The human cardiovascular system is composed of a heart which
pumps blood through a closed system of blood vessels. The heart is composed mostly of cardiac muscle, or myocardium. Its primary function is to transport nutrients, water, gases, wastes, and chemical signals throughout the body. More information on the heart as a pump, blood fow and control of blood pressure, and components of blood will be discussed in related pages. The cardiovascular system transports materials throughout the body: 1. Materials entering the body, such as oxygen via the lungs and nutrients and water via the intestinal tract, are carried to all cells. . Materials moved from cell to cell !intercellular communication" including: a" wastes products from some cell cells to the liver for processing# b" immune cells that are present in the blood continuously for other cells, c" hormones from endocrine cells to their target cells d" stored nutrients from liver and adipose tissue to all cells. $. Materials that are expelled from the body, such as metabolic wastes, heat, and carbon dioxide that are removed via the %idneys, s%in, and lungs, respectively. &s a general overview, the cardiovascular system is composed of the heart, the blood vessels !or vasculature", and the cells and plasma of the blood. 1. &rteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart and veins return the blood to the heart. & system of valves in the heart and veins ensures that the blood fows in one direction. . The heart is anatomically divided into two halves by a central wall, or septum, into left and right halves. 'ach half is composed of an atrium which receives blood returning to the heart and a ventricle that pumps the blood out into the blood vessels that serve the body. The atria and ventricles and exiting blood vessels are separated by closable valves. (unctionally, the heart serves as a pump in series that generates pressure to propel the blood through the system. $. In the lungs oxygen is pic%ed up and carbon dioxide is expelled. The pulmonary circulation goes from the right side of the heart !deoxygenated blood" and returns it to the left side of the heart, with oxygenated blood. ). The systemic circulation consists of the vessels that go from the left side of the heart to the tissues and bac% to the right side of the heart. The systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation can be traced together: *eoxygenated blood returning from body enters the heart in the right atrium. (rom the right atrium the blood passes through the tricuspid valves to enter the right ventricle. The blood is then pumped into the pulmonary arteries, passing the pulmonic valves, where it goes to the lungs. &fter becoming oxygenated in the lung+s capillaries, the blood is carried by the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. It then passes through the bicuspid or mitral valves into the left ventricle, where it is pumped into the aorta through the aortic valves. The aorta branches into smaller and smaller arteries that ,nally lead to capillary beds in the tissue. -ere oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and returned via veins which .oin into the inferior vena cava !veins coming from the lower body" and superior vena cava !from the upper body". The I/0 and the 1/0 empty into the right atrium. LYMPHOID SYSTEM The lymphoid system thus constitutes a sort of 2overfow3 system that provides for the drainage of surplus tissue fuid and lea%ed plasma proteins to the bloodstream, as well as for the removal of debris from cellular decomposition and infection. The important components of the lymphoid system are Lympa!i" ple#$ses% networ%s of lymphatic capillaries that originate blindly in the extracellular !intercellular" spaces of most tissues. Lympa!i" vessels !lymphatics", a nearly body wide networ% of thin4walled vessels that have abundant lymphatic valves. 5ymphatic capillaries and vessels occur almost everywhere blood capillaries are found, except for example, teeth, bone, bone marrow, and the entire central nervous system. !'xcess tissue fuid here drains into the cerebrospinal fuid." Lymp !5. lympha, clear water", the tissue fuid that enters lymph capillaries and is conveyed by lymphatic vessels. 6sually clear, watery, and slightly yellow, lymph is similar in composition to blood plasma. Lymp no&es% small masses of lymphatic tissue located along the course of lymphatic vessels through which lymph is ,ltered on its way to the venous system. 5ymphocytes reside in the lymph node. Lympo"y!es% circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign materials. !T7 8 lymphocytes". Lympoi& organs% includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes, such as the thymus, red bone marrow, spleen, tonsils. The smaller lymphatic vessels .oin to form to larger and these enter into large collecting vessels, called lymphatic trun%s, which unite to form either the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct. Te rig! lympa!i" &$"! drains lymph from the body9s right upper :uadrant !right side of head, nec%, and thorax plus the right upper limb". &t the root of the nec%, it enters the .unction of the right internal .ugular and right subclavian veins, the right venous angle. ' Te !ora"i" &$"! drains lymph from the remainder of the body. The lymphatic trun%s draining the lower half of the body merge in the abdomen, sometimes forming a dilated collecting sac, the cisterna chyli. (rom this sac !if present", or from the merger of the trun%s, the thoracic duct ascends into and then through the thorax to enter the left venous angle <hough this is the typical drainage pattern of most lymph, lymphatic vessels communicate with veins freely in many parts of the body. 0onse:uently, ligation of a lymphatic trun% or even the thoracic duct itself may have only a transient e;ect as a new pattern of drainage is established through more peripheral lymphatico venous<and later inter lymphatic<anastomoses. &dditional functions of the lymphoid system include: (U)CTIO)S o* !e LYMPHATIC SYSTEM The main functions of the lymphatic system are as follows: the main function of the lymphatic system is to "olle"! an& !ranspor! !iss$e +$i&s from the intercellular spaces in all the tissues of the body, bac% to the veins in the blood system# it plays an important role in re!$rning plasma pro!eins !o !e ,loo&s!ream# Diges!e& *a!s are a,sor,e& and then transported from the villi in the small intestine to the bloodstream via the lacteals and lymph vessels. new lympo"y!es are man$*a"!$re& in !e lymp no&es# antibodies !manufactures in the lymph nodes" assist the ,o&y !o ,$il& $p an e-e"!ive imm$ni!y !o in*e"!io$s &iseases# 5ymph nodes play an impor!an! role in !e &e*ense me"anism o* !e ,o&y. They ,lter out micro4organisms !such as bacteria" and foreign substances such as toxins, etc. it !ranspor!s large mole"$lar "ompo$n&s .s$" as en/ymes an& ormones0 *rom !eir man$*a"!$re& si!es !o !e ,loo&s!ream. Applie&1 The 1pread of 0ancer 0ancer invades the body by contiguity !growing into ad.acent tissue" or by metastasis !the dissemination of tumor cells to sites distant from the original or primary tumor". Metastasis occurs by one of three ways: 1. *irect seeding of serous membranes of body cavities..5ymphogenous spread !via lymphatic vessels".$.-ematogenous spread !via blood vessels".It is surprising that often even a thin fascial sheet or serous membrane defects tumor invasion. -owever, once a malignancy penetrates into a potential space, the direct seeding of cavities<that is, of its serous membranes<is li%ely. 5ymphogenous spread of cancer is the most common route for the initial dissemination of carcinomas !epithelial tumors", the most common type of cancer. 0ells loosened from the primary cancer site enter and travel via lymphatics. The lymph4borne cells are ,ltered through and trapped by lymph nodes, which thus become secondary !metastatic" cancer sites. The pattern of cancerous lymph node involvement follows the natural routes of lymph drainage. Thus when removing a potentially metastatic tumor, surgeons stage the metastasis !determine the degree to which cancer has spread" by removing and examining lymph nodes that receive lymph from the organ or region in the order the lymph normally passes through them. Therefore, it is important for physicians to literally %now the lymphatic drainage 2bac%ward and forward3<that is, !1" to %now what nodes are li%ely to be a;ected when a tumor is identi,ed in a certain site or organ !and the order in which they receive lymph" and !" to be able to determine li%ely sites of primary cancer sites !sources of metastasis" when an enlarged node is detected. 0ancerous nodes 'nlarge as the tumor cells within them increase# however, unli%e swollen infected nodes, cancerous nodes are not usually painful when compressed. Lymphangitis, Lymphadenitis, and Lymphedema Lymphangitis and lymphadenitis are secondary infammations of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes, respectively. These conditions may occur when the lymphoid system is involved in chemical or bacterial transport after severe in.ury or infection. The lymphatic vessels, not normally evident, may become apparent as red strea%s in the s%in, and the nodes become painfully enlarged. This condition is potentially dangerous because the uncontained infection may lead to septicemia !blood poisoning". Lymphedema, a locali=ed type of edema, occurs when lymph does not drain from an area of the body. (or instance, if cancerous lymph nodes are surgically removed from the axilla !armpit", lymphedema of the limb may occur. Respira!ory sys!em Respiration consists of: 1. Breathing (inspiration and expiration), 2. Gaseous Exchange (exchange of gases between the lungs/blood and blood/tissues and ice!ersa). "t is controlled by the #utonomic $erous %ystem (#$%), more specifically by the &edulla 'blongata. 2asi" S!r$"!$re o* !e Respira!ory Sys!em (ere is the simplest possible statement of the structure of the respiratory system as a flow!chart indicating the route by which oxygen flows into the body ia the airways and traels to the surfaces at which gaseous exchange with tissues occurs: Upper Respiratory Tract : NARES NASO PHARYNX EPIGLOTTIS(larynx TRA!HEA Lo"er Respiratory Tract : TRA!HEA (#I$I!ATES INTO % #RON!HI #RON!HIOLES UPPER LO&ER AL'EOLAR (U!TS AL'EOLAR (U!TS AL'EOLAR SA!S AL'EOLAR SA!S LO3ER RESPIRATORY TRACT Memorable Facts about the Human Respiratory System )here are two lungs in the body consisting of * million aleoli that constitutes the total surface area of about 2 tennis courts (per normal adult). #ll of the blood in the body circulates through the lungs each time it passes around the body. "f laid end!to!end the capillaries of the lungs would stretch for approx. ++ miles (,- .m). Diges!ive sys!em )he digestie system is made up of the digestie tract/a series of hollow organs 0oined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus/and other organs that help the body brea. down and absorb food (see figure). 'rgans that ma.e up the digestie tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine/also called the colon/rectum, and anus. "nside these hollow organs is a lining called the mucosa. "n the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce 0uices to help digest food. )he digestie tract also contains a layer of smooth muscle that helps brea. down food and moe it along the tract. )wo 1solid2 digestie organs, the lier and the pancreas, produce digestie 0uices that reach the intestine through small tubes called ducts. )he gallbladder stores the lier3s digestie 0uices until they are needed in the intestine. 4arts of the nerous and circulatory systems also play ma0or roles in the digestie system. Why is digestion important 5hen you eat foods/such as bread, meat, and egetables/they are not in a form that the body can use as nourishment. 6ood and drin. must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. 7igestion is the process by which food and drin. are bro.en down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to proide energy. Renal Sys!em "ntroduction to the renal system 8omponents of the renal system 9idneys and ureters :ladder ;rethra
"ntroduction to the renal system )he renal system consists of all the organs inoled in the formation and release of urine. "t includes the .idneys,ureters, bladder and urethra. Function o! renal system 1. Maintenance of electrolyte concentration in '0(!'>T?&0'5565&? (56I*" . Maintenance of water balance $. 'xcretion of waste products ). ?egulation of blood pressure @. ?egulation of red blood cell concentration A. &cid base balance Components of the renal system "idneys and ureters . )he .idneys are large, bean!shaped organs towards the bac. of the abdomen (belly). )he .idney can be diided into two distinct regions. )here is an outer red!brown part (cortex) and inner lighter coloured part (medulla). )he cortex is made up of special units called corpuscles, nephrons, and a system of straight and cury collecting tubules supplied by many blood essels. "n the outer part of the .idney, there are many nephrons which act as filtering units. <ach nephron is supplied by a ball of small blood essels, called glomeruli. # diagram of a single glomerulus is seen below. :lood is filtered through the small blood essels to produce a mixture that is the precursor of urine. )his mixture then passes through more tubules, where water, salt and nutrients are reabsorbed. )he inner part of the .idney (the medulla) is a continuation of the speciali=ed nephrons in the .idney. # small blood essel networ. called the asa recta supplies the medulla. <ach .idney is supplied by the renal arteries, which gie off many smaller branches to the surrounding parts of the .idneys. Renal eins drain the .idney. Bladder )he bladder is a pyramid!shaped organ which sits in the pelis (the bony structure which helps form the hips). )he main function of the bladder is to store urine and, under the appropriate signals, release it into a tube which carries the urine out of the body. $ormally, the bladder can hold up to >-- m? of urine. )he bladder has three openings: two for the ureters and one for the urethra (tube carrying urine out of the body). )he bladder consists of smooth muscles. )he main muscle of the bladder is called the detrusor muscle. <mptying of bladder is controlled by both #utonomic nerous system and somatic motor neres. #rethra )he male urethra runs from the bladder to the tip of the penis. )he female urethra. "t is a tube running from the bladder nec. and opening into an external hole located at the top of the aginal opening. #s the female urethra is shorter than the male urethra, it is more li.ely to get infections from bacteria in the agina. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 'n of the ma0or organ systems of the body. )he chief function of the reproductie system is to ensure surial of the species. 5hat follows applies principally to ertebrate reproduction, especially human reproduction. 'ther systems in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, wor. continuously to maintain homeostasis for surial of the indiidual. #n indiidual may lie a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least some indiiduals must produce offspring. 5ithin the context of producing offspring, the reproductie system has four functions: )o produce oa (eggs) and sperm cells )o transport and sustain these cells )o nurture the deeloping offspring )o produce hormones )hese functions are diided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductie organs. )he primary reproductie organs, or gonads, consist of the oaries and testes. )hese organs are responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells @ the gametes @ and for producing hormones . )hese hormones function in the maturation of the reproductie system, the deelopment of sexual characteristics, and hae important roles in regulating the normal physiology of the reproductie system. #ll other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductie system are considered secondary, or accessory, reproductie organs. )hese structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the deeloping offspring. 6or more details, see: &ale reproductie system 6emale reproductie system Male Reproducti$e System )he male reproductie system, li.e that of the female (see female reproductie system), consists of those organs whose function is to produce a new indiidual, i.e., to accomplish reproduction. )his system consists of a pair of testes and a networ. of excretory ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens (as deferens), and e0aculatory ducts), seminal esicles, the prostate gland, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis. testes duct system accessory glands penis male sexual response and hormonal control Female reproducti$e system )he organs of the female reproductie system produce and sustain the female sex cells (egg cells or oa), transport these cells to a site where they may be fertili=ed by sperm, proide a faorable enironment for the deeloping fetus, moe the fetus to the outside at the end of the deelopment period, and produce the female sex hormones . )he female reproductie system includes the oaries, 6allopian tubes, uterus, agina, accessory glands, and external genital organs. En&o"rine Sys!em )he endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone into the bloodstream to regulate the body. )he endocrine system is an information signal system li.e the nerous system. (ormones regulate many functions of an organism, including mood, growth and deelopment, tissue function, and metabolism. )he field of study that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine. )hey are two types of glands endocrine and exocrine glands. <$7'8R"$< A?#$7% #ny of arious glands producing hormonal secretions that pass directly into the bloodstream. )he endocrine glands include the thyroid, parathyroid3s, anterior and posterior pituitary, pancreas, adrenals, pineal, and gonads. #lso called ductless gland EXOCRINE GLANDS # gland that secretes a substance out through a duct. )he exocrine glands include the saliary glands, sweat glands and glands within the gastrointestinal tract. )he exocrine glands are the Bglands of external secretion.B )he endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemicals called hormones.. "n addition to the speciali=ed endocrine organs mentioned aboe, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as the .idney, lier, heart and gonads, hae secondary endocrine functions. 6or example the .idney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. ('R&'$<% R<?<#%<7 :C Pos!erior pi!$i!ary lo,e Tyroi& post pituitary Bxytocin /asopressin .an!i&i$re!i" ormone0ADH PA)CREAS insulin glucagon 1omatostatin -ypothalamus Thyrotropin4releasing hormone .TRH0 *opamine .Prola"!in4 ini,i!ing ormone0 DA OR PIH Crowth hormone4 releasing hormone .5HRIH0 1omatostatin.SS0 .grow! ormone4 ini,i!ing ormone05HIH Conadotropin4 releasing hormone.5nRH0 0orticotropin4 releasing hormone.CRH0 O#y!o"in 6 ADH &nterior pituitary Crowth hormone .soma!o!ropin0 5H Thyroid4 stimulating hormone .!yro!ropin0TS H &drenocorticotro pic hormone ."or!i"o!ropin0 ACTH (ollicle4 stimulating hormone.(SH0 5uteini=ing hormone .LH0 Drolactin Tyroi& glan& Triiodothyronine.T70 Thyroxine .!e!raio&o!yronine 0T8 0alcitonin 9ID)EY A&renal glan&s A&renal me&$lla [Adrenal cortex) (Catecholamines) Parathyroid Repro&$"!ive Sys!em
Ovarian follicle /
Corpus luteum Testes
Se"re!e& ormone ?enin .Primarily0 'rythropoietin .EPO0 0alcitriol .:%;<4 &iy&ro#yvi!amin D70 T Se"re!e& ormone Clucocorticoids ."ie+y cortisol0 Mineralocorticoids ."ie+yaldostero ne0 &ndrogens .in"l$&ing *-'& an&test osterone0 Se"re!e& ormone &drenaline .epineprine0 .Primarily0 Eoradrenaline .norepine prine0 Se"re!e& ormone Drogesterone 'strogens Inhibin Se"re!e& ormone Darathyroid hormone.PTH0 Se"re!e& ormone &ndrogens ."ie+y testos terone0 'stradiol Inhibin I)TE5UME)TARY SYSTEM :ecause the s.in (?. integumentum, a coering) is readily accessible and is one of the best indicators of general health, careful obseration of it is important in physical examinations. "t is considered in the differential diagnosis of almost eery disease. )he s.in proides: Heat regulation Sensation Synthesis and storage of itamin 7. )he s%in, the bodyDs largest organ, consists of the epidermis, a superficial cellular layer, and the dermis, a deep connectie tissue layer. )he epidermis is a eratini!ed e"ithelium!that proides a protectie outer surface# )he epidermis has no blood essels or lymphatics. )he a$ascular e"idermis is nourished by the underlying $asculari!ed dermis# )he s.in is also supplied with afferent nere endings that are sensitie to touch, irritation (pain), and temperature. &ost nere terminals are in the dermis, but a few penetrate the epidermis. )he dermis is a dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers# )hese fibers proide s.in tone and account for the strength and toughness of s.in. )he s.in also contains many speciali=ed structures. )he deep layer of the dermis contains hair %ollicles, with associated smooth arrector muscles and sebaceous glands. 8ontraction of the arrector muscles o! hairs (?. musculi arrector "ili) erects the hairs, causing goose bumps. 8ontraction of the arrector muscles causes compression of the sebaceous glands and helping them to secrete their oily product onto the s.in surface. )he eaporation of the watery secretion (sweat) of the s&eat glands from the s.in proides a thermoregulatory mechanism for heat loss (cooling). #lso inoled in the loss or retention of body heat are the small arteries (arterioles) within the dermis. )hey dilate to fill su"er%icial ca"illary 'eds to radiate heat (s.in appears red) or constrict to minimi=e surface heat loss (s.in, especially of the lips and fingertips, appears blue). 'ther s.in structures or deriaties include the nails (fingernails, toenails), the mammary glands, and the enamel of teeth. ?ocated between the oerlying s.in (dermis) and underlying deep fascia, the subcutaneous tissue (superficial fascia) is composed mostly of loose connecti$e tissue and stored %at and contains sweat glands, su"er%icial 'lood $essels, lym"hatic $essels, and cutaneous ner$es . )he neuroascular structures course in the subcutaneous tissue, distributing only their terminal branches to the s.in. )he subcutaneous tissue proides for most of the bodyDs fat storage, so its thic.ness aries greatly, depending on the personDs nutritional state. "n addition, the distribution of subcutaneous tissue aries considerably in different sites in the same indiidual. 8ompare, for example, the relatie abundance of subcutaneous tissue eident by the thic.ness of the fold of s.in that can be pinched at the waist or thighs with the anteromedial part of the leg (the shin, the anterior border of the tibia) or the bac. of the hand, the latter two being nearly deoid of subcutaneous tissue. #lso consider the distribution of subcutaneous tissue and fat between the sexes: "n mature females, it tends to accumulate in the breasts and thighs, whereas in males, subcutaneous fat accumulates in the lower abdominal wall. %ubcutaneous tissue participates in thermoregulation, functioning as insulation, retaining heat in the bodyDs core. "t also proides padding that protects the s.in from compression by bony prominences, such as those in the buttoc.s. &'(EG#ME'()R* S*S(EM S%in +olor Signs in ,hysical -iagnosis :lood flow through the superficial capillary beds of the dermis affects the color of s.in and can proide important clues for diagnosing certain clinical conditions. 5hen the blood is not carrying enough oxygen from the lungs, such as in a person who has stopped breathing or in a person haing a defectie circulation that is sending an inadeEuate amount of blood through the lungs, the s.in can appear bluish or cyanotic. )his occurs because the oxygen!carrying hemoglobin of blood is bright red when carrying oxygen (as it does in arteries and usually does in capillaries) and appears deep, purplish blue when depleted of oxygen, as it does in eins. 8yanosis is especially eident where s.in is thin, such as the lips, eyelids, and deep to the transparent nails. Burns are caused by thermal trauma, ultraiolet or ioni=ing radiation, or chemical agents. :urns are classified, in increasing order of seerity, based on the depth of s.in in0ury (st)degree *su"er%icial+ 'urn (e.g., sunburn): damage is limited to the epidermis ,nd)degree *"artial)thicness+ 'urn- epidermis and superficial dermis are damaged with blistering (superficial 2nd degree) or loss (deep 2nd degree .rd)degree *%ull)thicness+ 'urn- the entire thic.ness of the s.in is damaged and perhaps underlying muscle