, 483485, 487488
flexural niembers, 168, 172, 175, 181, 184185, 188189
gutters, 465
materials, 471473
measurement, 493494
mortar and grout, 492493
payment, 494
piles
cast-in-place, 76
precast, 7576
railings, 581)
removal, 432
retaining walls, 463
slope paving, 587. 590591
tunnel liner plates, 599600
waterstops, 482483
Connections Seealso Fasteners
end connections, 240-241
tillers, 239
gusset plates 136
hangers, 246
links, 246
seismic design. 417
Connectors
shear-plate, 554
spike-grid, 554555
stud shear. 514515
timber construction, 554555. 556
Constniction procedures
backfill, 427429
bearing devices. 563576
brick/block masonry, 550-552
bridge deck joint seats, 577578
cofferdams, 437
etincrete culverts. 612620
concrete structures. 47 3493
driven piles, 439446
earth retaining systems, 465469
embedment amichors, 627628
excavatiOn, 427429
falsework, 434436
forms. 434436
ground anchors, 456461
miietal cutverms. 60261)9
iiiortar. pneuniatically applied. 595597
painting, 537542
railings. 579581)
reinforcing steel, 49597
removal work, 431-432
shafts, drilled, 449-453
shoring, 437
slope protection, 588591
steel grid flooring, 533535
steel structures, 516530
stone masonry, 545548
temporary bridges, 437438
temporary works, 433438
timber structures, 555559
tunnel liners, 599600
waterproofing, 582585
wearing surfaces, 621625
Continuous spans
depth ratios, 226
toads, 20, 25
Contraction joints
construction, 481-483
nongravity cantilevered retaining wall base, ISO
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining waIls, 125, 151)
Coping, masonry, 547
Copper-alloys, 225, 247, 255, 573
Corbels, reinforced concrete, 173174, 182183
Corrosion
anchored retaining walls, 133
ground anchors, 456
nongravity cantilevered retaining walls, 129
piles, 7374
prestressing steel, 51)4
reinforced concrete, 187188
soil-corrugated metal stnmcture interaction systems, 31)1
soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systenis, 357
soil-thermoplastic pipe interaction systems, 378
Counterforts
nongravity canmilevered retaining wall base, 150
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining walls, 123, 151)
Cover plates
length, 232233
perforated, 235
Crib walls, 465
Culverts,4, 153
concrete, 479
assembly, 612
backfill, 429
installation, 612620
materials, 611612
measurement, 620
payment, 620
working drawings, 611
metal
assembly, 602604
backlilt, 429
construction precautions. 61)9
installation, 604609
materials, 61)161)2
measurement, 609
paynient. 609
reinforced concrete box
cast-in-place 371 _
precast. 374
INDEX 665
slabs, 173, 182
structural plate box, 310-313
Curbs
depressed roadway, 8
loads, 26
tunnel, 10
D
Dampproofing, 582
Dead loads, 1920
culverts, 153
Deckjoint seals, 577578
Deck panels, 217
Deflection
elastomeric bearings, 345. 346
fatsework, 434
reinforced concrete, 166, 167
soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 375
steel tunnel liner plates, 353
Depressed roadways. It)
Design analysis, 3
Detour bridges, temporary. 438
Diaphragms
box girders, 167, 200. 273
composite box girders, 288
orthotropic-deck superstructures, 277
plate girders, 240
structural steel. 241
T-beams, 200
T-girders, 167
trusses, 234~35
Disc bearings. 569572
Distribution of loads
cantilever slabs, 3637
coniposite wood-comicrete miiembers. 40
concrete stabs. 3537
floor beams, 3235
longitudinal beams. 32
longitudinal edge beams, 37
median slabs, 37
reinforcement, slabs, 37
spread box girders, 41
steel grid floors, 40-41
stringers. 3235
T-beanis, 3435
timber floors. 3740
unsupported transverse edges. 37
Dowels
footing reinforcement. 68
mitsonry. 547
steel.3839
Dowmispouts. 4
Drainage
abutments, 157
anchored retainmne walls. 130
backfill, 427
blankets, 465
geocomposite systems, 465, 588, 589, 592
nongravitycantilevered retaining walls. 127, 147I 48
prefabricated modular retaining waIls, 144
retaining walls, 464, 465
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining waIls, 119120,
147 148
roadways, 4
Drilled piles. See Shafts, drilled
Ductile iron, 225, 255
Ductility limits, prestressing steel, 207
Ducts,
prestressing steel, 504505
size, 218
E
Earth pressure, 31. See also Water pressure
abutments, 157
nongravity cantilevered retaining walls, 125127, 128, 147
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining waIls, 116, 118119,
121122, 147
Earthquakes, 31. Seealso Seismic design/analysis
abutments, 157
reinforced concrete, 186
Earth retaining systems. SeeRetaining watts/systems
Edge beams, longitudinal, 37
Elastomeric bearings
anchorage, 347
bearing design methods, 344347
definitions, 343344
design forces for supporting structure, 348
fabrication, 564, 567
installation effects, 348
material properties, 344
materials, 564
stiffeners, 348
testing, 567569
Electric railway loads, 25
Emnbankments
abutments on, 156
footings in, 45
piles through, 69
predrilled holes for piles, 443
shafts through. 79
End bearing piles, 69
Epoxy bonding. 490492
Excavations
footings. 49, 427A28
foundations. 428
measurement, 429
paymemit 4~9
piles, 443
shafts, drilled, 45 1452
working drawings. 427
Expansionjoints
construction, 481483
nt)ngravity canmilevered retaining watt base, 1St)
666
INDEX
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining walls, 125. 1St)
struettiral steel. 248
Eyebars. 246-247.513,519
F
Factors of safety
corrugated metal pipe 30_
miicchanicatly stabilized earth (MSEI watts. 134, 136
nongravity cantilevered remaining walls, 127. 129
piles, 71
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retainimig walls. 123
shafts. 86
steel tunmict liner plates, 354
Fatsework, 434436
Fasteners See u/so Bolts: Connections: Highstremigth
fasteners: Rivets
allowable stresses. ~49~56
edge distance, 245246
spacing, 244245
stitch, 245
structural steel, 24346 19l~93
Flanges
box girder. 166. 200. 269. 273. 287288
plate girder. 256257
prestressed construction. I 9920t)
T-girder, 166
wind load. 241
Flood planning, 34
Flooritig. See also Timber floors
beams. 3235
concrete slab. 26, 27
steel grid, 4041. 533535
structural steel, 239~40 ~48~149
surfaces, 5
Footings
anchorage, 49, 93
bearing capacity
of foundation soils, 9798
of foundations on rock, 98. 100
on rock. 6263
on soil, 4957
bell, in drilled shafts, 452453
columns on, 45, 6768
concrete. 68
culverts, 153
depth, 4849, 93
deterioration. 9495
distribution of bearing pressure. 45
embankments, 45
excavations, 49. 427428
failure by sliding. lt)0
in fill, 45
frost action, 93
groundwater, 94
limit states, 97
loads, 66
moments, 67
notations, 4548, 95, 97
pedestals on, 68
piers on. 45
piles. 67, 75
pipitig. 49
reactions. 6667, 313
reinforcement development. 67
scotir protection, 49. 93
settlement. 57. 6364. 97
shallow. 100
shear calculations, 67. 172-173. 181182
soil and rock property selection, 48
soit-reinlorced concrete struettire interaction systems .375
spread. 4568. 93lOt)
stability, 61. 64. 66. 100
strength desigmi. 93It)t)
subsurface exploration, 4345
terminology. 48
tiplift, 94
Forked ends. 247
Forms. 434436. 440. 534
Foundations. See also Footings: Piles: Shafts, drilled
bearing capacity. 43
definitions. 92
fatsework, 434
general, 43
geological assessment, 43S
limit states. 9293
load factors, 93
metal culverts, 604605
performance factors, 93. 94
problem condition table, 44
renioval, 431
retaining walls, 46446S, 468
scour. 45
seismic design, 407408. 409411,417,418421
type of, 43
Friction losses, post-tensioned steel, 203
Friction piles, 69
Frost action, footings, 93
FS. See Factors of safety
G
Galvanizing
metal, miscellaneous, 593
painting galvanized surfaces. 540
structural steel, S14, SIS
timber construction, SS4
Geocomposite drains, S88, S89, 592
Girders. Seealso Box girders
composite
allowable stress, 265268
load factor design, 283286
overload, 293
d ec k p l a t e, 2 7 6
depth ratio, 226
hybrid, 274275, 288289, 29S
noncomposite, overload, 293
plate
allowable stresses, 256261
flanges, 256-257
heat-curved, 233234
riveted or bolted, 261
stiffeners, 258261
INDEX 667
web plate thickness. 257258
prestressed
flanges. I 992t)t)
simple spat). 199
spread box, 41
steel
camber. 233234
curved, construction. 52t)52 I
deflection. 231
shear connectors. 288
symmetrical. 278283
utisvmmetrical. 283
wind load. 26
Glued laminated timber. 316317. 318. 38~33~
floors. 39
(iravel. dead laid wei.ht
1t)
Grotind anchors
centralizers. 456457
descriptiomi. 455
fabrication. 456457
installation. 457461
materials. 455456
il)easurement. 461
payment. 461
temidorms. 456457
testirie. -l5X46t)
workine drawitigs. 455
(iii >up lii Ic loadinL 71 _
(irtilt
brick/block masortr~ constructiomi, 549. 551155 1
concrete strticmtires 49~493
materials. 505506
prestressing steel.508509
Gusset plates. 236
H
Hamisiers, pile driving. 441 ~44 _
h-Lint bridges, temporary. 438
Hautich. concrcte culverts, 616 61 96N)
H/HS toadies. 21. 22. 24
High-strength fasteners
altermiative, 514
bolted parts. 524
calibrated wrench tiehtcmiine. 526527
dimemisions. 513
direct mensiomi indicator tiebtenine. 527
eatvamiized. 514
ide omi t.x~ in g misarks. 513
installation 514~59
toad indicatine devices..~~ 14
material. 513
rotational capacity tests. 525
surface condition,.. 524
turnaIn nt t i hten its 526
~astmers. 5u5~~6
Hi eli way loads
cenitritugal forces. 25
classes of. 21
itripacs allowances. 21, 2.3
lane loading. 23
lomicitudinal forces. 2.3
minimum load, 21
overload provisions. 2t)
traffic lanes. 20. 25
Holes
bolt, 243244. 517519
timber fasteners, 556
Hooks, 188
Hybrid girders 174fl5 ~88~89i95
Hydraulic studies. 4
I
Ice
dead load. 19
flow forces i8~9 31
force calctilations, 29
static pressure. 29. 31
Inspectiomis/approvats
concrete flux. 473
excavations, 451-452
foutmdatioii excavation. 428
pile driving system cliamiges, 441
treated wood. 56 1562
waterproofing tisameriats. 581
Interaction systems Sec Soilcorrugated metal strticture
interaction systems: Soilreimiforced concrete structure
interaction systems: Soilthermopta.stic pipe interaction
systemiis
Irami Y e also Cast i rim
ductile. 225. 255
.1
oi nt s.Sce also Ci mnnce ti otis: Coii traction joimiss: Expansion
joints
abutting. 517
comicreme, construct ion. 481-483
culverts
concrete. 611612
metal. 6026t)4
deck, seals .577578
seismic desin 44
slip-critical. 243. 292 ~94~95
L
Lacine bars. 236
Lane loads. 20. 23
Lap splices. 193. 497
Latex moditied concrete \5 cane surfices 6i 1625
Lightweight concrete. 170171, 179
Liner plates
comicrete tunnel. 59960(1
steel tumid ..35 1354. 59960(1
Live toads
appticationm of. 25
comitimiuoLis spans. 25
detinitiomi. 2t)
maxmmtimiu stress ~
sidewalks. 26
668 INDEX
Loads. See also Allowable stresses~, Distribution of loads;
Live loads; Shear calculations
abutments, 155, 157, 158, 160
buoyancy, 31
centrifugal forces, 25
coefficients table, 30
combinations, 3132
concrete construction, 493
culverts, 153
curb, 26
dead load, 1920, 153
earth pressure, 31
earthquakes, 31
electric railway, 25
falsework, 434
footings, 66, 97
ground anchors, 460461
HJHS loadings, 21, 22, 24
highway, 2021
ice, 19, 2829, 31
impact allowances, 2 123
load factor design, reinforced concrete, 174-184
longitudinal forces, 23
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, 136, 138142,
141142
nongravity cantilevered retaining walls, 125127, 128, 148,
150
overloads, 20
overturning forces, 27
piers. 155
piles, 72, 76, 444446, 447
prefabricated modular retaining walls, 143144
railings, II, 26, 36
bicycle, 1112
pedestrian, 1315.26
reduction in intensity, 25
retaining walls/systems, 144151
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining walls, 116, 118119,
148, 1St)
shafts, drilled, 91, 108, 4S3, 4S4
sidewalk, 26
skewedbridges, 19
slabs, 3537
soil-corrugated tnetal structure imimeraction systems, 2993t)2
soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
3S6-3S7
soil-thermoplastic pipe interactiomi sysmenis. 378379
steel tunnel liner plates, 35 1352
stream current, 28
structural steel, 226, 227229
substructures, ISS
thermal forces, 2728
tire contact area, 41
traffic lanes, 2(1, 23
uplift, 28, 72
wind, 2627, 241
Location, waterways. 3
Longitudinal beams, distribution (if toad, 32
Longitudinal forces. 23
Long span structures
culvert consirtiction 601 604 607608
structural plate, 3083 10
Luminaires, 297
M
Macadam, dead load weight, 20
Malleable castings, 22S. 25S
Masonry
allowable stresses, 2SS2S6
bearing plates, 573
bricklblock
construction, SS0-SS2
description, S49
materials, 549SSO
measurement, SS2
payment, 552
stone
construction, S4S548
dead load weight, 20
manufacture of stone for, 544
materials, S43S44
measurement, 548
payment, S48
railings, 580
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls
abutments on, 157159
applications, 112
bearing capacity, 136, 138
drainage, 141
earth pressure, 134135
embedment, 134
factor of safety, 134, 136
loading conditions, 14 1142
materials, 464
pullout design, 139
reinforcement, 138139
polymeric, 140-141
steel, 139140, 141
scour, 134
seismic design, 142
stability, 134-I 36, 138, 142
structural dimensions, 134
structural requiremetits, 142
Median stabs, 37
Metal, miscellaneous, S93
Mortar, 492493
bricklblock masonry construction. S495S0
pneumatically applied, S88, S9SS97
for stone nias(inry, 543544
MSE walls. See Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls
Mud sills. 557
Multi-beamdecks, 34-3S
N
Nomigravimy camititevered retai rung walls. See also Retaining
walIs/systems
applications, Ill
backfill, 1St)
INI)EX 669
base slabs, 150
bearingcapacity, 148, 150
buttresses, I 50
contraction joints. 150
corrosion, 129
coulomb analysis, 124
counterforts, 150
drainage, 127, 147148
earth pressure, 125127. 128, 147
expansion joints, 150
factor of safety, 127, 129
movement, 148
overturning, 1St)
reinforcement, 151)
seismic pressure, 127, 148
sliding, 1St)
stability, 127, 129, 148, 150
structural failure, 1St)
surcharge loadings, 125127, 128
terminology, 125
wall stems, 150
water pressure, 127, 147148
0
Orthotropic-deck superstructures 975~977 995 5~l522
Overlilt, concrete emilverms. 616 61 96~()
Overload, 21)
beams. 293
slip-critical jOititS 9495
structural steel 194995
Overpasses. railroad. 45
Overturiting forces, 27
miongravity cantitevered retainine wall,., 151)
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retainimig walls. 151)
P
Painting
comicrete, 54l~.54_
galvamiized stirfaces .5411
general provisions, 537
metal stmuettires .537541)
steel piles. 439
steel smrtmcttmres. 522
timiiber. 541
timber stmuettires. 559
zimicrich primuer~. 541)
Paymemit
bearine devices. 576
brick/block miiasomiry comistruction. 552
etincrete and steel liner plates, 61)1)
concrete construction, 494
concrete cutverts, 621)
deckjoint seals. 578
embednieni amiehors. 628
exeavatmomis, 429
eround anchors, 461
latex mi)ditied concrete wearimi surfaces 6~5
tiietal. mniseellameous, 593
metal culverts, 61)9
mortar, pneumatically applied, 597
painting, 540, 541, 542
piles, 447
preservative treatment of wood, 562
prestressing steel, 51)9
railings, 580
removal work, 432
shafts, drilled, 454
steel grid flooring, 535
stone masonry. 548
structural steel, 531
waterproofing, 585
Pedestals
bearings, 248
concrete, 68, 557
Piers. Seealso Columns
backfill, 428
bent type, 156
collision protection, 156
double wall, 155156
facing protection. 156
footings suppsirting, 45
load. 155
notations, 155
prestressed girder conneemiotis, 199
scour, 156
seismic design, 416, 417, 423. 424
settlememit, 155
singlec~)tumiit1, 156
siitid wall, 155
tubular. 156
Pile bents, 68
Piles
abrasion, 74
apphicatiomi, 68
axial capacity, 71), 11)211)3
batter. 69, 11)4
bearimig capacity, 444446
bent caps, 7S
bents, 68
buckling. loS
buoyancy, 74, 11)2
comicrete
east-mu-place, 76. 441)
tilled steel, 73
hollow, 77
measuretiiemit atid paymemit. 447
precast. 73. 7576. 4411
prestressed, 73. 7778
prestressing. 441)
protectioti. 44(1
protectitimi against deterioration. 75
splicing, 446
timuber, 439
corrosion, 7374
cut-off procedtmres, 446
670
INDEX
defective. 446
design pile capacity, 7073, 102
driving equipment. 44 1443
driving procedures. 443444
driving stresses 74
embankments, 69
end bearing, 69
estimated temigths. 69
factor of safety. 71
footings, 67, 75
trictioii, 69
ground m(ivement, 72
group pile loading.7172. 10)4105
lateral loads, 72
loads, 76
manufacturing, 440
materials. 68. 439
measurement, 447
inonittiring, 74
miiovement allowances, 74
notations, 6970, l0t~I01
payment, 447
penetration, 68. 102
protection against deterioration, 7475
removal. 43 I
scour, 74
seismic design, 73. 105,411,419-420)
settlement. 71, 10)210)3
soil and rock property selection, 71)
soldier piles. 466467
splicing. 446
steel
allowable stresses., 73
H-piles. 73, 7677
measuremiicnt and paymneot. 447
painting, 439
protectiomi against deterioration. 74
sheet piles, 466
splicing, 446
unfilled tubular, 73. 77
strength design. 11)0111)5
structural capacities, 73
terminology. 71)
test. 69
mimiiber. 317
cut-off procedtires. 446
limitations on use. 78
makriats. 78. 439
measurenient and payment. 447
protection against deterioratiomi. 75
splicing, 446
tip elevation, 69
tip restraint, 69
types, 69
uplift loads, 72. 10)3. 1014
wave equation analysis. 74. 44445
allowable stresses. 254
holes. 246
Iticati tsn. 246
materials. 223
nuts, 246
Pius
plates, 246
size. 246
structural steel ~46 519 520
)
Pipe. See a/so Soil-thermoplastic pipe interaction systems
corrugated metal, 30)230)5
footings, 49
reinforced concrete, in soil-reinforced concrete structure
interaction systems. 357370
spiral rib metal, 3(15306
structural plate, 30730)8
Plastic
hinging, seismic design, 416417, 422423
joint construction. 483485
pipe
polyethylene, 379, 381
polyvinylchloride. 379380. 381382
soil-thermoplastic pipe imiteraction systems. 377382
Pointing stone joints. 547548
Polymeric coatings, 60)2
Polymeric reinforcement, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE~
walls, 140-141
Polytetrafluoroethylene (TFE) bearing surfaces. 3493501,
573575
Piirtal bracing, 235
Pot bearings. 383384, 569572
Prefabricated mtidtmlar retaining watts
applications. 112113
drainage. 144
embedment. 143
factors of safety. 142143
scour, 143
stability, 143
structural diniensions, 142143
Preservative treatment of wood, 317. 561562
Prestressed concrete See a/so Concrete: Reinforced coticrete
allowable stresses, 2022f)3
anchorage zones, 210217
basic assumptions. 20)1
compressive strength. 198
continuous constnmemiomi. 198199
contraction. 198
deck panels, 201
definitions, 197
deflections. 200-20)1
design c(mnsiderations, general ~0 I _ _
diaphragms. 20)0
ductility limits. 20)7
expansion, 198
flange dimemisions t99~0()
flexural strength, 20)620)7
frames. 198199
load factors, 20)2
loss of prestress ~03~04 20)6
notations, 195196
piles, 7778
reinforcement. n(in-prestressed 07208
shear. 20)820)9
span length, 198
strength at stress transfer. 2 17
Prestressing steel See also Reinforcing steel: Steel: Steel
structures
allowable stresses 90~~()3
INDEX
671
amiehorage zones, 21 o)2 17
eOOOSts)ii inhibitor, 51)4
ductility limits, 20)7
duets, 50)450)5
flexural strength, 20)6-207
ground anchors, 455
gr(iuting. 50)8509
materials, 50)550)6
idenmificatiomi, 50)3504
loss of prestress, 203204, 20)6
materials, 50X)502
nicasurement. 50)9
payment, 50)9
pl~icing of ducts, steel, amid amichorage hardware .50)2503
prestress losses b03~~04, 20)6
protection, 50)4
reinforcetnent, 198
strand, 218A
shear. 208209
supplemnentary drawings, 4995(X)
tensioning, 50)6-50)8
testing. 50)3504
R
Railings
aluminum, 297, 579
bicycle, 1112
brick. 581)
bridge ends, 10)
concrete, 580)
construction, 579580)
loads, 1112, 1315,26,36
measurement, 580)
metal beam, 579
payment, 580
pedestrian, 1215
sidewalks, 8
steel, 579
stone, 580
temporary, 580)
timber, 580
vehicular, 10-I I
Railroads
electric railway loads, 25
overpasses, 156
Reactions, footings, 6667
Reinforced concrete See iilsa Concrete; Prestressed concrete:
Soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems
allowable stress design, 169174
application. 161
comprCSSi(in flange width, 166
etimpression members, 185186
compressive strength, 164165
corrosion protection, 187I 88
detinitions, 164
deflection, 166, 167
design, general. 167169
diaphragmiis, 167
elasticity, 165
expansion and contraction, 165
flexural members. 168, 172, 175, 181, 184185
flexural reinforcement, 188h 89
mechanical anchorage, 193
notations, 161164
reinforcemeiit, 165
seismic design, 40)8, 412413, 421424
shear reinforcement, 186I 87
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. 187
slab and web thickness, 166167
spacing limits for reinforcement, 187
span length, 165166
splices of reinforcement. 193194
stiffness analysis, 165
strength design memhodltoad factor design, 174184
Reinforcement. See also Reinforced concrete: Reimiforeing
steel
abutmnents. 157, 160
box culverts, 311312
compression members, 185186
culverts. 153
elastomeric bearings, 346. 347
flange. 218
flexurat members, 184185, 188189, 20)620)7
footings, 67
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, 138141, 469
negative moment, 189, 199
nongravity cantilevered retaining wall base, ISO
piles
cast-in-place concrete, 76
precast concrete, 7576
positive moment, 189. 199
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining waIls, 125, ISO
shafts, drilled, 90
shear
friction, 171172, 180181
minimum, 186-187
prestressed concrete, 20)820)9
spacing, 187
types. 187
shrinkage and temperature stresses, 187
soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems. 357,
363370)
spacing limits, 187
web, 208
Reinforcing steel See also Reinforced concrete:
Reinforcement
allowable stress. 169
bar lists and bending diagranis. 495
bending, 495
brick/block masonry constrtmction, 549
bundled bars, 188, 191, 193
deformed bars and wires
development length. 189190)
splices, 193194
description, 495
elasticity, 16S
fabrication, 495-496
fastening, 496497
flexural reinforcement. development. 188I 89
hooks, development. 191192
hooks and bends, 188
material, 49S
672 INDEX
measurement, 497498
mechanical anchorage, 193
mortar, pneumatically applied, 595, 596
payment, 498
placing, 496497
reinforcement handling, storing, and surface condition, 496
shafts, drilled, 449, 452
shear reinforcement development, 191
spiral, 186
splices, 193194, 497
substitutions, 497
ties, 172, 181, 186, 188, 194
welded wire fabric, development, 192193
Removal work
falsework and forms, 436
measurement, 432
payment, 432
Retaining walls/systems. See also Anchored retaining walls;
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls; Nongravity
cantilevered retaining walls; Prefabricated modular
retaining walls; Rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining
walls
bearing capacity, 113
capacity, 113
coulomb analysis, 124
definitions, 145146
design considerations, Ill
drainage, 465
earthwork, 464465
excavation, 464, 466467
limit states, 146
load factors, 146147
materials, 463464
measurement, 469470
movement, 113
notations, 114-116, 146
payment, 469470
performance factors, 147
problem conditions, 113
seismic design, 410), 418
settlement, 113
stability, 113
strength design, 144151
subsurface exploration and testing, 113114
temporary, Ill
Rigid gravity/semi-gravity remaining walls
applications. Ill
backfill. 125, 151
base slabs. 123. 150
bearing capacity. 148, 150
buttresses, 123, 150)
contraction joints, I 25
coulomb analysis. 124
counterforts, 123. 150)
drainage, 147148
earth pressure, 16. I 18119, 121122, 147
expansion joints, 125, t50
movement, 148
overturning, 150
reinforcement, 125, 150
seismic pressure, 120-123, 148
sliding, 150
stability, 123, 125, 148, 150
structural failure, 150
surcharge loadings, 116, 118119
terminology, 116
wall stems, 123, 15(1
water pressure and drainage, 119120, 147148
Riprap, 587592
Rivets
hong, 246
materials, 223
salvage, 431
size, 244
spacing, 244245
R o a d wa ys
beams, 33
clearances, 10
drainage, 4
stringers, 33
tunnels, 810
widths, 7
Rocker bearings, 572573
Rockers, expansion
materials, 223
Rolled beams, 233234, 256
Roller bearings, 572573
Rollers
holes, 519
materials, 223
Rubble masonry. Seealso Masonry
beds andjoints, 546
description, 543
headers, 546
manufacture of stone for, 544
materials, 543
S
Salvage, 431432
Scour, 34
footing protection, 45, 49
foundations, 93
piers, 156
piles, 74, 77
shafts, 88
soil-reinforced concrete struettire mnteractiomi systems, 375
Seismic design/analysis
abutments, 40)740)8. 4111). 411-412,418-421
acceleration coefficient .397399
INDEX 673
analysis methods
multimode spectral analysis, 405406
selectioncriteria, 403404
single mode spectral analysis, 404405
time history, 406
uniform load, 404
applicability, 397
ATC-6 project 389393
basic concepts, 390
design forces for performance categories, 407, 409410,
41518
displacement, 410, 418
elastic forces and displacements, 400
elastic seismic response coefficient, 400
foundations, 407408. 409411,418-421
general, 389390
importance classification, 399
orthogonal factors, 400-401
performance categories, 399
quality assurance requirements, 390-391
reinforced concrete, 186, 408, 412413, 421424
response modification factors, 400
seat-width requirements, 401
single span bridges, 401
site effects, 399
staged construction, 40)2
steps in, flow charts, 391393
symbols and definitions. 395396
temporary bridges, 4t)2
Seismic pressure
nongravity cantilevered retaining walls P7 148
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining walls, 120), 123, 148
Settlement
abutments, 155
footings. 97
on rock, 6364
on soil. 57
piers. 155
piles,71. 103
retaining waIls, 113
shafts, drilled. 8688, 10)7
substructures. 155
Shafts, drilled
applications. 78
axial capacity
in rock. 8486. 10710)8
in SOil. 80-84
bases, enlarged. 83. 9091
batter, 78
bell footings. 453, 454
casings, 451
center-to-center spacing. 91
cilticrete placemiient, 452
comistruetmomi
methods. 78. 84. 86. 450
protectiomi of existine structures, 449
sequence. 449
desigmi, general. 90)
diamiieter. 78
dry construction method, 450
embankments, 79
embedment, 78
excavations, 451-452
factor of safety, 86
footings on, 67
geotechnical design, 80, 106
ground movement, 84, 10)7
groups, 84, 88, 10)7, 108
integrity testing, 453
lateral loading, 8889, 108
load testing, 91, 108, 453, 454
materials, 78, 449
measurement. 453454
notations, 7980, 105106
payment, 454
permanent casing construction niethod, 450)
presumptive values, 80
reinforcement, 90)
reinforcingsteel cage, 452
rock sockets, 8586, 87
seismic design, 90)
settlement, 8688, 107
sloping ground, 89
slurry, 451
soil and rock property selection, 80
strength design, 105109
structural design, 108109
temporary casing construction method, 450
terminology, 80
test bells, 452, 454
test shafts, 452, 453, 454
tolerances, 452453
uplift, 10)7, 108
wet construction method. 450)
Shear calculations
brackets, 173174, 182183
composite flexural members, 20)9
composite girders, 266-268
corbels, 173174, 182183
development of shear reinforcement, 191
elastomeric bearings, 345, 347. 348
floor beams, 33
footings, 67, 172173, 181182
highway loads, 20
longitudinal beams. 38
longitudinal glued laminated timber decks. 39
maximums, 41
prestressed ciincrete. 208209
reinforced concrete members, 17(1-171, 178179
slabs, 36, 172173. 181182
stringers and beams, 3233
timber struetttres, 337338
trusses, 234
Shear connectors, studs, 514515
Shear friction 171IT, 180181
Shear-plate connectors. 554
Sheet pile walls, eonstrtiction. 466
Shoring, temporary. 437
Sidewalks
brackets, 248
loads. 26
674 INDEX
pedestrian, 8, 485
railings. 8
widths, 7
Sign supports, alumitiuni, 297
Sills, 557
Skewed bridges, 19, 248
Slabs
bending mnomiwmit, 3536
cantilever, 36
distribution of toad, 3537
distribution reinforceijient, 37
earth pressure, 3 I
Oloor, 25, 26
median, 37
nongravity cantitevered retainimig wall base, 1Sf)
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retainimsg wall base, 123, 1St)
shear calculations, 172173, 181I _
supported omi four sides, 36
thick/mess. 166h 67
unsupported transverse edges, 37
Slenderness effects, 177178, 231
Sliding bearings, 572573
Slip-critical joints. 243. 292, 294295
Slope protection
construction. 588591
materials, 587588
measurement and payment. 59 1592
types, 587
Slurry, drilling. 451
Soil conditiomis
desigmi pile capacity, 71)73
drilled shafts, 8(1-84
footing bearing capacities, 4957
footings, 4957. 9798
foundations, 48, 49, 55
tong span structural plate structures, 30)9
metal culverts, 60)3
retaining watts
anchored. 129130)
general. 113h 14
seismic analysis, 397399
shafts, axial capacity, 801-84
soilcorrugated metal structure interactiots systems, 30)0), 30)9
soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 357,
358
soil-thermoplastic pipe mnteractiomi systems, 377378
Soi I-corrugated metal structure interaction systemi~s
abrasive or ci)rrosive conditions, 3(11
arch design, 300)
corrugated metal pipe, 302305
end treatment, 30)1, 31(1
toad factor design.302
loads, 2993(X)
kingspan smrm.mcmtmral plate structures, 30)83 tO)
materials. 300
notations. 299
service load design, 3(1130)2
soil desigmi. 300)
spacing. 31)1
spiral rib metal pipe, 31)S3t)6
structural plate box eutserts.3 10313
stnicttirat plate pipe sirtictures, 30)73(18
Soil-metal plate imiteraction system~, 297
Soil-reinforced concrete structure inter~icti(mn systems
arch, cast-in-place, 37(1-371
box
cast-in-place, 37 1372
precast, 372373
loads. 3S63S7
materials, 357
notations, 3SS3S6
pipe, reinforced concrete, 3S737t)
three-sided structures, precast. 374375
Soil-thermoplastic pipe interaction systems
design considerations, 377378
loads, 377
notations, 377
plastic pipe, 379382
service load design, 378379
Soldier pile watts, constructioti, 466467
Solvent cleaning, metal surfaces, 539
Spacing, 218
Spherical bearings, S73
Splices
bars in compression. 194
beams and girders, 238
columiins. 238
etincrete, cast-in-place piles, 76
deformed bars and wires. 193194
end bearing, 194
fillers, 239
lap, 193,497
piles, 446, 447
precast concrete, 76
steel, 76-77, 78
reinforcing steel. 497
shafts, drilled, 90
structural steel .238239,291293
tension members, 239
welded, 193, 194, 239. 497
Spread box girders, 41
Stay-in-place tornis, 436
Stay plates, 235236
Steam cleaning, metal stirfaces, 539
Steel See also Prestressimig steel: Reinflircing steel: Steel
structures; Structural steel
east. 225
corrugated pipe 30~305
dead load weight. 20)
floor systems, 4041
grid floors, 533535
H-piles, 76-77
reinforcements, mechaisically stabilized earth (MSE) walls.
139140), 141
spiral rib pipe, 30S306
T-beams, 34-35
Steel stnmctures See also Girders, plate; Piles, steel:
Steel; Structural steel
angle tension members, 232
arches, solid rib, 26326S, 291
assembly, S22~919
bearings. tixed amid expansion. 247248
bemits T7T8
INDEX 675
closed sections and pockets, 242
combined stresses, 263
composite beams and girders. 283286
composite box girders, 268274, 286288
cOmptisite girders. 265268
compression members, 289290
connections, 239240
construction, general, 511512
cover plates, 232233
cross frames, 241
deflection. 295
design theory. 277278
diaphragms, 241
erection. 529530)
eyebars, 246-247
fabrication, 516-522
fasteners, 243246
fatigue, 254, 295
floor systems ~48~~149 533535
forked ends, 247
hangers. 246
hybrid girders, 274275. 288289
lateral bracing ~4tW. 273274
links. 246
toad factor desin 177295
muaterials. St 2515
measurement. 530531
orthotropic-deck superstructures. 275277. 295.
521522
overload. 293295
paytnent, 531
plate girders. 256261
railings, 579
rolled beams. 233234. 256
shear connectors. 288
splices. 29 1293
symmetrical beams and eirders. 278283
tee sections. 232
towers, 237238
trusses. 234~137 ~6l~163
tunnel liner plates, 35 1354, 599600)
unsymmetrical beanis and girders. 283
upset ends, 246
welded plate girders. 233234
welding, 242
Stems, walt. 123. ISO
Stiffeners
bearine, 255
end bearing. 517
plate girder. 258261
timber decks. 40)
Stirrups
anchorage. 1901-191
conipression reinforcement. 185
minimum bend. 188
spiral reinforcing steel, 186
Storage
bearings. 563
cement. 474475
concrete aggregates. 474
etincrete piles. 440)
ground anchor tendons, 457
masonry stone, 543
precast concrete members, 489
timber, 555
Straightedging, concrete. 484
Stream current forces, 2831
Stringers
bending moment, 33
distribution of loads..3235
outside roadway, 33
structural steel floors, 239240, 248
timber, 557558
Structural plate structures
box culverts. 3101-3 13
long span. 3(183 10
pipe. 30)7308
Structural steel. See also Steel
allowable stresses, 226. 227229. 249256
angles, 232
annealing, 51952(1
assumptions, 278
camber. 233234, 534
carbon, 512
castings, 515
compression menibers TI Thl263. 289290)
contraction, 232
cover plates, 232233
deflection. 226, 229. 231
depth ratios, 226
expansiomi, 232
eyebars. 513, 519
fasteners. 243246, 513514
field connections. 522523
flexural members. 232
forgings. 515
galvanizing, 515
high-strength, 5125 13
limiting length, 231
load factor design, 277~9~
materials, 223. 225
minimum thickness, 23 1232
notations. 219223
painting, 537539
pins, 246, 519. 530
plates, 516517
relieving, 51952t)
seismic design, 40)8, 412. 421
shaftings, 515
splices, 238239
trusses, 234-237
tubing, 513
Stub abutments, 156
Substructures. See also Abutments~~. Foundations: Piers:
Retaining walls/systems
definition. 155
load. ISS
longitudinal forces. 23
settlement, ISS
uplift forces. 28
wind loads 26-97
Superelevation, S
676 INDEX
T
T-beams
composite wood-concrete, 3435, 40)
diaphragnis. 20)0)
distributiomi of load, 3435, 4(1
flanges. 199
Temperature See Thermal forces; Weather
Temporary works
bridges, 437438
cofferdams, 437
construction, 433
design, 433
fatsework, 434436
forms, 434-436
meastirement, 438
payment, 438
removal, 433
retaining walls, Ill
shoring. 437
water control systems, 437
Testing procedures. See also Shear calculamiomis
anchored retaining walls. 133
concrete, 475476
elastomeric bearings, 567569
embedment anebtirs 6~76~8
fotmndations, 4345
ground anchors, 458460)
hydraulic studies, 4
latex modi fled concrete 614~625
piles. 69, 104, 443444
deterioratiomi potential, 74V S
monitoring, 74
moveiiient, 74
wave equation analysis, 74, 444445
prestressimig steel, SOIS02, S03S04
retaining walls, 113h 14
shafts, drilled, 80). 91, 10)8, 453, 454
Texturing. concrete, 48448S
T-girders
conipression flange, 166, 175176
deck slab reinforcement. 185
diaphragnis, 167
fiexural tensiomi reinforcememim, 184I 85
tension reinforcement, 184185
Thermal forces, 2728
prestressed concrete, 198, 20)1
reinforced concrete, 165, 187
Thermoplasmics See Sni -thermooplastic pipe interaction
systems
Timber. See also Tiniber floors; Timber structures
dead load weight, 20)
glued laminated lumber, 316317, 318,328332
laminated veneer lumber, 317
painting, 541
preservative treatment, 56 1562
retaimiing walls, 464
sawn lumber, 316, 318327
structural composite lumber, 317, 318, 333334
treated, SSSSS6
Tiniber floors See also Timber; Timber smrtmctures
bending moment, 39
composite, 558
continuous, 40
glued laminated, 39, SS3, SS8
nail laminated, 39, 558
plank, 39
plant, 558
strip, SS8
wheel toads, 37-40)
Timber structures. See also Piles, tiniber: Timber; Timber
floors
bending members, 327. 335338
bents, 557
bolts, 556-557
bracing, 557
caps, 557
compression members. 338340)
connectors, 554555
construction, SSS5S9
deflection. 317318
design values, 3 18327
elasticity, 33S
fabrication. 555559
fire stops, 317
general considerations, 553
impact, 315
materials, 3163 17, 553555
measurement, SS9
niechanicat connections, 341
net section, 315
notations, 315316
notching, 335
painting, 559
payment, 559
posts, 557
preservative treatment, 317
railings, 558, 580)
sills, 557
stringers, 557558
tension members, 340-341
trusses, 559
washers, SS6SS7
wheel guards, SS8
Tire contact area, 41
Towers, 237238
Traffic lanes, load calculations ~t)
Traffic signals, 297
Trusses
camber, 235
conipression members, 26 1263
depth ratio, 226
diaphragms, 23423S
fastener pitch, 237
gravity axes, 235
gusset plates, 236
half-through truss spans, 236-237
lacing bars, 236, 261
members, 234
net section, 237
perforated cover plates, 235, 261
portal and sway bracing, 235
secondary stresses, 234
stay plates, 235236
INDEX 677
timber, 559
wind load. 26
working lines and gravity axes, 235
Tube forms, 435-436
Tubular piers. 156
Ttmnnets
concrete liner plates, 599600)
roadway. 8It)
steel liner plates. 35 1354. 5996t)O
U
Underpass clearance. 8
Uplift forces/toads
footings, 94
piles. 10)3, 10)4
shafts, drilled, 10)7. I08
Upset ends 146
tJtilities. 5
w
Wall stems. 123. 15(1
Washers
tiniber structures, 341. 556557
Water control systems, temporary works. 437
Water pressure. See also Earth pressure
anchored remainimig walls. 131)
nongravimy catitilevered retaining walls 117 147148
rigid gravity/semi-gravity retaining walls. 119121),
147 148
Waterproofing
application ~81~58~
materials. 581582
measurenient, 585
payment. 585
surface preparation, 582
Waterstops. 482483
Waterways
flow forces, 2831
foundation, 3
siting considerations, 34
Wave equation analysis, 74. 44445
Wearing surfaces
latex modified concrete. 62 1625
orthotropic-deck supcrsmructures, 277
Weather, See also Thernial forces
brick/block miias(inry construction. 551)
concrete pr(itectioil, 477
latex modified concrete. 623
mortar, pneumatically applied. 597
painting considerations, 537538
prestress toss calculations 103.105
stone masonry construction. 545
Web thickness, 166167. 200
Weepholes. 465
Welded wire fabric, 192193, 194
Welding
tiltet, 242
metal culverts, 602
railings. 579
seal, 242
stud shear connectors. 514515
weld metal composition, 223. 291
Wind loads, 2627, 241
Wingwalls. 159161)
backfill, 428429
Wood structures See Timber structures
Y
Yield strength
reinforcimig steel, 165
spiral reinforcement. 186
COMMENTARY
Interim SpecificationsBridgesi 996
1996 Commentary
Introduction
The 16th Edition of Standard Specifications of Highway Bridges includes a Commen-
tary to offer further explanation of the revisions provided in 1996.
This 1996 Commentary to the Standard was approved by at least two-thirds of the Sub-
committee on Bridges andStructures andvotedon by the Association Member Departments
prior to the publication of this new edition.
C-2
1996 Commentary to
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
C5.2.1.4 MSE Walls
The existing specification is restrictive because it refers
only to modular precast facing. The proposed wording al-
lows the use of other kinds of facings which are available
today.
C5.2.2.3 Overall Stability
The existing specification implies that it is acceptable
to proceed with a wall design without soil/rock data by
using a slightly higher factor of safety. It is clearly unac-
ceptable and dangerous to proceed with a wall design
without adequate data; and, it conflicts with minimum
standards of safety for site investigations already con-
tained in AASHTO Bridge Specifications. The proposed
revision requires that site data be obtained for all wall de-
signs, but still distinguishes between normal wall instal-
lations and those supporting bridge abutments, buildings
tir critical utilities.
CS.5.S Structure Dimensions and External Stability
Existing Article 5.5.5 requires the same factor of safety
for seismic loads as for static loads. However, Article
5.8. 10.1 allows a reduced factor of safety for seismic
loads. It is reasonable to use a lower factor of safety for
seismic loads because i t i s a n i n f r eq u en t a n d temporary
load. For static loads, we reserve some capacity for un-
known loads, fabrication, and workmanship. The pro-
posed revision allows the designer to use judgment for the
specific site and also brings this article in line with MSE
wall criteria.
C5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loading
This revisiomi is t(i correct ami error in the formula ftir
enihedment in rock in Ficure 5.6.2A.
CS.8.1 Structure Dimensions
The existing specifications regarding embedment depth
are based on latent physical characteristics of the grt)tmnd.
Because of this, most cases are overlyconservative, but ex-
treme cases could be equally unconservative. Embedment
depths should be based on engineering calculations for sta-
bility, bearing capacity, and settlement. Frost heave, scour
and proximity to slopes are special considerations.
C5.8.2 External Stability and Figure 5.8 .4.1A
The existing specification requires the designer to use
Equation 5.8.2.1 to determine the lateral earth pressure
coefficient needed for external stability calculations for
MSE walls. However, for all other gravity walls, the de-
signer is required to use Figure 5.5.2B. Since the lateral
earth pressure coefficient is not dependent on wall type.
there should not be two methods in the specification. In
addition, for current practice, it is generally assumed that
no wall friction is generated at the back of the wall for
overturning and sliding calculations for MSE walls. This
can be easily accommodated by setting ~ ~3.This pro-
posal eliminates Equation 5.8.2.1 and requires the use of
Figure 5.5.2.B.
Additional revisions in this Article include the elimi-
nation of the reference to 0.7 as the minimtmm reinforce-
ment ratio in the fifth paragraph and in Figures 5.8.2A.
5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C. Also revised is Figure 5.8.4. IA for the
same reason.
In Figure 5.8.2A, the term V 2. which is the weight of
the traffic sttrcharge above the reinforced soil mass. con-
flicts with V 2. as defined in the Notations Section, which
is the weight of the sloping soil surcharge on top of the re-
inforced soil mass. Rather than introduce another V term,
it is believed that the 4 load symbol above the reinforced
soil mass is adequate to give directioii to the desiemiers.
Also revised is the formula for factor of safety against
slidine, which should not include the traffic surcharec
above the reinforced soil mass since this would provide a
higher factor of safety than is realistic, It should include
the traffic surcharge behind the soil mass.
CS.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
The existing specification is conservative for locations
in rock and is not consistent with Article 4.4.8. The pro-
C-3
C-4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
posed revision to Article 5.5.5 covers this issue ade-
quately, 5(1 this revision to Article 5.8.3 is to eliminate the
sentence and refer to Article 5.5.5 ftir guidance on loca-
tion of the resultant force.
C5.8.7.I Allowable Stresses, Steel Reinforcements
The existing specification requires transverse and lon-
gitudinal grid memiibers to be the same size Since welded
wire is generally not manufactured with these bars being
the same site, the revision allows the bars to be sized
properly and refers to ASTM A- 185, the niost widely ac-
cepted standard for welded wire.
C8 .I 5.5.5.5, C 8.2 7. I, C8 . 16.6.5.5, and C9.20.4.5
Since the itiiplementation of reimiforced concrete and
prestressed concrete into the AASHTO Specification, a
provision in both respective desigmi sections calls for all
vertical shear reimiforceniemit in the girders. to be exteiided
int(i the cast-iti-place deck. This extended reinforcemiient
is oftemi shaped in the configuration sif a bent stirrup.
Section 17 General
S ec t i o n 17 has been revised to imictimlitirate miew
Standard Installatitmns for comicrete pipe, replacing the
historical B, C, and D beddings as explained later iii
this Conimentary. The earth loads and pressure distribution
associated with the miew beddings are also incorporated as
described imi the appropriate c(iiiiiiicntary articles.
Direct design for pipe imistalled in the new Stan-
dard Installations. tisimig the design equatiomis that have
been a part (if Section 17 since 1983. is facilitated nisimig
the Fedcral I] ighway Admit imii strati(iii Coniputer 1mm-
grani PIPECAR. This program has recetitly been updated
to include atialysis aiid desigmi procedtmres for the earth
loads and presstirc distribution associated with the new
Standard Installation types. A versi(in of this program
knowim as SIDD is also available f(ir direct (lesiemi (if
c(increte pipe using only the earth loads amid pressure
distribution associated with the new StamidardItistallatiomis.
An alternate iiidirect design procedure for pipe in-
stalled in one of the new Stamidard Installatiomis is also iii
eluded in this revisi(imi (if Section 17 to facilitate the use of
these installatiomis ftir indirect pipe desigmi pr(icedtires that
related field strength requirements t(i equivalent threc
edge bearimig streiigths.
The purpose of this reinforcement is to proivide addi-
tional composite action between the girder and tIme deck.
The primary design mechanism for the horizontal shear at
the interface, is the shear friction theory. Other design cri-
teria include the control tif slippage at service load amid fa-
tigue strength. The parameters for shear friction desigmi
are outlined in the AASHTO Specifications.
The amount of steel crossimig the interface usimig etir-
rent pr(ivisioiis, may in some cases be much larger than
that required by the shear frictioii theory.
In regards to bridge construction, this provision
has been shown to increase the amount (if tinie required
to reniove the bridge deck from the tt)p tmf the girders.
Cleaning the coticrete deck fromii ar(iund the extemided
shear stirrups is a labor intensive proicess. antI in-
cludes the possibility of damage to the top flange tif the
girder, especially when small stirrups at narrow spacimi~
are nised.
This revision is intended to permit decreasing the nitmnim-
ber of extended shear stii~rups int(i the deck slab provided
the beam shear reinforcement is adequately anchored to
provide full beam design shear capacity.
The Concrete Pipe Technology Handbook presemits
historical and current state-of-the-art design amid method-
( i ho gi es f r o m t he d ev el o p r u et i t of the Marston-Spangler
theories, through the Olander and Paris methods to the
development of the Standard Installations, the associated
earth loads and pressure distribtition (miamned Hecer thistri
bution). and the direct desigmi method. The handbook also
presents example design calculations done by hamid and by
using SIDD.
The new Standard Installations and ass(iciated olirect
design method were extensively comisidered by a miew
ASCE Standards Committee comimhirised of consult inc en
cineers and technical representatives of tiser agencies amid
time pipe industry. The proposed Standard Imislal hationts antI
direct design pr(icedurc that is essemilially the satime as that
~irtiposed for direct desigim oif buried comicrete pipe in See-
tiomi 17 were accepted in 1993 as ASCE I 5-93. Standard
Practice for Direct Design (if Buried Precast Concrete
Pipe Using Stamidard Installations (SI Dl)).
(17.1.2 Notations
Seven new parameters are defi tied as r eq t t i r ed l ~o r d e-
sign usinig the new Standard Inistallations.
1996 COMMENTARY C-S
C17.4.3 (existing) has been renumbered
C17.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcementas a
subsection under 17.4.2 Materials
C17.4.3 Installations (new)
C17.4.3.I Standard Installations
This new section defines the f(iur new Statidard Instal-
hatioiis. Types 1. 2, 3. and 4, for trench and eiiibaiikmnent
installations. See Figure 1 7.4A for schematic drawings for
various kinds of imistallation. Specific soil and dimensional
requirememits for the fotr Standard Installation types in
treiich and enibanktiient comitigurations are giveninFig-
ures 17.4B and 17.4C amid in Tables 17.4A amid 17.4B.
The four new Standard Installatitins are recomiimiiemided
to replace the historic stamidard installation (in bedding
classes A. B. and C. This reconimemidation is based on an
extemisive research prograni performed by Simpson.
Gm.tmpertz amid Heger. Inc. under the direction tif Dr. Frank
J. Heger. Dr. Ernest Selig. Professor (if Geotechmiical En-
gineerimig at the University of Massachusetts. Amherst.
Massachusetts, was geotechnical consultant l~or the re-
search teani. A comprehensive soil-structure interaction
analysis and desigii pr(igrani nanied SPIl)A was devel-
oped and used to perform niany s(iih-structure interaction
a n a l ys es f ( i r t he various soil amid installation parameters
investigated by the research team. Based (in these results.
and ntmmeronms comisultatiomis with engineers having exten-
sive experience with desigmi, construction, and perfor-
mnance of concrete pipe, the research team recommended
the four new Standard Installations for concrete pipe t(i
the Technical Comniittee (if the American Concrete Pipe
Association.
The SPIDA studies used to develop the Standard In-
stallations were conducted for positive projection em-
bankmiient conditions, which are t he wo r s t -c a s e v er t i c a l
load comiditions for pipe and which provide comiservative
results for other embankment amid trench conditions.
These studies also conservatively assunied a hard foun-
datiomi and bedding existed beneath the invert of the pipe.
plus v(iid amid/or poorly compacted material in the haunch
areas, 150 Iti 400 each side of the invert, resulting in a load
c(tmicetitrati(itt such that calculated nionients. thrusts and
shears were imiercased. The modeline (if the soil pressure
distributioti presemited in Figure 1 7.4A. while an acenmrate
hiresetitatioti. is additiomially conservative by 1 00 per
cent as conipared to the exact SPI DA resnilts.
The n ew S t a n d a r d In s t a l l a t i o n s offer the following ad-
v a n t a ges f o r d es i gn o f c o n c r et e pipe:
Specify more quantitative requirements for soil type
and level of compaction than the historic B, C. and I)
beddings. Thus, design is more rational using them.
Provide a quantitative and rational basis for direct
design of concrete pipe for the installed condition,
based on state-of-the-art soil-structure interaction
analyses.
Do not preclude the use of the more traditional indi-
rect design procedure for engineers who wish to re-
late field strength requirements to equivalent three-
edge bearing test requirements.
Allowthe use (if both select enibedniemit soils (which
may have t(i be imported), or potentially less expert-
sive soils froni the site excavations, with proper ac-
count of relative properties for supporting the pipe.
The cost-benefit relationship of pipe strength versus
installation quality can take into consideratioti mtire
eastly the tise tif better quality imistallationms for high
fill heights.
Recognize the benefit of mnaintainine a lower coin-
pacti(in level below the invert regiomi (niiddle third of
diameter) relative to the outer third.
After review by the Technical Comniittee of the
ACPA and the AASHTO Rigid Culvert Conimittee.
the Rigid Culvert Committee recommended accep-
tance of these new Standard Installations and their
associated direct and indirect design procedures by
the AASHTO Bridge Committee for imiclusiomi in
Section 17 of the AASHTO Bridge Specificatiomi.
Specific earth loads and earth pressure distnibtitions
are ass(iciated with these new Stamidard Installatiotis.
These are discussed in later sections of this Com-
mentary.
C 17.4.3.2 Soils
The stiil classifications tised to define the mininiuni re-
quirements for 5(iil type are given in Table I 7.4C.
C17.4.4.2.1 Earth Load and Pressure l)istribution
The earth load for desigiiiiig pipe imi a Standard Imistal
lation is obtained liv multiplying the weight (it the col
umnmi (if earth above the (i(itside diameter of the pipe by
the s(iilstructure interaction l~actor. F~. for the design iii
stallation type. F~ accounts l~or the tratisfer of sonic (if the
overburden s(iil above the reciomis at the sides (if the pipe
becanise the pipe is miiore rigid thaii the soil at the side of
the pipe for pipe in emiibamikment and wi(he trench instal-
C-6
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
lations. Because of the difficulty ( i f controlling maximum
trench width in the field with the widespread use of
trench boxes or sloped walls for construction safety, the
potential reduction in earth load for pipe in trenches of
moderate to narrow width is not taken imito account in the
determination of earth load and earth pressure distri-
bution on the pipe. Both trench and embankment in-
stallations are to be designed for embankment (positive
projecting) loads anid pressure distnihutitin in direct
design, or bedding factors in indirect design. The soil
structure interaction factor, F~, is the vertical arching
factor V AF given for the Heger Pressure Distribution imi
Figure 17.4A.
For direct design, the earth pressure distnibtition and
lateral earth force for a uiiit vertical load is the Heger pres-
sure distribution and horizontal arching factor, HAF.
given in Figure 17.4A. The normalized pressure distnibti-
tion and HAF values were obtained for each Standard In-
stallation type from the results of soil-structure interaction
analyses using SPIDA together with the mininiuni soil
properties for the soil types and compaction levels speci-
fied in various parts of the installations, as shown in Fig-
tires I 7.4B and C and Tables I 7.4A and B.
Equation 17-2 for F~. with maximum F~ = I .2 for
c(impacted sidefills for embankment installations in the
previous edition of Section 17, was not found to be con-
sistent with the research results that are the basis of de-
sign with the tiew Standard Installations. Research has
indicated valties for F~ in the range tif 1.35 to 1.45. as a
function of sidefthl compaction. are appropriate for
embankment installations. Evaluation (if the 5(iil
structure interaction factor (also known as arching factor)
from the SPIDA studies shows the factor appr(iaches a
value of 1.45 as an upper limit for any of the Standard
Installation types.
Equation 173 f(ir F__ f(ir trench installation is elimi-
nated because reduced earth loads for some trench instal-
lations are ti(i longer considered in Section 17.
C17.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight
The weieht of fluid in a full pipe miiust be considered in
both the direct and indirect design procedtmres. Previously,
indirect design pr(icedtmres s(imiietimiies neglected the fluid
weight.
C 17.4.5.1 Loads
The SII)i) Stamidard Instal hat otis were developed
based omi extensive parameter studies using the soil
struettmre initeractitimi pn(~gratit, SPI[)A. Although past
research validates that SPIDA soil-structure models
correlate well with held miteastireniemits, variability in etml
vent installation methods and materials suggests that the
design for Type I installations be moditied. This revisi(mn
reduces soil-structure interaction f(ir Type I installations
by 10 percent until additional performance docunientation
on installation in the field is obtained.
C 17.4.5.1.1 Design D-Load
Fhis section specifies how to calculate the required
design D-Load for the loads that are specified in Article
17.4.4. In Eq. (17-4) the design D-Load, D, is the three-
edge bearing test load at the occurretice of a 0.01-inch
crack that produces the same structural effects (bendiiig
moments) as the field load divided by the imiside pipe
diameter in feet.
C 17.4.5.1.2 Ultimate D-Load
The cited material specifications for circular arch, and
elliptical concrete pipe specify the mininium ultimate
strength in terms (if D-Load rerluired to maintain a mar-
gin of safety against ultiniate failure of the pipe.
C17.4.5.2 Bedding Factor
The bedding facttirs for earth loads (in pipe in the four
Standard Installation types are approximately the ratiostif
the maximum bending monients catising tenmsioii in the in-
side reinforcing at the pipe invert for installed comidition
to the maximum bending moment causing tension in the
inside reinforcing at the pipe invert for the three-edge
bearing test condition.
C17.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor of Circular
Pipe
The bedding factors for circular pipe given in Table
17.5A are obtained using the bending moments prodtmced
by the Heger pressure distnibutiomis given in Figure 17.4A
for each of the four standard embankment imistallations.
The bedding factors for the enibankmemit comiditioni
are comiservative for each installation. This conservatismii
is a result t f using worst-case Sol scenarios. v(iids and
~(i(i~ cornpacti(in in the haumich areas, amid a hard beddimig
bemicath the pipe in detentiiimiing the nionients. thrusts, arid
shears used to calculate the beddimig factors. The miiodel-
ing of the soil pressure distribtition tised to determiiimie miiti
miiemits. thrusts, amid shears is alssi comiservative by I 0~()
percent. as c(imiipared with the actual SPIDA analysis.
The indirect design pnocedure stibjects the pipe to se-
vere test load concemitrati(itis (threeedge bearing). requir
moe service load and nIh miiate stremigtli to lie verified.
1996 COMMENTARY C-7
The net effect of the test requirements and the conser-
vative factors used in determining the magnitude of the
field moments, thrusts, and shears assure the factors of
safety are maintained for each type installation.
C17.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factor forArch
and Elliptical Pipe
The procedure for calculating bedding factors specified
in this article is the traditional procedure of the Marston-
Spangler Method modified to use the soil-structure inter-
action factor, Fe, for each Standard Installation type. In
this procedure, Type 2 bedding is considered similar to
Class B, Type 3 bedding is considered similar to Class C.
Type I installations are nt)t given any advantage andType
4 installations are not permitted.
C 17.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor
For pipe installed with 6 feet, or less, of overfill and
subjectedto live loads, the controlling maximum moment
may be at the crown rather than the invert. Consequently,
the use of an earth load bedding factor, BFe may produce
unconservative designs. Live load bedding factors, BiLL,
determined from an evaluation of the effects of H520 live
loads, pipe diameters, burial depths, bedding angles, and
live load angles are presented in Table 17.5B. These live
load bedding factors are satisfactory for aType 4 Standard
Installation, and are increasingly conservative for Types3,
2, and 1. When a live load is applied to the pipe, use the
live load bedding factor, ~ in Table 17.5B unless the
earth load bedding factor, ~ is of lesser value, in which
case, use the lower BF. value in place of ~
C17.4.6.2 Strength-Reduction Factors
The SIDD Standard installations were developedbased
on extensive parameter studies using the soil-structure in-
teraction program, SPIDA. Although past research vali-
dates that SPIDA soil-structure models correlate well with
field measurements, variability in culvert installation
methods and materials suggests that the design for Type I
installations be modified. This revision reduces soil-
structure interaction for Type I installations by 10 percent
until additional performance documentation on installa-
tion in the field is obtained.
C 17.4.6.4.6.3 Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage
Stirrup reinforcement anchorage development research
by pipe manufacturers have demonstrated that the free
ends of loop type stirrups need only be anchored in the
compression zone of the concrete cross section to develop
the full tensile strength of the stirrup wire. Stirrup loop
lengths equivalent to 70 percent of the wall thickness will
provide adequate anchorage.
C 17.8 General
This proposed specification revision to Section 17 for
precast three-sided structures was developed in accor-
dance with the survey results of the AASHTO Bridge En-
gineers. The proposed specification was formatted in a
similar manner to the current precast box and arch provi-
sions (if Section 17. The proposal is applicable to all the
known precast three-sided structures and is generic to per-
mit the inclusion of additional structures as they are
developed. All the design criteria used in this proposed
specification are consistent with those required for
precast, prestressed, and cast-in-place concrete structures
as specified in the AASHTO Bridge Standards.
C17.8.5.12 Scour Protection
Specific scour protection was not included in the
specification in order to permit each state the option to
provide the degree of scour protection they deem nec-
essary.
C18 .1.6.1(h)(1), C18 .l.6.1(b)(2), C18 .2.3 and C18 .3.3
Revisions to Article 18. 1.6. 1 (b)( I) are made to agree
with similar wording in the LRFD specitication and with
specifications for similar installations described in Sec-
tion 12.
Revisions to Article 18.l.6.l(b)(2) are made to agree
with similar wording in the LRFD specification and with
specifications for similar installations described in Sec-
tion 12.
Revision to Articles 18.2.3 and 18.3.3 clarify that
the initial modulus of elasticity is to be used since
handling and installation strengths are functions (if
the initial, not sustained, conditions of loading and
strain.
Section 27 General
The major revisions to Section 27 are due to the revi-
sion of the Direct Design Method for circular precast
reinforced concrete pipe to include the Heger Pressure
Distribution and Standard Installations, and the revision
C-8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
of the Indirect Design Method for precast reinforced con-
crete circular pipe based on pipe D-Load strength to re-
place the historical B, C, and D beddings with the Stan-
dard Installations for the embankment and trench
conditions.
The SPIDA computer design runs with Standard In-
stallations were made with medium compaction of the
bedding under the middle-third of the pipe. and with some
compaction of the overfill above the springhine of the pipe.
This middle-third area under the pipe in the Standard
Installations has been designated as loosely placed, un-
compacted material. The intent is to maintain a slightly
yielding bedding under the middle-third of the pipe so that
the pipe may settle slightly into the bedding and achieve
improved load distribution. Conpactive efforts in the mid-
dle-third of the bedding with mechanical compactors is
undesirable, and could produce a bard flat surface, which
would result in highly concentrated stresses in the pipe in-
vert similar to those experienced in the three-edge bearing
test. The most desirable construction sequence is to place
the bedding to grade; install the pipe to grade; compact the
bedding outside of the middle-third of the pipe; and then
place and compact the haunch area up to the spninghine of
the pipe. The bedding outside of the middle-third of the
pipe may be compacted prior to placing the pipe.
Details (if the revisions for each article are discussed in
the following paragraphs.
C27.3.3 Bedding Material and Backfill
This Article has been modified to present the material
requirements for the pipe and box section products as
specified in Section 17.
For pipe, the four new Standard Installations were de-
veloped for both embankment and trench conditions and
are presented in Figures 27.5A. 27.5B, 27.5C. and27.5D,
which define soil areas and critical dimensions. Generic
soil types and minimum compaction requirements, and
minimum bedding thicknesses are listed in Tables 27.5A
and 27.5B. The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the
USCS soil classifications equivalent to the generic soil
types in the Standard Installation tables are presented in
Table 17.4C. The existing Figures 27.5A and 27.5B have
been deleted.
C27.5.2 Bedding
This Article has been modified to present the bedding
requirements for the pipe and box section products as
specified in Section 17. The existing second paragraph.
which covers all products, has been relabeled as Article
27.5.1, General.
C27.5.4 Backfill
This Article has been modified to present the embed-
ment soil and backfill requirements for the pipe and box
section prtiducts as specified in Section 17. The Standard
Installations for precast concrete pipe divide backfill
into three distinct areas labeled haunch, lower side, and
overfill.
C27.5.4.3 Placing Backfill
The title of this Article has been revised, because the
Standard Installations for pipe divide backfill into three
distinct areas labeled haunch, lower side, and overfill.
The word backfill in the Article has been changed to
flll for the same reason. A new first sentence has been
added to clarify the parameters on which the compactive
process is dependent. A new sentence has been added
after the original second sentence to require fill to be
placed in 4-inch layers in the lower haunch areas of Types
1, 2, or 3 Standard Installations for soils requiring 90 per-
cent or greater Standard Proctor densities to facilitate
compaction of the haunch soil under the pipe to at least
the specified levels.
Section 29
The use of embedment anchors is prevalent but stan-
dardized installation and field testing is not. Therefore, a
new Section to Division IlConstruction was created.

Aashto 1996

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STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

.~ V I 1.2 5~10 1 0~ 1 1 0.311 1 0 0

1.450001.450.130.110.191.450.30 OZ 0.00 0.90

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