Underground Infrastructure of Urban Areas

UNDERGROUNDINFRASTRUCTURE OF URBANAREAS
SELECTED AND EDITED PAPERS FROMTHE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

UNDERGROUND INFRASTRUCTURE OF URBAN AREAS, WROCAW, POLAND,
2224 OCTOBER 2008
UndergroundInfrastructureof
UrbanAreas
Editors
Cezary Madryas, Bogdan Przybya &Arkadiusz Szot
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Wrocaw University of Technology, Wrocaw, Poland
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Underground Infrastructure of Urban Areas Madryas, Przybya & Szot (eds)
2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-48638-5
Tableof Contents
Preface VII
ScientificCommittee/Reviewers IX
Sponsors XI
Problemsof trenchlessrehabilitationof pipelinessituatedunder watercourses 1
T. Abel
Buildingonundergroundspaceawareness 9
J.B.M. Admiraal
Newchallengesinurbantunnelling: Thecaseof BolognaMetroLine1 15
G. Astore, S. Eandi & P. Grasso
Numerical analysisof theeffect of compositerepair oncompositepipe
structural integrity 27
A. Bezowski & P. Str zyk
Repair of RC oil contaminatedelementsincaseof infrastructure 37
T.Z. Baszczy nski
Modellingthebehaviour of amicro-tunnellingmachineduetosteeringcorrections 45
W. Broere, J. Dijkstra & G. Arends
Trenchlessreplacement of gasandpotablewater pipeswithnewPA 12pipes
applyingthepipeburstingmethod 55
R. Buessing, A. Dowe, C. Baron & M. Rameil
ExperienceswithPolyamide12gaspipesafter 2yearsinoperationat 24bar and
newpossibilitiesfor HDD 67
A. Dowe, C. Baron, W. Wessing, R. Buessing & M. Rameil
Simulationresearchesof pump-gravitational storagereservoir anditsapplication
insewagesystems 75
J. Dziopak & D. Sy s
Newdevelopmentsinliner designduetoATV-M 127-2andcasestudies 83
B. Falter
Concrete durablecompositeinmunicipal engineering 97
Z. Giergiczny, T. Pu zak & M. Sokoowski
Flyashasacomponent of concretecontainingslagcements 107
Z. Giergiczny &T. Pu zak
Rehabilitationof roadculvertsontheequator. Implementationof innovative
opencut andjacking/reliningtrenchlesssolutions 115
J.M. Joussin
Urbantechnical infrastructureandcitymanagement 129
W. Kaczkowski, K. Burska, H. Goawska & K. Kasprzak
V
Maintenanceof drainagesysteminfrastructureinButareTown, Rwanda 141
A. Karangwa
Contact zoneinmicrotunnelingpipelines 149
A. Kmita & R. Wrblewski
Effect of variableenvironmental conditionsonheavymetalsleachingfromconcretes 155
A. Krl
Designof thepipelinesconsideringexploitativeparameters 165
A. Kuliczkowski, E. Kuliczkowska & U. Kubicka
Management of sewer networkrehabilitationusingthemassservicemodels 171
C. Madryas & B. Przybya
UtilizingtheImpact-Echomethodfor nondestructivediagnosticsof atypically
locatedpipeline 183
C. Madryas, A. Moczko & L. Wysocki
Selectedproblemsof designingandconstructingundergroundgaragesin
intensivelyurbanisedareas 193
H. Michalak
Material structureof municipal wastewater networksinPolandintheperiodof
2000to2005 203
K. Miszta-Kruk, M. Kwietniewski, A. Osiecka & J. Parada
TwoHDDcrossingsof theHarlemRiver inNewYorkCity 213
J.P. Mooney Jr. & J.B. Stypulkowski
Preliminarydesignfor roadtunnelsonTrans-EuropeanVcCorridor motorway,
sectionMostar North SouthBorder (BosniaandHerzegovina) 225
I. Mustapi c, D. ari c & M. Stankovi c
Mappingtheunderworldtominimisestreet works 237
C.D.F. Rogers
Assumptionsfor optimizationmodel of sewagesystemcooperatingwith
storagereservoirs 249
D. Sy s & J. Dziopak
Curvaturejackingof centrifugallycast GRP pipes 257
U. Wallmann & D. Kosiorowski
Reliningwithlargediameter GRP pipes 269
U. Wallmann
Undergroundinfrastructureof historical citiesasexceptionallyvaluable
cultural heritage 275
M. Wardas, M. Pawlikowski, E. Zaitz & M. Zaitz
Author Index 287
VI
Preface
Inmostcases, townshavegrownuponthebasisof industrial capital andrelevantrulesof industrial-
ization. Ithascausedthatsuchtownsaremalfunctioning, expensive, notecological withall resulting
consequencesimpedingeveryday lifeof their inhabitants. Thus, public expectationsarethat por-
tionsof townssubjectingtomodernizationandalsoexpansionof suchtownswouldbeprogressed
withutmost considerationfor residential comfort byadaptingnewlygrowntowninfrastructureto
social, spiritual andcultural needsresultingfromchangedstyleof lifeandcontinuouslychanging
scaleof values. Creatingurbanizedspaceof suchfeatures is oneamongfundamental tasks that
needtobeundertakentofulfil theexpectationsspecifiedabove. Thistaskisalsoresultingfromthe
necessity of unifyingthetownsandadaptingthemtostandardsbecomingpopular duetoglobal-
izationprocess. Newprojectsof modernizationandexpansionof townshavingbeennowcoming
into being must bedistinguished by better-than-beforeuseof town spacethrough stereoization
of development, i.e. development of tower-block housing and underground structures. To meet
this conditionahigher level of integrationof infrastructuresystems amongwhichthefollowing
equipment isdistinguished:
equipment relatedtocommunicationservicesfor thetown;
equipmentconnectedwithpower management, water supplyandsewagedisposal system, waste
disposal andmanagement;
communicationandinformationrelatedsystems which, assumingtheneedof control, also in
respect totheremaininginfrastructuresystems, createthebasisof urbanmanagement system.
Themost important is however to work out engineeringsolutions that wouldbethebasis for
creatingintegratedstructures. Thefundamental assumptionfor suchstudies must becreationof
urbanizedspaceenabling:
toexchangeenergybetweensystems/equipmentandtousetownheatfromsomestructures, such
asfor examplecommunicationtunnels, sewagesystemor power systems, etc.
self-fillinginof thewater supplysystem(bywastewater treatment),
to rise the safety of town inhabitants both in respect of natural threats (flood, seismic and
paraseismicquakes, etc.) andexternal risks(terrorist or war actions),
tousetheprofitsresultingfromstereoizationof town, i.e. temperature, humidity andacoustic
conditionsother thanthoseexistingover theground,
toreleasethegroundspacefromsomefunctions(first andforemost thecommunicationrelated
functions) whichshall bemainlyusedfor residential andrecreational purposes,
torenovatethehistorical, cultural andecological environment of citycentres.
Thus, researches, planners and investors must focus their attention on making better use of
undergroundspaceasthepotential toimprovetowncommunication, onexpandingcentrecapacity
by movingmany commercial andservicefunctionunderground, andalso onmodernizationand
integration of underground systemto improve their functionalities and to create conditions for
constructionandoperationof other undergroundstructures.
Shouldthespecifiedtargetsbereached, apackageof administrationregulationspreferential for
undergroundconstructionwouldbenecessary, suchwhichaffects, but arenot limitedtotherules
of crediting, subsidizingor commissioningthebest solutions.
Accordingtoexperiencegainedtodateindevelopedcountrieswecanstatethattheunderground
spacewouldbe, andoftenalreadyis, usedwithoutanylimitationstogenerallyall purposes(except
residential function, whichinthisway couldget morespaceontheground). However thiswould
VII
not meanthat thetopic hasbeenexhaustedandrelatedproblemsresolve. J ust theopposite. Asit
resultsfromthematerialsincludedinthispaper, thissubjectisstill topical andmanyrelatedissues
needtoberesolved. Hence, I hopethat thispaper wouldariseinterest andinspirationfor further
examinations inpersons engagedinwidely understoodshapingof undergroundinfrastructureof
urbanizedareas.
At the end of this preface, I would like to express special acknowledgements to institutions
andcompanieswhichlogosandnamesareincludedinthisbook astheir financial support wasa
decisivefactor allowingitspublication.
Maineditor
CezaryMadryas
VIII
ScientificCommittee/Reviewers
Han ADMIRAAL, President of Dutch Group ITA-AITES, The Netherlands
Gerard ARENDS, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Rolf BIELECKI, President EFUC, Germany
Bert BOSSELER, Wissenschaftlicher Leiter des IKT, Germany
Jzef DZIOPAK, Rzeszw University of Technology, Poland
Bernhard FALTER, University of Applied Science-Mnster, Germany
Kazimierz FLAGA, Cracov University of Technology, Poland
Piergiorgio GRASSO, Vice-President of ITA-AITES, Italy
Wojciech GRODECKI, President of Polish Group ITA-AITES, Poland
Eivind GRV, Vice-President of ITA-AITES, Norway
Alfred HAACK (D), STUVA, Germany
Jens HLTERHOFF, President of GSTT, Germany
Jzef JASICZAK, Pozna University of Technology, Poland
Martin KNIGHTS, President of ITA-AITES, UK
Andrzej KULICZKOWSKI, Kielce University of Technology, Poland
Dariusz YD
ZBA, Wrocaw University of Technology, Poland

Cezary MADRYAS, President of PSTB, Poland
Herbert A. MANG, Technische Universitt Wien, Austria
Dietmar MLLER, Universitt Hamburg, Germany
Harvey PARKER, Past-President of ITA-AITES, USA
Anna POLAK, University of Waterloo, Canada
Chris ROGERS, University of Birmingham, UK
Anna SIEMI

NSKA LEWANDOWSKA, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland
Ray STERLING, Louisiana Tech. University, USA
Markus THEWES, RUB Bochum, Germany
Roland W. WANIEK, President of IKT, Germany
Andrzej WICHUR, University of Science and Technology Krakow, Poland
IX
Sponsors
PLATINUM SPONSORS
HERRENKNECHT AG
HOBASSystemPolskaSp. z o.o
GOLD SPONSORS
INFRA S.A
REHAU Sp. z o.o.
SILVER SPONSORS
AmitechPolandSp. z o.o.
Gra zd zeCement S.A.
KWHPipe(Poland) Sp. z o.o.
XI
OTHER SPONSORS
BEWA SystemyOczyszczania
Sciekw
Dolno sl askaOkr egowaIzba
In zynierwBudownictwa
SIKA PolandSp. z o.o.
Book supported by
XII
Problemsof trenchlessrehabilitationof pipelinessituatedunder
watercourses
T. Abel
Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland, KAN-REM Sp. z o.o. Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: All typesof collisionsof pipelineswithwater racearefrequentlysolvedbyelabo-
ratingsewertrapconstructions. Suchconstructionsareoftenencounteredinseweragesystemswhen
it isnecessarytoovercomeanobstacleandfor thisreasonbymaincollectorsof largedimensions
areused. Channelslocatedincloseneighborhoodtosurfacewater shouldbeconstantlymonitored,
sinceevery damageor failureof theunder-river pipelineor channel leading surfacewater may
causevery serious consequences. Municipal andindustrial wastes, whenincontact withsurface
water mayquicklyresult incontaminationandecological catastrophe. Surfacewater disturbwater
andseweragebalanceandinextremecases, withhighpressuresappliedtothesewer trapconstruc-
tion, theymayproduceaveryquick propagationof thedamageandfinally, constructiondisaster.
Duetoaveryspecificconstructionof asewagetrap(most frequentlylocatedunder watercourses
of Rother fix hindrances) it is impossibleto repair or replaceapipelinenetwork that is created
by sewagetrap in atraditional, dig technology. Owing to thedevelopment of civil engineering
andtheuseof trenchless technologies, restoringtheoriginal conditionof pipelines andassuring
their safeexploitationarehighly feasible. Inthepaper, examplesof sewer trapswill beprovided
andfinishedprojects of seweragesystems rehabilitation, shown. Thefirst structureto comment
onwill beawastetraponthemaindrainof DN1200locatedintheregionof Pulawy (southeast
of Poland) under KurowkaRiver. Thesewer trapiscomposedof threesteel pipelinenetworksof
DN600. RehabilitationworksconsistedinmakingshortreliningwithPEHDmodules. Thesecond
examplewill beasteel sewer trapof DN2200locatedunder dischargewater of Thermal-electric
powerstationinKonin(central Poland). RegenerationwasmadeinMaxi-Troliningtechnology.The
aimof thispaperistopresenttrenchlessmethodsof sewertrapstructuresrehabilitationandexplain
indetail all technological process as well as by-pass methods andmaterials solutions appliedin
pipelinesandsewer trapsentrancechambers.
1 INTRODUCTION
Asaresultof intensivedevelopment, routesof sewagesystemsformingundergroundpartof urban
infrastructureare, inmanyplaces, situatedindirect vicinityof other objects, particularlyinurban
areas.
Engineering objects with which collision of sewagesystems may occur are, first of all, road
and rail tunnels, communication arteries and railway lines laid in towns in trenches, navigable
waterways, water andheat supply mainlines andevenbuildings. Thesecondgroupof obstacles
that canbeencounteredwhilelayingsewagesystemsarenatural obstaclessuchaswater courses
andravines.
Dependingonthedepthof layingsewersaswell asdifferencesingradelines, theductingmay
passaboveroutesof engineeringobjectsandother terrainobstaclesor belowthem.
1
Layingasewer aboveanobstaclecanbeperformedonanaqueductor inavaultpassingover the
engineeringstructure. Whenlayingthesewer under anengineeringstructure, thefollowingthree
casescanoccur:
thesewer canrununder theobstaclewithout changeinshapeor dimensionsof thesection. The
bottomof theengineeringstructureintersectstheductingvault.
thesectionof thesewer enterstheobjectstructureonlyinitstoppart. Inthiscase, itisnecessary
tochangesectionof thesewer toaloweredonewhilemaintainingdropof thechannel bottom
andspeedinthechannel possiblyunchanged.
if thesewer entersintothestructureof thecollidingobject withitswholesection, asewer trap
shouldbeplannedunder theobstacle.
2 ASSESSINGTHETECHNICAL STATE OF DAMAGEDSEWERTRAP PIPE
Thestarting point of technology selection for rehabilitation of trap pipes, as structural element
transferringdefiniteload, ispreciseassessment of their technical state. InaccordancewithATV-
DVMK M 127, threedifferent technical statesof damagedpipecanbedistinguished. Depending
onthekindof technical state, various loads act ontheexecutedshell (grouting). Assessment of
thetechnical stateshouldbeperformedonthebasisof TV camerainspectionresults. It shouldbe
realizedthatsuchmodeof examiningthestructural stateof sewerisnotalwayssufficient. Especially
inthecaseof trapconstructionof concreteandreinforcedconcretepipes, very dangerousvitriol
corrosionof concreteoftenoccursasaresultof whichittransformsintogypsumcausinglowering
inloadcapacityof thewholestructure, evenleadingtoitslossandoccurrenceof stateof emergency.
Level of corrosioncannotbeassessedbyoptical examinationbutonlybytestingof samplestaken.
If justified, beforerehabilitation, pointrepairsshouldbeundertakenusingrobots. Insuchcase, the
recommendedsolutionistoincreasethestrengthof rehabilitatingshell over thewholelength.
3 TRAP CONSTRUCTIONSASSPECIAL CASESDURINGREHABILITATIONOF
SYSTEM
Traps areconstructions consistingof oneor morepipes whoseoperationoccurs under pressure.
Trapconstructionsoccur most frequentlyasobjectsmadefrompipesof cast iron, steel or steel in
concreteor reinforcedconcretecasing.
In case of repairing sewage systems, engineering objects as are trap constructions generate
complicationsfor applicationof trenchlesstechnologies.
Performingrepairsof sewer trapsusingtrenchlesstechnologiesrequiresconductingindividual
analysisof thecaseanddrawingupaproject, andparticularlyplanningthetechnologyfor carrying
out theworks.
Part of the trenchless methods of renovating the systemdoes not find application in sewer
traps. Characteristic features for structures surmountingterrain obstacles, causingnarrowingof
capabilitiesfor applicationof solutions, arefirst of all:
veryfrequent changesindirectionof layingtraplinesinprofile(figure1).
Locationof traplinesat largeangledisablesapplicationof most close-fittingtechnologiesdue
totheir limitationsregardingsusceptibilityat arcsandoccurrencesof deformationsthat canbe
avoided. Whenusingunconstrainedliningsincaseof occurrenceof evenminimumchangein
directionof sewer routedueto introductioninto thepipelineof rigidpipemodules of lengths
from0.6to6.0m, thetraparrangement completely disablesexecutionof repairsintheabove-
mentionedtechnologies. Technologiesof unconstrainedliningsconstituteaverygoodsolution
incaseof occurrenceof traplinearrangement asstraight lengths(figure2).
diameter of trappipes. Incaseof passagepipelines, i.e. of diameters larger than1000mm, it
is possibleto utilizeclose-fittingtechnologies enablingformationof theinsert directly inthe
2
Figure1. Changesindirectionof layingtraplinesinprofile.
sewer by thefittersthankstowhichtheir preciseexecutionisensured. For non-passagepipes,
duetoabsenceof thepossibilityof directinterventioninsidethesewer, therangeof applications
of close-fittingtechnologiesnarrowsconsiderably. Lack of possibilityof controllingexecution
of liningineverysensitivepoint (asinthecaseof passagepipes) formsaseriousobstacleand
aspect against theuseof close-fittinglinings.
trapconstructioninsewagesystemismostfrequentlyappliedincaseof surmountinganobstacle
intheformof watercourses. Suchasituationveryoftendisablesexecutionof by-passtypesystem
enablingworkingonasectioncut-off fromutilization. Most trenchlesstechniquesof repair are
applicable only on inactive systems. Lack of facility for pumping over mediumconducted
throughthepipemeant for rehabilitationdefines toacertainextent thegroupof technologies
that arepossiblefor application.
All theabove-mentionedconditionsconstitutethegroupof factorswhich, occurringsimultaneously,
limit toaverysmall groupof trenchlesstechnologiesthat arepossiblefor application.
4 REVIEWOF TRENCHLESSTECHNOLOGIESFINDINGAPPLICATIONIN
REHABILITATIONOF SEWERTRAPS
Liningsusedintrenchlessmethodsof renovatingsewagesystemtrapconstructionscanbedivided
into close-fitting and unconstrained. The former (viz. in situ form) are methods consisting in
makingliningsinsidetheexistingpipe, whereasthelatter consistsininstallationinsidethesection
under repair, of pipesor modulesof smaller dimensionsthanitsinsidediameter allows.
Close-fittingmethodsaresleevesof technical fabricsaturatedwithresinsaswell aspolyethylene
sleeves. Anexampleof unconstrainedlinings, incaseof sewer traps, is methodof reliningwith
short modules.
3
Figure2. Traplinearrangement asstraight lengths.
4.1 Sleeves of technical fabrics
Technologies fromgroup of close-fitting technical fabrics consist in inserting into the sewer a
resinous shell sleeveof technical fabric saturated with resin which, after filling with e.g. hot
water or hot air, getshardenedandadherescloselytotheoldsewer structure.
4
At present, thereareseveral variations of technical-fabric sleevetechnologies, differingfrom
themodeof introducingtheshell, kindof mediumusedcausingpressureintheshell, kindof agent
hardeningtheshell.
In certain situations, technical conditions maketheCIPP sleeveto becometheonly rational
solution. They couldinclude, for example, deformationof thesection. Consideredherearesuch
deformations as, for example, imperfections of thecross section. Inother situations, application
of CIPP sleeveis not possible, for example, inthecaseof loss of loadcapacity andbreak-down
of structureof thetrap construction utilized. At present, dueto decreasein utilization of water
andconsequently inreductioninquantity of sewage, inmany cases, reductionincrosssectionis
apositiveoperationsince, thankstothis, flowspeedincreasesresultinginimprovedself-cleaning
of thewholesystemandreductioninmaintenancecosts.
4.2 Polyethylene sleeves
Thebasic exampleof this typeof technology is Trolining system. It is a trenchless systemfor
reconstructingcombinedsewagesystemandalsosanitary, rainwaterandindustrial drainagesystems
aswell asother pipelinesbothgravitational andalsopressure, fabricatedfromvariousmaterials.
Thissystembelongstothegroupof GIPP(groutinginplacepipe) methods. Technologiesof close-
fittingliningsarecharacterizedbyeliminatingtoaminimumtheneedfor carryingoutearthworks
as areindispensableincaseof classical technologies of undergroundinfrastructurerepairs; this
facilitatesreductionincommunicationdifficulties. Animportantmatter isalsolimitationof noise,
dustandothernuisances. Deservingspecial attentionhoweveristheradical shorteningof theperiod
of workduration.
Incontrastwithliningsof technical fabricssaturatedwithresins(differinginfabricmaterial and
kindof resinandparticularlythemodeof hardening), TROLININGconsistsof polyethyleneinsert
madefromspecial kindof sheet/foil andfillinglayer.
Large-size pipes are renovated using segments of PEHD panels stiffened with solid form-
work, instead of sleeves. In case of infiltration of groundwater, panels are also used on the
outside, adhering directly onto therenovated construction, protecting thenew structureagainst
external influences. Thefreespacebetweentheinsert andthepipewalls is filledwithconcrete.
Reinforcement canfirst beinstalledinit. Thequantityof reinforcement, wall thicknessandclass
of concretearethedecidingfactorsregardingrigidityof therepairedconstruction. Thesequantities
aredefinedthroughprecisioncalculations. Therepair systemof large-sizepipesisalsoperfectly
suitablefor rehabilitationof inspectionchambers.
4.3 Example of execution
Dischargewater trapinKoninThermal-Electric Power Station.Theobject is locatedinKoninat
RybackaStreet innorthernpart of thetown. Thetrapconstructionhasthetask of carryingwater
fromthedischargeductof Pa
tnwThermal-ElectricPower Stationunder theductleadingwater to

KoninPower Station.This object belongs to thesystemof ducts andtraps whosetask is to carry
coolingwater of Pa
tnw KoninPower Plant Complex.

Theductingis madefromsmoothSt3S steel pipes withlongitudinal seamandwall thickness
of 20mmtogether withexternal andinternal anticorrosionprotection. Lengthof eachtraplineis
32.5m(figure4).
Assessmentof technical stateof thepipelinetoberepairedshowedverylargecorrosioncavities
inplaces inpipewalls. Measurements takenwiththickness gaugeshowedthat wall thickness in
certainplaceshadreducedfrom20mmto7.1mm.
Fromstructural analysisconducted, it wasconcludedthat incaseof reductionof wall thickness
to5mm, thetrapconstructionwouldloseitsstrength.
Technical statedeterminedof thepipelineindicatedthenecessityfor immediatereinforcement
of themiddlelineof thetrap. Deterioration of thetechnical stateand theresulting loss of load
capacitycouldthreatenaconstructioncatastrophe.
5
Figure3. GIPP system, TROLININGsystem.
Figure4. Water trapinKonin.
Internal forceswerecalculatedfor twoloadsituations:
caseI all loadsoccur,
caseII nowater loadinduct (pipelineisemptiedof water).
After dimensioningtheconstruction, resultswereobtainedensuringadequatetechnical param-
eters for reinforced concrete layer of 150mmdoubly reinforced with 14 rods in spacing of
100mm.
Structural andstrengthanalysisforcaseII (trapconstructionemptiedof water) indicatedthatfor
apipeof suchlargelossinwall thickness(evenupto7.1mm), itsemptyingof waterisinadmissible
sinceit couldleadtobreakdown.
Inviewof theabove, it wasplannedtoprovideapreliminaryreinforcement byinstallingrings
madeof rolled160mmchannel sections. Therings wereinstalledby divers beforepumpingout
water fromtheducting(figure5).
6
Figure5. Preliminaryreinforcement.
4.4 Relining with short modules
For rehabilitationof gravitational pipelinesbymeansof short pipemodules, themodulesutilized
areof slightlylessoutsidediameter thaninsidediameter of therenovatedpipe, e.g. for renovation
of DN300sewer, pipemodulesof outsidediameter280mmor250mmcanbeused. Rehabilitation
consistsinsuccessivejoiningof consecutivepipemodulesandsimultaneousslidingtheliningso
assembledinto theinterior of theoldpipeline. Themodules havetotal lengthfromabout 0.6m.
Thisenablescarryingout workinsidethereinforcedconcretechamber/pit andhenceit ispossible
torehabilitatethefull lengthof trapconstructionwithout performinganyearthwork whatsoever.
Availablein themarket aredifferent methods of inserting renovation modules into thepipeline
to berehabilitated. Somefirms proposepushing/jacking in themodules by means of hydraulic
actuators/jacks; other proposepullingtheminbymeansof winches.
4.5 Example of execution
Sewer trapcarryingcommunal sewagefromthetownof Puawatothewastewater treatmentplant.
Theobject islocatedontherouteof themaindrainof diameter 1200mm.
Thetrapconsistsof 3linesof diameters600mmeach, connectedtothemaindrainthroughinlet
andoutletchambers/pits. Thetrapconstructionlengthscarrythesewageunder theKurwkaRiver
whichconstitutes asmall tributary of theVistulaRiver. It was plannedto performrehabilitation
usingshortreliningtechnology. PEHDmodulesof length1mwereused.Theinstallationtechnology
consistedinpullinginthemodules by means of ahydraulic winch. Theworks werecarriedout
under difficult winter conditions withsewer inoperation. Sewagewas transferredby means of a
logstopprovidedthroughactivepart of thetrapconstruction. Thiswaspossiblethankstodivision
of thepit intocells. Beforeproceedingtoexecutetheshort relining, all thelinesof thetrapwere
subjectedtohydrodynamiccleaning. After rehabilitation, thenewpipelineobtainedwasof slightly
lessdiameter, themodulesinstalledbeingof outsidediameter 580mm.
5 SUMMINGUP
Dueto thespecifics of trap systemoperation which very often operates at 100%capacity, any
methodof rehabilitationusedmustnotleadtodeteriorationof thehydraulicconditions. Therepair
must ensureimprovement of hydraulic conditions, increaseinloadcapacity andprolongationof
7
pipelinedurability. Rehabilitationof thesaidobjectsmust becarriedout withmaximumaccuracy
andprecisionduetoinability of monitoringthelengthsof trapconstructionat operational stage.
Breakdownof sewer trap, incontrast withthewholesewagesystem, maycarrymoreseriousand
dangerous consequences withit. As aresult of sewer trapbreakdown, damagecanbecausedto
structures inits closeproximity whichvery oftenincludetheobjects for whichprovisionof the
sewer trapwasnecessary. Damagetoacommunicationarteryor water coursemaycreateadirect
hazardtopeople.
As canbeseen, theconsequences of no repairs or repairs carriedout witherrors may leadto
several failuresof structures. Sewer trapsconstituteatop-classchallengefor anycontractor under-
takingtheir rehabilitation. Thankstothepossibilityof applyingtheabove-mentionedtechnologies
for repairing such constructions, every designer has the capability of selecting the appropriate
technology and planning out the rehabilitation procedure so as to acquire long-termeffect and
protectionof theconstructionagainst breakdown.
REFERENCES
Sewagesystem. T. 1, Sewagesystemandpumpingstation. (InPolish). Kanalizacja. T. 1, Sieci i pompownie.
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izacyjnych.
ATV-DVWK-M 127P Auxiliary Materials Structural analysis for technical rehabilitationof sewagesystem
pipesbyintroducinglinersor bytheassemblymethod. (InPolish). MateriayPomocniczeATV-DVWK-M
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ProjektWykonawczy.
Testingandacceptanceof CIPPtechnical sleevesandtheir durability Andrzej Kolonko, TrenchlessTechnol-
ogy 3/2007. (InPolish). Badaniai odbiory technicznere
kawwCIPP aichtrwao s c Andrzej Kolonko,

In zynieriaBezwykopowa3/2007.
8
Buildingonundergroundspaceawareness
J.B.M. Admiraal
Centre Applied Research Underground Space CARUS, Gouda, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: Worldwidethedemandonavailablespaceinurbanareasisgrowing.Theawareness
that theuseof undergroundspacecanoffer asolutionisoftenlacking. Thispaper will discussthe
latest developments in thefield of underground spaceplanning. It will highlight why planning
should beconsidered in order to avoid spatial conflicts which will bedetrimental to theuseof
undergroundspace. Thepaper will alsodiscussthesustainableuseof theunderground. Giventhe
many benefits theuseof theundergroundoffers to lifeon thesurface, it is often deemedto be
sustainable. Theauthor will arguethat thisisnot necessarilyalwaysthecase. A balanceddecision
is neededwhenconsideringtheuseof undergroundspaceinwhichtheundergroundas aliving
organismshouldbeconsidered.
1 INTRODUCTION
Withtheworldwidesearchfor morespaceinurbanareas, theuseof undergroundspaceisseenas
avalidsolution. Theawarenessthatthisisthecaseisinpracticenotwidespread. Inmanycasesthe
development of undergroundspaceis autonomous withfar reachingeffects. Oneof thesebeing
that further development isseverelyhinderedandcanonlytakeplaceat great depth. Tunnellingis
seenasoneof themethodswhichcanbeappliedtousetheundergroundspace.
To prevent theautonomous development becoming common practice, avision on theuseof
undergroundspaceneedstobedevelopedat alocal level. Thisinturncanfacilitateplanningthe
useof undergroundspace, whichshouldavoidconflictsbetweenresourcedemandsandalsolead
tomulti-functional useof undergroundspace.
Inmanycasestheundergroundspaceisalivingorganism. Thiswill requirebalanceddecisions
ontheuseof undergroundspace. Onlyinthiswaycantheuseof undergroundspacebedeemedto
bepart of sustainabledevelopment.
2 UNDERGROUNDSPACEAWARENESS
2.1 The worldwide quest for urban space
Astheworldpopulationkeepsgrowing, mega-citiesaregrowingbigger andbigger. It ishowever
notonlythegrowthof theworldpopulationthatleadstothedevelopmentof mega-cities. TheUN-
HABITATprogrammehasstatedthatasof mid-2007morethan50%of theworldpopulationlivesin
cities.Thismeansthatthepopulationshiftfromrural areastourbanareasisalsocontributingtothis
growth. Oneof themost commonaspectsof mega-citiesisthestrugglefor spacetoaccommodate
all functionsrequiredtomaintainliveabilitybut alsomobility.
Citiescannot survivewithout infrastructure. Infrastructuretoallowitspopulationtomove, but
alsotheinfrastructuretoprovidethecity withitspower andwater. Utilitiesalsorequirespaceto
beaccommodated. Withtheadverseaffects of climatechange, sewer systems needto copewith
9
ever increasingamountsof rainwater. All thisneedstobetakenintoaccount. Theworldwidequest
for urbanspacerequires radical newinsights into landuse. Multiplelanduseis oftenseenas a
newwaytocopewiththeever increasingdemand. Theuseof undergroundspacemust beseenas
avalidoptionwithinthiscontext.
2.2 Sustainable development and climate change
InTheNetherlands aurgency agendawas published in 2007 by leading scientists and research
programmes, callingonthenationtotaketoheart sustainabledevelopment andtoclimateproof
thecountry. Theso-calledUrgenda provides anactionplanfor thecoming40years. Thebasis
assumptionisthatTheNetherlandswill needtochangemorerapidlyinthecoming50yearsthan
inthepast 500yearsinorder tocopewithall thechallengesthecountryisfacedwith.
Thesechallenges arebothinthesocial cultural arenaas inthecivil engineeringfield. Oneof
thestatementsintheUrgenda, isthat within15years, intensiveuseof undergroundspacewill be
commoninTheNetherlands.
For theauthors of theUrgendait is agiven fact that underground spaceusewill play avital
roleinthesustainabledevelopment of thecountry anditsclimateproofing, i.e. ensuringthat the
adverseeffectsof climatechangearemitigated.
2.3 Underground space development
Given, asshowabove, theroleundergroundspaceusecanplaywithinthecontextof theworldwide
questformoreurbanspace, thereisaparadoxwhichneedstobeaddressed.Thisparadoxbeingthat
ontheonehandmanycountriesandcitiesalreadypracticeanintensiveuseof undergroundspace
whereasontheother handthereseemstobeaworldwideignorancetothefact that underground
spacecanplayavital roleinalleviatingthespatial shortagesat surfacelevel.
Thisparadox isoneof thereasonsfor settinguptheITA CommitteeonUndergroundSpace
ITACUSbytheInternational TunnellingandUndergroundSpaceAssociation, ITA-AITES. World-
widemany Westerncities arefindingtheneedto go deeper anddeeper into theundergroundas
thetoplayersarealreadycongestedwithvariousfunctions. Usersof transport systemsneedtobe
transportedtogreat depthas thetoplayers areusedfor utility systems. This fact arises fromthe
autonomous development of undergroundspacewithout any formof coordinationandnovision
bycityauthoritiesonmultipleuseof undergroundspace.
Theauthor hasoftenpubliclystatedthat thegoal toachieveintensiveundergroundspaceusein
TheNetherlands withinthenext 15years is unreachableif thecurrent practiceof uncoordinated
use of underground space remains. The autonomous development will lead to a chaos in the
undergroundwhichwill makefuturedevelopment impossible.
Another problemwhicharisesfromthelackof awareness, isthesimplefactthatdevelopmentof
forexampleinfrastructurewill takeplacewithoutevenconsideringthepossibilitiesof underground
spaceuse. Thiscanleadtousingcontemporarymethodswhichoftengiveasuboptimal resultsas
reportedbytheauthor (Admiraal, 2004).
Awarenessof thepossibilitieswhichundergroundspaceusehastooffer isthereforeneededon
alargescale. Not onlytoensurethat thisuseisconsideredright fromthestart of development of
cities, but alsotoensurethat oncedevelopment takes place, it is doneinacoordinatedway. The
roleof ITACUSwill be, toprovideaplatformfor aworldwidedialogueontheuseof underground
space. A dialoguewhichwill consider theuseof undergroundspacewithinthecontext of societal
needs, environmental concerns, sustainabledevelopment andtheclimatechallenge.
2.4 Underground space use
There seems to be confusion in practice on what the use of underground space entails. Often
tunnellingis seento bethesoleuseof undergroundspace. This is trueinso far that tunnelling
is amethod which allows for various functional uses of underground space. Transport Useand
10
ProductionUseof theundergroundcall for tunnelstomakethispossible(Admiraal, 2006). There
arehowever many other uses whichall competefor spaceintheunderground. This fact initself
requires abalanceddecisiononhowto developundergroundspace(Parriaux, Blunier, Maire&
Tacher, 2008). A further complexityisaddedwhenwerequirethisdevelopment tobesustainable
aswill bediscussedlater inthispaper.
As Parriaux and others point out, underground space can be modelled as consisting of four
differentresources: space, water, geo-material andgeo-energy. All theseresourcescanbeused, but
theseusescanconflictwithvariousresults. Theseresultscanvaryfrompollutionof drinkingwater
totransportationprojectsnot beingcarriedout. Thereisneedtoconsider theuseof underground
spaceinitsentiretyandnot limit it totunnelling.
3 PLANNINGBASEDONVISION
3.1 Action without vision
A J apaneseproverbstatesthat: Visionwithoutactionisadaydream, actionwithoutvisionanight-
mare. As statedabove, withrapidautonomous development of undergroundspace, anightmare
situationcanariseas city planners discover thechaos whichexists underground. InTheNether-
lands and in Chinatheneed for creating avision on theuseof underground spaceas thebasis
for aplanneddevelopment is understoodandput inpractice. Althoughthescaleis still limited,
interestingresultscanbereported. Thecityof ZwolleinTheNetherlandswasthefirst todevelop
avisionontheuseof theunderground.
Oneof theinterestingresultsof thisvisionwastheidentificationof pollutedgroundwater under
anewurbandevelopment area. This has leadtotheideatocombinetheapplicationof heat-cold
storagewiththecleaning-upof contaminatedgroundwater over aperiodof 10years. Inthisway
theenvironmentisservedintwoways: thegroundwaterisdecontaminatedandthecarbonfootprint
for thedevelopment areaisreducedasnogasor electricityisrequiredtoheat thehousesinwinter
or cool themduringsummer.
Inthecityof Shanghai inChina, apilot project isbeingcarriedout wherebyfor newdevelop-
ments of thecity, undergroundspacemust beincludedintheplanningof thedevelopment. It is
evidentthatthissituationwill leadtoacoordinateddevelopmentinwhichanoptimal useof under-
ground spaceis ensured. Chinais aprimeexampleof acountry wheretheuseof underground
spaceismoreandmoreseenaspartof urbandevelopment. Visionandplannedactionisparamount
for acontrolleddevelopment of undergroundspace.
3.2 Conflicts between resources
Themainproblemwhichcanarisefromnot planningtheuseof undergroundspacecanbebest
explained by two examples. As natural energy resources are seen to be limited, the search for
alternativesisalsoaworldwideevent. Oneof themost promisinginthisareaistheapplicationof
geo-thermal energysystems. Theapplicationof thesesystemsdoeshowever requirevertical pipes
tobeinsertedintoundergroundspace, oftenhundredsof metersdeep.
Theuseof thesesystemsisverypopular andarapidautonomousdeployment of thesesystems
isobservedbothinGermanyandTheNetherlands. Thedownsidetothisisthat thesesystemscan
becomeaseriousobstaclefor futuredevelopment of undergroundspaceinthehorizontal plane. It
isnot unthinkablethat futurealignmentsof undergroundmassrapidtransport systemsisseverely
hinderedbythepresenceof thesesystems.
Moreover, as observed by Parriaux, Tacher & J oliquin (2004), when a decision needs to be
made for an underground mass rapid transport systemor a geothermal application, the first is
mostlychosen. Inanycase, noconsiderationisgiventothepossibilitytocombinethesefunctions.
Althoughnot deemedto befeasiblefromanengineeringperspectiveonthemoment, thereis no
reasonwhyinfuturethisshouldnotbethecase. Thepointbeingmadehereisthatwithoutplanning
thesesituationscannot beidentifiedandthereforeinnovationasmentionedisnot stimulated.
11
A second examplestems fromtheconflict which arises fromseeing underground spaceas a
unlimitedreservoir of spaceversusundergroundspaceasanaturereservewhichneedstobepre-
servedat all cost. Thisconflict arisesfromthefact that inmoreDeltaicregions, giventhespecific
character of thesubsoil, it is deemedto bethesupporter of lifeon thesurface, given themany
natural processesandsystemsthat exist belowthesurface. Inonecasethisconflict hasleadtoa
tunnel projectbeingscrappedinTheNetherlandsfor fear of changingthecharacter of theNaarder
Lake, alakedeemedtobepart of anareaof outstandingnatural beauty.
That thefear initself is not unfoundedcanbedemonstratedwiththeadverseeffects of water
inflowintunnels as experiencedinNorway (Grv, 2008). AlthoughthesituationinNorway and
TheNetherlandsarenotcomparable, thelackof understandingthattheconflictbetweenthesetwo
approachesexists, liesat thebasisof thedecisiontakennot tocarryout theproject.
A balanced-decision making framework for the use of underground space can avoid these
conflicts. Parriaux andothers, areworkingonthedevelopment of suchframeworks. Theimple-
mentationof theseframeworkscanhowever onlytakeplacewhenthereisageneral awarenessof
thevirtuesof theuseof undergroundspace, thisawarenessistranslatedintoavisionwhichinturn
makesplanningpossible.
3.3 Planning methods in practice
Variousmethodsareinuseregardingtheplanningof undergroundspace. Asreportedbytheauthor
(Admiraal, 2006) researchinTheNetherlandshascomeupwithpractical methodswhichidentify
areaswhicharemost likelytoproveworthwhilefor undergroundspacedevelopment. Theseareas
areidentifiedby takingvariousaspectsintoaccount. Other methodstry toapproachtheproblem
fromatheoretical sideand useasystems approach on which decisions can bebased (Parriaux
et al, 2008). Themost commondevelopment istofocusonareasfor development rather thanon
individual cases.
Theso-calledareadevelopment approachoftenincorporatesadialoguebasedmodel inwhich
all interestedstakeholdersareinvolved. Plannersthenusetheoutcomeof thisdialoguetodevelop
astakeholder basedvisiononwhichtheplanningcanbebased. Inthisapproachtheinterestsof all
parties aretakenintoaccount andtheconflicts as observedabovecanbeavoidedas all interests
areweighed-up.
Aninterestingtool for analysisistheso-calledlayeredapproach toareadevelopment. Inthis
approachanareaisdeemedtoconsist of threelayers: habitation, networksandtheunderground.
ThemethodhasbeendevelopedbytheMinistryof Housing, Spatial PlanningandtheEnvironment
inTheNetherlands. Thefact that theundergroundis recognisedas anentity to beconsideredin
futureplanningissuesisapositivedevelopment.
The city of Arnhemin The Netherlands is actively using this approach for the planning of
developmentswithpositiveresultsintermsof undergroundspaceuse. Oneof theresultsbeingthe
combinationof functionsunderground.A primeexampleisthedevelopmentof anundergroundcar
parkincombinationwithanutilitytunnel whichincorporatesanundergroundwasterefugecollec-
tionsystem. Inothercitiesthesedevelopmentswouldeventuallyhavetakenplaceonanautonomous
scale. Inthisexamplethecombinationof thesefunctionsthroughplanningbasedonvisionmakes
it anexcellingbest practiceexample.
4 THE UNDERGROUNDASLIVINGORGANISM
Theuseof undergroundspacetakesplaceindifferentregionsof theworldwithvaryinggeological
conditions. Mega-citiesaremost commonly foundwithin50kmof thesea. Thismakesthat alot
of mega-citiesandthereforeundergroundspacedevelopmenttakesplaceinDeltaicregions. These
Deltaicregionshaveincommonthattheundergroundconsistsof softsoilsbeingoldriverdeposits.
Theregionsalsohaveincommonthat theyareoftenveryfertile, providinglandfor cropgrowth.
12
In Deltaic regions, the underground can be modelled as being the supporter for life on the
surface as mentioned before. The time scale at which processes take place in the underground
variesdramaticallyfromlifeonthesurface. Comparetoappreciatethisthetimeittooktoproduce
coal, gasandoil asnatural resourceswiththelifespanof anaveragebuilding. Theargument being
madeisthatweoftenarenotawareof theeffectsof manmadeinterventionsinthesubsoil. A prime
examplebeingthecontaminationof drinkingwateraquifersthroughstorageof wasteinthesubsoil.
TheNetherlandsisstill facingamassiveclean-upoperationtothiseffect.
Theuseof undergroundspaceaspartof sustainabledevelopmentmustconsider theabovewhen
decisionsaretaken. Itclearlyillustratesthatautonomousdevelopmentof theundergroundnotonly
canleadto resourceconflicts as mentionedinthecaseof transport versus geothermal energy. It
canalsoleadtodevelopmentswhichmayprovetobenon-sustainable.
In general it is felt by the author that resource conflicts can be avoided and a sustainable
development of underground space can be achieved through planning. In the case of the city
of Zwolle, the combination of a geothermal application with decontamination of groundwater,
clearlyshowswhat canbeachievedthroughvisiondevelopment.
5 CONCLUDINGREMARKS
Theuseof undergroundspaceisseentobevital inaworldwheremorethanhalf of thepopulation
nowlivesinurbanareas. Further concentrationinmega-citiesisatrendwhichcannot bestopped.
Theuseof undergroundspacecancontributetosustainabledevelopment, maintainingliveability
andpreparingtheworldfor theimpactof climatechange. Creatingawarenessontheuseof under-
groundspaceinthisrespect isvital. Furtheringthedevelopment of visionsonurbanunderground
spaceuseandrational useof theundergroundspacethroughplanningtechniquesisessential.
Thefutureof undergroundspaceuseisfurthermoregovernedbytheabilitytocombinefunctions,
e.g. combinationof transportfunctionswithwatermanagement.Thisrequiresadialoguewithincity
authoritiesacrosspolicyboundaries.Theresultscanhoweverbeverypositiveasisdemonstratedby
theStormwater ManagementandRoadTunnel projectwhichisnowoperational inKualaLumpur,
Malaysia.
Theabilitytoplantheuseof undergroundspaceincombinationwithamulti-functional usewill
determinethefutureof undergroundspaceuseasavaluablecontributor totheworldwidequestfor
moreurbanspaceandasustainabledevelopment of mega-cities. It will alsoshowthat societycan
reallynot affordnot touseundergroundspace.
REFERENCES
Admiraal, J.B.M. 2004. Developingaknowledgeinfrastructurefor undergroundspaceinIndonesia. Proceed-
ing7thJ oint MeetingJ TA-COB, StichtingCOB, Gouda, TheNetherlands.
Admiraal, J.B.M. 2006. A bottom-up approach to the planning of underground space. Tunnelling and
UndergroundSpaceTechnology, Volume21, Issues34, Pages464465.
Grv, E. 2008. Watercontrol inNorwegiantunnelling. ProceedingSouthAmericanTunnelling2008. Brazilian
TunnellingCommittee CBT, SaoPaulo. Brazil.
Parriaux,A,Tacher, L. &J oliquin, P. 2004.Thehiddensideof cities towardsthree-dimensional landplanning.
Energy& Buildings, Volume36, Pages335341.
Parriaux, A, Blunier, P, Maire, P. & Tacher, L. 2008. Theurban underground in thedeep city project: for
construction but not only. Proceedings Underground space challenges in urban development, Stichting
COB, Gouda, TheNetherlands.
13
Newchallengesinurbantunnelling: Thecaseof BolognaMetroLine1
G. Astore, S. Eandi & P. Grasso
Geodata SpA, Turin, Italy
ABSTRACT: TheLine1of BolognaMetrois7kmlongwith12stationswhichcrossestheentire
city fromtheFieraDistrict totheMaggioreHospital. Thesystemadoptedisalight rail tramway
operatedwith34-mlong, single-unit vehicles. Thelineisdesignedtobecompletelyunderground
and its construction involves theuseof all theavailabletunnelling technologies: cut and cover,
TBM and NATM. Theportion of thevertical alignment in thecity centreis very deep to avoid
damagetobuildingsandtoallowthelinetounderpassthenewHighSpeedRailwaytunnel nearthe
Central RailwayStation, whereit isforeseenaninterchangewiththemetro. ThePiazzaMaggiore
Stationisthemost complex andimportant intheentirelineandrepresentsagreat challenge, for
designersinparticular, becauseatthisstationsitethehorizontal alignmenthasaturnof 90
which
hastobebuilt completelybyconventional tunnellingtechniques.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Bologna Case
Locatedinnorthernpart of Italy, Bologna, amedium-sizecity withabout 400.000residents, has
anancienthistorical centreandcanbeconsideredastheheartof Italianroadsandrailwaynetwork.
Infact, its uniqueposition, beinginthecentreof acrossroadlinkingnorthto southandwest to
east of Italy, createsahugedemandfor publictransportationsystems.
As amatter of fact, to improveandchangethecity layout, at least four infrastructural works
will bebuiltin10yearstime: anewhighspeedrailwaystation; apeoplemover connectingrailway
stationtoairport, animportant linefor trolleybuscalled(Civis); andanenforceableMetroline.
Intheplannednetwork, themetroLinerepresentsoneof themostcomplexworksbecauseof its
length(7km) anddepth, alignment, anddifficultiesinconstructingthecivil works.
Themainconstrainsarethepresenceof old-built citycentrewithhistorical monumentsandthe
possibilityof thearcheological findings, entailingthemetrolinetobecompletelyunderground.
Geodata, leader of ateamconsisting of other design firms, has developed for theCommune
of BolognatheFinal Designof thewholemetro line, whichincludes thecivil works, theE&M
installationsandthetramwaytracksystem, besidesthegeological andenvironmental studies.
1.2 Description of the Metro System and the main project data
Bologna will be equipped with a semi-automatic tramway systemwith drivers aided by ACC
(Automatic&CentralizedControl system), asystemwhichallowsfor monitoringandtele-control
of trains andsubway traffic, andbyATP (AutomaticTrainProtection), asystemfor controlling
thespeedanddistancebetweentrainsaswell asfor managingthemobilizationof trains, oncethey
havearrivedat thestation.
Eachstationis to beequippedwithplatformscreendoors that separatetheplatformfromthe
train. Thesescreendoorsrepresent arelativelynewtechnological additiontomanymetrosystems
15
Figure1. Schematicplanof theentireline1fromFiera(right ontop) toMaggioreHospital (left).
aroundtheworld, withsomeplatformdoorsaddedtotheexistingsystemslater. They arewidely
usedinAsianandEuropeanmetrosystems.
The modern low-floor rolling stock will run with 2 headway during peak hours in the
undergroundsection, elsewherewith4 to6 maximumfrequency.
Theprincipal characteristicsof thelineare:
Total length=7800m
Semi-automatictramwaysystem(Driver aidedbyACC /ATP technology)
Undergroundstations=12
Surfacestations=1
Ventilationshafts=11
TBM(Tunnel BoringMachine) tunnel length=5600m
Cut & Cover tunnel andU-shapedsectionlength=800m
Conventional tunnel length=200m.
2 GEOLOGICAL ANDGEOTECHNICAL SETTING
2.1 Geology
Thegeologyof thetoplayersmaybeoutlinedthroughdividingthealignment intothreesections,
eachof whichhaspeculiar characteristicsintermsof thedepositional stratigraphy.
Thefirst section(fromMichelinostationtoFSstation) andthethirdone(fromSaffi stationto
MaggioreHospital station), correspondingrespectivelytotheeasternandwesternsideof theroute,
arecharacterizedby alternatepresenceof gravel-sandsedimentary layersfromriver channel and
variablebandsof silt andclayfromfloodplain. Theintermediatesectionconcerningthehistorical
towncentre(fromFS stationto Saffi station), by contrast, consists almost entirely of finesoils.
Coarsesedimentary bodies arealmost absent andthemainstratigraphic markers arerepresented
by paleosols, passingthroughsoil bands, richof organic matter onthetop, to over-consolidated
bandswithalot of carbonateconcretions.
This stratigraphic layout is consistent withthewell-knowngeomorphologic framework of the
Bolognavalley. Inparticular, inthiscasetheextremesof thealignment crossalluvial cones, while
thecentral sectionpassesthroughpredominantlyfineinter-coneareas.
16
Thesoil-layers attitudesreflectapproximatelythecomplexgeological realityof theprojectarea,
characterizedalmostexclusivelybyalluvial depositswhich, bytheirlenticulargeometry, showhigh
vertical andlateral variations.
2.2 Geotechnical setting and hydrogeological regime
Thedesigngeotechnical model of theproject has beendevelopedonthebasis of historical data
andnewsurveycampaignscarriedout in2007inthecourseof itsdesigndevelopment.
Thedepthof boreholes is directly linkedto thedepthof thestations andventilationshafts, in
order toprovideareliabledefinitionof designparametersalongtheentireline.
Duringthesiteinvestigationmany in-situgeotechnical testswerecarriedout suchasStandard
PenetrationTest (SPT) andalsoundisturbedsoil sampleshavebeenobtainedfor laboratory tests.
Otherinsitutestscarriedoutwere: conepenetrationtestswithpiezocone(CPTU) tomeasurepore-
water pressure; insitudissipationtests for evaluatingthecoefficient of horizontal consolidation
andhorizontal hydraulic conductivity; Seismic Dilatometer Marchetti Test (SDMT) for defining
thedynamicpropertiesof thesoils. Finallyall boreholeswereequippedwithapiezometer inorder
tomeasurethehydraulicheadintheaquifersalongtheentireroute.
Inthefirst 40mit canbefoundamultilevel groundwater aquifer. It consists infour different
levels, partiallysaturatedandlocallyunderpressure, namedrespectively, frombottomtotop: SUP1,
SUP2, SUP3andSUP4. Groundwater levelsSUP1, 2and3arelocatedinsandsandgravels, while
SUP4is includedinsands, limes andsilts, moresuperficial (6to 7mfromsurface). Inany
case, SUP3andSUP4cannotbeeasilydistinguished, particularlywherethesoilschangefromone
typetoanother.
Tunnel andstations do not touchthedeepest groundwater level (SUP1), but they areaffected
mainlybySUP3andSUP4
TheGeotechnical unitsarereportedbelow.
Geotechnical unitA Gravel layers
Thisunit isformedbylensof coarsesand, gravelysand, gravel withsand, andsandygravel, and
clastsuptoapproximately 8cm, aswell asrarepebbles. Thethicknessof thesoil lensare6to
8m(NSPT=1550, innocaserefusal). ItislargelypresentintheMichelino-FSstationsection
(Fig. 2) andpartiallyinthesectionbetweenMalvasiaandMaggioreHospital. Theunithasgood
permeabilityandhostsmajor theaquifersof Bologna(SUP1, SUP2, SUP3)
Geotechnical unit B Cohesionlesssands
This unit consists of uncemented sands, fromcoarseto fine, sometimes silty, predominantly
saturatedsoils. SPT valuesdonot showparticular granulometric differences. Thecoarsesands
arelesscompactedthanthefineones(NSPT<10, until 2).
Geotechnical unit C Finecohesivesoils
Thisunitincludesfinesoilswithacohesivebehaviour, mainlysiltyclayandclayeysiltwithpeat
trails. Itistheunitthatismostinterceptedbythemetroalignment, mainlyinthesectionbetween
FSStationandSaffi station.
Table1showsthegeotechnical propertiesof thethreeunitsdefinedfor thedesign.
3 TUNNEL CONSTRUCTIONTECHNIQUES
3.1 Main constraints and adopted solutions
A very complex and time-consuming work in ahistorical, urbanized areais always achallenge
for designers. Inthecaseof BolognaMetro line1, different anddifficult items wereconsidered
in planning and designing theunderground works such as tunnelling under water tablein very
poor ground conditions, underpassing of buildings particularly at historical places, protecting
archeological findings related to the Roman era, siting of stations, exits and ventilation shafts
17
Figure2. A part of thegeological profilenear BologninaStation.
Table1. Geotechnical parameters
Unit
n
[kN/m
3
]
p
[
] c
[kPa] c
u
[kPa] E
[MPa]
A 1820 3036 0 4080
B 1820 2630 0 2040
C 1920 2228 020 50150 1040
bothincitycentreandincommercial andcongestedareas(at north-east of thetown), minimizing
construction-siteareas, andmanagingintensivesurfacetraffic.
Inthelight of theaboveconstraints, thesolutionsadoptedfor theproject are:
theentirelineforits7.8kmlength, isconceivedtobeundergroundwithaconfigurationof single
tube, doubletrack and thedesigned solution provides systematic recourseto themechanized
tunnelling;
external superficial tunnelsaredesignedascutandcover sectionsinorder torealizeconnections
betweenthedepotandtheMichelinostationatthenorthsideandbetweentheOspedaleMaggiore
stationandtheMalvasiastationat thewest side; and
for special situations, short conventional tunnels areforeseen, like, for example, inthePiazza
Maggiorestation.
Specifically, therunningtunnel will berealizedusinganEPB Shieldwithadiameter equal to
9.80m, whichcanensure(Fig. 3):
aninternal tunnel diameter of 7.90m(functional minimum=7.80m, plus10cmof tolerance);
tail voidof 15cm;
18
Figure3. TBM tunnel typical section(left) andEPB operational scheme(right).
final liningthicknessof 35cmwithanominal lengthof 1.4m;
eachringof precast segmentsistaperedtonegotiatethecurvedtunnel alignment;
thejointsbetweensegmentsaretobesealedusingeither neoproneor hydrotitegaskets.
Thekeyobjectivescontributingtotheabovechoices:
alteringaslittleaspossibletheoriginal stressstateof thesoils;
avoidingunnecessary, extra-excavations inorder to control theexcavation-inducedeffects on
thesurface(subsidence).
TheEPB excavation modecan providecontinuous support to thetunnel face, with thesoils
excavated by thecutting head accumulated under pressurein theexcavation chamber and then
extractedbyarotatingconveyor.
Geodatahassuccessful experienceintunnellingwithEPB-TBMsinBolognabecausein2006
Geodata was involved in the construction studies and technical assistance during the works of
two parallel tunnels (9,4mdiameter and 6.112min length each) of the Bologna high speed
railway line (especially Lot 5 of urban penetration in the quarter S. Ruffillo in the south of
the city and the new central station). Both tunnels were realized by EPB-TBMs. The suc-
cess was reflected by the tunnel daily production rate and the solutions to prevent damage of
buildings.
IndesigningtheMetro Line1Geodatahas usedthetechnical andenvironmental known-how
learneddirectlyfromthehigh-speedrail tunnel. Inparticular, back-analysisof theobservedsettle-
mentshavebeenmadetodeterminetheparameter values(Vpek, OReillyandNew,1992), which
arenecessaryfor input tothesubsidencepredictionandbuildingriskassessment.
3.2 Risk analysis of buildings and soil improvement design
Potentially, buildingsaffectedbytunnelingareasmanyas400, of which35areunderpasseddirectly
bylineor stationtunnels. Insuchsituations, acomprehensive, detailedsurveyin-situwascarried
outtocollectandorganizecritical buildingdata. Thecrucial parametershavebeenmanagedusing
aGISsysteminorder tofaciliatetheassessmentof potential buildingdamagesduetounderground
works: excavationof tunnels, stationsandshafts.
Theevaluationof critical buildingsrevealedthatwhereexpectedsettlementsarenotcompatible
withprescribedsafety limits, thedesignhadto apply soil improvement: principally jet-grouting
(Fig. 4) or compensationgroutingintheverycritical arealikeBolognina.
19
Figure4. Soil improvements: tunnel crown completely grouted (left) or grouted wall to protect building
edges(right).
Figure5. Typical station assonometric view(left) andinternal renderingof stairsconnectingatriumwith
mezzanine.
4 TYPICAL STATIONS
4.1 Functional and architectural layout
Thestationsaretheconnectionsbetweenthesurfaceandtherunningtunnel andbetweenthetown
andtheline; withthispoint of viewthefunctional layout of astationisdefinedinorder to:
reducethelengthof thepathstoandexit fromtheplatforms;
createawide, bright spacewherepassengerscaneasilyrecognizetheright directions;
locateaccesswherepedestrianflowsaremost significant;
minimizethevolumeof theentirestation.
Inparticular, thearchitectural imagechosenforeachstationisbuiltonthepurityof thevolumes,
inwhichareavoidedscarcement andblindspots; theclarityof functional space, wherestairsand
elevatorsarealwaysvisibletousers; andtheusageof finishingandfurnishingelementsarechosen
for simplicityandelegance.
With theabovedesign principles in mind, 9 out of the12 underground stations aredesigned
accordingtoatypological scheme, whichis18mwideand42mlong, andliesatanaveragedepth
varyingfrom15mto25m. Theplatformsareseparatedfromthetracksbyplatformscreendoors.
20
Figure6. PiazzaMaggioreStationplanviewanddetail of TBM passage.
4.2 Constructive method
Typical stationsaretobebuiltwiththetop-downvariantof thecutandcover method. Thissolution
permitstoreduceconstructiontimesandworksiteareas, Infact, thesurfaceareasabovethecover
slabcanbereturnedtothecityfor realizingparking, viabilityor constructiondepot.
The principal construction phases are: diaphragmwalls built by hydromill; construction of
concretecoverslab; excavationunderthecover; constructionof bottomslab; buildingotherinternal
concreteworksfrombottomtothetop.
Thestationsof PiazzaMaggiore, RivaRenoandFS differ fromthetypological scheme. Inthe
nextsectionadescriptionof thePiazzaMaggiorestationwill begiven, whichisnodoubtthemost
significant pieceof workof thewholeBolognametroproject.
5 PIAZZA MAGGIORE STATION
5.1 General problem
ThePiazzaMaggioreStationis locatedat ahistorical squareof Bolognawheretwo major roads
crossthetowncentre: viaIndipendenzaandviaRizzoli, withalotof critical andhistorical buildings
andalack of spacetofor constructionsites. For all theseconstraintsthePiazzaMaggioreStation
itself canbeconsideredasaproject inthemetroproject.
Thestationis150mlongandpositionedonacurve(with25mradius), thestationplatformson
thetwosidesshall bestaggeredinorder tooptimizetheunusual shapeandpermit aneasier train
stoppage.
Thisstationhas4principal constitutingelements(Figs6, 7):
Platformtunnel onacurvetobebuilt withconventional tunnellingmethod;
Largeaccessshaft, usedalsoasconstructionshaft;
21
Figure7. PiazzaMaggioreStationlongitudinal section(A-A sectioninFigure6).
Platformaccesstunnelstoconnect shaftswithplatforms;
Existing underground atrium. This structure will be upgraded to create a new atrium for
passengers, but during construction it will be used as storage area to minimize demand for
surfacearea.
The25mcurveisnot aproblemfor thetramwayalignment itself, becausetrainswill approach
thecurveslowly, leavingafter stoppingat theplatform. However, intheconstructionphaseit has
topermit theTBM topassthroughthat becomeafundamental point intheentirework. Generally,
aTBM of therequired sizecan not excavatecurves with aradius of curvatureless than 200m.
Furthermore, inthisparticular casethereisalsonot enoughspacetoextract theTBM fromashaft
locatedat oneendof thestationandlower it downat theother. For thesereasonsit isdecidedto
createaconventionally-excavatedplatformtunnel withawidecross-sectionshapeto permit the
shieldedTBM topassthroughthealready-excavatedstationspace.
TheTBM passingphasecanbedetailedas follow: shieldmachineenters fromthenorth(via
Indipendenza)inthealready-excavatedtunnel; backuparedismounted; theshieldismovedthrough
thecurvewithaspecial trolleysystemtothenewstartpositionalignedtoviaRizzoli; shieldstarts
excavationinthenewE-Wdirectionwithback-upre-connectedtotheshield.
5.2 Tunnel and shaft calculation
Suchacomplexworkneedsimpressivestudiesandcalculationstocheckthestructural solidityand
minimizerisksinall constructionphases, beinginthetowncentre.
Constructionphaseshavebeenstudiedfor alongtimewithexpertsinconventional andmech-
anizedtunnelling, groundimprovements, undergroundworks, etc. inorder tobesurethat sucha
work canbeaffordable. Principal constructionphaseshavebeenusedtodefine: preliminary and
definitivelining, extensionandtypeof soil improvements, internal tunnel shape(minimumtomove
TBM incurve), connectiontunnelsprincipal parameters(Fig. 9).
Thecircular shaft, fromwhichcurvedplatformtunnel andaccesstunnelsshouldbeconstructed,
will beconstructedfirst. Being20mindiameterand39mdeepwithdiaphragmwallsof 45mlong,
thecircular shaftwill beexcavatedusingcut&cover top-downmethod. Theshafthasintermediate
slabs, every4.8m, tocreatesupport for stairsandtostabilizethediaphragmwallsthemselves.
Bottomslab has an arched invert shape in order to reduce bending moment and to transfer
bendingforcesstemmingfromcompressivegroundwater forcesonthediaphragms.
22
Figure8. Renderedassonometricviewof thePiazzaMaggioreStation.
Figure9. Major constructionphasesof thePiazzaMaggioreStation.
23
Figure10. 2Dand3Danalysisperformedinaccessshaft design.
Figure11. Conventional platformtunnel FEM analysis. Model andsettlementsresult.
Both2DFiniteDifferenceMethod(FDM) usingFLAC and3DFiniteElement Method(FEM )
usingANSYShavebeenusedtoevaluatebendingmoments, shearandaxial forcesonthediaphragm
walls, creatinganaxial-symmetricmodel with3Danalysistosimulatethecreationof largeopenings
inthestructure(Fig. 10).
For thecurvedplatformtunnel, thetop-headingandbenchinvert techniqueisconsideredtobe
moresuitablegivenitsbigcross-sectionareaof 170m
2
. Thislargesectionrequiressomespecial
attentionsincalculatingtheinternal structuresandinevaluatingthesettlement effectsonsurface
buildings.
This conventional tunnel is tobebuilt insoils withvery poor geotechnical characteristics and
closetobuildingsandmonuments.Thus, theconstructionisconditional tointensegroundimprove-
ment. Thetechniquestobeusedarejet-groutingandsoil freezing. J et-groutingisusedwherethere
isenoughspacetoworkwithout largeinterferencetosurfaceactivities, whilesoil freezingisused
wheresurfaceworks arenot allowed. Compensationgroutingis alsoforeseeninsomeparticular
situations liketheunder-passing of acritical historical building or to prevent settlements in the
morecritical sectionsof tunnel, wherecurveisat most.
Likefor theshaft, thetunnel isalsodesignedusing2D(PHASE 2) and3Dnumerical analyses
(FLAC3D), modellingtheexcavationsequences. A seriesof PHASE 2analyseswascarriedoutto
identify themoresuitablesolutioninterms of theconstructionsteps, andthetypeandextent of
groundimprovement (Fig. 11).
24
6 CONCLUSIONS
TheBolognaMetroline1representsareal challengefor designers. Asamulti-constrainttunneling
conditioninurbanarea, thedesignof theBolognametro project demandedspecial attentions to
link properly theobstaclecomponents of theprojects, namely, conservationof ahistorical town,
preservationof buildingsandmonuments, andminimizationof thesuperficial impacts. All these
constraintsledtoaverycomplexconstructionwork. ThejobdifficultyatPiazzaMaggioreStation
broughtaboutalsosomechallengeabledesigncriteria, of whichthemostnoticeableare: astaggered
platformsolutiononcurve, anewtechnical approachinusingEPBTBM, aspecial solutiontopass
through thecurvewith avery small radius. Theproject also demanded for an extensiveuseof
theavailablegroundimprovement techniques: freezing, jet-grouting, compensationgrouting, etc.
The solutions illustrated in this paper should be valuable for those who have to design similar
undergroundworksinanalogousurbanconditions.
REFERENCES
Amorosi A. &FarinaM., 1994. Stratigrafiadellasuccessionequaternariacontinentaledellapianurabolognese
mediantecorrelazionedi dati di pozzo. 1st EuropeanCongress onRegional Geological Cartography and
InformationSystems, Bologna(Italy), J une1316, 1994. Volume5, 1634.
Amorosi A. & FarinaM. 1995. Large-scalearchitectureof athrust-relatedalluvial complex fromsubsurface
data: theQuaternarysuccessionof thePoBasinintheBolognaarea(northernItaly). Giornaledi Geologia,
57/12, 316.
GeodataS.p.A., 2007. Metrotranviadi Bologna Final designdocumentation.
Guglielmetti et. al., 2007. MechanizedTunnellinginUrbanAreas. Taylor & Francis.
Marchionni V.&Guglielmetti V.2007EPB-Tunnellingcontrol andmonitoringinasensitiveurbanenvironment:
theexperienceof theNododi Bologna construction(ItalianHighSpeedRailway system), ITA-AITES
WorldTunnel Congress 2007 Underground Space the4th Dimension of Metropolises Prague, 510
May, 2007.
GrassoP. & Guglielmetti V., 2008High-speedRailway Underground-CrossingBologna, Italy, Workshopon
Tunnels in densely populated urban areas Professional Association of Civil Engineers of Catalonia
Barcelona, 7April 2008.
25
Numerical analysisof theeffect of compositerepair on
compositepipestructural integrity
A. Bezowski & P. Str zyk
Wrocaw University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wrocaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Thepaperdealswiththeproblemof assessingthestructural integrityof acomposite
reinforcement used to repair anonpressureseweragepiping systemwith assembly damage. An
analysisof thestraincriteriaappliedtoassessthestructural integrityof polyester-glasscomposites
wascarriedout. Thetechnical aspectsof therepair of thedamagearediscussedandanumerical
model of thepipesectionunder repair ispresented. Thecalculationsmadeindicatethecomposite
repair structural andmaterial solutions potential for further improvements andmeasures which
arelesseffectiveinthisregard.
1 INTRODUCTION
Polymer compositesformedfromglassreinforcedplasticsarecharacterizedby relativelightness
andstiffnessandgoodresistancetoenvironmentactionandcausticsubstances. Polymercomposites
arenowcommonlyusedtobuildall kindsof pipingsystems, suchas:
urban infrastructure networks pressure piping systems for water supply, sewers without
pressure, sewagetreatment plant fittings, etc.;
process plants, includingstoragetanks for petroleumderivatives andcaustics, coolingcircuit
pipingsystems, fluegaspipelinesinpower plants, andsoon.
Theminimumservicelifeof urbaninfrastructurepipingsystemsis50years(EN 1796, 2006),
(EN 14364, 2006). Thelifeof 2030years, 40yearsand1030yearsisassumedrespectively in
thepetrochemical industry, nuclear power plants(LeCourtois, 1995) andchemical-resistanttanks.
Polymercompositesaresusceptibletochemical andphysical ageingandmechanical degradation
(Bollaert & Lemason1999), (Tuttle, 1996) whichadversely affect thematerial properties. As a
result, the composites elasticity modulus and strength during the anticipated service life may
decreaseby as much1060%. Thechanges inthecompositeproperties aregradual but they can
bepredictedonthebasisof acceleratedageingtests(Bezowski, 2005). Long-termtestprocedures
for composites are usually modelled on the tests described in (ASTM D2992, 1991). Tubular
specimens(minimum18pieces) aresubjectedtopressureswhichshouldresult inafailurewithin
10000h(14months). Byextrapolatingthesimpleregressiondeterminedfromthecoordinatesof the
failurepointsonecanestimatethestrength(ASTMD2992, 1996) orstiffness(PN-EN1120, 2000)
and(Farshad& Necola, 2004) of thematerial over itswholeservicelife. Theaboveprocedureis
consideredtobeareliablebutexpensivewayof predictingchangesinthepropertiesof composites.
Irrespectiveof gradual degradation, most of thestructures canbeaccidentally damaged(e.g. by
impacts), whichmayadditionallyreducetheir life.
Discontinuitiesintheprotectivelayers(PL) ontheinner surfaceof pipesandtanksinstructures
exposed to the action of corrosion factors pose a threat to their durability. PL discontinuities
canbetechnological defects or servicedamage. Protectivelayers shouldprotect theglass fibres
constitutingthestructural reinforcement against thecorrosiveeffect of liquidsfillingthesystem.
PL discontinuitiesmaydrasticallyreducethedurabilityof thepipingsystem.
27
2 REPAIRSOF PIPINGSYSTEMS
Repairsoncompositepipes, chemical resistant tanksandsoonarecarriedout inorder toremove:
technological defects,
local damage caused during transport or assembly and by incidental service overloads (e.g.
accidental impacts),
deteriorationinthepropertiesasaresult of long-lastingmaterial degradation.
The descriptions of repairs based on the composite reinforcement technology, found in the
literature, focusonafewapplications:
a. Repairsof chemical-resistant, composite(oftenhigh-risk)processfacilitiesforstoringdangerous
caustic substances, etc. Theprinciples of carrying out such repairs aredescribed in (ASME
RTP-1, 2000). Thecriteriaof qualifying adevicefor repair and thepermissiblerepair range
(limitedto310%of theinner surface) arequitestringent.
b. Therepairof theinnersurfaceof wholesectionsof sewerpipelinesbyproducinganewcomposite
shell insidetheoldwornoutconduit. Mainlypreimpregnatedsleeveshardenedinsidethepipeline
by means of elevated temperatureor UV radiation areused. Theachievement of proper ring
stiffnessof thenewshell canbetherepair effectivenesscriterion.
c. Repairs of steel andcompositepipingwithlocal corrosiondamagecausingleakage, by mak-
ingexternal sealingcompositerings. Chemical andpetrochemical industry process pipelines
arerepairedinthis way. Theprinciples of designing, carryingout andevaluatingarepair are
describedin(ASME PCC-2, 2006). Besidesrepairstohigh-riskpipework, thecodesalsocover
repairstolow-riskpipeworkbutwithitsdiameterlimitedto1000mm. Repairsonleakingplaces
insteel pipelinesarediscussedin(AEA Tech, 2005).
Froman analysis of the standards and publications devoted to piping systemrepairs using
composite-basedtechnologiesthefollowingconclusionsemerge:
Most attentionisdevotedtohigh-riskpipingsystemrepairs.
Thecriteriaof qualifyingdamagefor suchrepairs, definedinthestandards, arequitestringent.
The considered techniques of repairing local damage usually do not take into account the
specificityof pipelineslaiddirectlyintheground.
Theplanningof repairsandtheirrealizationandtechnical acceptanceincludeexpertassessments
of thedamageextent andtheeffectivenessof themeasurestaken.
Theabovementionedpublicationsonrepairsaimtoensurehighprofessionalisminthisregard.
Thisisunderstandablesincemostof therepairsaredoneonchemical resistantcomponentsof high-
risk process plants. Professionalismis essential hereas evidenced by descriptions of dangerous
failuresof unprofessionallyrepairedfacilities(Bezowski, 2004), (Myerset al. 2007).
Thispaperpresentsanumerical analysisof thewayinwhichassemblydamagetoaburiedsewer-
agepipingsystemwithoutpressurewascarriedout, focusingonthecomparisonof thenumerically
calculatedstrainsinselectedpointsof theareasubjectedtorepairswiththecriteriafor dimension-
ingcompositecomponentsusedintheconstructionof variouspipingsystems. Thepossibility of
improvingthematerial-structural solutionusedintherepair isassessed. Thepipelinesectionwith
damagewasmadefromDN1400mmpolyester-glasspipeswithringstiffnessSN=10000N/m
2
.
Thewall thicknesswasabout 34mm. Becauseof theimproper applicationof theforcedamagein
theformof cracks, chipsandspallsappearedinthepipesastheywerebeingshifted. Thedamage
wasanalyzedin(Bezowski & Str zyk, 2008).
3 STRAINCRITERIA OF DIMENSIONINGCOMPOSITES
Thedesignof chemical resistant compositepipingsystemsisbasedontheassumptionthat a0.2
1.0mmlongcrackpropagatingacrosswall thicknessrepresentsdangerousdamage. Intheliterature
28
Table1. Allowablestrainandsafetyfactor valuesfor chemical-resistant tanksandpipelines.
Standard Strainconstraints Other dimensioningcriteria
BS4994
d
min(0.2%, 0.1
B
)
NFT 57-900
d
0.2%and
0.1%
6
ASTM D3299
d
0.1%for cylindrical part
AD2000Merkblatt and under test pressure:
0.2%in 4
WUDT-UC-UTS/01:10.03 direction toUDreinforcement
and 0.35%for CSM reinforcement
ASME RTP-1
d
0.1%inwoundcomponents =10for handlaminating
EN13121
d
0.25% 4
BS7159
d
=0.09%, 0.12%, 0.15%, 0.18% LCL/1.3
dependingontemperatureandenvironment
d
allowablestrainfor composite,
B
failurestrainfor resin
strainperpendicular toUDreinforcement fibres
loador stresssafetyfactor
LCL long-termstrengthfor failureprobabilityof 2.5%

it isreferredtoasthefirst ply failure(FPF) criterion. Thiscrack sizeapproximately corresponds
toasingleply of typical chemical resistant (polyester-glass) laminates. Assumingasafety factor
of 1.5for thesodefineddamagethreshold(Eckold, 1985), thecriterionof allowablelinear stress
d
, whichusuallyamountsto0.10.25%(Table1), wasintroducedintothedesignstandards. This
strainlimitationprotectsthestructureagainst thedevelopment of transversecrackswhichwould
facilitatetheinfiltrationof liquidsfromtheinsideof thepipingtothestructural layerscontaining
glassfibreEwhichissusceptibletocorrosion. Sincethefailurestrainof polyester-glasscomposites
predominatinginsuchapplicationsamountstoabout1.52.5%, relativelyhighsafetyfactor values
areobtainedasaresult.Theactual strainsafetyfactorvaluesassumedforchemical-resistantprocess
plantsmostlyamount toabout 610. Theloadsafetyfactor valuesaresimilar.
Interestingconclusionsemergefrom(AEATech, 2005)devotedtorepairsof leakingmetal pipes.
For oneof thecategories of compositerepairs onhigh-risk equipment, definedthereas Class 3,
theallowablestrainfor arepair lifeof 2yearsamountsto0.30%. For arepair lifeof 10yearsand
20years
d
=0.27%and
d
=0.25%arerespectivelyassumed. Theallowablestrainfor composite
repairsonlow-riskequipmentisrespectively: 0.40%for arepair lifeof 2years, 0.32%for arepair
lifeof 10yearsand0.25for repair lifeof 20years. Theabovestrainvaluesshowtheconservatism
of theauthorsof (AEA Tech, 2005) intheassessment of repair durability. Theassumedallowable
strainsfor compositerepairsarenot muchdifferent fromtheonesusedinthedesignof high-risk
chemical-resistant equipment (Table1). Thehighest assumedallowablestrainamounts to0.40%
andit applies to low-risk equipment repairs withalifeof 2years. Theaboveanalysis takes into
account onlythestraincriteriausedinthedesignof compositerepairs, neglectingthecalculations
basedonthelong-termstrengthvaluesof thelaminates.
Theinitial safetyfactorforpipesisdefinedasaratioof therelativedeflectionof thepipealongits
diameter(Figure1), reacheduntil thefirstsymptomsof failure, totheallowabledeflection.Accord-
ingtostandardEN 14364, acompositepipewithringstiffnessSN10000N/m
2
shouldwithstand
deflectionamountingtominimum15%of itsmeandiameter. For anallowabledeflectionof 6%the
valueof thissafetyfactor innewpipesamountstoatleast15/6=2.5. Itwasassessedthatthepipes
wouldmeet thissafetyfactor requirement alsoafter arepair. It wasalsofound(throughnumerical
calculations) thatlinear strain inselectedpointsof thereinforcedareaconsiderablyexceededthe
allowablevaluesassumedinthevariouscodesandstudiesconcerningrepairs: (AEA Tech, 2005),
(ASME PCC-2, 2006). Moreover, onecannot ignorethefact that therequiredservicelifeof the
pipelineis50yearsandit muchexceedstherepair durabilitiesadoptedin(AEA Tech, 2005) and
(ASME PCC-2, 2006), whichamount to220years.
29
F
d
F
(a)
y=0.03 d
me
(b)
Figure1. Ringstiffnesstest. Deflectiony =0.03d
me
isusedtodeterminestiffnessSN.Allowabledeflection
amountsto0.06d
me
. Symbol d
me
denotesmeandiameter.
Similar disturbingconclusionsemergefromtheinvestigationsdescribedin(Farshad& Necola,
2004). On thebasis of tests lasting up to 1000h theregression linefor pipes DN500/SN10000
loadedasinFigure1, but inadditionimmersedinsulphuricacidwithaconcentrationof 5%, was
determined. Theacidsolutionisusedtomodel theeffect of sewageonstructural materials. It was
foundthathoopstrainatthemomentof failuredecreasesfrom2.1%intheshort-termtestto0.5%
after 1000handtoaslittleas0.16%after 50years. Thisisbelowthevaluesassumedfor thedesign
of chemical-resistant pipingsystems (Table1) inthestandards whicharehighly conservativeas
regardsthechoiceof allowablestrainvalues.
Fromtheaboveinvestigationsandanalysesonecanconcludethatthemaximumlinear strainsin
thecircumferential directionof theinvestigatedpipes, loadedasinFigure1, shouldnotsubstantially
differfromthevaluesassumedinthedesignof chemical-resistantfacilities.Althoughthecorrosive
effectof thewaterfillingtheanalyzedpipelineisgenerallylessharmful thanthatof sewage, studied
by(Farshad& Necola, 2004), therequiredservicelifeisverylong(50years).
Thetechnical aspectsof repairsandtheresultsof calculationsfor different material-structural
designsof thecompositerepair arepresentedbelow.
4 DAMAGEANDREPAIR TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Dependingontheextentof damage, several repair methodswereproposed. Theanalysespresented
hereconcern cases of quiteextensivedamagerepaired through local compositereinforcements
insidethepipe. Theextent of damageindirectionstangent totheinner surfacemostly amounted
to100mm(Figure2), but insomecasesit waslarger (e.g. 100250mminFigure3).
Accordingto theASME RTP-1criteriafor high-risk chemical-resistant facilities, thedamage
didnotqualifyfor repair becauseof itsextent. Alsothecriteriaof acceptancefor repairsof damage
tolow-riskfacilities, describedinASME PCC-2wereexceeded. Onthebasisof itslongoperating
experiencethemanufacturer of thepipes proposedits ownprocedures for assessingthedamage
andcarryingout repairs.
Thedamageaffected theprotectiveand structural plies of thepipes. Therepair consisted in
removingthedamagedmaterial (Figure4), fillinginthecavitieswithapolyester filler (UP) and
makinganinner reinforcingringcomposedof fivelayers of polyester laminatewithglass CSM
with a mass of 600g/m
2
(Figure 4). The ring width towards the axis of the pipe was 400mm.
Finally, aprotectivelayer madeof resinwasformed.
30
Figure2. Damageat pipes end(37) andsmall impact damagedistant fromedge(17). Dark gapbetween
pipesisabout 15mmwide.
Figure3. Cracksandchipsinlaminate.
Figure4. 10020015mmcut-out left after removal of crackedmaterial.
Figure4showsthatthevoidleftaftertheremoval of thematerial extendsdeeplyintothestructural
layers, disturbingtheir integrity. Anexpert assessment showedthat thepipesinitial loadcapacity
andstiffnessinthecircumferential directioncouldberecoveredbymeansof theinner reinforcing
ring. It wasassumedthat inapipelinewhichdoesnot carryaxial pressuretheaxial loadcapacity
andstiffnessof thepipesareof secondaryimportance.
31
Figure5. Longitudinal sectionof pipewall anddenotationsof individual layers.
Table2. Denotationsandstructureof pipewall layersandreinforcement variants.
Layer denotation Layer function Structureandreinforcement
M1 outer protective UP resinwithsand
M2 outer structural UP resinwithstaplefibre
M3 pipecore UP resinwithsand
M4 inner structural asinM2
M5 inner protective UP resin
M6 resinfiller UP resin
M7 repairingring variantA UP resinwithCSM
M8 repairingring variant B glassfabricWR + UP
M9 repairingring variant C
M7/M8/M9/M8/M7/M5+ UP
In variant C the following system of reinforcement layers (moving from the contact
withthepipetowards theringinner surface): M7: 2.2mm/M8: 0.84mm/M9: 1.4mm/M8:
0.84mm/M7: 2.2mm/M5: 0.5mmwasadopted.
5 MATERIAL PROPERTIESANDPIPE MODEL
Figure5showsthestructureof thewall of therepairedpipes. Thicknesst was34mm. LayersM1,
M2. . . aredescribed in tables 1, 2. It follows fromthestructureof thereinforcement that most
of theconsideredlayers canberegardedas isotropic involume(M1, M3, M5, M6) or inplane
(M2, M4, M7). Only layer M8andthelaminateinvariant C, representingimprovements inthe
compositerepair, aremoderately anisotropic. Thevaluesof Poissonratio andYoungsmodulus
(E) of thelayersaregiveinTable2.
First the 300mmlong undamaged pipe section was modelled inANSYS. Using SOLID 45
elements with8nodes thesystemof layers M1/M2/M3/M4/M5was modelledstartingfromthe
outsideandmovingtowardstheinnersurface(Figure5). ThelayersaredescribedinTables2and3.
Therewereabout 36000elements.
Theaimof thecalculations was to matchthethickness andproperties of theparticular layers
soastoobtaintheactual piperingstiffnessclosetothenominal one(SN10000N/m
2
). Inthering
stiffnesstest, theringcut off thepipeisloadedasinFigure1until deflection0.03d
me
=42mm
is reachedinthecaseof theconsideredpipes. It was assumedthat theallowablepipedeflection
is 0.06d
me
=84mm(Madryas et al. 2002, EN 14364). Whentheproperties of layers M1M5
giveninTable3andtheloadtwiceas heavy as theonecorrespondingto theratedringstiffness
weresubstitutedthemaximumdeflectionof 75mmwas obtained. Theringstiffness of thepipe
model is about 11100N/m
2
andit is higher thanthenominal one(10000N/m
2
). Thestiffness of
newpipesisasarulehigher thantheratedstiffness.
32
Table3. Thicknessof layersandadoptedproper mechanical properties.
Layer Layer thickness Youngsmodulus
Poisson
symbol (mm) (GPa) ratio
M1 1.9 12.8 0.23

M2 2.4 8.8 0.3
M3 19.6 10.5 0.23
M4 7.7 8.8 0.3
M5 2.4 3.0 0.3
M6 10.1 3.0 0.4
M7 7.25 8.0 0.2
M8 7.25 18.0 0.13
M9* 0.84 35.0and10.4 0.281and0.083
For theunidirectional layers(UD) axial andtransverseYoungsmoduli aregiven; thesame

appliestothePoissoncoefficients. Longitudinal elasticitymodulusG=3.2GPawasassumed
for layersM9.
Figure6. Viewof reinforcingringmodel.
Theextremehoop strains for thedeflection of 75mmamounted to:
max
=0.60710
2
and
min
=0.59810
2
. Assumingfailurestrainunder bending
B
=1.62.210
2
(accordingto
themanufacturer specifications) onecanfindthat thesafety factor amounts to 0.606/1.6=2.64
and it is close to the one required by standard EN 14364. Numerically determined strain
max
=0.60710
2
exceeds thestrainvalues assumedfor high-risk chemical-resistant facilities
(Table1), but theanalyzedpipelinedoesnot belongtothisclassof equipment.
6 MODELLINGOF COMPOSITE REPAIR
6.1 Inner ring reinforced with glass mat
Thenamodel of asituationsimilartotheoneshowninFigure3(200200mmcavitywithitsdepth
equal tothesumof layer M4andM5thicknesses, locatedinthepipeshighest place) wascreated
inANSYS. Under theloadasinFigure1, thecavityistheareaof thehighestbendingmoment. The
cavity was filledwithamaterial havingtheproperties of layer M3. Thenareinforcingringwith
widthb=400mmandthicknesst
1
=7.25mm, madeof amaterial withthepropertiesof layer M7
(Tables 2, 3, Figure6) was introducedintothepipe. InTable2this is denotedas variant A (ring
W7/filler W3).
AccordingtostandardASME RTP-1, fivelayersreinforcedwithCSM withamassof 600g/m
2
havetheabovethickness, whichcorrespondstothestructureof theringsformedduringtherepair.
Theprotectivelayer formedfromresinandsurfacingveil, laidasthelast one, wasnot takeninto
account inthecalculations.
33
Figure7. Locationsof selectedanalyzedpointsinrepair area.
Certainsimplificationsweremadeintheanalyzedmodel of thepipeunder repair, i.e.
theinfluenceof theend-of-pipelocationof therepaireddamagewasneglectedand
theloadingschemeusedfor determiningringstiffness(Figure1) wasadopted.
At apipedeflectionof 55mm, thehoopstrainsinthemost stressedpointsof thering, denoted
as4and8inFigure7, amountedto:
(4)
=0.49410
2
and
(8)
=0.56410
2
.
Thehighest hoop strains in material M3 filling thecut-out left after thedamagehad been
removedamountedto0.34210
2
.
Whenfillingmaterial M3wasreplacedby thelessstiff filler M6(variantA1), thehoopstrain
inpoint 4increasedby 18.4%(upto0.58510
2
) andinpoint 8by 2.8%(upto0.58010
2
).
Hoopstrainalsoincreasedinthefilling itsmaximumvalueinmaterial W6was0.39510
2
.
Eventhoughthestiffnessof thepipeaftertherepairisconsiderablyhigherthantherequiredone,
thecalculatedhoopstrainvaluesintheringarequitehigh amountingtoabout 0.50.610
2
.
6.2 Inner ring reinforced with glass fabric M8
SimilarcalculationsweredoneforvariantB(ringM8/fillingM3asintable2).Themaindifference
withvariantA isthattheringisreinforcedwithmaterial M8withahigher stiffnessthanthatof the
previouslyusedM7. Incomparisonwiththeresultsobtainedfor variantA, hoopstraindecreased
intheringspoints4and8downtorespectively0.35610
2
and0.41610
2
. Asaresult of the
replacementof M7byM8, thevalueof
max
intheringdecreasedby(0.5640.416)/0.564=26%.
Hoopstrain
max
inthefillinginvariant B is lower thaninvariant A (previously it amounted
0.34210
2
andnowit is0.24710
2
).
Preservingringreinforcement, M8fillingmaterial M3wasreplacedbyM6(variant B1). Simi-
larlyasinvariantsA andA1, thisresultedinanincreaseof hoopstrain
max
inthefillingareafrom
0.23110
2
to0.24710
2
(by7%). Strains
max
intheringalsoincreased.
6.3 Inner ring reinforced with laminate containing UD layer
Then reinforcing ring structurevariant C described inTables 2 and 3 was calculated. This ring
structuretakes into account thegeneral principles of designingandrepairingchemical-resistant
facilities. Theintroductionof aUD layer withacircumferential orientationdidnot result inany
34
Table4. Strainsanddeflectionsbeforeandafter increaseinringthickness.
Reinforcement Ringthickness Strain
max
Strain
max
Deflection
variant (mm) inring infilling (mm)
A 7.25 0.56410
2
0.34210
2
55
A1 7.25 0.58510
2
0.39510
2
55
B 7.25 0.41610
2
0.23110
2
44
B1 7.25 0.42210
2
0.24710
2
44
A1.5 10.90 0.52910
2
0.26310
2
46
A11.5 10.90 0.53810
2
0.28710
2
46
B1.5 10.90 0.36010
2
0.15210
2
35
B11.5 10.90 0.36210
2
0.15710
2
35
significantreductionof strainintheringandinthefillingincomparisonwithvariantsA andB. In
point 4strainamountsto =0.38110
2
whileinpoint 8to =0.44510
2
. Intheareafilled
withmaterial M3strainamounts
max
=0.24810
2
.
6.4 Effect of increased ring thickness
Intheconsideredreinforcingringstructurevariants(A, B, C), pipestiffnessinthereinforcement
areawas sufficient, but themaximumstrain, amountingto 0.40.610
2
, was relatively high
(section 3 in thepaper). Thereforeit was decided to determinewhat effect an increasein wall
thicknessby 50%will haveonhoopstrain. IndiscussedvariantsA, A1, B, B1theringthickness
was7.25mm. Nowit wasassumedtobe1090mm. Theobtainedcalculationresultsareshownin
Table4.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Theanalysisof theliteratureonpipingsystemrepairsbymeansof polyester-glasscompositesshows
thatstrainsintherepairedcomponentsof low-riskpipingsystemsshouldnotsignificantlydiverge
fromthe allowable strain values assumed for high-risk chemical-resistant equipment (table 1).
Allowablevalues =0.250.310
2
areproposed.
Thestiffnessof glassCSMisinsufficientforittobeusedinthestructural layerof suchringsrein-
forcingtherepair area. Glassfabricprovidesmoreeffectivereinforcement, significantlyreducing
hoopstrains.
Theelasticpropertiesof thematerial fillingthecut-out left after damageremoval affectedonly
slightlythehoopstressandpipedeflectionvalues.
Theintroductionof aUDlayer intotheringstructuredidnot result inasubstantial reductionin
hoopstress. This may beascribedtothefact that avery small quantity of theUD reinforcement
wasused.
Whentheringthickness was increasedby 50%, thereductioninhoopstress was smaller than
expected. It seemsthat hoopstresscanbefurther reducedbyincreasingtheringsthicknessor the
UDreinforcement fractioninitsstructure.
Theobtainedresults showthat theoptimizationof suchcompositerepairs has great potential.
Thepaper does not cover problems relating to possibleimprovements in repair techniques, the
effectivenessof thelatter or durabilityassessments.
REFERENCES
AD2000-Merkblatt. 2000. Pressurevesselsinglassfibrereinforcedthermosettingplastics.
AEA Technology. 2005. Designof CompositeRepairsfor Pipework.
35
ASME PCC-2Repair standard. 2006. Non-metalliccompositerepair systemsfor pipelinesandpipework.
ASME RTP-1. 2000. Reinforcedthermoset plasticcorrosionresistant equipment.
ASTM D 2992. 1996. StandardPracticefor ObtainingHydrostatic or PressureDesignBasisfor Fiberglass
(Glass-Fiber-ReinforcedThermosetting-Resin) PipeandFittings.
ASTM D3299. 1995. StandardSpecificationfor Filament-WoundGlass-Fiber-ReinforcedThermoset Resin
Corrosion-ResistantTanks.
Bezowski A. 2005. Koncepcje oceny wytrzymao sci dugotrwaej polimerowych kompozytw konstruk-
cyjnych. V KonferencjaKOMPOZYTY POLIMEROWE.: 537. PolitechnikaWarszawska.
Bezowski A. 2004. Badanie uszkodze n zbiornika z laminatu wzmocnionego wknemszklanym. Raport
SPR, nr 9. PolitechnikaWrocawska.
Bezowski A.&Str zykP.2008.Assessmentof repairreinforcementof polyester-glassfibrepipe. Composites8
nr 2: 179184. PolishSocietyfor CompositeMaterials.
Bolleart F. & LemasonA. 1999. Analysededfaillancepicesplastiques, lastomresoucomposites. Guide
Pratique. CETIM, France.
BS4994. 1987. Specificationfor designandconstructionof vesselsandtanksinreinforcedplastics.
BS7159. 1989. Codeof practicefor designandconstructionof glass-reinforcedplasticpipingsystems.
ECKOLDG. 1985. A designmethodfor filament woundGRP pressurevesselsandpipework. Composites, V.
16, Nr 1: 4147.
EN 1120. 2000. Plasticspipingsystems Glass-reinforcedthermosettingplastics(GRP) pipesandfittings
Determinationof theresistancetochemical attackfromtheinsideof asectioninadeflectedcondition.
EN1796. 2006. Plasticpipingsystemsforwatersupplywithorwithoutpressure. Glass-reinforcedthemosetting
plastics(GRP) basedonunsaturatedpolyester resin(UP).
EN13121. 2001. GRP tanksandvesselsfor useaboveground.
EN 14364. 2006. Plasticpipingsystemsfor drainageor seweragewithor without pressure. Glass-reinforced
thermosettingplastics (GRP) basedonunsaturatedpolyester resin(UP). Specificationfor pipes, fittings
andjoints.
FARSHADM., NECOLA A. 2004. Straincorrosionof glassfibre-reinforcedplasticspipes. Polymer testing,
23: 517521.
LeCourtoisT. 1995. PWRCompositeMaterial Use: A Particular Caseof Safety-RelatedServiceWater Pipes.
Proc. of Enercomp95: 835843. TechnomicPub., Montreal.
MADRYASC., KOLONKOA. WYSOCKI L. 2002. Konstrukcjeprzewodwkanalizacyjnych. OficynaWyd.
Politechniki Wrocawskiej, Wrocaw.
MYERS T.J., KYTMAA H.K. SMITH T.R. 2007. Environmental stress-corrosion cracking of fiberglass:
Lessonslearnedfromfailuresinthechemical industry. J. of HazardousMater. 142: 695704.
NFT 57900. 1987. Rservoirset appareilsenmatiresplastiquesrenforces.
Tuttle M.T. 1996. A framework for long-termdurability predictions of polymeric composites. Progress in
DurabilityAnalysisof CompositeSystems: 169176. Balkema, Rotterdam.
URZ ADDOZORUTECHNICZNEGO. 2003. Urz adzeniaci snieniowe. Staezbiorniki ci snienioweztworzyw
sztucznychwzmocnionychwknemszklanym. WUDT-UC-UTS/01.
36
Repair of RC oil contaminatedelementsincaseof infrastructure
T.Z. Baszczy nski
Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Pozna n University of Technology, Pozna n, Poland
ABSTRACT: RC elementsincaseof undergroundandnetwork infrastructure, aresubjectedto
theactivityof differentagents, i.e. water, chemicalsandoil-products. Becauseof itsoimportantis
their durability. Indispensablearethensuitablerepairs, becausethepossibilityof theunderground
exchangeof elements is comparatively difficult andexpensive. Intherelationshipwiththeenvi-
ronment whichcanappear inobjectsof theinfrastructure, repair methodsmust beresistant tothe
activity of different environments, and must also beprepared to therepair of concretesurfaces
withthedifferent state: moistureandoiling. Comparingtheinfluenceof various oil products on
compressivestrengthof concrete, leadstotheconclusionthattherearelargedifferencesineffects.
Therepair of oiledstructuresistechnologicallydifficult. Thepaper will presentresearchworkson
somenano- andmoderntechnologiesincaseof oiledRC structures.
1 INTRODUCTION
Inviewof environmental influences andstructural solutions theseparaterepair procedureoften
isalsorequired. If onetakesunder considerationthat concreteisaproduct of simpletechnology
andcomplicatedknowledgewhichbeginstobeonlymastered, thenright prognosesare, that XXI
centuryfor thebuildingconstructioncanbeinlargemeasuretheageof repairs, rehabilitationsand
demolitions.Theconcreteisrelativelycheapmaterial inconstruction, howeveritsrepairduringuse
of thepropertyisverycostly. Especiallydepressingandexpensive, andsometimesevenoperable
impossible, istherepair of alreadycompletedrepair. Repairsbecameacivilisation-wideproblem
(Kucharska2001).
Theacidcontent of crudeoil productsmight beaffectedat theoil/water interfaceasaresult of
bacterial activity. Aerobicoil oxidingbacteria(OBB) produceaceticacid, whichcanreducethepH
level of water to5. Inaddition, anaerobicsulphatereducingbacteria(SRB) alsooperatetoproduce
H
2
S, whichcanbeconvertedtoH
2
S0
4
. Thislatter processhasoftenbeenencounteredinsewers.
ResearchatImperial Collegehasindicatedthattheinorganicacidcontent(Onaboluatall 1985) of
thecrudeoil productsisunlikelytoincreaseasaresult of bacterial activity.
That kindof environment createthreedifferent corrosionmechanism: biological, chemical and
physico-chemical (Fig. 1). Thelessknownisphysico-chemical process, whichtakeplaceincase
of oil environment withlowneutralisationnumber.
2 MINERAL OILSINFLUENCE ONCONCRETE
Long term laboratory experiments have been conducted to assess the changes of physico-
mechanical characteristicsof oil contaminatedconcrete. Thecompressivestrengthwasdetermined
from100mmcubes, accordingtoEN12390-1:2001, for concretetypeC20/25asmost commonly
usedfor industrial RC structures inPoland(5specimens, s
fc
=0.842.87,
fc
=2.25%6.99%).
Theaverage28daycompressivestrengthof concretewasf
cm
=29.8MPa. Thewater-cement ratio
was0.59andaggregate-cement ratiowas6.70.
37
Figure1. Anexampleof oil/water environment incaseof RC structure.
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
48
60
64
68
72
H-70
TU-20
M-40
Samples
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
f
c
[MPa]
t
z
[months]
Figure2. Variationof concreteC20/25compressivestrengthduringtheperiodof exposureto H70, TU20
andM40oils(Baszczy nski 2002).
Concretewasimpregnatedwiththemost commonly usedindustrial oilsof different kinematic
viscosities namely turbine oil TU20 (81mm
2
/s), machine oil M40 (211mm
2
/s) and hydraulic
oil H70(383mm
2
/s). Theseoils havelowneutralisationnumbers withvalues between0.05and
0.075mgKOH/g. Theoils was first appliedto concrete2months after casting, subsequently the
specimenswereexaminedevery4or 12monthsduringtotal period72months. Thecontrol speci-
mens(samples) wereadditionallyexaminedafter 28daysand2months(Fig. 2). Timeof oilingt
z
isstartedinageof twomonthswithanaveragecompressivestrengthof concretef
cm
=37.35MPa.
Theresultsclearlyshow, that asaresult of theinfluenceof theoilsused, thedifferent degreeof
decreaseof concretecompressivestrength(comparingtocontrol samples): from55%for oil H70
toalmostnoinfluencefor oil M40. OilsH70andTU20affectedtheanalysedconcretecompressive
strengthf
cm
themost.
Contaminationof concreteby hydrocarbonsgivesanalmost newmaterial, whichbehavesdif-
ferently. Theresultsof thestress(
c
) strain(
c
) relationinnon-oiledstateandafter 12-monthsof
oilingbymineral oil TU20for concreteC20/25infunctionof thelongitudinal strainsaredifferent.
Thenon-linear behaviour of strengthandstrainvariationsdependonthecontentsof hydrocarbon
anditstype. Itcanbenoticedthatthestrain
cl
, correspondingtothemaximumstress, islower for
oil saturatedconcretethanfor non-oiledconcrete(Fig. 3 Baszczy nski 2006).
38
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
c []

c

[
M
P
a
]
oiled
non-oiled
Figure3.
c
c
diagramfor non-oiledandoiledbyoil TU20concreteC20/25.
100
50
0
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5
Time of oiling t
z
[days]
10 20 30 40
O
i
l
e
d

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

F
z

[
%
]
O
i
l
e
d

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

F
z

[
%
]
0.05mm 0.2mm 0.5mm 1.0mm
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Distance from crack a
1
[m.]
Crack width 0.3mm
a
1
Figure4. Percentageof sectionoiling(TU20): a/ incaseof different crack width, b/ insectiongrowaway
fromcrack(Baszczy nski 1983).
3 OIL PRODUCTSPENETRATIONINTORC ELEMENTS
Duringtheresearchontheinfluenceof mineral oil penetrationintocrackszones, itwasshownthat
oilingkineticsincaseof smaller cracksisgreater (Fig. 4.a). Besidesof thisalsointensiveoiling
of all thecrackregionoccurred(Fig. 4.b).
This mechanismis abasic mechanismof theoil products penetration into RC elements. The
permeability throughporousmaterial, likeconcrete, canbedefinedastheflowof liquidthrough
capillarychannels, poresaerial andothers(aboutdifferentsizes, oftenjointwithitself bythenetof
microcracks) (Matti 1976). Theknowledgeof concretepermeabilityisimportant, becauseitexerts
theinfluenceontheresistanceof aggressiveliquidenvironment, andconsequentlydecides along
withthereactivityparameter aboutitsdurability. Theconcretepermeabilityinthegreater degree
isrelativetoporesstructuresthantothegeneral porosity(Kagimoto2000).
39
D
e
p
t
h

o
f

o
i
l
i
n
g

[
%
]
Kinematic viscosity
k
[mm/s
2
]
100
60
20
80
40
0
partialy
oiled
non oiled
4.5 9.1 85.7 1198
D
e
p
t
h

o
f

o
i
l
i
n
g

[
%
]
87
75
100
Time of oiling t
z
[dni]
30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90
H70 TU20 M40
oiled
Figure5. Mineral oil kinematic viscosity influenceondepthof sectionoiling: a/ concreteafter 13months
of oiling(Manns1977), b/ cement mortar after 3monthsof oiling(Baszczy nski 1983).
Thepermeabilityof soheterogeneousmaterial surelyisrelativetoitsinternal structure, however
insignificant isalsoviscosity of interferingliquid
k
, what isrepresentedinFig. 5(Baszczy nski
1983, Manns1977).
4 REPAIRTECHNOLOGY OF MINERAL OIL CONTAMINATEDRC STRUCTURES
Therecanbemany causes of deteriorationinaconcretestructure. Concreterepair is aspecialist
activity requiring fully trained and competent personnel at all stages of the process. Up until
nowtherehasbeennocommonEuropeanStandardinthisfield. Oftensimplepatchandpaint
strategieshavebeenemployedasshorttermcosmeticrepairswhichhavefailedtoaddresstheroot
causeof theproblem. Thiscan, andhas, leadtodissatisfactionfrombuildingandstructureowners.
ThenewEuropeanNormEN 1504will standardiserepair activities andprovideanimproved
frameworkfor achievingsuccessful, durablerepairsandsatisfiedclients.
Importantly, this Norm(expected dateof full implementation: 31.12.2008) will deal with all
aspectsof therepair processincluding:
definitionsandrepair principles,
theneedfor accuratediagnosisof causesbeforespecificationof therepair method,
detailedunderstandingof theneedsof theclient,
product performancerequirements, test methods, material productioncontrol andevaluationof
conformity,
siteapplicationmethodsandqualitycontrol of works.
All of this especially difficult in case of oiled structures. Today we have got many modern
technologies even nanotechnologies. Nanotechnology does not mean nano-sized particles. The
better understanding of cement hydration has allowed us to improvethequality and density of
thenanostructuresincement paste. Thisreducesmicro-defectsinthesystemsandimprovesbond
betweenthecement matrixandtheaggregate, and, thecement mortar withthesubstrate. Physical
properties suchas tensilestrengthareimprovedtoreducethepossibility of cracking. This is the
basisof appliednanotechnologyincement systems.
Thepurposeof all rangeof superficial treatmentsistheassuranceof suitableadhesionof repair
material.Thisdecidesoftenabouttheefficiencyof therepair. Forstructural repairsisrecommended,
andaccordingtoENV 1504-9evenrequired, theusageof bondlayers.
For thepurposeof detailedanalysisof aboveproblemstwoseriesof testswasdone. Inthefirst
seriesof teststheefficiencyof crackrepair methodswastakingintoaccount. Inthesecondseries
theefficiencyof surfaceprotectionmethodwastested. Beforeusinganyrepair treatment onoiled
40
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure6. Oiledconcretesurfacetreatedwithmodernpastebasedonsolvent withabsorptivesolidmaterial:
a/ oiledsurface, b/ first treatment, c/ secondtreatment, d/ last treatment.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure7. Oiled concrete surface in case of split samples treated with modern paste based on solvent
with absorptive solid material: a/ splited sample, b/ surface after treatment, c/ surface after
steel-brushing.
(a) (b)
Figure8. Split test incaseof concretecylinders: a/ oiledconcretebeforebonding, b/ bondedwithepoxy
resin.
concretesurfacetheproper surfacepreparationis necessary. This preparationshouldgiveclean
surfacewithout anyoil particlesonit.
4.1 Surface preparation
Incaseof oiledsurfacecleaningisnecessary.Therewasusedtwotypesof cleaningonetypical with
theemulsifyingmediumandthesecondmodernwiththepastebasedonsolvent withabsorptive
solidmaterial, treatedonthesurfacethreetimes(Fig. 6).Aftereachtreatmentconcretewascleaned
withsteel-brushing.
Thesametreatment wasdoneincaseof split sample, necessaryfor crackrepair testing(Fig. 7).
4.2 Cracks repairs
Crackrepair testswasdonebasedoncylinders(160160mm) usingsplittest. After 6yearsof oil
TU20influencecylinderswassplitedandbondedby twokindsof resin: epoxy andpolyurethane
(boththemost popular incrack repairing). After week timethebondedcylinderswasalsosplited
(Fig. 8).
41
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

[
M
P
a
]
Sample
Epoxy resin
Polyurethan resin
Figure9. Split test resultsof oiledconcretecylindersbondedwithtwokindsof resins.
Figure10. Examinationof analysedlayer adhesiontoconcretesurface.
Figure 9 is presenting the average split tensile strength of all kind of analysed elements
(6sampleseach): oiledcylinder, oiledcylinder bondedwithepoxyresinandoiledcylinder bonded
withpolyurethaneresin.
Thesplit test results clearly show, that incaseof bothresins crack inoiledconcretecouldbe
repairedwithsuccess. Better connectionisof courseincaseof epoxyresin(20%of original split
tensile strength loss), but the crack connection made by polyurethane resin gives only 38%of
original split tensilestrengthloss. Comparingthecost of boththeseresins satisfactory effect for
polyurethaneresinisvisible.
4.3 Surface protection
Apart fromcrack repairingthesurfaceprotectionisalsonecessary, bothincaseof newstructures
or cleanedandrepaired. Thevarietyof surfaceprotectionmaterialsishigh. For testingprocedure
paintworkbasedoncopolymer vinyl-acetyl-ethylene, epoxyandpolyurethanecoat, wasused. For
thepurposeof surfacerepairingtwo kindof cement repair material was checked. Oneordinary
andonenanomaterial. Bothweresinglecomponent. Thenanorepair layer wasveryhighstrength,
highmodulus, fibrereinforced, shrinkagecompensated, expansive, structural repair mortar.
On prepared samples with pull-off test adhesion of analysed layer to oiled (TU20) and clean
concretesurfacewasexamined. Themethodof researchconsistedinthemeasurement of minimal
forceappliedperpendicularlytosamplelayer (Fig. 10).
42
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
S
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
n
g

s
t
r
e
s
s

[
M
P
a
]
a b c
a epoxy coat
b vinyl- acetyl-ethylene copolymer
c polyurethane coat
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
S
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
n
g

s
t
r
e
s
s

[
M
P
a
]
a b
clean concrete oiled concrete
clean concrete oiled concrete
a nano system
b ordinary system
Figure11. Adhesion(separation) stressresults: a/ repair layer, b/ paint layer.
Obtainedresultstestifyhereof thatvaluesof bondforcetooiledconcretesurfacearelower aside
fromall usedsurfacematerials(Fig. 11).
The required adhesion, measured by pull-off test, for not structural repairs amounts above
0,5MPa, and for structural repairs must beabove1,5MPa. Comparing all results is clear, that
incaseof repair materialsonlysinglecomponentnano-material hasstill adhesionabovethisvalue.
Incaseof paintworks all of themhavevalueof oiledsurfaceadhesionstill higher, theninabove
technical recommendations.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Theresultsclearly showthedifferent degreeof decreaseof concretecompressivestrength(com-
paringtocontrol samples): from55%for oil H70toalmostnoinfluencefor oil M40. OilsH70and
TU20affectedtheanalysedconcretecompressivestrengthf
cm
themost. Contaminationof concrete
byhydrocarbonsgivesanalmostnewmaterial, whichbehavesdifferently.Thenon-linearbehaviour
of strengthandstrainvariationsdependonthecontentsof hydrocarbonanditstype.
Thesplit test resultsclearlyshow, that incaseof bothusedresinscrack inoiledconcretecould
berepairedwithsuccess. Better connectionis of courseincaseof epoxy resin(20%of original
splittensilestrengthloss), butthecrackconnectionmadebypolyurethaneresingivesonly38%of
original split tensilestrengthloss. Comparingthecost of boththeseresins satisfactory effect for
polyurethaneresinisvisible. Apart fromcrack repairingthesurfaceprotectionisalsonecessary,
both in case of new structures or cleaned and repaired. In case of repair materials only single
component nano-material has still adhesion abovethetechnical recommendations. All of tested
paintworkshavevalueof oiledsurfaceadhesionstill higher thennecessary.
REFERENCES
Baszczy nski T., Kozaczewski J., Nowakowski B. 1983. About the mineral oils influence on physical and
bearingconcretefeatures, Proceedings of XXIX Polish Scientific Conference, Pozna n Krynica, 1116,
(inPolish).
Baszczy nski T. 1994. Durability analysis of RC structures exposed to a physico-chemical environment,
Proceedings of the Third Kerensky Conference, Singapore, 6770.
Baszczy nski T. 2002. Some effects of crude oil environment on RC structures, Foundation of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, (2): 714.
43
Baszczy nski T. &

Scigao J. 2006. Ultimatebearingcapacity assessment of RC sections under mineral oil
exposure, Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering: 4156.
KagimotoH., SatoM., KawamuraM. 2000. Evaluationof degreeof ASRdeteriorationinconcreteandanalysis
of poresolutions, Concrete Library International, (36): 480493.
Kucharska L. 2001. Failures and damages of concrete structures and its development, Proceedings of XX
Structural Failure Conference, Szczecin-Miedzyzdroje, 89118, (inPolish).
MannsW. &HartmannE. 1977. ZumEinflussvonMinerallenauf dieFestigkeitvonBeton, Schriften-reiche
desDAfStb, Ernst, H. 289.
Matti M.A. 1976. Somepropertiesandpermeabilityof concreteindirectcontactwithcrudeoil. Ph.D. Thesis,
Universityof Sheffield.
Onabolu O.A., Khoury G.A., Sullivan P.J.E., Sterritt R. 1985. Inorganic acid contents of NS oil: effect of
anaerobicbacterial activityintanks, Petroleum Review, (1): 4245.
44
Modellingthebehaviour of amicro-tunnellingmachinedueto
steeringcorrections
W. Broere
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
A. Broere BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
J. Dijkstra& G. Arends
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: Micro-tunnelling often encounters restrictions expanding into new areas. In the
Netherlands, andmoregeneral insoftsoils, oneof theproblemsisthecontrolledboringof curves.
Tobetter understandthebehaviour of thetunnel boringmachineinsuchconditions, ananalytical
model hasbeendeveloped, that takestranslationandrotationof theTBM intoaccount. Themodel
takesthesubgradereactionandthestiffnessof thesoil intoaccountasmajorparametersdescribing
thesoil behaviour. It isshownthat thesubgradereactionintheinner andouter curveof theTBM
differs substantially andasubgradereductionfactor is introducedinthemodel to deal withthis
effect. A firstderivationof thesubgradereductionfactor wasmadecomparingfieldmeasurements
withmodel parameter variations. Inthispaper afull three-dimensional finiteelement simulation
ispresented, usinglargedeformationanalysistomodel themovementof theTBMthroughthesoil,
whichhasbeenusedtostudythebehaviour of themicro-tunnel machineinmoredetail andderive
thesubgradereductionfactor.
1 INTRODUCTION
Inmostof theNetherlandstheupperlayersconsistof alluvial soil deposits, wherethestiffnessof the
soil islow.Thegroundwaterlevel isgenerallyveryhighandlocallyreachesthegroundsurface.This
combinationhas adverseimplications for thedrillingtechniques usedwhenconstructiontunnels
usingthemicro-tunnellingtechnique. Insuchpoor soil conditions, thecontrol andsteerability of
themicro-tunnellingmachinecanbecomeproblematic (seee.g. Oresteet al., 2002). Oneaspect,
theboringof curves, isdescribedinmoredetail inthispaper.
Inthepast several boringswereexecutedinsoft soilswithout anysignificant problems, or only
with limited problems (Broereet al., 2007). Recently however, problems occurred on aproject
whereacurvewas introduced in thetrajectory coinciding with thetransition fromvery soft to
stiffer soils. At this location theconcretepipesnappedwhen thetunnel boringmachine(TBM)
had just entered the stiffer soils. A second boring, with a greater curvature, was successfully
completed at thesamelocation. This event raised questions concerning theactual behaviour of
theTBM, theconcretepipesandthecouplingforcesbetweenthepipes. Toincreaseunderstanding
of thebehaviour of theTBM insoft soils, ananalytical model was formulatedthat describes the
behaviour of theTBM duringtheboringof curvesinsoft soils.
Inthismodel thebehaviour of thesoil ismodelledasasubgradereactionmodulus. Tocorrectly
predict theTBM behaviour, areducedsubgradereactionmodulusisneededintheinner curveas
comparedtotheouter curve. Thenecessarysubgradereductionfactor hasbeenderivedfirstbased
onfieldmeasurementsat theaforementionedproject.
45
Figure1. Movement of theTBM is split into arotational and translational mode. Thesearecombined to
calculatethereactionwof theTBM toasteeringactiona.
In order to study thesoil behaviour around theTBM in moredetail and derivethesubgrade
reductionfactor, independently fromthefieldmeasurements, afiniteelement analysis has been
usedthat modelsthemovement of theTBM throughthesoil duringacurvedboring.
2 ANALYTICAL MODEL OF A MICRO-TUNNELLINGMACHINE INCURVES
Inordertomodel thebehaviourof amicro-tunnel machineduringtheboringof acurvein(very)soft
soil, ananalytical model hasbeendevelopedbyBroereet al. (2007). Inthismodel themovement
of theTBM throughthesoil is split inatranslational modeandarotational mode, as shownin
Figure1. For bothmodes theforces actingontheTBM aredeterminedandthetorqueresulting
fromtheseforces is calculated. Supposing thesoil is elastic, theforces can besuperposed and
thereactionof themachinecanbedeterminedfrommoment equilibrium. Insoft soils oftenthe
reactionof themachine islessthantheintendedsteeringaction.
Of theforcesactingonthemachine, thejack forces, thenormal forcesbetweensoil andshield
andthefacesupportarethemostimportant. Boththejackforcesandthefacesupportareconsidered
asgiven, what isleft istodeterminethenormal forcesinthesoil. Thelinear-elasticsoil behaviour
ischaracterizedby asubgradereactionmodulusk. For agivensteeringangle thenormal force
F
soil
andthereaction canthenbecalculated. SeeBroereetal. (2007) for full detailsof themodel
derivation.
When theresults of themodel werecompared to field measurements, it becameclear that a
different subgradereactionmodulus was neededat theinner andouter curves of theTBM. This
isunderstandableastheTBM will excavateaslightly oval-shapedholeinorder tomakeacurve.
Ononesidethesoil will notbeexcavatedbutrather displacedsideways, whereasontheother side
anover-excavatedzoneexists wherethereis no direct contact betweenTBM andsoil andsome
relaxationof thesoil will occur. Inthisareathesoil will havealower subgradereactionmodulus,
whichisincludedinthemodel byintroducingasubgradereductionfactor C
f
for thisarea.
Based on field observations in soft soils and realistic input parameters, a possible range of
C
f
=0.15 to 0.35 was determined. C
f
=0.25 was selected for further parameter studies of the
46
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
k [kN/m
3
] k
[]
2
1
0.5
Figure2. Reactionof theTBM asafunctionof thesubgradereactionmodulusk andsteeringaction.
subgradereactionmodulus k andthemagnitudeof thesteeringangle. Theresults aregivenin
Figure2, whichshowsthat instiff sandlayers(k =10,000kN/m3or higher) theTBM reactswell
to desiredsteeringaction. Insofter (clay) layers (k =2000 4000kN/m3) themachinedoes not
followthedesiredsteeringanglecompletely, but canstill becontrolled. Only inevensofter clay
andpeat layersthemachinewill hardlyreact toanysteeringactionstaken.
As thesubgradereductionfactor C
f
=0.25was determinedfor soft to very soft soils andhas
asignificant influenceon theresults, amoredetailed determination of this valueis warranted.
A numerical simulation of a curved boring is therefore made to derive the subgrade reduction
factor independently.
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The curved boring of a micro-tunnel machine is simulated in the numerical framework FEAT,
capable of a full Eulerian large strain analysis as well as traditional Lagrangian finite element
calculations (TOCHNOG, 2007). In the Eulerian scheme the material flow and the mesh are
decoupled. This allows for extremely largedeformations to bemodelled, whilst thecalculations
remainnumericallystable. Thisapproachhasbeenusedpreviouslytomodel thejackedinstallation
of piles(Dijkstraet al., 2007).
TheTBM, withafront andback part of themachine, andthefirst threetunnel segments are
includedinthesimulation.
Inmodellingtheexcavationandsteeringprocess, atwo-stepapproachistaken. First, anEulerian
calculationismadeinwhichatunnel boringmachineonastraight alignment issimulated. Inthis
stageaforwardmovementof atleastthelengthof thefiniteelementmeshissimulated, tomakesure
that steady-stateconditions arereached. This stageyields aproper stress andstrainfieldaround
theTBM andtunnel andisusedasthestartingpoint for thenext phase.
Inthesecondphasethefront part of theTBM is rotatedwithrespect to theback part until a
1degreerotationisreached. Thissimulatestheactual steeringof theTBM.
Additionally, areferencecalculationismadeinwhichtheEulerianinflowof thesoil isskipped
andonlytheinitial conditionsareset andthesteeringphaseissimulated.
47
Figure3. Meshandboundaryconditionsfor thenumerical simulation.
3.1 Details of the numerical schematisation
Inorder tocreateafiniteelement meshthat includestheproper boundary conditions, atwo-step
approachis used. First, anaxi-symmetric meshis created, consistingof first order quadrilateral
elements. Inthismesh, thetunnel andTBMaresituatedontheaxisof symmetry. Inordertoprevent
meshproblems, asmall gapis maintainedaroundtheaxis. All elements, thesoil as well as the
TBM andtunnel, arerepresentedbyvolumeelements. Noplateelementsof anykindareused.
Inthis mesh, theTBM is 6meters longand2.2meters indiameter. Inthemiddle, separating
thefront andback part of themachine, asliceof 10cmthicknessisincludedthat will beusedto
model thesteeringjacks. Behindthemachine15meters of tunnel withanouter diameter of 2.1
metersandinner diameter of 1.8metersismodelled. Thisapproachresultsinatail voidof 5cm
behindtheTBM. Themeshis extended10mfromtheaxis of symmetry and5minfront of the
TBM. Thisensuresboundaryconditionsaresufficientlyfar removedfromthetunnel.
Subsequently, themeshisrotatedaroundthesymmetryaxistocreateafullythree-dimensional
meshconsistingof 3610
wedges. Theintentional gapontheaxisisremeshedandmergedwith

thefull meshatthisstage. Followingthisapproach, anumericallystablemeshasshowninFigure3
isobtained.
As showninFigure3, theouter boundaries of themeshareconsideredfixed. Thesamehold
for thetail endof thelast tunnel segment. At theright, infront of thetunnel face, soil flowsinto
themeshat asteady velocity of 0.01m/s. Soil leaves themeshat theleft boundary. Inorder to
(somewhat crudely, but effectively) model theexcavationprocess, soil is also removedfromthe
meshat thetunnel face, suchthat soil that wouldhaveflowedintothetunnel isremovedfromthe
calculation. Finally, inorder tokeepthecalculationstable, adistributedforceof 50kN/m2isused
ontheboundarieswheresoil flowsout of themesh.
ForthediscretisationintimeEulerbackwardtimesteppingisused, becauseof itshighnumerical
stability. FortheEulerianformulation, wheremeshandmaterial statearedecoupled, theconvective
terms(alsoknownasstateparameters) needtobetransferredthroughthemesh. Thisisdonebya
StreamlineUpwindGalerkinmethod. Inthismethodmaterial andstateparametersarecalculated
inthenodes.
48
D_lining = 2.1 m
D_TBM = 2.2 m
50 mm tail void
jacking ring
Figure4. Close-upof theboundaryconditionsaroundtheTBM.
Table1. Material parametersfor thesoil.
Name Symbol Value Unit
Dryvolumetricweight 17 kN/m
3
Cohesion c 1 kPa
Frictionangle 35

Dilatationangle 0

Youngsmodulus E 30 MN/m
2
Poissonsratio 0.3
After 30mof material flow(i.e. 30meter of forwardmovementof theTBMandtunnel hasbeen
simulated), thesteeringactionissimulated. Inthisstagethematerial flowisstopped. Thesteering
action of theTBM is simulated by thethin sliceseparating thefront and back of themachine,
similar tothesteeringjacks inanarticulatedshield(seeFigure4). Anasymmetric velocity field
is appliedto asinglewedgeof this slice, extendingthis wedgeby 10mmat arateof 0.1mm/s.
Giventhesmall deformationsandinorder toimproveaccuracy, theintegrationschemeisswitched
toanormal Lagrangianscheme. Therefore, thematerial andstateparametersarecalculatedinthe
integrationpoints andneedto beinterpolatedfromthenodes beforethestart of this calculation
phase.
Initial stress conditions areset tothehorizontal effectivestress representativefor a10mdeep
tunnel, although thesewill becompletely replaced at theend of thefirst calculation phaseand
beforethesteeringactionismodelled. Theinfluenceof porewater isnot modelledinthecurrent
calculation.
Inthereferencecalculation, theEulerianphaseis skipped. Thesameboundary conditions are
used, except for theequilibriumforceontheoutflowboundaries. Thesearereplacedby afixed
displacement boundarycondition, whicharesufficientlyfar awayfromtheareaof interest asnot
toinfluencetheresult.
3.2 Constitutive model
Thesoil ismodelledusingtheMohr-Coulombmodel, withparameterslistedinTable1. A tension
cut-off was usedto prevent tensilestresses inthesoil. Also, to prevent problems withlargevol-
umetric strains occuringduringlargedeformations, dilatant behaviour of thesoil was prevented,
setting=0.
49
Figure5. Vertical total stressat theendof theEulerianinflowphase.
BoththeTBMandthetunnel liningaremodelledasalinear elasticmaterial withPoissonsratio
of 0.2andYoungsmoduli E of 23GPafor theconcreteliningand200GPafor thesteel of the
TBM.
4 NUMERICAL MODEL RESULTS
4.1 First (Eulerian) inflow phase
Thevertical total stressattheendof thefirstphase, i.e. after 30metersof forwardmovementof the
TBM isgiveninFigure5. Figure6showstheplasticshear strains. Inthesefigures, across-section
throughthesoil ismade, althoughthefull tunnel isplotted, inorder tohighlight theresultsat the
interfacebetweenthesoil andthetunnel.
A largestressincreaseisseeninthesoil directlyinfront of thetunnel face, whichpeaksat the
frontthickedgesof theTBM. Thisincreaseisduetothelocal boundaryconditionsandshouldnot
beconsideredacorrect representationof theexcavationprocess. However, comparedtoaclosed
facewhereall soil wouldflowaroundtheTBMitisasignificantimprovementof thesoil behaviour.
It canalsobeobservedinFigure5that stress increases as thesoil flows aroundtheTBM and
decreases again at thetail end of theTBM. This is dueto thedistinct tail void modelled in the
analysis, whichcausesapartial unloadof thesoil asit flowsintothetail void.
Similar behaviour canbeobservedintheshear strainplot (Figure6). Largestrainsoccur where
thesoil isforcedaroundtheTBMandthefrictionbetweentheTBMandthesoil causesfurthershear
straintodevelop. Oncethesoil isfreetoexpandintothetail voidandrelax themagnitudeof the
straindecreases.Again, thetail voiddominatestheobservedbehaviourof thesoil aroundtheTBM.
4.2 Steering action phase
InFigure7thenormal component of thetotal stressactingonthetunnel, at theendof thesteering
action, isshown. Atthispointthefrontof theTBMisrotatedby1
comparedtothebackside, with
50
Figure6. Plasticshear strainsat theendof theEulerianinflowphase.
Figure7. Normal stressonthetunnel attheendof thesteeringphase(for thecalculationwithafirstEulerian
inflowphase).
51
Figure8. Normal stressonthetunnel at theendof thesteeringphase(for thereferencecalculationwithout
inflowphase).
Table2. Normal stresses acting on theTBM at theend of thesteering action and derived local subgrade
reductionfactors. (Coordinatesrefer todistancefromsteeringjackorTBM articulationpoint.)
Normal stress(kPa) Normal stress(kPa) Local subgrade
Outer curve Inner curve reductionfactor
Full Full Full
Coordinate(m) Reference Analysis Reference Analysis Reference Analysis
+1.6 91 790 23 583 0.26 0.75
+1.1 189 657 21 779 0.11 1.19
+0.6 311 930 32 1100 0.10 1.18
0.6 289 1940 135 1068 0.48 0.55
1.1 54 2789 64 1097 1.19 0.39
1.6 287 2080 16.5 1061 0.06 0.51
thejack extension(or outer curve) modelledat thelower sideof theTBM inthis figureandthe
resultingcurvatureupwards. Figure8showsresultsfor thereferencecalculationwherephaseone
wasskippedandnosoil inflowwasmodelled. Inbothcasesthetunnel andTBM arenotshownfor
improvedclarityof thestressscale. Whenthereferencecase(withoutinflowof soil) iscomparedto
thecompletecalculationsomedifferencescanbeobserved. Inthereferencecasetwodistinctzones
withastressincreasebelowthetunnel canbediscerned, whichact assupport zonestocarry the
reactionof therotatingTBM. Inthefull model onlyasinglesupport zonehasdeveloped. Clearly,
theproper initial stressstatecalculatedfromthefirst inflowphasehasasignificant influenceon
thefailuremode.
52
In order to derivetheimpact on thesubgradereaction modulus for theanalytical model, the
normal stresses actingontheTBM ontheouter curvearecomparedtothoseontheinner curve.
SomekeynumbersaregiveninTable2, wherethecoordinatereferstothedistancefromthejack
positionor articulationpoint.
The subgrade reduction factor is clearly affected by the stress history, given the differences
betweenthereferenceanalysisandthefull analysis. Stronglocal fluctuationsinthelocal subgrade
reductionfactor occur, but overall theresultsfromthereferenceanalysisarelower thantherange
derivedfor theanalytical model fromfieldobservations, whereastheresultsfor thefull analysis
aresomewhat higher.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Duringtheboringof curvesinverysoftsoilsthesteerabilityof theTBM maybecomeproblematic
or evencompletely impossible. Ananalytical model that candeterminethereactionof theTBM
basedonagivensteeringactionhasbeendeveloped.Thismodel needsasubgradereactionmodulus
onboththeinner andouter curvesideof theTBM toyieldproper results. Thesubgradereaction
modulusontheinner sideisreducedwithrespect tothevalueontheouter curve.
Thelocal subgradereduction factors derived fromthefull numerical analysis indicatethat a
singlevaluefor thesubgradereductionfactor may not beappropriate. It wouldbebetter to use
separatefactorsfor thefront andbackpart of theTBM.
Theconclusionfromtheearlier paper by Broereet al. (2007), that theanalytical model needs
improvements, still stands, butthepresentednumerical approachaloneisnotsufficienttoreachthe
requiredlevel of accuracyandtherebyverifytheanalytical model inawiderangeof soil conditions.
Inorder to reachthat goal thenumerical model needs several improvements. Theseincludea
further refinement of the mesh, a more detailed modelling of the soil excavation at the tunnel
faceandacontinuedinflowof soil duringthesteeringactionof theTBM. Althoughtheseareall
possible, theywouldincreasethecomputational effort beyondthat of acommondesktopPC.
Analternativeapproachwouldbetoslightly adapt theanalytical model toallowfor avariable
reductionfactor alongtheTBM, withdifferent valuesfor thefront andback part of theTBM on
boththeinner andouter curveside.
REFERENCES
Broere, W., Faassen, T.F., Arends, G. & vanTol, A.F. 2007. Modellingtheboringof curvesin(very) soft soils
duringmicrotunnelling. TunnellingandUndergroundSpaceTechnology, 22(56), pp. 600609.
DijkstraJ., Broere, W. & vanTol., A.F. 2007. Numerical simulationof theinstallationof adisplacement pile
insand. InNumerical Models in Geomechanics, Taylor & Francis, pp. 461466.
Finite Element Application Technology. TOCHNOG Professional Users Manual Version 4.2.
(http://www.feat.nl/)
Oreste, P.P., Peila, D., Marchionni,V. &Sterling, R. 2002.Analysisof theProblemsConnectedtotheSinkingof
Micro-TBMsinDifficultGround. TunnellingandUndergroundSpaceTechnology, 16Suppl. 1, pp. 3345.
53
Trenchlessreplacement of gasandpotablewater pipeswith
newPA 12pipesapplyingthepipeburstingmethod
ReinhardBuessing
SB Projektentwicklung, Herdecke, Germany
AndreasDowe& ChristianBaron
Evonik Degussa GmbH, Marl, Germany
Meinolf Rameil
Tracto-Technik GmbH & CoKG, Lennestadt, Germany
ABSTRACT: PipeBurstingoffersareal technical andcost-efficientalternativetotheopentrench
method; it is alsovery effectivewhencomparedtoother alternativepiperehabilitationmethods.
PipesmadefromPolyamide12(PA 12) extendtheareaof applicationfor trenchlesstechnologies,
pipeburstinginparticular. Polyamide12pipes showedthat problems likepoint loads andcrack
growthresistancecanbesolved. A fieldtestinDortmundshowedthatthehandlingof PA 12pipes
isaseasyasthepipecrackingwithPE.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pipereplacement byopentrenchingcaninvolvetrafficimpairment, noise- andemissionpollution
whenbreakingopenthesurface.Alsothereisariskof damagingexistingundergroundpipe, soil and
groundwater interventionandhigher storage, transport andsoil removal costs. Thesedrawbacks
canbealmost completelyavoidedbyreplacingpipesusingtrenchlesstechnologies. Accordingto
estimatesof Advantica, thepipeburstingmethodhasbecomethemost widely appliedtrenchless
pipereplacement methodwithmorethan50,000kmworldwide. Withthepipeburstingmethod,
the defective or under dimensioned pipe is cracked with a burst head and then displaced into
thesurroundingsoil. This creates spacefor thenewpipedirectly proceeding, of sameor greater
diameter. Thepipeburstingtechniqueallows thereplacement of defectivepipelines inthesame
pathwithoutanysubstantial influencesonsoil andgroundwater. Opentrenchingwhichrequiresthe
breakingupandrepairingof valuablesurfacesisthereby almost entirely eliminated. Inaddition,
thiseco-friendlytechniquehelpstocutdowncostsconsiderably.Thepipeburstingdistancesusually
havealengthof approx. 100200m.
Ingeneral, therearetwomethodstochoosefrom:
1. hydraulicallyoperatedstaticpipeburstingwithladder shapedQuicklockrods
2. pneumaticallyoperateddynamicpipecrackingwithpiercingtoolsor rammers
The proportion of pipes that need to be rehabilitated or renewed will increase. The current
situation in Germany: Thelength of thetransportation network of water pipes is approximately
460.000km(Wagner, V.: Sanierung von Wasserdruckleitungen Eignungsprfung fr Druck-
liner, WWT Heft 9/2003) and270.000kmfor thegassupplylines(Bundesverbandder Deutschen
Gas- undWasserwirtschaft e.V. (BGW): J ahrbuchGas- undWasser 2004, OldenburgIndustriev-
erlagGmbH, Mnchen, 2004). Thereareaswell 160.000kmof house-connectionsfor water and
80.000kmfor gas.
55
In order to continuously ensureafully functional mains and distribution network, an annual
rehabilitationrateof at least 2%shouldbeachieved. This rateof renewal wouldcorrespondtoa
servicepipelifeof 50years. Thatiswhythenetwork-operatorsarelookingfor innovativemethods
whichofferincreasedproductivitycombinedwithincreasedeconomical savings.ThePipeBursting
technologyfor trenchlesspiperenewalsisjust suchamethod.
1.1 Pipe materials for transportation network of water and natural gas in Germany
Grey cast ironwasusedwithleadjoint socketsuntil theendof the1940sandwithscrewedand
boltedflangejointsupuntil themid-60s. Therearestill manyof thesefragilegreycast ironpipes
whicharelikelytoleakandbreakandthesenowhavetoberenewedasamatter of priority.
Ductileironwithoutsufficientcoatedprotectionwasinstalledfromthemid-60stotheearly-70s.
Steel pipes wereinstalledwithjutefibre/tar coatingandjoints until themid40s, thenwitha
moresimplebitumencoatinguntil theendof the50s, andafter that withadoubleprotectivelayer
of bitumenbut oftenthepipes werenot laidonagranular beddinguntil theendof the70s and
sincethenwithPE-coatingsandwith/or without protectivesurfacecoatings.
Asbestoscement- andleadwater pipesneedtobereplacedjustassoonaspossiblebecausethey
areconsideredharmful topeoples health.
Plastic pipes (PVC) withbondedsockets areleakingandPE pipes areoftennot of sufficient
carryingcapacityandthereforeneedtobeupsizedandrenewedsimultaneously.
1.2 Choosing the proper method
Themostimportantquestionforthenetworkoperatorsis: dopipeshavetoberepaired, rehabilitated
or renewed/replaced? To repair thepipes is feasibleif therepair measureensures areliableand
lastingresult. Another optionispiperehabilitation, but rehabilitationmethodssometimesdonot
meettherequiredstandardsintermsof pipecarryingcapacity, flowvolumesandpipelifedurability.
Problemsalsooccur if anannular gapisleft betweenthenewreplacement andthehost pipe. Also
becauseof additional pipecleaningandtheneedfor encrustationremoval, theoverall costs may
becomparativelyhigh. Thethirdopportunityistrenchlessrenewal.
A pipereplacement isnecessary:
whenrepair or renovationistechnicallyor economicallyinappropriate
whenthehydrauliccapacityneedstobeimprovedbyagreater pipediameter
when repair or renovation offers only a short termsolution with a pipe replacement being
inevitable
whenthereisrequest for alonglastingpipedurabilityandor ahigher product lifespan
whenthestaticloadingcapacityof thedefectivepipewouldbeotherwisenegativelyaffected
Therenewal of pipeswithtraditional opentrenchesisconsistent withtraffic jams, noise, dust
and not liked ecological effects as well as risks of damage to existing buried pipes cables and
telecommunicationlines, disruptionof thegroundwater flowandtheneedto removepreviously
undisturbedsoil, storageandtransport of theexcavatedsoil andits associatedhighdisposal and
tippingcosts. All thiscanbeavoidedtoalargeextent byusingatrenchlessmethod.
WiththePipeCrackingmethodtheeffectedor under capacitypipeisfragmentedbytheprofile
bursting blades and the broken pieces are displaced by an expander into the surrounding soil.
Thus a sufficient channel space is preformed for the attached new pipe with the same or even
bigger diameter that follows theblade/expander. ThePipeCrackingmethodpermits renewals of
damagedpipesbyusingtheexistingpipelinecoursewithoutintrusionintothesoil ordisturbingthe
groundwater. Thework methoddoesnot causesurfacesubsidencedamagesandby usingafiller
for theannular gapbetweenthenewandtheburst pipethebeddingcanbeimproved. Asopposed
totheopentrenchmethodwheretheopentrenchingandreinstatement of theroadandpavement
surfaces arelargely unnecessary andthus pipecrackingis environmentally friendly andinmost
casesmoreeconomical.
56
1.3 The development of the Pipe Bursting technology to date
PipeBurstinghas alonghistory andcouldnot havedevelopedas successfully as it didwithout
soil displacement hammers andrammingtechnology. Theideaof thePipeBurstingtechnology,
usingtheexisting, damagedpipeinorder toaccommodateanewpipehasitsoriginsatBritishGas.
As early as the1980s they commonly used adapted soil displacement hammers and pneumatic
piperammingmachinestotrenchlessly lay pipesandcables. InGreat Britainacontractor named
D J Ryan & Sons had already taken out the first patents (Fraser: The Pipe Bursting Options,
ConferencedocumentsAsianTrenchlessTech1994)
Eveninthefirstyearsof thePipeBurstingtechnologypneumaticallyandhydraulicallypropelled
systemsexisted. ThepneumaticmachineswereknownasPIM-machines(PipeInsertionMethod).
Thefirsthydraulicmachinesweresystemswheretheexpander radiallyextendedusingahydraulic
forceandthus shearingapart thepipeandthefragmentedparts displacedintothesoil aroundit.
InGermany themachines wereknown, amongst others, by thenameof KM-Berstlining. This
expandingtechniquethoughdidnotbecomegenerallyacceptedinGermany. FirstusersinGermany
werecompanieslikeKanal-Mller (KM-Berstlining), DIGA (PIM, Grundocrack) andBrochier
(Grundocrack). In theUSA themethodknown as cracking was introducedsuccessfully more
than20yearsago. Ever sincethenit hasbeenusedverysuccessfullyonadailybasis.
In the UK the first applications of the Pipe Bursting method were limited to grey cast iron
gas pipes. Themethod rapidly spread all over Europealready including operations in thewater
andsewagesectors. InthosetimesPolyethylenepipeswerealreadyusedasnewproduct carrying
pipes. Mostlyintheearlyyearsplasticprotectiontubeswereinstalledfirst becausePE pipeswith
protectivecoatinghavebeennot available. NowadaysthePipeBurstingmethodismainlyusedto
replacepressurepipes(gasandwater networksND80to1000) andfor sewagepipes(ND150to
1000). IntheUSA evensewersupto1200mmindiameter havebeenreplaced.
Inthemid-90stheDynamic(Pneumatic) PipeCrackingwascomplementedbyanewmethod
theso-called Static (Hydraulic) PipeBursting. With static bursting ladder shaped rods without
screwedthreadswereintroduced. Thesenewrodscouldeasilybeconnectedanddisconnectedand
havehadmanypractical advantages. Thefunctionalityof screwthreadscaneasilybeimpairedby
dirt andthereforehavetobekept cleanat all times. Oftenthescrewthreadsaredamagedonthe
jobsiteandthus slowdowntheconnectionandthus thepushingandpullingprocess. Inaddition
tothat thetensilestrengthandpullingforcesmaybeimpaired. Incontrast theQuickLock system
provides anabsolutely safeandreliableconnection for thetractivepushingandpullingforces.
ThenewQuickLock rodjoints arealso flexibleandcanfollowtheradius of theexistingcurved
offsetpipebends.Timeefficiencyisanotherkeyadvantage theQuickLockrodscanbedriveninto
thehost pipeabout 40%faster thanconventional screwedrodsbecausetheladder shapeddesign
allows afast and easy rod string assembly. In contrast to thescrewed rods wherefriction drive
clampjawstransmittheir forceontherodsfromoutside, theQuickLockrodshavepositivelocking
brakeanddrivefingersthat preventsany slippageof therodswhenunder tractionload. Alsothe
tiresomelabour intensivescrewingandunscrewingprocessisnolonger necessary. A hydraulically
operated rig pushes or pulls therods into thehost pipe. Oncethey appear in thearrival pit, an
upsizing cone is connected and the new pipe then attached to it. By pulling back the rods the
burstingandinstallationprocess begins. A tractionburstingforceof upto 2.500kN (250metric
tons) isavailable.
1.4 Main options of the Pipe Bursting
PipeBurstingisthetrenchlessreplacementof pipelinesbyusingthehostpipeslineandlevel. With
adynamicorhydraulicburstingdevicethehostpipewill bebroken, fragmentedandthendisplaced
intothesurroundingsoil. Protectiontubescanalsobeinstalledwiththismethod. Duringthiswork
processthenewpipewiththesameor evenlarger diameter isinstalled. For gas- andsewer pipes
most of thetimePE pipes areused. They areflexibleandabletoadjust well tothehost pipeline
course. Smoothouter but weldedpipejointsguaranteeaneasyentryintothenewburst line. Prior
tothebeginningof theburstprocessthehostpipeshavetobedisconnectedandthehouseservices
57
Figure1. Dynamicpipecrackingmethod.
Figure2. Dynamiccrackinghammer GRUNDOCRACK withbladedpipecrackingheadandattachmentfor
winchropeandexpander at therear endfor pressurepipes.
haveto beexposedat their connectionpoints onthemain. As PipeBurstingis areally fast pipe
renewal methodsomenetworkoperatorsdonot install atemporarybypassfluidor gassupply.
1.5 The dynamic pipe cracking method
After theconstant tensionwinchis set upat thepit andthewinchboomhas beenanchored, the
cableispulledthroughthehostpipeuntil itarrivesatthelaunchpit. Atthesametime, thecracking
hammer is preparedandthenewpipe, usually aPE or PA 12pipe, is attachedtoit. This means,
firstly singlepipesections arebutt-weldedtogether andattachedto therear endof thecracking
hammer by weldingtoanadapter. Thebladedpipecrackingheadisattachedtothefront noseof
thecrackinghammer whichitself isconnectedtothewinchcable.
Theburstingmachinetogether withtheattachedPA 12or PEpipeispulledintothepitbymeans
of thecablewinch until it comes up against thehost pipeto berenewed. Then, by starting the
compressor andtheimpact crackingmachineviaitscontrol unit thepipecrackingprocessstarts.
Theforwardmotionandthedirectional stability aremaintainedby thetractionforceof thecable
winch.
Thepipecrackinghammerbreaksthehostpipebymeansof itsbladedheadandradiallydisplaces
thefragmentsof thepipeintothesurroundingsoil. At thesametimeit expandsthesoil toaccept
thenewpipewithanequal or bigger diameter. Oncetheburstingmachineandtheexpander cone
reachthearrival pit theycanberemoved.
1.6 The Static Pipe Bursting method
The Static Pipe Bursting obtains its required force for the bursting, displacing and installation
processhydraulicallyandtransmitsit viatheladder shapedQuickLockrods, whichareabsolutely
safeandreliablefor thethrust andtraction forces. First thehydraulically poweredrighas to be
bracedinsidethearrival pit. After that theburst rods withtheir precursory guide-rodarepushed
intothehostpipe. Inthestartingpittheguide-rodhastobeexchangedbythebursttools(bursthead
andexpander withswivel, roller-blade, etc). ThenewPA 12or PE pipeisaffixedtoapipepulling
adapter andattachedtotheburst tools. Bypullingback theburst rodstowardsthearrivingpit the
58
Figure3. Staticpipeburstingmethod.
host pipewill bebrokenanditsfragmentsdisplacedbytheexpander intothesoil right behindthe
burst head/expander. Theborefor thenewpipecanbethesameor alarger diameter.
2 LIMITATIONS
Thereareonly fewlimitations (Rameil, M.: Handbook of Pipe-BurstingPractise, VulkanVerlag
Essen2007) for theuseof thePipeBurstingmethod:
at thistime, theapplicationrangeislimitedtocircular existingpipes,
if necessary, thehostpipehastobetakenoutof serviceduringtheburstingprocess(notnecessary
e.g. for mains, drainagepipereplacement, etc.),
the course of the host pipe must be usable for the new pipeline (e.g. inclination). Heavily
encrustedpipesmustbecleanedsothatburstingrodscanbepushedthrough(staticbursting) or
respectivelythewinchropecanbepulledinwhen(dynamic/pneumaticpipecracking),
thesoil surroundingthehost pipemust bedisplaceable,
houseconnectionshavetobeinstalledusingpits. This, however, guaranteesaprofessional and
safeintegration,
sharpbends, flangedjointsof steel andductileironpipes, etc., dependingonselectionof bursting
toolsrequireintermediatepits,
pipeslumps(sags) cannot beremovedhowever maybereduced,
aminimumdistancehastobekept away fromexistingparallel or crossingpipesaswell asan
adequatecover depth.
However, theapplicationof thepipeburstingmethodalso offers all advantages of amodern,
trenchlessinstallationmethod: Pipeburstingistheinstallationof new, industriallyproducedpipes,
whichmaybecompromisedwheninstalledbyopencut methods,
pipebursting gives aconsiderablereduction in excavation and road works (almost no traffic
disturbance, noannoyanceof thepublicor noiseanddust pollution, reducedconstructiontime
andthereductionof indirect costs),
highdailyoutput upto150mgivesacost-effectivereplacement andconsiderablecost-savings
comparedtoopencut,
almost any pipematerial availablefor trenchless installationmethods canbeinstalledby pipe
bursting, e.g. plastic (PE, PA 12), ductileiron(DIP), steel, glassreinforcedplastic (GRP) and
evenvitrifiedclay(VCP) andpolymer-concretepipes(PCP),
pipeburstingallowsthereplacement of almost anyhost pipematerial (somewithlimitations),
pipeburstingcanbeappliedfor any kindof pipedamageas longas theburstingrods canbe
pushedin(staticbursting)orthewinchropecanbepulledin(dynamic/pneumaticpipecracking),
noreductionof pipediameter, up-sizeof pipediameter isalsopossible,
59
preparationof thehost pipe, likehigh-pressurecleaning, removal of debris andblockages are
not necessary(but maypossiblybenecessaryfor specificreasons),
considerablylessdanger of unintendedgroundsettlement comparedtoopencut,
applicablefor pipesinslopedareasandareaswithtrees, shrubberyandthelike,
pipeburstingcanalsobeusedfor thereplacement of laterals,
pipeburstingiscontrolledanddescribedbyworldwidestandards, normsandregulations.
3 MATERIALSFORTHE NEWPIPES
New pipes made of HD PE with a coating (e.g. SLM 2.0) are particularly suitable. They are
moreimpact-resistant asthePE without coating, sufficientlyflexibleandalignwell tothecourse
of thehost pipeline. This material is mainly used for gas networks from0.5 to 4 bars. Evonik
DegussaGmbH knewfromexperiencesinthegaspipeproject about theexcellent characteristics
of Polyamide 12 (PA 12). After a lot of testing they decided to make a pipe cracking. After a
lot of testingthey decidedto makeapipeburstingtest withthis material. All results turnedout
satisfactory. Nowthefirst PA 12pipesespecially for theuseinwater networksareproducedand
will beinstalledsoon. Duringthisconferenceit maybepossibletopresent thefirst results. Some
detailsabout theoutstandingresultsof PA 12material tests.
3.1 Crack growth resistance of PA 12
Duringthefeasibility study of PA 12for gasapplicationsseveral testswereobservedinacc with
international standards. Consideringthesensitivity of former PE materials to slowcrack growth
(SCG) anditsinfluenceontheinstallationtechnologiesEvonikpaidmuchattentiononthisissue.
Becauseof thehighresistancetostresscrackingPA 12isusedfor air braketubingsystemssince
decades. Thereforeit couldbeassumedthat SCG wouldnot beanissuefor PA 12. This is also
indicatedbythelong-termhydrostaticpressuretestinaccwithISO9080. WhereasPE isknownto
haveasecondbranchat thetimetofailurecurvesthisisnot investigatedbytestsonPA 12pipes.
Evenafter 16,000test hoursat 80
C nostresscrackinginitiatedfailuresaredetected.
AdditionallytheSCGbehaviour of PA 12wasinvestigatedwiththeNotchPipeTest inaccwith
ISO13479andISO22621-1. AlsothePENT test inaccwithASTM F1743wasinvestigated. The
results areshown inTable1. At 80
C and 20 bar no failures occur at thePipeNotchTest after

2000h. Evenafter anincreaseof thenotchdepthfrom20to30%of thewall thicknessnofailures
occur. Theminimumrequirement inacc. withISO22621-1is500hwithout failurewithanotch
depthof 20%.
ThePENT testisverywell establishedintheUSgassocietyandPE materialsaretestedat80
C
and2,4MPastress. Presently, therequirementswithinASTMD2513forPEmaterialsrequirePENT
timetofailureof 100hours. However, nosuchrequirementsareinplacefor Polyamidematerials.
Two replicates of thePA 12material weretestedinaccordancetoASTM F1743requirements at
anincreasedstressof 4.8MPa. Theresultsof thetestingindicatedthat therewerenofailureswith
anyof thespecimensafter 1000hours. Thetestingwasdiscontinuedafter 1000hours.
Table1. Resultsonslowcrackgrowthresistanceof VESTAMIDLX9030.
Test Standard Requirement LX9030pipe
PipeNotchTest ISO13479& 22621-2
20%notchdepth >500h >2000h
30%notchdepth >2000h
PENT ASTM F1743 >100h >1000h
60
3.2 Effects of secondary stresses on PA 12 pipes
In addition to characterizing the SCG performance characteristics and influence of surface
scratches, additional testsatGTI wereperformedtocharacterizetheinfluenceof secondarystresses.
Themainmotivatingfactor for performingthesetests was thefact that under actual fieldcondi-
tions, thepipingsystemsaresubjectedtothecombinedeffectsof bothinternal pressureandother
secondarystressesincludingrockimpingement, earthloadingandbending. Often, thesesecondary
stresses, not internal pressure, aretheroot causeof many in-servicefieldfailures. Additionally
thepoint load resistanceis highly discussed relating to thevarious trenchless technologies and
sand-bedfreeinstallationof thermoplasticpipes.
Therefore, comprehensivelongtermsustainedpressuretests wereperformedat elevatedtem-
peraturestocharacterizetheeffectsof varioustypesof secondarystresses. It isimportant tonote
that thesetests arenot apart of either theASTM or ISO standard. Thetest methodology is an
extension of previous research performed by Dr. Charles Bargraw DuPont and further refined
by Dr. Michael Mamoun GasTechnology Instituteto study theperformancecharacteristics of
older generationPE materials. For thecaseof therock impingement, theintent istoevaluatethe
performanceof pipematerialssubjectedtoindentationsbya13mmrock. For thecaseof theearth
loading, thetypical safedeflectionlimit that isspecifiedis5%. For thecaseof thebendingstrain,
thetypical bendradiuslimitsfor apipespecimenwithout anyjointsor appurtenancesis20times
theoutsidediameter.
Six(6) 2-inchSDR-11LX9030pipespecimenswereplacedinappropriatetest rigstosimulate
theeffects of rock impingement, earthloading, andbendingstrain. Theentiretest assembly was
placedunder longtermsustainedpressuretestingat 20bar at 80
C. For all of thevarioustypesof

secondarystresseswhichwereevaluated, theresultsof thetestingdemonstratedthattherewereno
failuresafter 1000hoursof testing, aspresentedinTable2below.
In summary thetest results show that PA 12 has a uniqueresistanceto SCG and secondary
stresses includingpoint loading. Thereforeit couldbeassumedthat PA12pipes canbeinstalled
without sand-beddingandwithtrenchlesstechnologiesevenwithout additional protectionlayers.
At ausual gaspipeburstingsiteinDortmundwemadeatest howthePA 12material will resist
compared to PE. This test showed that for welding thesameequipment, with different welding
parameterscanbeused. TheemployeeshavebeenabletoweldPA 12without anyproblems. The
PA 12pipehas beenconnectedwiththePE pipethroughaninsideconnectionbecauseit is not
possibletoweldthemtogether.Theburstingprocesshasbeendonelikeusual. Notasingleproblem
hasbeenrecorded. PA 12isaseasytouseasPE. At thelast pit thePA 12pipeandasampleof PE
hasbeentakenout for themicroscopicanalysisinthelaboratory.
3.3 Results of the microscopic analysis
Thepicturesshowverywell thedifferenceinthedamageof thesurfaceof bothmaterials.
Table2. Test resultsof VESTAMIDLX9030pipesinvestigatingsecondarystressesFieldtest inDortmund.
SecondaryStress Test Criterion Results
RockImpingement 13mm Indentation TestTime>1000hour with
Test Pressure=20bar nofailures
TestTemperature=80
C
EarthLoading 5% Deflection of Outside Diameter TestTime>1000hour with
TestTemperature=80
C
BendingStrain 20 times OD TestTime>1000hour with
TestTemperature=80
C
61
Besidetheabovereportedexcellent resistancetoSCGandpoint loadsthePA 12showsalsoa
highscratchresistance. Summarizingtheseperformancesit canbeassumedthat Evonik Degussa
found a promising solution for a pipe bursting material which can be used in pipes with high
pressure.
3.4 Bursting tools for pressure pipes
Whenstaticpipeburstingwasintroducedinthemiddleof the1990s, itbecamepossibletoreplace
ductilehost pipematerialslikesteel andductileironby splitting. Upuntil then, it hadonly been
possibletoburst brittlehost pipematerialsapplyingdynamic/pneumaticpipebursting. Steel pipe
burstingwaslimitedandductileironpipescouldnot beburst at all.
Meanwhile, differentsplittingandburstingtoolsweremadeavailabletoselectfrom, depending
onthematerial of thehostpipetobereplaced. Castironpipes, butalsoother brittlepipematerials
(fibreor asbestoscement) caneasilybeburst intofragmentsbyunbladedburstingheadsandthen
displaced. Here, thetaperedangleof theburstingheadwhichinducespowerful radial loadsintothe
hostpipehasagreatinfluenceonthedestructibilityof thehostpipe.Thefragmentsgeneratedshould
beassmall aspossibletoachieveanevenloaddistributioncoveringthecompletecircumference
of thenewpipe, thuspreventingtwistingandmisalignment of theoldpipe.
Differingfrombrittlehost pipematerialsaresteel or plasticaswell asductileironpipeswhich
require splitting techniques that cut the host pipes and expand themopen while also requiring
Figure4. PA 12andPE pipes connectedby an
mechanical joint.
Figure5. Typical pit onthepipeburstingsitein
Dortmund.
Figure6. The PA 12 and PE pipes connected
withthepipeburstinghead.
Figure7. The site is ready to start the pipe
burstingprocess.
62
specialist toolingtobreak jointsandpiperepair clamps. Particularly, withintheareaof jointsand
repair clamps(e.g. steel pipeswithbell-and-spigot jointsor not weldedsteel pipesor ductileiron
flangesandfittings), thecapacitylimitsof thepullingrigareoftenreachedbeforetheycanbecut
whenusingconventional splittingtechniques. Tosplit steel pipes, roller bladecutters(fig. 12) are
used, withasplittinglineof roller wheelsthat attack thehost pipeandjointsmainly inthelower
thirdof their circumference. Theroller bladesarearrangedtoachieveoptimal splittinggeometry.
This is the only way to minimise the required splitting and pulling forces. It is of the greatest
importancethatthesplitedgesof thehostpipearebentoutwardstokeepthemfromdamagingthe
newpipe.
Meanwhile, in order to split ductileiron pipes, so-called roller bladetrailers areused. The
roller blades arenot arranged in asingleholder with minimal spacebetween them, but instead
everysingleroller bladeisarrangedinitsseparateroller bladeholder. Usually, thespacebetween
thesingleroller bladeholder has thelengthof arodbetween. Thediameter of theroller blades
fittedissteadily increased. Thisarrangement leadstoanevendistributionof thesplittingforces.
Whenthebladeholdersrunthroughthehostpipe, thefirstprofiledroller bladeperforatesthepipe
sothefollowingsmoothroller bladescanevenlysplit it.
Inorder tocut PE pipesor defectiveinliners, special hookshapesplitterswith2or 4bladesare
used. Thesespecial splittersprevent thehost pipefrombucklingandslideeasilythroughthehost
pipewhensplitting.
Figure8. Thepipeburstingheadiscuttingthe
existingcast ironpipe.
Figure9. Theburst host pipehasverysharp
edges.
Figure10. Intermediatepit for thehouseconnec-
tion. Also herethesharpedges of the
host pipecanbeseen.
Figure11. ThePA 12andPE pipepiecesfor
themicroscopicanalysis.
63
Figure12. NewRoller Bladetocut 1,000mmsteel pipes.
4 CONCLUSION
Pipeburstingwithits different variations anddecades of appliedexperienceis acomprehensive
trenchless renewal option for a large proportion of the worlds damaged fluid, gas supply and
sewer pipelines. Thisamountstoenormouspotential for economical savingswhencarryingoutthe
inevitablepiperehabilitationprograms. Especially, intimesof critical financial situations, thecities
andmunicipalitiescanhardlyaffordtosimplygiveawaythispotential asaresult of technological
64
conservatism. All inall, wecansurelylooktopipeburstingtobethepreferredtechniqueasmore
than 50,000 kilometres of supply and sewer pipelines worldwide have already been cracked,
burst, split andreplacedwithnewpipes, particularly, sincewiththenewPA 12material also
gas and water pipes operated under higher pressure can now be installed. As a result in many
countriesasteadily increasingnumber of contractorsarenowsuccessfully usingthistechnology.
IncombinationwiththePA 12pipes, whichareresistanttoissueslikepointloadsandcrackgrowth
resistancegivespipeburstingthechancetoenter themarket inhigher pressurepipesf.e. inwater
distributionnetworks.
65
ExperienceswithPolyamide12gaspipesafter 2yearsinoperationat
24bar andnewpossibilitiesfor HDD
A. Dowe& C. Baron
Evonik Degussa GmbH, Marl, Germany
W. Wessing
E.ON Ruhrgas AG, Essen, Germany
R. Buessing
SB Projektentwicklung, Herdecke, Germany
M. Rameil
Tracto-Technik GmbH & CoKG, Lennestadt, Germany
ABSTRACT: Formorethan20yearsPA 12isevaluatedasapipematerial forgasdistributionand
formorethan10yearsPA 12pipeshavebeenusedforlowpressureinstallations. InrecentyearsPA
12isbeinginvestigatedforoperationpressuresabove10bar. Since2002ISO/TC138iselaborating
standards for PA 12 gas installation systems with operation pressures up to 20 bar. In 2007 the
first threepartsof theISO22621werepublished. EvonikDegussaGmbH, Marl, Germany, asone
of thefour manufacturers of PA 12andE.ON Ruhrgas arecooperatingonatest installationof a
60mpipesystem(110mmSDR-11) inthetechnical centerof E.ONRuhrgasinDorsten, Germany.
Thesystemwith various connections was installed in October 2005. After 2 years operating at
apressureof 24bar first samples weretakenandinvestigated. Theauthors will giveareport of
thetest installationandtheexperiencesafter 2years. Thepaper will includealsoanintroduction
of theinstallationtechnology Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD). Incombinationwiththe
exceptional resistanceof Polyamide12pipes against point loadingandslowcrack growthHDD
offersnewpossibilities.
1 PA 12 A HIGHPERFORMANCETHERMOPLASTIC MATERIAL
Duetothespecific carbon-amidegroupinthepolymer chainpolyamides(PA) havestronginter-
molecularactionswhichinducehighmechanical strength, highmeltingtemperaturesandchemical
stability.ThelongchainPA12with11carbonatomsbetweencarbon-amidegroupshasthelowest
waterabsorptionof all commercial availablePA andrepresentsthebestcompromiseinthermal and
mechanical properties.ThatiswhyPA12isthematerial of choiceforsomechallengingapplications
reliedonalreadyfor decades, e. g. intheautomotiveindustryfor fuel linesof passenger carsor for
airbraketubingsof trucks.
Comparedwithmediumandhighdensitypolyethyleneinusefor lowpressuregassupply, long
chain polyamides like PA 12 provide naturally superior performance due to their described
chemical structure (table 1). Besides PA 12 only PA 11 is commercially available with almost
identical properties. PA 11suppliedby onemanufacturer isbasedonaplantedfeedstock, castor
bean, whilePA12issynthesizedfrombutadiene, acrudeoil by-product, inacomplicatedmulti-step
process. Evonik Degussa is the only company of the four PA 12 suppliers who is fully back-
integratedtobutadiene.
67
Table1. Basicpropertiesof PA 12vs. PE.
Property Unit PA 12 PE 100 PE 80
Meltingtemperature

C 178 130 126
Tensilestrengthat yield MPa 45 2023 1719
Tensileelongationat break % 200 >800 >800
Flexural Modulus MPa >1200 950 700
Charpyimpact strength kJ /m
2
Nobreak 30 20
Hardness, ShoreD 74 63 58
Permeability(23
C, mm
3
/bar/day)
Methane <0.005 0.24
Hydrogen <0.01 0.7
(data for PA 12 pending)
Table2. Maximal allowableoperationpressuresfor PA
12andPE basedgaspipeswithconsideringa
safetyfactor of 2andaSDR-11.
MOP inbar 20
C 60
C
PE 80 8 4
PE 100 10 7
PA 12 18 12
2 NEWVESTAMIDGRADE FROM EVONIK DEGUSSA, PA 12DESIGNEDFOR HIGH
PRESSURE GASDISTRIBUTION
Controlling molecular weight and intermolecular interacting forces is an Evonik Degussa core
competencetodesignPA 12extrusiongradeswithoptimizedprocessingandperformanceproper-
ties. Evonik PA 12issoldunder theregisteredtrademarkVESTAMID
L. WhenEvonik started
theactivitiesfor largepipeapplicationsnewhighmolecular PA 12gradesfor extrudingpipeswith
bigger sizeswasdesigned.
For varioustestsandfor test installationspipeswithdimensionsupto300mmhavebeenman-
ufacturedsofar usingthesenewgradesat several different pipeextrusioncompanieswithout any
problems.
2.1 VESTAMID LX9030 a material of choice for high pressure gas supply
Therearetwomajor designcriteriafor thermoplasticmaterialsusedingassupply: theMaximum
RequiredStrength(MRS) andRapidCrack Propagation(RCP). Duetotheintermolecular forces
in PA 12 thehydrostatic strength of PA 12 pipes is much higher than for PE-HD, even for the
optimizedgradePE 100. LongtermhydrostaticstrengthinvestigationsaccordingtoISOorASTM
standardshaveproventhat ina50yearsextrapolationPA 12hasgot aMRSof 18MPa. Therefore
PA12SDR-11systemsareabletooperateatpressuresupto18bar usingasafetyfactor of 2for gas
(table2). Incontrast toPE PA 12isnaturallyresistant against stresscrackingingeneral andslow
crackgrowthandpasseseasilyall therelevant testsoriginallycreatedfor thisweaknessof PE.
ForthetimebeingresistancetoRCPatlowtemperaturesisamatterof concernanddiscussionin
thegasutilities. IntheASTM territoryRCP isunder consideration. RCP datahavetobeprovided
68
but they arenot limitingthelistings for pipematerials fromthePlastic PipeInstitutefor usein
theUSA. IntheEuropeanstandardsandalsoadoptedintheISOstandardthemaximumoperation
pressure(MOP)forapipematerial islimitedfromtwosides, thehydrostaticstrengthof thematerial
andtheMOP derivedfromaRCP test at 0
C. Dueto that atest instituteperformedaRCP full

scaletest on110mmand6-inchSDR11pipesof VestamidLX9030accordingtoISO13478. The
initiatedcrackarrestedupto30bar respectively25bar internal pressure.
2.2 Technical positioning of VESTAMID LX9030 between PE and steel
Steel hasalonghistory ingasinstallationandit isstill theonly optionfor real highpressuregas
transportationat 50bar or higher. Reinforcedplasticpipeconstructionsmight befeasibletoserve
systemswithpressuresupto45bar (Wessing, Grass, 2006).
Welding of steel is awell established technology and weld quality control procedures arein
place. Also withrespect to thirdparty damages steel has naturally ahighstability. Ontheother
sidesteel pipes arerigid, heavy and corrosive, which makes themprincipally not attractivefor
installations.
InEuropeandUSA thegasdistributionnetworksareoperatingatpressuresof upto25bar, with
abigsharearound16bar. PE100asthelatest development of HighDensityPolyethylenereceived
theapproval for operating pressures up to 10 bar however this comprises only asmall shareof
distributionnetworks. PA 12pipesystems aretechnically abletocarry gas at pressures upto18
bar andwithstandelevatedtemperatures upto 80
C, eveninalonger term. This wouldfit quite

well toservedistributionnetworksrunningatapressureof 16bar (Dowe, Baron, Buessing, 2007).
3 CO-OPERATIONOF EVONIK ANDE.ON-RUHRGASONEVALUATINGPA 12FOR
HIGHPRESSURE GASSUPPLY
3.1 First high pressure test installation in 2005
EvonikDegussaandE.ONRuhrgasdecidedin2005tosetupahighpressuretestinstallationonthe
E.ON RuhrgasTechnical Center siteinDorsten. Evonik hadtoprovide60mof 110mmSDR-11
VESTAMIDpipeonacoil andsomestraight pipesfor assemblingasystemincludingbutt fusion
andelectrofusionjoints. Evonikalsohadtoprovideelectro-fusionendcaps. For theextrusionand
coilingof therequestedpipeEvonikchoosethecompanyEgeplastinGreven. AlthoughhavingPA
12thefirsttimeontheirproductionlineEgeplastwasabletoextrudethepipewithinthetolerances
andwithexcellent appearancewithout anyproblem. Theonlinecoilingona2.5mdiameter drum
wasrunningsmoothwithout crankingthepipeonthecoil at all.
For thedevelopment of electro-fusionfittingsandend-capsEvonik co-operatedwithcompany
Friatec inMannheim, oneof worldleadingcompaniesinelectro-fusionfittings. UsingtheVES-
TAMIDgaspipematerial theymanufacturedtherequiredcomponentsfor thetest installationina
perfect manner.
Beforethetest installationontheE.ON Ruhrgassiteaburst pressuretest wascarriedout with
a3mtest pipeincludingabutt fusionandanelectro-fusionjoint andelectro-fusionend-caps. The
pipesampleburst at apressureof 94bar inatoughcrackat themaintube, not at afittingor joint.
Forthetestinstallationthecoiledtubewasunrolledinthefieldwithoutanymechanical stretching
tool. Onlyatfewpointsneededsomeheatingassistancetobestretchedforapplyingtheconnections.
Butt fusionwas carriedout withstandardequipment andslightly adjustedtemperatureprofiles.
For the electro-fusion fittings standard power generators fromFriatec were used. The adjusted
fusionconditions werereadfromabar codeadheredtothefittings. Thesystemwithbutt fusion
andelectrofusionjointsandtwoelectro-fusedendcapswasinstalledandsealedina500mmsteel
pipe. For 72hours36bar natural gaswasappliedfor checkingthetightnessof thesystem. Then
thepressurewasloweredto24bar.
Additionallyasimilar pipetotheburst pressuresamplewasinstalledinparallel. This3mlong
pipesectionwaspressurizedto36bar.
69
Table3. Propertiesafter 2yearsof test installation.
Virginpipe After 2years After 2years
Properties Standard fromstock at 24bar at 36bar
Tensiletest at 23
C ISO527
Strainat yield[MPa] 38 39 40
Elongationat yield[%] 13 12 14
Strainat break[MPa] 49 46 49
Elongationat break[%] 315 287 293
Water content [%], acrosswall
Outer 0.69 0.63 0.52
Centre 0.46 0.27 0.34
Inner 0.56 0.28 0.31
3.2 Observations after 2 years of operation at 24 and 36 bar
Both installations run very successful. Except an external leakageat amanometer after 8000h
causedby stormKyrill no further distinctivefeatures wereobserved. After 2years (18000h) of
operation, the36bar pipesamplewasdepressurizedandtaken. Thefollowingburst pressuretest
didshowaburstpressureof 86bar. Thisisareductionof 8bar comparedtothevirginpipesample
testedpriortotheinstallation. Theinvestigationof thewatercontentinthepipematerial didshowa
increasefrom0,1%toabout0,4%asexpected. PA 12absorbsamaximumof 1,4%of water if fully
immersedand0,8%at 50%humidityat 23
C. Thisabsorptioncausesasofteningof thematerial.
It must beemphasizedthat theinvestigationof theMRSvalueinacc. withISO9080wasdone
at saturated pipe samples. Therefore and because the test is done fully immersed in water this
softeningeffect isalreadyfullyconsideredat theinvestigationof theMRSof thematerial.
Alsoapipesampleincludingabutt fusionjoint andaelectrofusionjoint wascut after depres-
surizationthe24bar installation. Besidetensiletestsondogbonespreparedfromthepipesamples
thewater contentwastested. Attable3theresultsof thetestsincomparisontovirginpipesamples
areshown. A hydrostatic pressuretest inacc. withISO22621-2at 80
C and20bar was alsoset

up. Thistest isstill pendingandresultswill beshownat theconference.
3.3 Expert report by TUVNord and SKZ Wuerzburg
With the very good experiences of the test installations and the good test results in acc. with
international standardsEvonikassignedareviewof all availabledatatotheGermanTUVNordand
SKZ Wuerzburg. As aresult anexpert report was set upinco-operationof TUVNordandSKZ
whichstatedthegeneral suitabilityof VESTAMIDLX9030for highpressuregaspipeapplications
upto18bar. It isalsomentionedat thereport that pipesmadeof VESTAMIDLX9030areassafe
assteel pipesif installedfollowingtherecommendationsof thereport.
4 TRENCHLESSTECHNOLOGIESCONSIDERINGPA12PIPES
4.1 Crack growth resistance of PA 12
Duringthefeasibility study of PA12for gas applications several tests wereobservedinacc with
international standards. Consideringthesensitivity of former PE materials to slowcrack growth
(SCG) anditsinfluenceontheinstallationtechnologiesEvonikpaidmuchattentiononthisissue.
Becauseof thehighresistancetostresscrackingPA 12isusedfor air braketubingsystemssince
decades. Thereforeit couldbeassumedthat SCG wouldnot beanissuefor PA 12. This is also
indicatedbythelong-termhydrostaticpressuretestinaccwithISO9080. WhereasPE isknownto
70
Table4. Resultsonslowcrackgrowthresistanceof VESTAMIDLX9030.
Test Standard Requirement LX9030pipe
PipeNotchTest ISO13479& 22621-2
20%notchdepth >500h >2000h
30%notchdepth >2000h
PENT ASTM F1743 >100h >1000h
haveasecondbranchat thetimetofailurecurvesthisisnot investigatedby testsonPA12pipes.
Evenafter 12,000test hoursat 80
C nostresscrackinginitiatedfailuresaredetected.
Additionally theSCG behavior of PA12wasinvestigatedwiththeNotchPipeTest inacc with
ISO13479andISO22621-1. AlsothePENT test inaccwithASTM F1743wasinvestigated. The
resultsareshownintable4.At80
Cand20barnofailuresoccuratthePipeNotchTestafter2000h.
Evenafter anincreaseof thenotchdepthfrom20to30%of thewall thicknessnofailuresoccur.
Theminimumrequirement inacc. withISO22621-1is 500hwithout failurewithanotchdepth
of 20%.
ThePENT testisverywell establishedintheUSgassocietyandPE materialsaretestedat80
C
and2,4MPastress. Presently, therequirementswithinASTMD2513forPEmaterialsrequirePENT
timetofailureof 100hours. However, nosuchrequirementsareinplacefor Polyamidematerials.
Tworeplicatesof thePA12material weretestedinaccordancetoASTM F1743requirementsat an
increasedstressof 4.8MPa. Theresultsof thetestingindicatedthattherewerenofailureswithany
of thespecimensafter 1000hours. Thetestingwasdiscontinuedafter 1000hours.
4.2 Effects of secondary stresses on PA 12 pipes
In addition to characterizing the SCG performance characteristics and influence of surface
scratches, additional testsatGTI wereperformedtocharacterizetheinfluenceof secondarystresses.
Themainmotivatingfactor for performingthesetests was thefact that under actual fieldcondi-
tions, thepipingsystemsaresubjectedtothecombinedeffectsof bothinternal pressureandother
secondarystressesincludingrockimpingement, earthloadingandbending. Often, thesesecondary
stresses, not internal pressure, aretheroot causeof many in-servicefieldfailures. Additionally
thepoint loadresistanceishighlydiscussedrelatingtotrenchlesstechnologiesandsand-bedfree
installationof thermoplasticpipes.
Therefore, comprehensivelongtermsustainedpressuretests wereperformedat elevatedtem-
peraturestocharacterizetheeffectsof varioustypesof secondarystresses. It isimportant tonote
that thesetests arenot apart of either theASTM or ISO standard. Thetest methodology is an
extensionof previous researchperformedby Dr. Charles Bargraw DuPont andfurther refined
by Dr. Michael Mamoun GasTechnology Instituteto study theperformancecharacteristics of
older generationPE materials. For thecaseof therock impingement, theintent istoevaluatethe
performanceof pipematerialssubjectedtoindentationsbya13mmrock. For thecaseof theearth
loading, thetypical safedeflectionlimit that isspecifiedis5%. For thecaseof thebendingstrain,
thetypical bendradiuslimitsfor apipespecimenwithout anyjointsor appurtenancesis20times
theoutsidediameter.
Six(6) 2-inchSDR-11LX9030pipespecimenswereplacedinappropriatetest rigstosimulate
theeffects of rock impingement, earthloading, andbendingstrain. Theentiretest assembly was
placedunder longtermsustainedpressuretestingat 20bar at 80
C. For all of thevarioustypesof

secondarystresseswhichwereevaluated, theresultsof thetestingdemonstratedthattherewereno
failuresafter 1000hoursof testing, aspresentedinTable5below.
In summary the test results show that PA12 has a unique resistance to SCG and secondary
stressesincludingpoint loading. Thereforeit couldbeassumedthat PA 12pipesmight besuitable
71
Table5. Test resultsof VESTAMIDLX9030pipesinvestigatingsecondarystresses.
Secondarystress Test criterion Results
RockImpingment 13mm Indentation TestTime>1000hour
Test Pressure=20bar withnofailures
TestTemperature=80
C
EarthLoading 5% Deflection of Outside Diameter TestTime>1000hour
TestTemperature=80
C
BendingStrain 20 times OD TestTime>1000hour
TestTemperature=80
C
Figure1. Surfaceof thePA 12pipe(left) vs. PE 100pipe(right) after HDDtrial.
for installations wihtout sand-bedding and with trenchless technologies even without additional
protectionlayers. TosolveremainingquestionstothisissueEvonikisrunningadditional testslike
fieldinstallationsandlaboratorytestsat Hessel IngenieurtechnikGmbH.
4.3 First directional drilling trial at Tracto-Technik Gmb&CoKG (TT) test centre
Toinvestigatethebehavior of PA12pipesduringthedirectional drillingtechnology(HDD) of TT
a4mtest sampleof a110mmSDR-11VESTAMID LX9030pipewasdrilledat TT test fieldin
Lennestadt, Germany. Toenableadirect comparisontoPE astandardPE100pipewiththesame
dimensionwas drilledinparallel. Bothpipes weredrilledthruadepthof 4mandadistanceof
60m. Thedrillingdiameter was 135mmandthesoil consists of apebbles sandmixture. After
pullingoutthepipesavisual investigationof theouter surfaceshowedthatthePA12pipehasonly
verytinyscratchescomparedtothePE pipe(Fig. 1). A closer look onthesurfacebymicroscopy
andsemi electronscanning(SEM) provedthisresult (Fig. 2).
Additionallyhydrostaticpressuretestswereset upinacc. withISO13479andISO22621-2to
showtheexcellent performanceof thepipematerial evenafter thedrillingtrial. Results will be
presentedat theconference.
Theexcellent SCGandpoint loadingbehavior combinedwiththeminimizednotchsensitivity
underlinesthat PA12isapromisingcandidatefor trenchlesstechnologieslikedirectional drilling
andpipeburstingaswell.
72
Figure2. Depthof thescratchesafter thetrial, LX9030(left) vs. PE100(right).
5 CONCLUSION
Summarizingthefieldtest experiencesandthelaboratorytestsinaccwithinternational standards
itcanbeconcludedthatPA12isasuitablematerial for highpressureapplications. ThereforePA12
extendsthewell knownbenefitsof PEpipesystemstothepressurerangeof steel pipesupto18bar
atgasapplications. Thetestresultsalsounderlinethatalongwiththetraditional wayof installation
also trenchless technologies are suitable. The outstanding SCG and point loading resistance of
PA12isoneof thestrengthof thispromisingmaterial for highpressureapplications.
REFERENCES
DoweA., Baron Ch., Buessing R. 2007. NewVESTAMID
(Polyamide12) grades to manufactureprod-

ucts with largegeometrical dimensions for oil and gas applications. Conferencebook. Plock: Technical
ConferenceRiskManagement for PipelineOperation2007
WessingW., GrassK., Kanet, J., Capdevielle, J -P. 2004. Novel PEgassupplysystemfor amaximumoperation
pressureof 16bar, Conferencebook. Vancouver: GasresearchConference2004
Bayer, H.-J.2006. HDD-PractiseHandbook. VulkanVerlagEssen2006
Rameil, M. 2007. Handbookof Pipe-BurstingPractise. VulkanVerlagEssen2007
73
Simulationresearchesof pump-gravitational storagereservoir and
itsapplicationinsewagesystems
J. Dziopak& D. Sy s
Department of Infrastructure and Sustainable Development, Rzeszw University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: Lowaccessibility of municipal building sites and growing demands in thefield
of volumeefficiencyandreductionof net-workdepthbelowstoragereservoirslimitstherangeof
economically reasonableapplicationsof storagereservoirs. Thisfact brought tothebeginningof
theresearchesdirectedtoelaborationof newconstructionsof storagereservoirsof limitedbuilding
surface. Thepaper dealswiththehydraulic systems solutionsof pump-gravitational wastewater
retention. Therangeandresultsof simulationresearchesof suchtypeof sewagesystems objects
arealsopresented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Theproblemof wastewater transport by sewagesystems andwastewater management inurban
areas is actually very significant in the light of the increase of proofed surfaces in catchments
andfrequency of extremeatmospheric precipitationoccurrence. Thedevelopment of urbanareas
influencesonthereductionof greenandnon-hardenedsurfaces, fromwhichsurfaceflowscould
feedgroundwaters. At thesametimethedemandsandstandardsconcerningthepreservationand
drainageof urbanareasarebecomingmorerigorous. Theeffect of thisphenomenonisthegrowth
of stormwater flowsdischargedbysewagesystems.
Thegrowthof stormwater andwastewater quantityandtheir greatvariabilityintimenegatively
impactstheprocessesof wastewatertreatmentandsurfacewaterqualityanddemandstheexpansion
of existingsewageinfrastructure. Modern sewagesystems requires, then, theusageof efficient
methods of wastewater flows regulation at thestageof their transport by sewagesystems and
beforewastewater treatment plant.
Theproblemof wastewater flowcontrol insewagesystems is thesubject of many qualitative
andquantitativeresearches.
Theresearchesarebasedontheusageof modernsoft-wareinstrumentsforsimulationof sewage
systems functioning. Interestingresearchesinthefieldof simulationof stormwaters influenceon
sewagesystemandwastewater treatment plant, actingjointlywithstoragereservoir, werecarried
out byCalabrandViviani (2006).
Calabr (2001) confirmed the significant influence of storage reservoir on contaminations
removal intheprocessof sedimentation, that isimportant inthecaseof objectslocatedoncanals,
discharging stormwater to recipients and beforeprimary sedimentation tanks. Theauthor also
showed that first rain portion in different catchments has different content and influences the
efficiency of stormwater reservoirs, but under definite flow intensity the increase of storage
reservoirsvolumedonot impactssignificantlyonthesuspendedsubstances removal efficiency.
Waste water flow control is very important in the case of sewage systems with significant
contributionof combinedsections, thatbringstogreatvariabilityof wastewaterflowsandnegative
impacts on waste water treatment plants (Diaz-Fierros et al. 2002). In such cases significant
improvementof stormwater qualityandflowsstabilizationareobtainedbyapplicationof different
hydraulicschemes, wherethemainroleisplayedbystoragereservoirs(Huebner & Geiger 1996).
75
2 HYDRAULIC SCHEMES CONCEPTIONFOR PUMP-GRAVITATIONAL STORAGE
RESERVOIRS
Themainprobleminsewagesystems projectingisthenecessityof obtainingof significantvolumes
of storage reservoirs in the areas of high level of urbanization and low availability of build-
ing surfaces. This problemconcerns reservoirs located within wastewater treatment plants and
cityareas.
Takingintoaccount thesignificanceof thisproblemfor thedevelopment of sewageinfrastruc-
ture, theauthorsarecarryingout theresearchesof stormwater accumulationprocessesinstorage
reservoirswithpump-gravitational hydraulicschemeof wastewater retention. Theusageof pump
methodsof transport enablestheconstructingof reservoirsof highlevel of stormwater accumu-
lationwithout of necessity of excavationof chambersandcanal, locatedbelowthereservoirs. In
somesolutions thereis apossibility of shallowlocation of inflowcanal of reservoir. Theresult
of the researches is the elaboration of few reservoirs constructions which can be classified in
followingways:
pump-gravitational reservoirswithupper pumpaccumulationchamber KAW,
pump-gravitational reservoirswithlower pumpaccumulationchamber KAD,
hybridpump-gravitational reservoirs.
All solutions of pump-gravitational reservoirs withupper pumpchambers enabletheusageof
openconstructionsof pumpchambersandtheir buildinginembankments. So, thesesolutionsare
especiallyuseful asthereservoirswithinwastewater treatmentplants, wheretheycanplaytherole
of wastewater pumpstationof highaccumulationcapacity.
Storagereservoirswithlowerpumpchamberenablethebuildingof suchobjectsontheirsurface
asgarages, storehouses, parkingetc.
Hybridreservoirs, owingto storiedschemeof accumulationchambers, havethemost limited
buildingsurface, sotheir applicationfieldaremostly theareas of highinvestment level andlow
availabilityof buildinggrounds.
3 HYDRAULICANDMATHEMATICAL MODELINGFOR CHOSENSOLUTIONOF
PUMP-GRAVITATIONAL RESERVOIR
Hydraulicmodelingof storagereservoirsisthebaseof mathematical descriptionof theirfunctioning
in sewage systems (Dziopak & Sy s 2007, Sy s & Dziopak 2006) and of simulation programs
(Dziopak& Sy s2007, Sy s2006).
The idea of hydraulic modeling of storage reservoir is based on separation of characteristic
phases of its functioninginsewagesystemanddefinitionof marginal conditions for reservoirs
fillingby wastewatersineachchamber andtherangeof characteristic flows. Figure1illustrates
thehydraulicschemeof pump-gravitational reservoir of GPWT typeandcharacteristicparameters,
usedinelaboratedmodel of reservoir functioning.
Taking into account thecomplexity of hydraulic processes during wastewater accumulation,
synchronismof their occurrence in few chambers simultaneously and probable complexity of
routeof inflowfunction and theresulting curvilinear functions, describing theprocesses inside
thereservoir, as well as thevariability of outflow, thegeneral mathematical model of reservoir
functioningcanbedescribedbyEquation1.
_
_
dh
dt
= QA F
1
T
dt Qt F
1
T
dt Qp F
1
T
dt Qr F
1
T
dt
dHw
dt
= Qp F
1
W
dt Qw F
1
W
dt Qz F
1
W
dt
dhs
dt
= Qt F
1
S
dt +Qw F
1
S
dt QO F
1
S
dt
(1)
76
KS
QO hs
nor
hs
max
hs hz Qw Qt Hg Hc Qr ha ho hiHw HPa Qz h QA Qp hr hr
min
ho
min
KAW
KT
Figure1. Hydraulic scheme of GPWT type storage reservoir and characteristic parameters of hydraulic
model (QO wastewater outflowfromstoragereservoir; Qw wastewater outflowfromaccumu-
lationchamber KAW tosteeringchamber; Qt reducedwastewater flowfromtransport chamber
KT tosteeringchamber KS; Qr wastewater outflowfromtransport chamber KT throughemer-
gencyoverflow; QA wastewater inflowfromsewagesystemtostoragereservoir; Qp capacity
of pump systemtransporting wastewater fromKT to accumulation chamber KAW; QZ waste
wateroutflowfromaccumulationchamberKAWthroughemergencyoverflow; KAW gravitational
accumulationchamber; KS steeringchamber; KT transportchamber withpumpsystem; hs
nor
level of fillinginsteeringchamber KS intheperiodof dryweather withreferencetocomparative

level; hs temporal level of fillinginsteeringchamber KS withreferenceto comparativelevel;
hs
max
maximumlevel of fillinginsteeringchamber KS intheperiodof stormwater inflowor in
theperiodof accumulationchamber KAWemptyingwithreferencetocomparativelevel; hz aver-
agebottomelevationof steeringchamber KS withreferencetocomparativelevel; Hg elevation
of upper edgeof outlet; Hc averageelevationof accumulationchambersbottomwithreference
to comparativelevel; ha elevationof emergency overflowedgeof transport chamber KT with
referencetocomparativelevel; ho level of switchingof wastewater pumptransportsystemfrom
transport chamber KT to steeringchamber KS andwastewater treatment plant withreferenceto
comparative level; ho
min
level of switching off the waste water pump transport systemfrom
transport chamber KT to steeringchamber KS andwastewater treatment plant withreferenceto
comparativelevel; hi averageelevationof transportchamberKT bottomwithreferencetocompar-
ativelevel; Hw temporaryfillingof accumulationchamber KAW withreferencetocomparative
level; h temporaryfillingof transportchamber KT withreferencetocomparativelevel; hr level
of switchingof wastewater pumptransport systemfromtransport chamber KT to accumulation
chamber KAW withreferencetocomparativelevel; hr
min
level of switchingoff thewastewater
pumptransport systemfromtransport chamber KT toaccumulationchamber KAW withreference
tocomparativelevel; Hpa elevationof emergencyoverflowedgeof accumulationchamber KAW
withreferencetocomparativelevel).
Minimal marginal values for filling of storage reservoirs chambers are: h hi, HwHc,
hs Hz.
4 SIMULATIONPROGRAM SIMTANK
Onthebaseof hydraulicandmathematical model of GPWT typestoragereservoir, softwareinstru-
ment waselaboratedthat enablesthesimulationof hydraulicprocessesinstoragereservoir of this
typefor anyrouteof wastewater inflowfunction.
77
8
7
6
H
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

w
a
s
t
e

w
a
t
e
r

f
i
l
l
i
n
g

i
n

t
h
e

a
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

c
h
a
m
b
e
r

H
w
,

m
3
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 20 40 60
Vzb max = 3829 m
3
, Hw = 7.66 m
Vzb max = 2824 m
3
,
Hw = 5.65 m
Vzb max = 1709 m
3
,
Hw = 3.42 m
Td = 20 min
Td = 35 min
Td = 50 min
80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time t, min
Figure2. Thelevel of filling Hw and wastewater volumeVzb max, stored in accumulation chamber, for
rain duration Td =20, 35 and 50min. The rest simulation parameters: average annual precip-
itation H =720mm; probability of calculation precipitation occurrence p =50%; catchments
areaF =125ha; surfaceflowcoefficient =0,8; coefficient of domesticwastewater dilutionat
overflown
rp
=6; coefficient of domesticwastewater dilutionintransport chamber n
rz
=2.
Calculation program SIMTANK makes possible the dynamic simulation and analyzing of
hydraulicprocessesinstoragereservoir duringwastewater inflow.
SimulationprogramSIMTANKconsiderstheorderandsequenceof reservoirsfunctioningstages
inaccordancewithhydraulicmodel of itsfunctioning.
Whileoperating, theprogrammakestheanalysesfor demandedparametersof marginal condi-
tionsandcalculatedparameters.Atthemomentof achievementof marginal conditionsforparticular
phasesof reservoirsfunctioning, thetransitionbetweenconsecutivestagesof itsfunctioningtakes
place. Such conditions are: characteristic waste water levels in reservoir; waste water inflows
durationandintensity. Figure2presentstheresultsof exemplary simulationof fillingprocessin
accumulationchamber KAW for therainsof different durationanddifferent outflowfunctionsin
theshapeof triangle.
Oneof themostimportantstagesof storagereservoirs calculationistheestimationof theroute
of functionof wastewater inflowtostoragereservoir. Themoderncalculationinstrumentsinthe
formof hydrodynamic catchments models enablethesimulation of wastewater flowfunctions
routesfor anyprecipitationintensity, thatisveryuseful inthecaseof projectparameters selection
for storagereservoirs.
In the case of the lack of information about precipitation and the lack of possibility of real
waste water flow diagrams usage, the substitutive waste water flow diagrams can be used. In
this situationthemost significant calculationparameter is durationof calculationrainTdm. The
process of this parameters selectionfor substitutivediagrams weredescribedby Dziopak inhis
publications(1997).
78
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

r
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
t
a
t
i
v
e

r
a
i
n

f
o
r

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
n
g

o
f
s
t
o
r
a
g
e

r
e
s
e
r
v
o
i
r

T
d
m
,

m
i
n
Average annual precipitation H, mm
p = 50 %
p = 20 %
p = 10 %
Figure3. Theinfluenceof averageannual precipitationH ondurationof representativerainTdmfor project-
ingof storagereservoir under followingcalculationdata: unit dischargeof domestic wastewater
flowqs =2dm
3
/sha; catchmentsareaF =200ha; surfaceflowcoefficient=0,6; coefficientof
domesticwastewater dilutionat overflown
rp
=4.
Figure3presentstheresultsof calculationsof raindurationTdm, appropriateforstoragereservoir
projectingof GPWT typeindependenceof thefollowinghydrological parametersof catchments:
averageannual precipitationH andprobabilityof therainfor theprojectingof storagereservoir p.
Rain durationTdm depends on thenumber of hydrological and hydraulic parameters as well
as onhydraulic capacity of wastewater treatment plant, theway of catchments usageandwater
consumption. Figure 4 presents the results of simulation of rain duration Tdm appropriate for
projectingof storagereservoir, locatedbetweenstormoverflowandwastewater treatmentplantin
dependenceonthelevel of surfacesealingincatchmentsarea.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Theexploitedgravitational sewagesystemsareunder constant expansionandmodernization. The
main problems for technical solution are: hydraulic overloading of sewage nets, surface water
protectionagainstcontaminationdischargedbysewagesystemsandcontrol of wastewater flowto
wastewater treatment plants. Theseproblemscanbesolvedsuccessfullywiththehelpof modern
efficient constructionsof reservoirsfor periodicretentionof wastewater.
Takingintoaccount themeritsandimperfectionsof existingconstructionsof storagereservoirs
withinstormandcombinedsewagesystems, theresearchersof newgroupof solutionsof pump-
gravitational schemeof wastewater retentionhavebeencarriedout.
Suchtypeof storagereservoirsmakespossibletostorewastewater inaccumulationchambers
of significantheightsandlimitedgroundsfor building, thatisespeciallyimportantfor urbanareas.
79
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

r
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
t
a
t
i
v
e

r
a
i
n

f
o
r

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
i
n
g

o
f
s
t
o
r
a
g
e

r
e
s
e
r
v
o
i
r

T
d
m
,

m
i
n
Waste water flow coefficient for catchment's area
H = 700 mm
H = 800 mm
H = 900 mm
0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
Figure4. Influenceof wastewater flowcoefficientfor catchmentsarea onraindurationTdm, appropriate
for storagereservoir projectingfor thefollowingcalculationdata: probability of calculationrain
occurrencep =50%; domesticwastewater unit inflowqs =1,5dm
3
/sha; coefficient of domestic
wastewater dilutionat overflown
rp
=5; catchmentsareaF =500ha.
Simultaneously, owingtotheideaof multi-chamberreservoirs use, whichareequippedwithtrans-
port chamber steeringtheoperationof accumulationchambers, thehighefficiencyof wastewater
accumulationwas achieved. Equippingof multi-chamber reservoirs by pumptransport schemes
and outlet schemes enables the options in chambers hydraulic forming, that influences on the
broadeningof thefieldof their application, economicallyandpracticallymotivated.
TheelaboratedcalculationprogramsSIMTANK, servingforthepurposesof simulationof GPWT
typestoragereservoiroperation, arethemodernresearchingandprojectinginstrumentsfordetailed
investigationof wastewateraccumulationprocessesinsuchtypesof reservoirs, locatedbeforewaste
water treatment plants. Theuseof SIMTANK programsinproject processesfor selectionof main
hydraulicparameters, chambers capacityandgeometry, aswell asinstallationsactingjointlywith
them, enablesthewideusageof pump-gravitational constructionsof reservoirs, especiallyfor the
purposeof wastewater treatment plants hydraulicunloading.
REFERENCES
Calabr, P. S. &Viviani, G. 2006. Simulationof theoperationdetentiontanks. Water Research 40: 8390.
Calabr, P. S. 2001. Cosmoss: conceptual simplifiedmodel for sewer systemsimulation. Urban Water 3(12):
3342.
Diaz-Fierros, F., Puerta, J., Suarez J. & Diaz-Fierros, V. 2002. Contaminant loads of CSOs at the wastewater
treatment plant of a city in NW Spain. UrbanWater 4: 291299.
80
Dziopak, J. 1997. Multi-chamber storage reservoirs in the sewerage system. Technical University of
Cz estochowa. Cz estochowa.
Dziopak, J. & Sy s. 2007. Modelowanie zbiornikw klasycznych i grawitacyjno-pompowych w kanalizacji.
RzeszwUniversityof Technology. Rzeszw.
Huebner, M. &GeigerW. 1996. Characterisationof theperformanceof anoff linestoragetank. Wat. Sci. Tech.
34(34): 2532.
Sy s, D. 2006. Simulationmodel of gravitation-pumpstoragereservoir. Environment Protection Engineering
32(2): 139146.
Sy s, D. &Dziopak, J. 2006. Simulation of Trough-FlowChamber Operation in Storage Reservoirs. Ecological
ChemistryandEngineering13(10): 11431155.
81
Newdevelopmentsinliner designduetoATV-M 127-2and
casestudies
B. Falter
University of Applied Sciences, Mnster, Germany
ABSTRACT: The German CodeATV-M 127-2 published in 2000 has proved itself a helpful
guidelineto find theoptimumwall thickness of any liner material, e.g. CIPP or stainless steel
sleeves. Many rehabilitation projects in different European countries havebeen performed suc-
cessfullyusingthiscode. Thecodedifferentiatesbetweenthreehost pipestates: StateI for untight
sewers without cracks, stateII for sewers with longitudinal cracks but astablesoil pipesystem
andstateIII for crackedpipes with larger deformations andconsiderablerisk to collapsein the
near future. Accordingtothecodestress, deformationandstability testsarenecessary. For many
practical cases charts with stress factors and imperfection reductions allow to design without a
computer. Thepaper reports about theprogress inliner designsincethe1st editionof thecode.
Additional clauseshavetobeintroducedintothe2ndeditionfor noncircular geometries(e.g. for
horseshoeandrectangular profiles) andfor newapplications(e.g. railwaycrossings).
1 INTRODUCTION
Thecritical water pressureequationis basedonaGlock formula(Glock 1977) for elastic rings
encasedinarigidboundary.Thisequationwasusedbymanyresearchersandenhancedbyreduction
factorstodescribethereal situationof thehost pipe(e.g. deformationsandannular gap). Inafew
codesthecritical pressureof anunsupportedring(Timoshenko1961)isusedandincreasedbyasup-
portfactorK; forexampleK =7forgoodand4forpoorinstallationconditions(WRc/WAA 2000).
Thecritical soil pressureistreatedlessofteninresearchpapers. Thereasonmightbethatexper-
imentsonthebrokenpipesoil-systemwithanoverburden(e.g. Watkins1988) showaconservative
behaviourwithoutacollapse. Ontheotherhandinsuchexperimentsuniformlydistributedpressures
areappliedontothesandboxsurfacemoreoftenthanconcentratedwheel forces.
2 DESIGNCONCEPT OF THE CODE M 127-2:2000, 1ST EDITION
2.1 Host pipe state
TheGermanliner designconcept isbasedonthedifferentiationof threehost pipestates. Thestate
I andII (withoutandwithlongitudinal cracks) mustbecalculatedonlyfor groundwater actingasa
pressureontheoutsideof thelining. Incaseof stateIII anadditional calculationfor soil andtraffic
loadsisprescribed.
2.2 Buckling pressure, imperfection reductions and proof of stability
DuetotheCodeATV-M 127-2thebucklingloadfor thewater pressurep
a
validfor all host pipe
statesisevaluatedregardingthreekindsof imperfections, cf. Figure2:
a) Local imperfectionw
v
=2%whichmust bechosenaccordingtotherelevant bucklingmode
b) Annular gapw
s
=0.5%for CIPP causedbyshrinkageof theliner material
c) Global imperfectionw
GR,v
3%causedbythedeformationof thecrackedhost pipe
83
Figure1a-c. Host pipestateI (a), II (b) andIII (c) asdefinedintheGermanDesignCodeATV-M 127-2.
w
v
= 2%
(a)
r
L
2
1
w
s
= 0.5%
r
L
(b)
w
GR,v
3%
cracked
four times
(hinges)
r
L
(c)
Figure2a-c. Local imperfectionw
v
(a), annular gapw
s
(b), global imperfectionw
GR,v
(c), minimumvalues.
For theimperfectionsinFigures2a-creductionsfactors for thebucklingloadaregiveninthe
DesignCode. Thefactorsdependonthedepthof theimperfectionandther
L
/s
L
ratiodescribing
theslendernessof theliner constructionandthecharacter andthesizeof thehost pipedamages.
For thecritical water pressurep
a
of acircular liningthefollowingformulahasbeendeveloped
(Falter 1993).
crit p
a
=
v,s

D
S
L
(1)
where
v,s

=
v

s

GR,v
is thecommonreductionfactor for all imperfections duetoFigures
3a-c;
D
= 2.62 (r
L
/ s
L
)
0.8
isthesnapthroughfactor (Glock1977); andS
L
=E
L
/12 (s
L
/ r
L
)
3
is
theringstiffnessof theliner (E
L
=long-termYoungmodulus).
Theminimumvaluesfor w
v
, w
s
andw
GR,v
tobeappliedaregiveninFigures2a-cand3a-c. The
mainprobleminthepracticeisthecorrect assumptionof theglobal imperfectionw
GR,v
. Usually
thevalueof w
GR,v
has to beevaluatedfromavideo screenwhichresults insometimes different
opinionsof theengineersabout thisissue.
For noncircular linings acomputer evaluationof thecritical water pressureis necessary or a
substituteradiusonthesafesidehastobetakenfor r
L
inEquation1. It isstronglyrecommended
to calculatethesubstituteradii by separatenon linear analyses; sometimes theamount and the
locationof thelocal imperfectionmust bevariedtoget proper results. Thecorrect locationof this
kindof imperfectionisusuallytheregionwiththesmallest curvature, e.g. theinvert for horseshoe
profiles; theregionbeneathonespringlinefor eggshapedprofiles.
2.3 Proof of stresses and strains
ThesectionforcesM andN causedbygroundwater pressurep
a
arecalculatedbymeansof dimen-
sionlessfactorsm
pa
andn
pa
giveninappendixA4of M 127-2for thediametersND200 ND600,
cf. Figure4.
M
pa
= m
pa
p
a
r
2
L
withm
pa
duetoCodeM 127-2, appendixA4 (2a)
84
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
r
L
/s
L
= 10
r
L
/s
L
= 10
r
L
r
L
r
L
w
v
w
s
r
L
/s
L
=
15
20
25
35
50
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
w
s
/r
L
100%
15
20
25
35
50
100
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
0 2 4 6 8
0 2 4 6 8
10
w
GR,v
15
50
100
35
25
20
v
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
G
K
,
v
Figure3a-c. Reduction factors
v
,
s
and
GR,v
for the buckling pressure due to local imperfection w
v
,
annular gapw
s
andglobal imperfectionw
GR,v
, source: ATV-M 127-2:2000.
0,00
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,10
0,12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
s
L
[mm] = 10
15
12.5
ND 600
max h
w
above the invert [m]
m
p
a
Host pipe state II (3% ovalisation)
Host pipe state I
10
12.5
15
Figure4. Invert bendingmoment factorsfor linersND600, source: M 127-2, AppendixA4.
N
pa
= n
pa
p
a
r
L
withn
pa
0.8to1.1 (2b)
ThestressesarecalculatedusingEquations3a, b:
i
=
N
A
+
ki
M
W
with
ki
= 1+s
L
/3r
L
,
ka
= 1s
L
/3r
L
(3a)
a
=
N
A

ka
M
W
A = s
L
inmm
2
/mmand W = s
2
L
/6inmm
3
/mm (3b)
Theresultingtensilestressiscomparedwiththeultimateflexural strengthof theliningmaterial,
reducedfor long-termbehaviour. As thepressurestresses dueto Equation3bareabit larger an
additional material pressuretest leadsinmanycasestoamoreeconomical design.
85
For host pipestateIII thesoil andthetraffic loads q
v
areappliedto thepipes crownandthe
structural safety of thetotal systemof soil, cracked host pipeand lining is analysed. Theaxial
forceandbendingmoment factorsn
q
andm
q
aregivenfor ND200toND600inappendixA5of
CodeATV-M 127-2.
Elaborateexperiments havebeennecessary to provethedesignformula, referringto national
andinternational research, cf. chapter 4.3.
2.4 Discussion
Thestress proof inchapter 2.3isthemost important test. Thefactorsm
pa
calculatednonlinearly
withappropriateimperfectionscontaintheriskof stabilityfailure. Inmanycasescomputeranalysis
isnecessaryasthevalidityof thecrosssectionfactorsisrestrictedtoarangeof material properties.
Thestability proof in chapter 2.2 has theadvantageof general validity for all diameters and all
material properties.Thisproof canbeusedforapproximateevaluationsof thewall thicknesswithout
computer programs. Deformation analyses arelessimportant andusedsometimesfor judgement
of serviceability.
3 EXTENSIONSOF THE DESIGNCODE M 127-2, 2NDEDITION
3.1 Additional reduction factors for the buckling load
Theregular values for most rehabilitationsituations withCIPP-liners are2%local imperfection,
0.5%annular gapandanarbitrary global imperfection. For thisconstellationonly onechart with
reductionfactors
v,s
for thecritical pressureisnecessary, cf. Figure5.
3.2 Simultaneous calculation of water and soil pressure
IntheDesignCodeATV-M127-2:2000theloadcasesp
a
andq
v
aretreatedseparately. Subsequently
they must be combined by an interaction formula. New developments show that an enhanced
numerical model isabletocover bothloadcasesinonestep. For host pipestateIII without water
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
v
,
s
15
20
25
35
50
100
w
v
/r
L
= 2.0 %
w
s
/ r
L
= 0.5 %
r
L
/ s
L
= 10
w
GR,v

/ r
L
100%
Figure5. Reduction factors
v,s
of the buckling pressure, 2% local imperfection, 0.5% annular gap and
arbitraryglobal imperfection(Falter 2003).
86
tableadoublesymmetryof thesystemcouldbeassumed; inthecaseof aloadcombinationthisis
however nolonger possible, cf. Figure6a,b.
3.3 Lining of flexible sewers
Sometimes thefutureintegrity of theoldpipeis calledinto question. IntheDesignCodeATV-
M 127-2it is assumedthat thehost pipehas enoughstrengthto support theliningintheradial
direction. If theabsenceof anyhost pipestructureisexpectedinthefuturenewanalysisproblems
arise: Theliner without host pipe. Themainstressesarenowtobeexpectedintheliner crown, cf.
Figure7a.
3.4 Soil bedded lining (host pipe fully detriorated)
Sometimes thefutureintegrity of theoldpipeis calledinto question. IntheDesignCodeATV-
M 127-2it is assumedthat thehost pipehas enoughstrengthto support theliningintheradial
direction. If theabsenceof anyhost pipestructureisexpectedinthefuturenewanalysisproblems
arise: Theliner without host pipe. Themainstressesarenowtobeexpectedintheliner crown, cf.
Figure7a.
3.5 Host pipe-soil system
Inordertoprovethehostpipesoil-systemtheequilibriumof arigidcircularringwithfourexcentric
hingesisinvestigated, cf. Figure8. For regular caseswithelasticsoil behaviour theloaddeflection
curveisdescribedbythefollowingequation:
q
S
Bh
=

S
(
Gy
S
/3)
(1+) (2
Gx
1+) K
2
(1) (2
Gy
1)
(4)
where
Gx
and
Gy
=horizontal andvertical distanceof thehingesfromthepipewall centre;
=deflectionof thepipescrowntotheinside, =outsidedeflectionof thespringline;
(a) (b)
Figure6a,b. Load cases groundwater p
a
and soil pressure q
v
a systemwithout horizontal symmetry,
(a) bendingmoments of theliner, (b) contact forces of theliner versus thehost pipe(Linerb
2008).
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure7a-c. Bending moments (a), contact forces (b) and deflections (c) of acircular lining subjected to
groundwater-host pipeneglected(Linerb2008).
87
90
s
r
m
q
v
q
h
q
h
*
e
G
Figure8. Pipewithlongitudinal cracksandsoil pressuresq
v
, q
h
andq
h
(support).
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0 5 10 15 20
v
[%]
q
v

/

S
B
h
w
v
= 0%
3%
6%
9%
e
G
= 0,45s
e
G
= 0,25s
e
G
= 0
Figure9. Loaddeflection-curvesof thepipesoil-systemfor soil group1, varyingimperfectionsandhinge
excentricitiese
G.
S
=vertical extensionof thesidebedding(all parametersrelatedtothepipesradius); and
K
2
=factor of lateral soil pressure.
Equation4yields thedimensionless ratio of thecrownloadingq
v
andthehorizontal bedding
stiffness S
Bh
of thesoil. Theequationhas beenextendedfor initial deformations andplastic soil
behaviour. Theresultingloaddeflectioncurvesshowmaximumvaluescrit q
v
whicharevalidfor
crackedpipes surroundedby soil. InappendixA6of theDesignCodeATV-M 127-2Equation4
hasbeenevaluatedfor varyingsoil groupsandhingeexcentricities, cf. Figure9.
4 THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDANDEXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
4.1 Numerical models used for liner design
Several modelsusedinpracticeandresearchstudiesareshowninTable1. Themost usual oneis
thebeamstructure, cf. Figure10a.
88
Table1. Numerical modelsinliner design.
Model Application Advantages Disadvantages Example
1. Beam Basisof thediagrams Inexpensive, quick Liningmaterial Chapters
model inCodeM 127-2:2000, dimensioning, possible regularlylinear 5.25.4
familiar inpractice for all profiles
2. Two Special profiles Nonlinear behaviour of Relatively
dimensional soil andliningmaterial complex
3. Three Special investigations, Research, spatial Complexand Chapter 5.1
dimensional noconstant situationin loaddistribution, expensive
longitudinal direction anchoredliningsetc.
Figure10a. Beammodel for egg-shapedliners, loading.
3D-models are necessarily applied for non constant situations in the longitudinal direction
e.g. anchored linings, non familiar geometrical or structural imperfection distributions or load
cases fromgrouting theannular spacebetween thehost pipeand theliner. Stresses in lings for
pressurizedpipesmust becalculatedbysuchmodelsaswell.
4.2 Numerical model as a basis of the design code ATV-M 127-2:2000
The computer model is a structure of connected arcs described by beamelements and rigidly
supportedbythehostpipe, cf. Figure10a. All necessaryimperfectionsareintroducedinthemodel
andcanbechosenarbitrary. Thecalculationisperformednonlinearly inorder toevaluatestress
and stabilitylimitsaswell.
Figure10bshowsanappropriatesolutionfor hostpipestateII withasinglelobedeflection. The
deflectionsinFigure10chavebeencalculatedassumingawater pressureexceedingthebuckling
load. Thebeammodel for aneggshapedliner inFigure10aincludes alocal imperfectionat the
right sidebeneaththespringline.
4.3 Experimental evaluation
Fromnumerousexperimental researchonliningstabilitytwobucklingtest seriesareshowninthe
Figures11and12. Thecorrect way toperformsuchbucklingtestsregardingthematerialscreep
tendency is to estimatethetimeuntil bucklingandto apply thepressureat theoutsideas aload
constant with time.
89
Figure10b. Admissibledeflectionwithonelobein
theinvert.
Figure10c. Not acceptable multi-lobe figure for
host pipestateI.
Figure11. Long-term buckling tests on CIPP linings,
Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, USA
(Guiceet al. 1994).
Figure12. Creep buckling tests on egg-
shaped PE linings, University
of Applied Sciences Mnster,
Germany(Falter et al. 2008).
The results are in good agreement with the calculated critical pressures, using the buckling
Equation1or thenumerical model describedinchapter 4.2.
5 CASE STUDIES
5.1 Hafenkanal Dsseldorf (2004)
TheHafenkanal sewer ND 2500mmin Dsseldorf, Germany madeof reinforced concretewas
heavily damagedby sulphuric corrosion. Neverthelessit couldbeclassifiedasahost pipestateI
sewer. Oneproposal for therenovationwas to cover thesewers surfaceby anchored8mmthick
polyethylenesheetswithbacksideburls. Thusthesheetsaredrainedbyanannular gapandnotches
at bothspringlines. Thedistanceof theboltswasoriginallyplannedas0.5minaxial directionbut
couldbeincreasedto4mbythecalculations, cf. Figures1314.
90
Figure13. Beammodel, bendingmoment. Figure14. 3Dsimulation, imperfection, deformations.
Figure15. Erection device to press the 4m long
polyethylenesheetsagainst theculvert.
Figure16. Sewer after renovation, Dsseldorf,
Germany(Photos: H.I. Hammer).
Beamandthree-dimensional modelswereexamined.The3D- model wasnecessarytoanalysethe
shell bearingbehaviour.Thedeadloadof thelinerandtemperaturechangesof 7.5K wereapplied;
amaximumcrowndeformationof 15mmwasallowedfor all loadcombinations. Theinstallation
of thesheetsandthefinishedworkareshownintheFigures15and16.
5.2 Separation of the Mnzbach River from waste water in Freiberg, Saxonia (2005)
Inthehorseshoe-shapedconcretesewer inFreiberg, SaxoniainGermany, thewater of asmall river
was transported simultaneously. Thus theaimwas to separatethestreams within an assembled
liningandtoimprovetheload-bearingcapacityof thesewer. Duringtheanalysisof thesewer and
theliningfor host pipestatesII andIII somespecial problemsoccured:
1. Analysisof theexistingsewersstabilitysufferingfromsidecracksandinfiltration.
2. Optimizationof thesewersshapetoavoidexcessivearchingforcesfromtheflat invert caused
bygroundwater pressure, cf. Figures17a, b.
3. Applicationof safeimperfectionstotheflat part of thecrosssection, cf. Figures18a, b. Inthe
present caseanonsymmetrical pre-bucklemust beapplied.
4. Qualitycontrol of theliner material andthebondingconnectionsof thesegments, cf. Figure19.
91
concentrated force
reduced and
distributed stress
(a) (b)
Figure17a,b. Contact forcesbetweenpolycreteliner andgrout, (a) sharpedgesand(b) roundededges.
Figure18a,b. Model of theinvert shallowarchsubjectedto water pressurep
a
, (a) symmetric and(b) non
symmetricimperfection.
Figure19. Polymericconcreteinvert element. Figure20. Assemlyof theliner elements, bonding.
For theproject dimensionsl =2.75mandf =0.25mthefollowinghorizontal forcesH caused
byawater tableof 1.5mabovetheinvert (p
a
=15kN/m
2
) result:
H = p
a
l
2
/ 8f = 15 2.75
2
/ (8 0.25) = 56.7kN/m.
Asaconsequenceof thehighforcesH theliner shapemust beacarefullychoseninthisregion
andtheedgesshouldberounded. Figures19and20showabottomelement withsharpedgesas
designedinthefirst contructionphaseandtheinstallation. For thesecondphaseelementsof the
wholecrosssectionwithroundededgesweremanufactured, cf. Figure17b.
5.3 Masonry sewer crossing a railway in Krefeld (2007)
Astheeggshapedsewer B/H =1200/1800mmsewer crossedarailwayinKrefeld, Germanyitwas
necessarytorehabilitatethefull lengthof 350mbetweenthetwomanholesinonestep. Thusthe
92
Figure21. Sewerwithlongitudinal cracks. Figure22. Installationof theCIPP lining.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
M 127-2 Danish St. US Stand.
r
e
q

s
L
hW = 2.5 m
hW = 4.5 m
Figure23a. Comparisonof therequiredwall thicknessof linings, host pipestateI (water tableh
W
).
requiredwall thicknesswasaquestionif therehabilitationcouldbedoneat all. Themaindesign
issuefor thisproject wasthecrowndeflection. Thefirst approachfor thecrowndeformationwas
3%, but an inspection with different measurements (height, width, crown gap width and angle
differencein thecrown, cf. Fig. 21) yielded 5%deformation except apart of 15mlength with
10%. Thus two liner wall thicknesses were manufactured: 23mmregularly and 30mmin the
largelydeformedarea. Itwaspossibletorestrictthewholeweightof thewetliningto180tons, the
ultimateweight for astreet transportation, cf. Figure22.
5.4 Railway crossing Banbury station sewer, UK (2007)
TheBanburyStationSewer hadabrickwalledcrosssectionchangingover thelength: rectangular,
horseshoe, circular ND800. Thereforeandregardingtheseveredamagesof thesewer asliplining
procedurewaschosenwithagroutedannular space.
A part of thesewer hadto beexchangedby anewGRP pipelineandopencut. Regardingthe
shallowcover abovethesewer of only0.69mthemainproblemindesignwastherequirement of
93
M 127-2 Danish St. US Stand.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
r
e
q

s
L
host pipe support
soil support
Figure23b. Comparisonof therequiredwall thickness, host pipestateIII (soil cover h andtrafficload).
therailway authorities toensurethat thesettlements under thesleepers shouldnot exceed3mm.
DuetotheBritishStandardsnewlylaidpipesshouldhaveaminimumcover of 1.5m. Becauseof
thevicinity to thewheel loads afatigueanalysis for thepipelinematerial was necessary. Many
liner materialshavenot beentestedunder cyclicloadingyet.
6 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONOF DESIGNMETHODS
Several expertshavecomparedthenecessaryliner wall thicknessfor similar loadingsituations a
recentpaperwaspresentedattheNoDigRoma(Kuliczkowski 2007). FromFigure23aitisobvious
thatthedifferencesinwall thicknessfor stateI (andstateII withcracks) arequitesmall. Important
for thedimensioningof theliningisthat stateIII calculationsshowmoresignificant differences.
Thereasonsmust bediscussedfor futuredevelopment of designcodes.
7 CONCLUSIONS
TheGermanDesignCodeATV-M127-2:2000hasproveditself tobeapplicablefordesigningliners
invery different rehabilitationprojects (e.g. host pipegeometry andmaterial, stateanddamage
case).
Thestressanalysisistherelevantproof for thestructural safetyof theconstructionallowingthe
designof liningmaterial withlowflexural strengthas well. Stability analysis is easy to perform
without theaidof acomputer asafirst step. Appropriateimperfectionshavetobeintroducedinto
all analyses.
Theopendiscussioninaninternational groupof expertsishelpful toidentifycommonproblems
andtoimprovesomeclausesof national designcodes.
FutureresearchneedsareseenforhostpipestateIII situations(USdefinition: fullydeteriorated),
for railwaycrossings(e.g. fatiguetests) andfor liner qualityassurance.
REFERENCES
ATV-M 127-2:2000. Static calculationsfor therehabilitationof sewerswithliningandassembly procedures.
Hennef: GermanWaterAss. (availableinEnglishlanguage).
DanishStandards2001. Staticcalculationsof linersfor thegravitational sewers, Taastrup.
Falter, B. 1980. GrenzlastenvoneinseitigelastischgebettetenkreiszylindrischenKonstruktionen. Bauinge-
nieur 55: 381390. http://hb051.fh-muenster.de/opus/fhms/volltexte/2005/165/
Falter, B. 1991. Standsicherheitsnachweisean Sanierungssystemen fr Abwasserkanlemit unveran-kerten
Linern. 3R International 30: 5055. http://hb051.fh-muenster.de/opus/fhms/volltexte/2005/142/
94
Falter, B., Hoch, A. &Wagner, V. 2003. HinweiseundKommentarezur AnwendungdesMerkblattesATV-M
127-2 fr diestatischeBerechnung von Linern. Korrespondenz Abwasser 50: 451463. http://hb051.fh-
muenster.de/opus/fhms/volltexte/2003/95/
Falter, B., Eilers, J., Mller-Rochholz, J. &Gutermann, M. 2008. Bucklingexperimentsonpolyethyleneliners
withegg-shapedcross-sections. Geosynthetics International. Vol 15(2): 152164.
Glock, D. 1977. berkritischesVerhalteneinesstarrummanteltenKreisrohresbei Wasserdruckvonauenund
Temperaturdehnung. Stahlbau 46: 212217.
Guice, L.K., Straughan, T., Norris, C.R. & Bennett, R.D. 1994. Long-TermStructural Behavior of Pipeline
RehabilitationSystems. TTCTechnical Report #302, LouisianaTechUniversityRuston, Louisiana, USA.
Kuliczkowski, A., Kubicka, U. & Parka, A. 2007. Theproblemsof designof resinliners. Proceedings of No
Dig Conference Roma, September 10.-12. 2007.
Linerb2008. Structural analysisof linings computer program. InterfaceinGermanandEnglishlanguage.
Univ. of Appl. Sc. Mnster. https://www.fh-muenster.de/fb6/personen/lehrende/falter/linerb.php
Timoshenko, S.P. & Gere, J.M. 1961. Theoryof ElasticStability. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
Watkins, R.K., Schupe, O.K. & Osborn, L.E. 1988. Contributionof Insitupipeto thestructural integrity of
brokenrigidburiedpipes. Insituform of North America, Inc.
WRc/WAA 2000. Seweragerehabilitationmanual. UKWater Research Center / Water Authorities Ass.
95
Concrete durablecompositeinmunicipal engineering
Z. Giergiczny, T. Pu zak& M. Sokoowski
Gra zd ze Cement S.A, Chorula, Poland
ABSTRACT: Cementsandconcreteswiththeadditionof highquality mineral componentsare
usedincommonandspecial engineeringconstruction. Concretebasedonthesecomponentshave
highqualityparametersandresistancefor external factors. Particular attentionwill bepaidtothe
durabilityof concreteindifferentaggressiveenvironments.Asasampleof useof mineral additives
(fly ash) authors present properties of concreteresistanceto fuels and oil derivatives according
to therequirements of PN-EN 858-1andPN-EN 858-2. Concrete, thesubject of thestudy, was
madeintechnologyof almost self-compactiveconcrete(ASCC). Achievedlaboratorytest results
gavethegroundfor industrial applications. Compositionandtestsresultsof concreteandphotos
frommentioned realization will be also presented. The properties of cored specimens (visual
inspection, resistancefor chemical aggression) kept indifferent solutions will bealso presented
inpaper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Durability is the main issue of current standard PN-EN 206-1:2003Concrete. Requirements,
properties, production and conformity. Durability is defined as theability of construction to
fulfil minimumof itsfunction(propertydesign)byforecastedlifecycleandinestimatedconditions,
without extrarepair costs [Brandt 2004, Fiertak2004].
Durable concrete is the one made of components of proper quality, characterized by ade-
quate density (w/c, cement amount, proper strength), structure (aeration) and resistance to
chemical attack (proper cement and its proper amount, adequate selection of additive, proper
strength).
Mineral lightliquidsarespeciallyhazardousforearthandundergroundwaters. Petrol oroil once
it has reached thesoil decreases theabsorption of oxygen and depress self-cleaning of process
o water. Though, it is essential to separate oil-bearing liquids (petrol stations, logistic centres,
garages) usingsewagepre-treatmentinstallations. Productionof lightliquidseparatorsinconcrete
technologyisoneof thesolutions.
Concretefor theconstructionof suchinstallations, dueto repeated, extremeexploitationcon-
ditions, ought to fulfil special requirements, for example: resistanceto aggressiveenvironment,
becauseof stronglydiverseamountof pollutionsinwatersandsewage(oils, fuels, petrol, variations
of oil-derivedtemperatures), highdegreeof water tightness, frostresistanceandlimitedshrinkage
(Czarnecki 2004, Madryas 2002, Giergiczny 2000, Neville2000). Obtainment of concretewith
desiredpropertiesrequiresappropriateselectionof componentsandproper designprocessinclud-
ingdensity andreinforcement gauge, enoughfluidity of concretemixture, durationof transport
andconcreting, etc.
Herebypaper presentsconcretetestresultsdesignedfor theproductionof suchinstallationtype.
Concretewasproducedinalmostself compactingconcretetechnology(ASCC) basingonPortland
cement andtheadditionof siliceousflyash.
97
Separator without protective coating Separator with coating
Figure1. Examplesof light liquidseparators.
Table1. Requirementsfor concrete.
Property Requirement
Compressivestrength 45N/mm
2
(MPa)
after 28settingdays
Chemical resistanceof Concreteafter exposureof samplesfor 1000hoursinfollowing
concrete environments, must present compressivestrength45N/mm
2
(MPa):
Deminaralizedwater withtemperature40
C2
C,
Fuel oil withtemperature23
C2
C,
Unleadedfuel withtemperature23
C2
C,
Mixturewithcontent accordingtoPN-EN858-1withtemperature40
C2
C.
2 TESTSANDRESULTS
2.1 Project assumptions
Plastic protectivecoatings withhighresistanceto chemical attack arecommonly usedsolutions
to protect reinforcedcontainers against theinfluenceof hazardous chemical substances (Fiertak
2004). Processof coveringthecontainerswithprotectivecoatingsrequirestheobservationof hard
disciplineaswell asleadingthewidescopeof testsduringtheexploitationtime(thicknessof dry
plate, adhesion, resistancetoimpact, resistancetoscratches, porosity). Oneof thedisadvantages
of thecoatingsisrelativelyquickprocessof ageing.
Alternativesolution, however, is theapplicationof proper concretequality for theproduction
of containersandseparators. Concreteresistant tolight liquidperformancemust complywiththe
requirements of standard PN-EN 858-1Installations of light liquid separators. Part 1: design
rules, useful properties and research, marking and quality control and in standard PN-EN 858-2
Installations of light liquid separators. Part 2: Selection of rated values, installing, usage and
exploitation. Theyarepresentedintable1.
98
Table2. DesignpropertiesforASCC concrete.
Requirementsfor concretemixture Requirementsfor hardenedconcrete
Consistencyof concretemixture: 6065cm Compressivestrengthfor concreteafter 1settingday
measuresasflow minimum20MPa
Nocomponent segregation ConcreteclassesC 35/45
Stableconsistencyintimemin. 30minutes Water permeabilityratioW8
Proper concretevacuumprocess Depthof water penetration maximum50mm
Water absorbability nor morethan5%
Nosurfacewater floating Frost resistanceratioF 150
Chemical resistanceaccordingtoPN-EN858-1;
resistancecriteriaareshownintable1
Table3. Requirementsof Portlandcement CEM I 42,5R.
Requirementsacc. to Plant laboratory
Property PN-EN197-1 test results
Consistencychange, LeChatelier 10mm 0,5mm
Beginningof settingtime 60min 153min
Compressivestrengthafter 2days 20MPa 26,4MPa
Compressivestrengthafter 28days 42,5MPa 50,4MPa
62,5MPa
Carriedtestsassumetheproductionof concreteinalmost self compactingtechnology(ASCC)
withproperties specifiedintable2. They includetherequirements relatedtoproductionprocess
of suchproduct assortment inplant conditions.
2.2 Components of concrete mixture
2.2.1 Cement
Baringinmind, thatdesiredearlystrengthlevel, allowingfor unmouldingandtransportof finished
product at the area of precast plant, cement used in tests was of CEM I 42,5R strength class
withtheproperties presentedintable3. Portlandcement I 42,5R is commonly usedinfineand
largeprecast elementsproduction, compressedelements, roadandbridgeconstructionaswell as
concretesBWWandSCC.
2.2.2 Aggregate
Todesignconcretemixturerecipe, sandandgritaggregatewithmaximumgrainsizeof D
max
16mm
wereused, thoughdesignedgraindistributioncurveis presentedonfig. 2. Special attentionwas
giventoproper selectionof sandgrainsize.
2.2.3 Fly ash
Fundamental for concretemixtureconstructioninASCCtechnologyisproper amountof dustfrac-
tioninconcrete(grainswithsizeunder0,125mm).ASCCtechnologydemandstheimplementation
of adequatemineral fillersintoconcretecomposition(Giergiczny2002). It effectsinlowvalueof
liquidlimit andhighflowof concretemixture(Giergiczny2002, Domone2006). Cement cannot
playsuchroleasitwouldleadtoover-shrinkage; economical aspectisalsohereof greatimportance.
Properlyselectedmineral additive, togetherwithcement, guaranteecorrectflowof concretemixture
99
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,125 0,25 0,5 1 2 4 8 16
Sieve mesh dimension #, mm
C
o
n
t
e
n
t
,

%
Border curve (acc to PN-B-06250)
Mixture curve
Figure2. Graindistributioncurveof aggregatemixture.
Table4. Physical propertiesof flyash.
Lossof Pozzolanaactivity[%]
ignition SO
3
CaO
free
Cl
Fineness Density
[%] [%] [%] [%] After 28days After 90days [%] [g/cm
3
]
2,24 0,67 0,07 0,007 78,4 89,7 34,0 2,13
Table5. Chemical compositionof flyash.
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO
free
CaO MgO SO
3
Na
2
O K
2
O Cl
51,5 27,8 7,5 0,07 3,7 2,5 0,67 1,1 3,0 0,007
andprovidesfortheextensionof workabilitytime(rework)of concrete. Siliceousflyash, usedincar-
riedstudy, withitscompositionandpropertiesispresentedintables4and5. Usedflyashcomplied
withtherequirementsof standardPN-EN450-1:2007Flyashfor concrete (categoryA andN).
2.2.4 Chemical admixture
Early testsof concretewerecarriedwithfluidisationadmixture(superplasticizers) basedonpoly
carboxyl ethers. It is theadmixturedesigned for theproduction of precast elements, high early
strengthconcreteandcompressedconcrete. Theuseof suchsuperplasiticizer allows for thepro-
ductionof concretewithloww/c ratio, whichresults inconcretewithhighstrengths, bothearly
ones and in standard times (after 28 days of setting). Concrete with the admixture present the
abilities to keepthecorrect consistency, evenduringhigher external temperatures. Theaddition
of suchadmixtureaccelerates thehydrationof cement phases, andinconsequence, moreheat is
emittedspeciallyinearlystageof settingprocess. Itresultsinrelativelyhighlevel of earlyconcrete
strength.
100
Table6. ASCC concretemixturecomposition.
Component Amount [kg/m
3
]
Cement CEM I 42,5R 350
Sand02mm 611
Gravel 28mm 462
Gravel 816mm 633
Flyash 120
Water 167
Superplasticizer 3,85
w/s(w/(c+0,4p)) 0,41
Table7. Propertiesof concretemixture.
Property Achievedresult
Consistencyof concretemixture: measuredasflow 63cm
Air content 2,5%
Speedof mixtureflowto50cmdiameter 7sec.
Segregationof components None
keepingtheconsistencyintime 45minutes
De-aerationof concretemixture Correct
Temperatureof concretemixture 18,8
C
Occurrenceof water throwout No
2.3 Composition and properties of concrete mixture
Thepropertiesof concretemixtureareparticularlyimportant duringthedesignof ASCCconcrete
composition.
Concretemixtureshouldbecharacterizedby:
flowatleast60cm(invertedAbrahmsconemethod), whichguaranteesproperfluidityof mixture,
allowingthemixturetoflowindependentlyincontainer or separatorsform.
keepingtheconsistencyfor at least 30minutes. Essential timerequiredtokeeptheconsistency
wasestimatedbasingonthelengthof technological processestakingplaceinprecastproduction
plant, consideringalsosomesafetymargin.
It isnecessary tostate, that theuseof concretewithconsistency different thanestimatedleads
to improper aeration of mixture, which finally unfavourably influences on the properties of
hardenedconcreteandtheaestheticsof producesseparator or container.
Flowspeedof thecaketodiameter50cm 510sec.; letstokeeptherightmotionof concreting.
The composition of designed and analysed concrete mixture is presented in table 6, and its
propertiesintable7.
2.4 Properties of hardened concrete
Oncetheconcretemixturecompositionisdetermined, itisplacedincubicformswith15cmlegand
subjectedto23secondsof vibrations, pretendinglapseagitationof concrete just asit happens
inplant conditionduringmassproduction.
101
Table8. Averagecompressivestrength.
Sample Averagestrengthf
cm
, [MPa], after
C 35/45ASCC 1day 2days 7days 28days 90days 180days
25,3 40,3 54,2 63,1 74,9 83,6
Table9. Water penetrationdepthunder pressure.
Sampleindication Water penetrationdepth[mm]
C 35/45ASCC 11,0
11,0
9,0
Table10. Water tightnesstest results.
Depthof water penetrationafter water
Sampleindication tightnesstestsfor W8degree[mm]
C 35/45ASCC 32,0
36,0
35,0
Oncethesampleshadmaturedinlaboratoryconditions(temperature20
C2
C,relativehumid-
ity 95%5%) they weresubjected to tests in order to confirmquality parameters achieved by
concretewiththedesignedones.
Thefollowingscopeof testswerecarriedwithhardenedconcrete:
Compressivestrengthafter 1, 2, 7, 28, 90and180daysdefinedby theproceduresof standard
PN-EN12390-3
Frost resistance F150 wg PN-B-06250 Normal concrete; determination of concrete frost
resistancebeganfor samplesafter 28and90daysof hardening
Depthof water penetrationunder pressureacc. toPN-EN PN-EN 12390-8 Tests for concrete.
Part 9. Depth pf water penetration under pressure
Water tightnessfor W8acc. toPN-B-06250
Resistanceof concretetochemical attack of fuelsandother light liquids(acc totheprocedure
givenintable1).
Resistancetestsresultsarepresentedintable8.
Achievedconcretecharacterizedwithhighdensity, whichwaslater confirmedbytheresultsof
water penetration depth tests (table9), also by thetest results of water tightness for W8degree
(table10).
Samples of hardenedconcrete(after 28days of maturing) weresubjectedtotests determining
thelevel of resistancetoaggressiveenvironmentsinstandardPN-EN858-1. Solutionsfor thetests
werefollowing:
demineralisedwater withtemperature40
C2
C
petrol withtemperature23
C2
C
102
Figure3. Concretesamplesafter 1000hoursof storinginpetrol.
63,6
83,8
93,4
84
77,6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
28 days 1000 h
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
copy sample
demineralized water
standard solution
unleaded fuel
petrol
Figure4. Strengthof concretesampleshardeningover 1000hoursinaggressivesolutions.
unleadedfuel withtemperature23
C2
C
standardone, withtemperature40
C2
C, consistingof 90%of water, 0.75%sodiumhydrox-

ide, 3.75%sodiumorthophosphate, 0.5%sodiumsilicate, 3.25%sodiumcarbonateand1.75%
sodiummethaphosphate.
Samplesweresubjectedtoaggressivesolutionsfor 1000hours. After thisperiodwereobserved
andnextputthroughstrengthtests. Receivedstrengthtestresultswerecomparedwiththestrength
of samplesmaturingin18
C water.
Surfaceof testedsampleswerefreeof anysurfacescalingandcracks. Theirsurfacewassmooth,
without anyefflorescence.
Received compressive strength level is described on fig. 4. Analyzed concrete fulfilled the
requirementsof standardPN-EN858-1excessively(minimum45MPaafterexposureinaggressive
solutions).
Frost resistancetestswerecarriedfor F150degreeacc. toPN-88/B-06250Determinationwas
launched both after 28 days of setting in laboratory conditions (this is the most common term
proposedfor thetestslaunchinproject documentations) aswell after 90daysof setting. Pictorial
103
88,2
85,1
90,6
90,5
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Samples after 28 days
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
samples after 150 cycles
copy-samples
Samples after 90 days
Figure5. Frost resistancetestsof concreteafter 28and90days decreaseof strength.
2,358
2,376 2,355 2,368
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
M
a
s
s
,

k
g
mass before freezing
mass after test
Samples after 28 days Samples after 90 days
Figure6. Frost resistancetestsof concreteafter 28and90days massloss.
representationof receivedresultsisshownonfigs. 5and6.Analysedconcretefulfilledtherequire-
mentsfor F150frost resistancedegree. Theconcretecharacterizedwithslight massloss(0,3%for
samplesafter 28daysand0,1%for samplesafter 90days) andalittledropof compressivestrength
(6,0%for samplesafter 28daysof settingand2,5%after 90days).
3 CONCLUSION
Tests were carried in order to prove the usefulness of concrete as fully valued material for the
productionof containersandseparatorsresistanttotheattackof organiclightliquids, incompliance
withrequirementsof PN-EN 858-1Installations of light liquid separators. Part 1: design rules,
useful properties and research, marking and quality control. Designedconcretewasproducedin
almostself-compactingconcrete(ASCC). Concretemixturecharacterizedwithdistinguishedwith
proper fluidity, kept for adequatelylongtime.
Surfacewater flowout wasnt observedonconcretesurface.
Hardenedconcretecharacterizedwithhighcompressivestrength(f
cm
=63,1MPa) greatlyover
thelevel of 45MPa. Density of concretewas also considerably higher that specified in project
assumptions. BasingonGermanconcretestandarddirections, testedconcretemaybeclassifiedas
denseone.
Concreteachievedalsoestimatedwatertightnesslevel W8determinedasperstandardPN-B/88-
06250.Afterwatertightnesstest, nostainsgivingtheevidenceof humidityinconcretewerevisible
104
onbottomsurfaceof theconcrete. Oncethesampleswerebroken, it turnedout that thedepthof
water penetrationwasnot deeper than36mm(Table10).
Concrete presented very good strength parameters after exposure in environments (liquids)
determinedbystandardPN-EN858-1. Theincreaseof strengthexceedingover 30%incomparison
tothestrengthafter 28settingdayshadalsobeenobserved(Figure4). Suchasignificant increase
of strengthisrelatedtotheincreasedtemperatureduringtestsoperation(23
C and40
C) andthe
presenceof flyashinconcretecomposition. Itiscommonlyknown, thattemperatureincreasesthe
processof pozzolanareaction, i.e. Ca(OH)
2
by reactivecomponentsof fly ash[Giergiczny 2006,
Siddique2008]. Intheeffect, poresarebeingfilledwiththeproductsof pozzolanareaction, which
makesthestructureof hardenedpastemoredense, whichagainononehandincreasescompressive
strength, however, ontheother hand, makesthediffusionandinteractionof aggressiveionsmore
difficult (increasedresistancetochemical attack[Giergiczny2006, Siddique2008]).
Analysedconcretefulfilledtherequirementsforfrostresistantconcreteafter150cyclesof freez-
inganddefrosting(frost resistancedegreeF150acc. to PN-B-06250). Thedropof compressive
strengthwasnohigher than6,0%, that isconsiderablylower thandeterminedbystandardrequire-
ments(20%). Itwasstated, thatthisdropislower for concreteafter longer periodof earlysetting
(Figures56).
Basingoncarriedtests wemay declarethat theuseof concreteintheproductionof separator
for light liquidsandcontainersfor fuelsinfullyjustified.
Proper quality concrete is possible to be made in ASCC technology providing the concrete
components aregoodquality andexact followingtechnological disciplineonready-mixedplant
andduringtheproductionof concretegoods.
REFERENCES
BetonwedugnormyPN-EN 206-1 komentarz. Pracazbiorowapodkierunkiemprof. LechaCzarneckiego.
Polski Komitet Normalizacyjny Polski Cement. Krakw2004. s. 298.
BrandtA.M. Uwagi otrwao sci konstrukcji betonowych. Drogi i mosty, nr 3, 2004. s.514.
DIN 1045-2: TragwerkeausBeton, StahlbetonundSpannbeteton. Teil 2: Beton Festlegung, Eigenschaften,
HerstellungundKonformitt. AnwendungsregelnzuDINEN206-1(Ausgabe: J uli 2001).
Domone P.L. Self-compacting concrete: An analysis of 11 years of case studier Cement & Concrete
Composites28(2006), pp. 197208.
FiertakM., MaolepszyJ.: Betonmateria kompozytowypodlegaj acywpywomczynnikw srodowiskowych.
Sympozjumnaukowo-techniczne Trwao sc betonu i jej uwarunkowania technologiczne, materiaowe i
srodowiskowe Krakw2004, s.539.
GiergicznyZ., MaolepszyJ., Szwabowski J.,

Sliwi nski J.: Cementyzdodatkami mineralnymi wtechnologii
betonwnowej generacji, WydawnictwoInstytut

Sl aski Sp. z o.o. wOpolu, Opole2002.
Giergiczny Z. Rola popiow lotnych wapniowych i krzemionkowych w ksztatowaniu wa sciwo sci
wspczesnychspoiwbudowlanychi tworzywcementowych. Monografia325, PolitechnikaKrakowska,
Krakw2006.
GiergicznyZ., Nocu n-WczelikW. Rolacementuwksztatowaniuwa sciwo sci betonu, materiayKonferencji
Betoncementowywobiektachhydrotechnicznych, Gra zd ze2006.
MadryasC., KolonkoA., Wysocki L. Konstrukcjeprzewodwkanalizacyjnych, Wrocaw2002.
NevilleA. M., Wa sciwo sci betonu, Polski Cement, Krakw2000.
SiddiqueR.: WasteMaterialsandBy-ProductsinConcrete. Springer, 2008.
105
Flyashasacomponent of concretecontainingslagcements
Z. Giergiczny&T. Pu zak
Gra zd ze Cement S.A, Chorula, Poland
ABSTRACT: Flyashiscommonuse(typeII) mineral additiveinconcretecomposition. Accord-
ingtoEuropeanstandardsflyashcanbeusedinconcreteproducedwithPortlandcementCEMI or
compositecementCEMII/A (excludingflyashPortlandcementCEMII/A-V). Inthepaperauthors
describetheuseof flyashfor concretewiththefollowingtypesof cements: SlagPortlandcement
CEM II/B-S 32,5R andSlagcement CEM III/A 32,5N LH/HSR/NA. Ready mixedconcreteas
well ashardenedconcretebasedonthesecementsandwithadditionof flyashwerecharacterized
bypositiveproperties water absorption, consistencyandcompressivestrength.
1 INTRODUCTION
Modernconcreteiscompositematerial, whereapartof traditional componentsascement, aggregate
and water, chemical admixtures and mineral additives are also present. There are fully valued
concretecomponents, whichinsignificantwayinfluencethepropertiesboth, concretemixtureand
hardenedconcrete(Lindon2001, Siddique2008, Giergiczny2006).
One of the most common additives to concrete composition is siliceous fly ash. They are
by-productsof dustcoal combustioninelectricpowerstationsandinthermal electricpowerstations.
Theyarevaluableanddesirablerawmaterial forbuildingindustry, speciallyforcementandconcrete
producers. Ithasitsreflectionincurrentstandards, whichdeterminequalityparametersfor flyash
asmaincomponent of cement (PN-EN197-1:2000) or additivetoconcrete(PN-EN450-1:2007).
Theregulationsof flyashuseinconcretecompositionareconsistedinstandardPN-EN206-1and
national appendixtothisstandard(PN-B-06265:2004). Domesticresolutions(PN-B-06265:2004)
admit thepossibilityof flyashuseastheadditionof concretecontainingPortlandcement CEM I
or compositePortlandcement CEM II/A (excludingflyashPortlandcement CEM II/A-V).
Someof Europeancountries (CENTC 104/SCI) allowfor wider rangeof cement assortment,
whichflyashcanbeproducedwith, itmainlyconcernsPortlandslagcementsCEMII/B-Sandslag
cements CEM III (Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland, Slovakia).
Alike the composition of composite cements CEV/A,B allows for the mixture of slag and fly
ash, withslagcontentshigher than20%(PN-EN 197-1:2002). Increasedresistanceof concreteto
aggressivechemical attackisalsoanadvantageof suchsolution(agosz 2008).
Wider and proper useof fly ash in concretetechnology inscribes in sustainabledevelopment
technology, for it enablesfor theoptimizationof cement use(decreaseof CO
2
emission, decrease
of natural rawmaterialsuseintheproductionof cementclinker), enablestosavedepositsof natural
rawmaterials andlimits hazardous influenceontheenvironment by thelimitationof surfacefor
thedepositsof by-productsof industrial processes, whichisflyash.
Thesubjectof authorsstudyistheevaluationof theinfluenceof siliceousflyashadditiononthe
formationof concretemixturepropertiesaswell ashardenedconcrete. Theconcretewasproduced
basing on cements containing granulated blast furnaceslag (slag portland cement CEM II/B_S
32,5R andslagcement CEM III/A 32,5N-LH/HSR/NA).
107
Table1. Chemical compositionof flyash.
Content, %of mass
Ashtype SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO Na
2
O K
2
O
Siliceous 51,5 27,8 7,5 3,7 2,5 1,1 3,0
Table2. Propertiesof flyash.
Lossof Pozzolanaactivity[%] Fineness,
ignition SO
3
CaO
free
Cl
sieve45m Density
Ashtype [%] [%] [%] [%] After 28days After 90days [%] [g/cm
3
]
Siliceous 2,2 0,7 0,07 0,01 78,4 93,2 34,0 2,13
Figure1. Siliceousflyashusedinthetests a) enlargement times3000; b) enlargement times8000.
2 CHARACTERISTIC OF MATERIALS
Flyashappliedasmineral additiveof II typemustcomplywiththerequirementsof standardPN-EN
450-1:2007. Table1presents chemical compositionof fly ashusedinthestudy, whereas table2
illustrates thefly ash properties essential for theevaluation according with therequirements of
standardPN-EN450-1:2007. Figure1presentstheaveragestructureof flyashgrains.
Table3showsbasicphysical andmechanical propertiesof cements, whichgavethegroundsfor
concretemixturepreparation.
Theinfluenceonwaterdemand(determinationof w/cratio, qualitativeandquantitativeselection
of chemical admixtures, theamount mineral additivein concretecomposition), considering the
formationof concretemixtureproperties, is arelevant property of fly ash(Giergiczny & Pu zak
2008). Designationof waterdemandof flyashusedinthestudywascarriedaccordingtoprocedure
givenintheAppendixBtostandardPN-EN450-1:2007. Measureof waterdemand, asperapplied
procedure, is theflowof pastepreparedoncement without andwiththeadditionof fly ash. The
designationwasmadefor all cement typesappliedinthetests. Theresultsof carriedindications
arelistedinTable4.
Concretemixtureswerepreparedwithwashedsandof 2mmgranulationandgravel aggregates
of fractions28mmand816mm. Inorder toachievetheconsistency similar for all concrete
mixtures, theadditionof newgenerationsuperplasticizer, basedonpolycarboxylethers.
108
Table3. Physical andmechanical propertiesof cements.
Property CEM I 42,5R CEM II/B-S32,5R CEM III/A 32,5N
Blainessurface, cm
2
/g 3400 3400 3800
LeChatelier; mm 0,2 0,6 0,5
Water demand, % 27,0 28,7 29,7
Beginningof settingtime; min. 170 216 253
Compressivestrengthafter 2days; MPa 25,2 18,1 9,8
Compressivestrengthafter 28days; MPa 50,5 49,8 44,4
Table4. Water demandof mortarswithflyashaddition.
Flow Water amount
Binder type [mm] [ml]
CEM I 42,5R 175 225
70%CEM I 42,5R+30%siliceousflyash 182 225
CEM II/B-S32,5R 163 225
CEM II/B-S32,5R+30%siliceousflyash 170 225
CEM III/A 32,5N 160 225
CEM III/A 32,5N+30%siliceousflyash 160 225
Table5. Concretemixturecomposition.
Amount of component, [kg/m
3
]
Mixturesymbol k value Cement Flyash Sand Gravel 28 Gravel 816 SP Water
CEM I 320 699 612 641 3,6 160
CEM I/20-1 0,2 308 62 676 592 620 2,7 160
CEM I/20-2 0,4 296 59 681 596 625 2,6 160
CEM I/33-1 0,2 300 99 663 580 608 2,6 160
CEM I/33-2 0,4 283 93 671 587 615 2,6 160
C II 320 699 612 641 3,3 160
CEM II/20-1 0,2 308 62 676 592 620 3,2 160
CEM II/20-2 0,4 296 59 681 596 625 3,3 160
CEM II/33-1 0,2 300 99 663 580 608 3,1 160
CEM II/33-2 0,4 283 93 671 587 615 3,2 160
CEM III 320 699 612 641 4,0 160
CEM III/20-1 0,2 308 62 676 592 620 3,5 160
CEM III/20-2 0,4 296 59 681 596 625 3,5 160
CEM III/33-1 0,2 300 99 663 580 608 3,0 160
CEM III/33-2 0,4 283 93 671 587 615 3,1 160
SP-superplasticizer; CEM I- CEM I 42,5R;CEM II- CEM II/B-32,5R; CEM III-CEM III/A 32,5N-LH/
HSR/NA.
3 INFLUENCE OF FLY ASHADDITIONONCONCRETE MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The composition of tested concrete mixtures is shown in table 5. Fly ash was being added to
concretecontent inamountsof 20and33%inrelationtocement mass. Theamount of binder in
individual mixtures was calculatedinaccordancewithregulations specifiedinstandardPN-EN
206-1consideringk valueof 0,2and0,4(s=c+k p[kg]; wheres amount of binder inkg;
c amount of cement inkg; p amount of fly ashinkg).Water-binder ratio (w/s) for all tested
109
Table6. Concretemixtureproperties.
Slumpafter Slumpafter pasting Mixture
Mixture pastingt
0
45minutest
45
Air content temperature
symbol [cm] [cm] [%] [
C]
CEM I 17 15 1,6 18,8
CEM I/20-1 18 16 1,6 18,7
CEM I/20-2 18 15 1,7 18,0
CEM I/33-1 17 16 1,6 19,4
CEM I/33-2 18 16 1,6 18,6
CEM II 18 16 1,9 19,1
CEM II/20-1 18 16 1,7 18,6
CEM II/20-2 16 15 1,7 19,4
CEM II/33-1 17 17 1,7 18,8
CEM II/33-2 18 16 1,9 17,9
CEM III 19 15 1,9 19,0
CEM III/20-1 18 15 1,9 18,0
CEM III/20-2 18 15 1,9 18,8
CEM III/33-1 18 15 1,9 17,9
CEM III/33-2 17 15 1,7 18,9
Figure2. Slumpof concretemixturea) after pastingt
o
b) after 45minutest
45
.
concretemixtureswas0,5. Theamount of superplasticizer wasassortedinsuchawaytoreachthe
slump(PN-EN12350-7) onthelevel of 1518cm(pumpedconcrete).
Thefollowingparametersweredesignatedinconcretemixtures:
temperatureof concretemixture,
consistency by slump method as per standard PN-EN 12350-2 (after pasting- t
0
and after 45
minutes- t
45
),
air content asper procedurecontainedinstandardPN-EN12350-7.
Theresults of carried designations arepresented in table6. It is visible, that in all cases the
consistencyof concretemixturewaskept onestimatedlevel (1518cm) for 45minutes. Figure2
showstheexemplaryappearanceof concretemixtureafter consistencytest.
110
Table7. Averagecompressivestrengthf
ck,cube
andconcretewater absorbability.
Compressivestrength Compressivestrength Compressivestrength Water
Mixture after 2days, after 28days, after 180days, absorbability
symbol [f
ck,cube
MPa] [f
ck,cube
MPa] [f
ck,cube
MPa] [%]
CEM I 30,4 58,7 70,1 4,4
CEM I/20-1 21,8 56,8 74,7 3,9
CEM I/20-2 28,2 57,1 75,9 3,9
CEM I/33-1 21,8 52,7 76,2 3,6
CEM I/33-2 26,3 56,3 78,8 3,8
CEM II 21,6 54,2 66,1 4,2
CEM II/20-1 19,0 56,3 73,2 3,3
CEM II/20-2 16,1 49,3 70,5 4,0
CEM II/33-1 18,9 54,7 70,1 3,3
CEM II/33-2 19,1 53,6 70,4 3,4
CEM III 9,6 54,9 70,0 3,2
CEM III/20-1 8,5 53,0 76,8 3,3
CEM III/20-2 7,8 51,7 72,1 3,8
CEM III/33-1 6,6 52,6 72,8 3,6
CEM III/33-2 6,3 47,5 70,1 3,9
4 THE INFLUENCE OF FLY ASHADDITIONONTHE PROPERTIESOF HARDENED
CONCRETE
Hardenedconcretewassubjectedtothefollowingscopeof tests:
compressive strength after 2, 28 and 180 days according to the procedure contained in the
standardPN-EN12390-3,
water penetrationdepthunder pressureaccordingtothestandardPN-EN12390-8,
water absorbabilityaccordingtothestandardPN-B/88 06250,
frostresistanceof concreteaccordingtothestandardPN-B/8806250forfrostresistancedegree
F150. Incompliancewiththerecords of thestandardPN-B/8806250concreteis definedas
frost resistant providing, after 150 cycles of frosting/defreezing performed (18
C/+18
C),
thedrops of strengtharenot higher than20%andmass loss not higher than5%inrelationto
unfrozensamplesmass.
Theresultsof hardenedconcretetestsarepresentedintables7and8aswell asonfig. 3.
5 DISCUSSIONOVERTEST RESULTS
It iscommonly knownthat fly ashasaconcretecomponent influencesboththeformationof the
properties of concretemixtureandhardenedconcrete(Lindon2001, Siddique2008, Giergiczny
2006, Neville2000). Such influenceon concreteproperties depends on its chemical and phase
composition, itsamountinconcretecontentaswell asthetypeof installationitderivesfrom(acquire
conditions) (Giergiczny& Pu zak2007). Moreover, thetypeof cement usedfor thepreparationof
concretewiththeadditionof fly asheffects concreteproperties, specially its durability (agosz
2008, Wawrze nczak2002).
Considering analyzed, siliceous fly ash, its implementation into mortars content leads to the
decreaseof water demandof constructiononPortlandcement CEM I andslagPortlandcement
CEM II/B-S32,5R (table4; larger diameter of flow). It bringsabout thepossibilityof gettingthe
estimated consistency with lower content of make-up water or lower amount of plasticizer. The
consistency of testedconcretemixtures withsiliceous fly ashwas kept stableduringtest (for 45
minutes) onthelevel of 1518cmof slump.Aircontentinall mixturesdidntexceed2,0%(table6)
111
Table8. Resultsof concretefrost resistancetest results.
Compressivestrengthafter 150cycles
Dropof strength Lossof mass
Mixturesymbol Frozen Copysamples [%] [%]
C I 58,0 63,6 8,8 0,1
CEM I/20-1 45,5 67,8 32,9 0,3
CEM I/20-2 38,2 67,7 43,5 0,4
CEM I/33-1 Destruction 76,5 Destruction Destruction
CEM I/33-2 Destruction 78,6 Destruction Destruction
C II 55,6 62,5 11,0 0,2
CEM II/20-1 62,7 70,4 10,9 0,3
CEM II/20-2 57,8 65,3 11,5 0,4
CEM II/33-1 58,4 68,6 14,9 0,4
CEM II/33-2 53,8 66,9 19,6 0,1
CEM III 68,4 70,5 3,0 0,1
CEM III/20-1 68,2 72,3 5,7 0,1
CEM III/20-2 63,0 66,8 5,7 0,3
CEM III/33-1 61,8 68,4 9,7 0,4
CEM III/33-2 51,4 67,3 23,6 0,4
0
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,

m
m
Figure3. Depthof water penetrationunder pressure.
andslightlyincreasedinmixtureswithslagPortlandcementandtheadditionof flyash.Theanalysis
pf hardenedconcreteprove, that theimplementationof fly ashdecreases concreteearly strength
(after 2days; table7). It resultsformthepozzolanaactivityof siliceousflyash, whichisquitelow
inroomtemperatureandits positiveinfluenceonconcreteproperties is visibleonly after longer
settingtime. Inpractice, theactivityof binderscontainingsiliceousflyashisreceivedbyadditional
grinding, heat treatment andchemical activity(Giergiczny2006).
AnalyzedconcreteswithslagPortlandcementsandflyashhavestrengthsinstandardtimesimilar
tothestrengthsof concretewithoutanyadditives. However, inlonger settingtime(after 180days)
thestrengthof concretescontainingslagPortlandcementsandflyashishigher thanconcretewith
Portlandcement CEM I 42,5R (table7). Speciallyhighdynamicsof growthperformedconcretes
onslagcement withtheadditionof fly ashCEM III/A 32,5N-LH-HSR/NA, whichis illustrated
onfig. 4.
All analyzed concretes, irrespective of the type of cement applied, characterized with high
density. Thedepthof water penetrationwasunder 40mm, however, theleast densewasconcrete
112
9
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6
8
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,
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,
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10
20
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s
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e
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2 days
28 days
180 days
Figure4. Compressivestrengthof concretemadeof slagcement CEM III/A 32,5N-LH-HSR/NA andthe
additionof flyash.
containingPortlandcement CEM I 42,5R (Fig. 3). Thebest result wasachievedwiththeaddition
of 20and33%of flyashtoPortlandslagcement CEM II/B-S32,5R, grantingthat factor k=0,2
(Fig. 3; table5).
Examinedconcreteswerealsoidentifiedbylowwaterabsorbability. Besides, concretesproduced
of slagPortlandcementCEMII/B-S32,5R, andtheonescontainingslagcementCEMIII/A 32,5N-
LH-HSR/NA, reachedlower water absorbabilitythanconcreteproducedof Portlandcement CEM
I.Thesituationmayproceedsfromthepositiveimpactof theadditive, bothgranulatedblastfurnace
slagandflyash, ontheformationof microstructureof hardenedcement pasteinconcrete(Lindon
2001, Giergiczny2006).
Analyzingfrost resistancetest resultsof concretefor F 150degree, it wasstated, that concretes
madewithPortlandcement CEM I andtheadditionof siliceous fly ashintheamount of 20and
33%, aswell aswithslagcementCEMIII/A 32,5N-LH-HSR/NA with33%of siliceousflyashwith
k=0,4(table8) didnot fulfill therequirements of standardPN-B/8806250(PN-88/B-06250).
Theauthor of hereby paper (agosz 2008) confirms, that concretes producedwithslagPortland
cements with theaddition of fly ash performlower durability considering frost resistancetests
(freezinganddefrosting) attendingdeicingsalts. Whileevaluatingtheinfluenceof fly ashonthe
formationof quantitativeparametersof concreteswithslagcements(CEM II, CEM III), specially
those related to durability, it is necessary to consider the temperature affecting the processes
of hardening and setting of those composites. In lower temperatures hardening and setting of
concretes extends; theincreaseof compressivestrengthis slower, especially withlarger cement
reductionandapplicationof bigger amounts of fly ashinconcretecomposition. Furthermore, in
lower temperatures the influence of pozzolana activity of fly ash on the formation of concrete
microstructureis considerably lower, which may effect in lower durability, either chemical and
frost corrosion(Wawrzeczyk2002, Schneider & Puntke&Sylla& Lipus2002).
Astheauthorsstate, thebest way toimprovefrost resistanceof concreteisproper aerationof
themixture(air contentonthelevel 46%) andtheproductionof concretewithlower water-binder
ratio(plasticizingof concretebytheadditionof chemical admixturereducingthewater amount in
concrete).
6 CONCLUSION
Cementswithmineral additives, especiallytheoneswiththeadditionof granulatedblast furnace
slag (slag Portland cement CEM II/A,B-S, slag cement CEM III) are very popular hydraulical
binders, commonlyusedinmanybuildingindustryareas.
113
Testscarriedby authorsconfirmedtheexperienceof other countries(CENTC 104/SCI 2006)
concerning the use of fly ash as the additive of concrete made of slag Portland cement CEM
II/B-S32,5R andslagcement CEM III/A 32,5N-LH/HSR/NA. Siliceousflyashof proper quality,
complyingwiththerequirements of standardPN-EN 450-1:2007for categoryA, influences the
rheological properties of concrete mixture in a positive way (consistency, workability, keeping
theconsistency intime). Concreteonslagcements withfly ashadditioncharacterizes withhigh
strengthinstandardtime(28days) andlater one(180days), moreover, resistanceof concreteto
chemical attackisalsoincreased(agosz2008) whichleadstheuseof suchconcretesintodirection
of buildingobject constructioninexposureclassesfromXA1toXA3acc. toPN-EN206-1.
Resistanceof concreteon slag cements with fly ash addition in lower temperatures is still a
problemrequiring further studies. Carried tests ought to contain various test methods of frost
resistance, aswell itisnecessarytoexaminetheinfluenceof aerationontheformationof concretes
frost resistance.
REFERENCES
CENTC 104/SC1(2006) Surveyof national requirementsusedinconstructionwithEN2006-1:2000.
GiergicznyZ.; Rolapopiowlotnychwapniowychi krzemionkowychwksztatowaniuwa sciwo sci wspczes-
nychspoiwbudowlanychi tworzywcementowych. Seria: In zynieriaL adowa, Monografia325, Politechnika
Krakowska, Krakw2006.
GiergicznyZ., PuzakT.: Propertiesof concretewithfluidal flyashaddition. Proceedingsof theInternational
SymposiumNon-Traditional Cement & Concrete III organized by Brno University of Technology &
ZPCV, a.s., UherskyOstroh, J une1012, Brno, pp. 263271.
GiergicznyZ., Pu zakT; Wpywrodzajupopioulotnegonawa sciwo sci mieszanki betonowej. IX Sympozjum
Reologiawtechnologii betonu, Gliwice, 2007, s. 514.
GiergicznyZ., MaolepszyJ.,

Scliwi nski J., Szwabowski J.: Cementyzdodatkami mineralnymi wtechnologii
betonwnowej generacji, Instytut

Sl aski, Opole, 2002.
LindonK.A. Sear; Propertiesanduseof coal flyash. avaluableindustrial by-product. London.ThomasTelford
Ltd, 2001.
agosz A.: Wpywpopioulotnego natrwao s c betonuz cementami zu zlowymi. BudownictwoTechnologie
Architektura, nr 1, 2008, s. 6065.
NevilleA.M.: Wa sciwo sci betonu. Polski Cement, Krakw2000.
PN-EN 197-1:2002 Cement- Cz e s c 1. Skad, wymagania i kryteria zgodno sci dotycz ace cementw
powszechnegou zytku.
PN-EN450-1:2007Popi lotnydobetonu. Cz e s c1: Definicje, specyfikacjei kryteriazgodno sci.
PN-EN206-1:2003Beton. Cz e s c1: Wymagania, wa sciwo sci, produkcjai zgodno s c.
PN-B-06265:2004KrajoweuzupenieniaPN-EN206-1Beton Cz e s c1: Wymagania, wa sciwo sci, produkcja
i zgodno s c.
PN-EN12350-2Badaniamieszanki betonowej Badaniekonsystencji metodaopadusto zka.
PN-EN12350- 7Badaniemieszanki betonowej Badaniezawarto sci powietrza.
PN-EN12390-3Badaniabetonu. Wytrzymao s cna sciskanieprbekdobadania.
PN-B/88 06250Betonzwyky.
PN-EN12390-8Badaniabetonu. G eboko s cpenetracji wodypodci snieniem.
SiddiqueR.; WasteMaterialsandBy-ProductsinConcrete. Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg, 2008.
Schneider M., PuntkeS., SyllaH.M., LipusK.: Theinfluenceof cement onthesulphateresistanceof mortar
andconcrete, Cement International, 2002, No. 1, pp. 130148.
Wawrze nczyk J.: Wpywdodatku popiou lotnego namrozoodporno s c betonu. KonferencjaDni Betonu,
Polski Cement, 2002, s. 479488.
114
Rehabilitationof roadculvertsontheequator. Implementationof
innovativeopencut andjacking/reliningtrenchlesssolutions
J eanMarieJ oussin
HOBAS France SAS, Osny, France
ABSTRACT: Guyana, aFrenchoverseasdepartment, isavastregionof some83,500km
2
, located
ontheequator ontheedgeof theLatinAmericancontinent. Thedepartment has 466kilometres
of national routes, most of whicharelocatedalongthecoast, linkingthecountrysmajor towns
Cayenne, KourouandSaint Laurent withthestrategic points constitutedby theGuianaSpace
Centre (which will shortly be receiving the Russian Soyuz rocket and the ItalianVega rocket),
theport of Dgraddes Cannes andtheRochambeauairport. Mainpassenger, goods andfreight
transport travelsalongthenational routes.
This road network comprises approximately 800 road-crossing water culverts of all sizes
(widthheight ranging from700500mmto 40003000mm). Of these, approximately 300
aremetal, theremainder, of reducedsection(diameter below800mm), beingconstructedof con-
crete. Followingthecollapseof structuresin2004, theHighwaysFrenchMinistry(DDE) decided
tosecurethemostcritical structures. TheRouenCETELaboratorywasaskedtoproduceadetailed
list reportingonthestateof thesestructures. Thislist identifiedapproximatelyonehundredstruc-
tures sufferingfromserious problems anddistortionmainly causedby severeclimateconditions
with4mof rainper year, anaggressiveenvironment andheavy roadtraffic. ThisledtheDDE to
consider replacement solutions or in-siturefurbishment andto issuethenecessary invitations to
tender, allowingbiddersafreechoiceof techniquesandproductsused.
After acomparativeanalysis of bids, thefollowingtechnical solutions wereshort-listedfrom
amongthosesubmittedbybiddingcompanies:
for deepstructures(morethan5mdeep) or onsectionswiththegreatest traffic: pipesreplaced
withGRPshells(mainlyintheshapeof tube-likearches) or byjackingGRPnoncircular panels
(either into the ground close to the structures to be replaced, or in situ and in line with the
structuresdismantledduringtheworks)
for other structures: trenchedexcavationof damageculverts, replacingthemwithGRP pipes
havingadiameter of between600and1700mm.
Thisoperationfor which9,2M a havealreadybeeninvestedfor 111culvertsshouldbecompleted
by theend of 2008 and has clearly highlighted thebenefits of trenchless solutions for safeand
quickworkwhichdoesnot affect inparticular highwayusage.
Thepurposeof thispaper consistsindescribing:
the3different trenchlesssolutions,
thecriteriainfavour of each,
thedesign approach in accordancewith theFrench National Project of Research and experi-
mentationprogramRERAU 4devotedto prefabricatedchannel liningsystems andespecially
of structural GRP liningpanels. For thisproject anewdesignmethodbasedonfiniteelement
methodanalysis(F.E.M.) wasappliedfor thelargest structuresor withsevereloads.
thesitephasesfrompreparationtocompletion.
Keywords: Lining, J acking, GRP, Rehabilitation, Sewer, Design, Finiteelement analysis
115
1 BACKGROUNDOF THE PROJ ECT
In order to find the right solution for the project is essential to consider the local conditions.
Thegeographical situation: FrenchGuiana, aFrenchoverseasdepartment withanareaof around
83,500km
2
, locatedbelowtheEquator, is theonly part of theEuropeanCommunity edgingthe
SouthAmericancontinent andremainingisolatedfromtheEuropeanmarket.
TheNational RoadNetwork (NRN) covers thelittoral fromtheBrazilianborder intheeast to
thatof Surinaminthewestfor 464kmprovidingservicetoover 95%of thepopulation. Itconnects
thebigtowns, Cayenne, KourouandSaint-Laurent, andtheeconomical strategic points, Guiana
SpaceCentre, Degraddes Cannes Seaport andRochambeauAirport. It constitutes thebackbone
of theroadnetworkinGuiana. Thelatestlinkthathasbeenestablishedisthebridgeover theRiver
ApprouaguetowardsBrazil, whichwasopenedat thebeginningof 2004.
TheNRN iscurrentlythebasisof theeconomicactivitiesfor Guiana. It assurestheconnection
betweentheairport andtheGuianaSpaceCentremainlyoperatedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency
(satellitetransports), thesupplyof comestiblegoodsthroughtheDegraddesCannesSeaport and
agricultural products (90%of Guianas needs arecoveredby two Mhongcommunities of Cacao
andJ ahouvey), thetransportationof 80%of thewoodcomingfromGuianasforestsandthetraffic
generatedbypublicconstructionworksthat is, averyactivesector inGuiana).
OnRN1, theestablishment of 2newlaunchingpadsfor Soyuz andtheItalianrocketVegawill
soon requireareinforcement of theconnection between Cayenneand Kourou (high increasein
special transports). Besidesthis, theminingatnewquarriesatSaint-Laurentleadstoanincreasein
theresultingtransportationandwill requireareinforcement of existingroadstructures. OnRN2,
theopeningof newforesttracksbetweenReginaandSaint-Georgesandagiantgoldminetogether
withtheincreaseof trafficcausedbytourismandthetradingof manufacturedproductswithBrazil
after thecompletionof thebridgeover theriver Oyapockaskfor aroadimprovement.
About half of thepopulationof about 170,000islessthan20yearsold. Moregenerally, Guiana
hasavigorousdemographycloseto3%andconsequentlyanincreaseintravel frequency(tostudy,
towork, for leisure).
Figures1& 2. Geographical situationof FrenchGuiana.
116
Additionally, theinvestorsmustconsider thattheconstructioncostinGuianais31%higher than
inmetropolitanFrance, mainlyduetothelackof resourcesandtheisolationof theterritory.
2 THE HYDRAULIC HERITAGE INGUIANASNATIONAL ROADNETWORK
Theheritageof theculvertsover theNational RoadNetworkconsistsof over 850constructionsin
all sizes(widthheightrangingfrom700500mmto40003000mm)tocanalizewatercourses.
About380of thesearesteel Arval, ArmcoorTubosider constructions, or circular or archesmainly
locatedinforest areasandinwet territory.
Theywereinstalledduringthe70sand80swhenpathswereconvertedintoroadsandaretoday
at the end of their life cycle. In fact, after heavy rainfalls during the rainy season in the years
2000/2004, several roadruptureswerecausedbythefailureof thesehydraulicconstructions(see
Photo 1). The embankment, pavement and culverts needed to be repaired immediately which
requiredanexpensiveconstructionof temporarydiversionsbothfor water androadtrafficwhich
irreversiblydestroyedthetropical forest (seePhoto2).
TheDirection DpartementaledelEquipement (DDE) delaGuyane(Guianas Management
Department for InfrastructurefromtheFrenchMinistryof Equipment &Transportation) decided
to launch acensus of theseculverts sincemany of themwerenot even registered ([1]). A first
censusphasewasconductedbyworksubdivisionsin2000and2001. Thenafirst diagnosticstudy
performedin 2002providedabetter overviewof this heritage. It seems that athirdof thesteel
constructions(corrugatedgalvanizedsteel culverts) andanumber of concreteculvertshadvisible
defects(seePhotos3, 4, 5&6). A firstrehabilitationprogramresultedfromthisfirstinvestigation
andwasapprovedin2003.
Twoadditional missions awardedtotheCentredEtudesTechniques delEquipement (CETE)
deBloisin2004, thefirstoneinAprilMayandthesecondinOctober, havesetupapreciseupdate
of theexistingcensusandadetailedassessment of theconditionof thedifferent constructions.
Nearly half of theculvertssuspectedof beinginpoor conditionareevaluatedasGrade3 or
Grade3U according to themulti criteriaanalysis IQOA ImageQualitdes Ouvrages dArt
(Quality ImageWorks [1]) developed by the Ministry, and need to be replaced as soon as
possible.
This campaigninvolving350culverts has allowedtheestablishment of astatus report onthe
inspectionandsituationfor eachof such.
The main problems that appeared in the steel culverts are summarized in the following
table2([2]).
Photo1. Collapseof ametal culvert.
Photo2. Emergencyrepair viewof thetemporarydiversion.
117
Photos3& 4. Viewsof damagedsteel culvert (internal corrosion, brokensteel platesdisplaced, . . .).
Photo5. Damagedsteel culvert (holesinthebottom. . .).
Photo6. Viewof damagedconcreteculvert (mortar loss, holes, worninvert, infiltrationthroughjoints. . .).
Table1. IQOA stateassessment coding.
Grade1 Constructioninapparentlygoodorder, regularlymaintainedaccordingtoTechnical Instruction,
October 19, 1979
Grade2 Constructionwithstructureinapparentlygoodorder or withpossibleminor defects, but needing
non-urgent special maintenance
Grade2E Constructionwithstructureinapparentlygoodorder or withpossiblyminor defectsbut urgently
requiringaspecial maintenanceinorder toprevent anydeteriorationarisingfromthedefect
Grade3 Constructionwithanaffectedstructurerequiringnon-urgent repair works
Grade3U Constructionwithahighlyaffectedstructure, requiringurgent repairsduetosupport problems
or suddenproblemsmaydevelopwhichwill shortlycauseasupport problem
3 LOOKINGFORTHE MOST COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION
Therequirementsconcerningperformancemainlycover thestructural integrityandenvironmental
andhydraulicperformanceaspects.
To be more precise, the technical solutions for implementing the works must meet different
criteriasuchasshowninTable3.
Differenttechniqueswereevaluated, suchasreinforcementbyhighperformancein-situconcrete
liningtechniqueor by continuous liningwithcuredinplacedplastic pipe. Thesesolutions were
118
Table2. Mainproblemsinsteel culverts.
Locationof defect Descriptionof defect
Longitudinal profile General non-uniformsettlingof stagnant water
Localizedsettlingleadingtoplatedistortionand
shearingbehaviour intheassembly
Crosssection(except ends) Excessivevertical deformation(>10%) of circular culverts
Vertical flatteningfor archtypeculverts
Horizontal joint breakage
Curveinversionof radial invert
Structure Corrosionwithsteel loss(seeFigure3)
Abrasion
Steel perforation
Invert Gaps
Abrasion
Deposits, blockage
Water flowpassingunder theculvert
Figure3. Remainingsteel thicknessat thecrownof anarchshapedmetal culvert.
Table3. Consideredcriteriatofindtechnical solutions.
Criteria Description
Operation Possibilityof roaddiversion
Weather Highriskof rain
Hydraulics Thehydrauliccapacityneedstobemaintainedor increased
Chemicals Acidicstreamwater withapHvaluewithin3and6.5(duetohumicacid)
Mechanical AbrasionresistancetosandHeavytrafficloads(72tonlorries)
Surroundingenvironmental/ Embankment andbackfill natureandbehaviour
geological conditions Presenceof treestumps
not selected in theend dueto thepoor condition of thehost pipes that could haveaffected the
final constructionquality, somerestrictiveandhigher risk installationconditions andfinally the
expenses.
Thefirst tenderswereissuedtoinitiateworksbeginningof 2004.
119
Photos7& 8. Full reliningGRP archshapepanel andjackedpipe.
4 IMPLEMENTATIONOF REHABILITATION
ThefollowingaspectswereconsideredbytheMinistrystechniciansfor thefinal choice:
Mechanical performance(structural integrity) withclear staticcalculations
Compliancewithreferringstandardsandcertificates
Flowcapacity
Maintenance
J ointing
Fieldinstallation
Level of corrosionresistance
Abrasionresistance.
Followingsolutionswerechosenfromall bidsafter careful evaluation:
Constructionsinover 4mdepthrequiringnoflowincreaseandwithacircular diameter of DN
700to1200: reliningwithCentrifugallyCastFiber GlassReinforcedPolyester (CC-GRP) Pipes
withflushjoints.
Culvertswithnon-circular archtypeprofilesandover 1.5m
2
requiringnoflowincrease: lining
withGRP archshapepanelsor CC-GRP Pipes(seePhoto7).
Constructionsinover 6mdepththat donot allowsliplining: CC-GRP Pipesarejackedcloseto
theexistingdefectivepipeor inlinewiththeoldstructurethatisdismantledatthejackinghead
(seePhoto8)
Other culverts: damaged culverts are excavated and replaced with CC-GRP Pipes (see
Photos9& 10).
TheCC-GRP OpenCut, J ackingandReliningPipesandGRP panelsarespeciallydesignedto
suit thespecific installationanddifficult operatingconditions of this project andperfectly meet
all thepreviouslymentionedrequirements. Theyaredesignedfor anoperatinglifeof 50yearsand
more.Theirroughnesscoefficientisverylowcomparedtoexistingevensoundcorrugatedculverts,
for whichtheManningcoefficient liesaround40/50comparedtoavalueof 100of theproposed
GRP products.
Since2004, 111culverts havebeenrehabilitated, by bothclassical opencut replacement and
trenchlesstechnology, inorder torecover their performancetryingtominimizeanyinconvenience
during theinstallation. Thetrenchless part accounts to 34.9%of the9.2M a launched between
2004and2006(seeTable4).
Opencut wasappliedfor depthsupto4mmainlyfor reasonsof expensewithstandard5,65m
CC-GRP Pipes PN 1, SN 10000, DN 800, 1000, 1200, 1400 & 1700 equipped with flush
120
Photos9& 10. Replacement byopentrenchwithstandardCC-GRP pipes.
Table4. J obsconductedbetween2004and2007.
%of replaced %comparedwith
Implementedtechnique Number works workscost
Replacement (opencut) 96 86.5% 65.1%
J acking 5 4.5% 9.6%
Circular relining 4 3.6% 3.9%
Noncircular lining 6 5.4% 21.4%
(crosssection>1.5m
2
)
Total 111 100% 100%
leak-freeFWCcouplings. Furthermore, thisisaverytraditional designandaquitereliableinstal-
lationmethod. However, thistechniquehasshownsomedisadvantages: it disruptsthetraffic(the
contractorworkedononeroadlane); itcanaffectthequalityof thelateriteembankmentparticularly
incaseof highwater content; theworkcanbestoppedor evendamagedincasesof heavyrain. . .
5 GRP PANELSANDPIPES TRENCHLESSSOLUTIONS
TheproposedtrenchlesssolutionswithGRPareabsolutelynon-disruptiveandallowaninstallation
withouthavingtodiverttheflow. CC-GRPPipesandGRPpanelswereselectedbyboth, contractor
anddesigner, asthemost reliabletechnical solution.
5.1 GRP jacking and relining pipes
Dependinguponthedepthandthestateof repairof existingpipesrelining(seePhoto11) orjacking
techniqueswereappliedusingbothCC-GRPPipes. TheCC-GRPPipesarejointedwithflushbell-
and-spigot joints (seeFigure4). They aremadeof unsaturated polyester resin, quartz sand and
glassfibersandaremanufacturedbycomputer-controlledcentrifugal casting.
Thefollowingaspectsareconsideredfor thejobpreparationstage([4]):
Final design. Thepipethicknessandstiffnessarecalculatedconsideringtheconstructionspec-
ifications, thegeotechnical data(mainly amix of coarsegravel andtropical lateritewhichis
121
Photo11. Reliningof ahighlydeflectedmetal culvert.
Figure4. GRP pipefor reliningandjacking.
highly sensibleto water content), theoperatingconditions (traffic load, water tableandearth
loads) and thematerial characteristics. A structural analysis is madeaccording to theFrench
staticcalculationmethod asdescribedintheProjetNational Microtunnel ([5]) for thejacking
sectionsandRERAU ([4]) codefor therelinedones.
Thesurroundingsoilswithahighrisk of presenceof treestumps(thisiswhy thejackingpipe
inlinewiththeexistingonewasthepreferredsolution)
Theinstallationprocedure.
Thegroutingfor reliningandlubricationwithborefluidsfor jacking.
Finishingof inlet andoutlet
Thejackingjobinvolves CC-GRP J ackingPipes DN/OD 1100and1229 installedfor one
workclosetothestructurestobereplacedor directlyinlinewiththestructuresthataredismantled
duringtheprocedure(seeFigure4). Themaximal allowedjackingforces(196tonsfor theDN/OD
1100, SN 40000 with 38mmwall thickness; 229 tons for theDN/OD 1229, SN 32000 with a
40mmthickness) for thepipes perfectly met theexpected jacking stresses (jacking driveup to
38m) andthejobswerecompletedintimewithout major difficulties.
122
Figure5. J ackingfor in-situreplacement of steel construction.
100
10 40 60
D
37
1816
648,05
1900
1
3
1
6
R
2
3
5
8
4
3
,
4
9
R
9
0
8
R
2
5
8
P = 5076mm
A = 1.915m
2
s
2
5
1
0
1
2
1
4
0
0
Figure6. GRP shell crosssectionandjoint.
5.2 The non-circular GRP panels
TheGRPpanelsfromcomputer-controlledmanufacturearetailor madeandconsistof unsaturated
polyesterresin, quartzsandandglassfibres.Thesespecial pipeswithaleaktightspigot-and-socket
jointingsystemsaredesignedtofit insidetheolddefectivepipe.
Thefollowingaspectsareconsideredfor thejobpreparationstage:
Thefinal cross-sectional shapeof thepanel. Theideal shapeisdecidedonafter havingchecked
the inside dimensions of the existing pipe considering the final level and alignment (see
Photo11).
Final design. Thepanel thickness is calculatedtakingthepanel dimensions, thegeotechnical
dataandtheoperatingconditions(trafficloads, level of watertableandearthloads) intoaccount.
A structural analysisconsiderstheRERAU codeandthematerial characteristics.
Theinstallation procedure: every 2 meter long panel (to fit theseacontainer dimensions) is
pulledonrailsandconnectedtothenext one.
Thegroutingandstrutting. After installation(seePhoto12) theannulusisfilledwithacement
grout. A temporarywoodeninternal struttingisrequiredat thisstage.
Finishingof inlet andoutlet.
All thejobs whatever thedimensionsof thepanel (from12601660upto32002050) andthe
length(upto45m) of thelinewere werecompletedwithinafewweeks.
123
Photo12& 13. Checkingtheinternal dimensionsof theexistingculvert andinstallationof thepanels.
R
1
2
4
0
R
3
5
6
7
R
2
9
6
2469
1
5
5
7
16,6431
Figure7. GRP lining.
6 RERAU DESIGNPROCEDURE FOR NONCIRCULAR SECTIONS
Thepurposeof RERAU (Rehabilitation of Urban Network Sewers) was to establish acommon
rational designmethodology for awiderangeof liningsystems. Themethodology isalimit state
design including partial safety factor on loads and on material properties. For circular linings
there are many available design methods such as the SRM design approach fromWRc- but
structural calculationof noncircular liningisfar morecomplex. That iswhyRERAU hasfocused
onnon-circular liningandalso becauseman-entry sewers aregenerally non-circular. Thedesign
method, basedonfiniteelement methodanalysis(F.E.M.), hasbeendevelopedspeciallyfor large
(man-entry), non-circular GRP liningsandfor special nonconventional loads. Theliningsystem
isdesignedtoact asaflexiblepipewiththeoldsewer, annulusgrout (whereappropriate) andsoil
providingthenecessarysupport tomaintainstability.
Theprimedesignrequirementsontheliningaretherefore:
abilitytosustainthegroutingpressureduringinstallation(whereappropriate).
abilitytosustaintheexternal headof groundwaterpressurethatmustbeconsideredtoariseonce
hydraulicintegrityisrestored.
and eventually ability to sustain soil loading transfer if thesewer loses its hoop compressive
stiffnessafter lining.
124
Metal Bar
Wedges
Props
Figure8. Internal vertical strutting.
Photo14. Viewof thewoodenconstruction.
Hereoneof theFrench Guianacorrugated steel pipearch buried in aroads embankment by a
horseshoeGRP prefabricatedlining. Becauseof thesteel corrosionit wasconsideredthat thehost
steel pipearchwill looseitshoopcompressivestiffnessafter lining.
General descriptionof theproject:
Height of soil abovethecrown; 12.0m
Height of thetablewater abovetheinvert: 2,3m
Elasticmodulusof soil E
s
=10MPa
Specificweight of soil =20kN/m
3
Embedment: mixedgrainedsoilswithlowfinefraction, relativecompactionDr >95%OPN.
125
1
2
1
2
Figure9. Deformationof thepanel calculatedwithF.E.A. (veryexaggerated).
2.1m
Water table
Figure10. Loadsduetowater tablelevel.
Mechanical characteristicsof theGRP lining:
Internal height: 1557mm
Internal width: 2469mm
Thickness: 33mm
Radiusof theinvert section: 3567mm
MeanPerimeter: 6500mm
Youngmodulus: 11000MPa
Longtermmodulus: 3700MPa
Bendingstrength: 60MPa
6.1 The design for grouting
Thevertical height of theliningwas restrainedby aninternal strut. Theheight of thefirst stage
waslimitedto0.5meter. Finiteelementanalysiswasusedtocalculatethedeformationof thepanel
andalsothehoopforceintheprops.
6.2 The design for ground water table
Thedesignpressureisequal tothepressureof thegroundwater at theinvert:
p
w
= 10 (1.6+0.5) = 21kPa
126
Figure11. F.E.M. mesh.
The Buckling pressure of the GRP lining is calculated with the Glock-Thepots analytical for-
mula. Theparametersusedaretheperimeter, theradiusof theinvert section(wherethelobecan
develop), thethicknessandthelong-termmodulus:
p
cr
= 0.455 k
0.4
E
L

t
2.2
P
0.4
R
1.8
p
cr
= 0.455 3700
33
2.2
6500
0.4
3567
1.8
= 44.4kPa
Inthiscase, k=1becausethereisonlyonelobe(at theinvert).
Thesafetyfactor for thestabilityis:
F
=
44.4
21
= 2.1> 2
Thesafetyfactor for stabilitysecuritymust begreater than2.
6.3 The design for ground and traffic loading
A Finiteelement analysiswasperformedtomodel thetransfer of theloadingfromthesoil tothe
liningandalsothetrafficloading. Thefigure11showsthefiniteelement mesh.
Thevertical deflectionof theliningandthemaximumstresseswascalculated. Twoconditions
must besatisfied:
thevertical deflectionmust belessthan3%of theliningheight;
themaximal bendingstress must beless thanthebendingstrengthdividedby asafety factor
of 1.5.
7 CONCLUSION
All involvedcompaniesandauthoritiesarepleasedwiththeresult of theFrenchGuianaNational
RoadNetwork water culvertsrehabilitationandrenewal project. Thecompleteproject imposeda
127
seriesof challengesat different stages, all of whichweremasteredparticularly withthedifferent
trenchlessinstallationtechniquesandtheGRPtailormadesolutionsproposedandimplementedby
thecontractor. TheClientispleasedwithhischoice, combiningopencutandinnovativetrenchless
techniques, andplans toincludethemintheupcomingtender torenewthelast fewculverts that
arestill evaluatedasGrade3 andGrade3U.
REFERENCES
[1] Guidedevisiteensubdivision, 1996, SETRA, F 9630PV, N
ISBN2-11-085782-X.
[2] Cataloguedesdsordresbusemtallique, 1996, SETRA, F 9641C, N
ISBN2-11-085782-X.
[3] Guide pour la surveillance spcialise, lentretien et la rparation, 1992, SETRA, N
ISBN
2-11-085717-X.
[4] Projet National RERAU 4, REhabilitation de Rseaux dAssainissement Urbain, Restructuration des
collecteursvisitables, publishedin20022004, EditionsTEC & DOC
[5] Projet National Microtunnel et Forages Dirigs, National Project Horizontal Directional Drilling and
Microtunneling, publishedin2004, HermesSciencePublishing
[6] The Structural Design of Large Non-Circular GRP Prefabricated Linings No Dig Rome 2008,
J M J oussin& OThpot.
128
Urbantechnical infrastructureandcitymanagement
W. Kaczkowski, K. Burska, H. Goawska& K. Kasprzak
Municipality of Wrocaw, Wrocaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Efficient city management is aimed at providing theInhabitants with all conve-
niencesnecessaryfor comfortablelife. Efficient functioningof acityispossibleonlythankstoan
efficienturbantissue, whichmanifestsitself inefficienttransport, water supply, sewagecollection
andtreatmentaswell asgasandenergysupply. Ensuringefficientwastemanagementandactivities
for thedevelopment of newtechnologies is crucial for goodfunctioningof theCity. It is essen-
tial to coordinateurban technical infrastructuredevelopment plans with thecitys development.
Therefore, participationof theCityindeterminingthedirectionsof developmentandexpansionof
infrastructure, organisingtheundergroundspacebyconstructingtechnological channelsandzon-
ingundergroundtechnical infrastructureisof theutmost importance. Municipal authoritiesmust
notforgetaboutcoordinationof urbansystemsandcooperationwithownersandadministratorsof
networksintheir activities. Anefficientlyfunctioningcitymust bereadyfor operational response
toemergencysituationsandrandomincidents, and, atthesametime, italsomustnotomitsuchan
important variableastheaestheticqualitiesof theCity.
1 THE CITY DEFINITION, FUNCTIONSANDURBANINFRASTRUCTUREAREAS
ThetermurbanplanningderivesfromtheLatinwordurbs, whichstandsfor acity andisafield
of knowledgedealingwithplanningandmanagement of thedevelopment of humansettlements.
A cityistomeet thebasicneedsinfour keyareas:
work, i.e. employment providingmeansof support andproductionof objectsnecessaryfor life,
protection of inhabitants both against external threats (war, crime), and climatic threats
(constructionof flatsandmunicipal facilities),
recreation, i.e. provision of conditions for passiveleisure(parks, pedestrian areas) and active
leisure(participationincultural andsportsevents),
transport, i.e. enabling inhabitants to usefacilities in conditions of growing cities that cover
bigger andbigger areas.
Mutual interrelations and proportions of areas designed to fulfil thesefour basic city functions
changedineachhistorical eraanddifferedinformwithrespecttothelevel of dependenceof social
andeconomicdevelopment onnatural conditions, regional traditionsandother external factors.
Thedefinition, natureandfunctionsof citieshavechangedfromtheir very beginningstotheir
present-dayimage. Thefirst humansettlements, later ontownsandcities, fulfilleddefensiveand
administrativefunctionsandwereof acommercial, miningor industrial nature.
Wrocaw, just as most cities in this part of Europe, was established based on the German
foundation charter in themiddleof the13th century. J ust likeother medieval, merchant cities,
it expandedaroundacentral square theMarketplace, andthesymbol of municipal authority
thetownhall.
Wrocawchanged its national status several times in thepast millennium, and thesechanges
entailedmodificationsof aseriesof conditionsrelatedtothecitysexistence, turnsof directionsof
themost important forces, theneedtoadapt toanother authoritysystem, todifferent mechanisms
129
of cooperationandcompetition. Wrocawhasalwayscomeout of historical testsunscathed. Even
after the almost total destruction of the urban tissue during World War II, it managed to quite
quicklybuildaconsiderablenumber of inhabitantsandthepositionof thefourthlargestcityinthe
almost 40-millioncountry.
At present, Wrocawcovers theareaof 293squarekilometres inhabitedby over 632thousand
people. It has 2,511streets that areover 1,200kilometres inlength. Themunicipal water supply
systemisover 1,840kilometreslong, andthesewagesystemis1,170kmlong.
Today, toensurethat theCity fulfilsitsobligationswell andtoprovideitsinhabitantswiththe
senseof livinginafriendlycity, itsfunctioninganddevelopmentshouldtakeplaceinall spheresof
urbaninfrastructureincludingoptimumcoordinationof all of itselements. Theroleof themanager
istosimultaneouslyorganiseandadapt theurbaninfrastructuretotherequirementsof thecityof
the21st century, bothon, andunder thesurface.
Theestablishment of anefficient communicationsandtransit systemof thecity, modernpublic
transportcombinedwithurbanrailwaysystem, acarparksystemforaveryrapidlygrowingnumber
of privatecarsisrequired. Systemsof theundergroundcity, imperceptibleandhiddenfromthe
community, determinetheconditionof urbanagglomerations. Water supply, sewage, energy, gas
andheatingsystems, andfinallyteletechnology, complement theimageof theundergroundurban
bloodstream.
2 ENSURINGEFFICIENT FUNCTIONINGOF THE CITY
2.1 Efficient transport
AnefficientlyfunctioningCitymusthaveatransportsystemthatcorrespondstotheneedsandthe
number of inhabitantsandmakesit possibletoreducethecost of livingandsavemoreandmore
precious time. Enabling rescueservices to reach to individuals waiting for help quickly as well
asefficient eliminationof disruptioninthefunctioningof urbaninfrastructuresystemscreatethe
senseof securityfor inhabitantsanditsfriendlyimage.
Oneof thegreatesttransportproblemsconcernsdifficultiesof inhabitantsrelatedtotheir every-
day journeys to work, school, for shopping, to thecinemaor theatre, etc. Thetransport system
withintheWrocawagglomerationis characterisedby aconstant increaseinindividual mobility
of its inhabitants, whoseintensity is typical for largeurbancentres, whichcauses that its traffic
capacityturnsout tobetoolowinrushhours(Ernst &Young, 2007).
The road systemin Wrocaw is consistently extended. The spatial policy in the field of the
developmentof motor transportsetsnotonlyageneral objective, namelyimprovementof external
andinternal roadlinks, but alsoaseriesof objectivesrelatedtothecitysfeaturesandneeds. The
prioritiesincludeamongother things:
transferringthesupralocal transit traffic outsidethecentral part of thecity totheconsiderably
developedCityRingRoad.
establishingorimprovingconnectionsbetweenthecitydistricts, relievingthedensityof trafficin
thecitycentreandimprovingitstransport services, separatingeconomicandresidential traffic,
improvingconnectionswithindividual partsof themetropolitanarea.
However, investingonly inthedevelopment of roadinfrastructurewill not ensurefull successin
thefieldof improvementof theconditionof transportinthecity. Itispracticallyimpossibletokeep
modernisationof theroadsystemupwiththedynamics of theincreaseinthenumber of motor
vehicles.
In most European cities, it was recognised along timeago that that theonly way out of the
situationthat ensuresefficient functioningof ametropolisisgoodqualityof publictransport.
Thereareplansfor thenext yearsconcerningaverysignificant expansionof theurbansystem,
amongother things, by means of constructingnewtramconnections, outliningnewchannels in
thecity centrearea, constructingadozenor so newor modernisedandintegratedinterchanges,
130
introducingnewmeansof transportwithimprovedparameters, introducingatrafficcontrol system
at intersections withapreferencefor track traffic, introducingthesystemof dynamic passenger
information at stops and in vehicles or implementing integrated electronic tickets in thewhole
publictransport system.
Wrocawplaces particular emphasis on thedevelopment of rail transport. Thecity perceives
thisformof transport asitschancetoreduceroadcongestionrelatedtoindividual transport. The
plannedtracktransport systemwill include:
agglomeration rail transport Wrocawska Kolej Aglomeracyjna (Wrocaw Agglomeration
Railway),
thesystemof fasttransportonrouteslinkingtheoppositeendsof thecityandcrossingitscentre
calledTramPlus(Tramwaj Plus),
thepresent, traditional tramsystem.
All tracksubsystemstogetherwiththebussystemwill constituteone, coherentintegratedpublic
transport systemof Wrocaw.
Thedevelopment of thetracksystemparallelsworksonstreamliningpublictransport byestab-
lishingtheIntelligent Transport System. Thesystemis to monitor andcontrol traffic lights, the
establishmentof aroadinformationsystemforpassengersconcerning, amongotherthings, weather
conditions, carparks, informationboards, videosupervision, ensuringpriorityforpublictransport,
informationonthelocationof publictransport vehiclesandaninformationsystemat busstops.
Wrocaw, followingtheexampleof other Europeancities, alsoplanstoexpandthepublictrans-
port systemwithanetwork of automatic municipal bicyclerentals. Bicycles arerecognisedas a
meansof transportthatisanattractivealternativetoother waysof movingwithinacity. Therentals
will perfectlycomplement publictransport.
All theseactivities areaimedat improvingthetransport system, andconsequently facilitating
thefunctioningof thewholeCity.
2.2 Providing the city with basic utilities
Thebasisfor thefunctioninganddevelopment of citiesistheprovisionof all necessary utilities.
The local government act of March 8, 1990 obliges municipalities to meet collective needs of
inhabitants. Owntasks of amunicipality concern, amongother things, water supply andsewage
systems as well as water supply, sewage collection and treatment, maintaining cleanliness and
order, sanitaryfacilities, refusedumpsandutilisationof municipal wasteaswell aselectricity, heat
andgasfuel supply.
The basic documents for municipalities in the field of energy, heat and gas fuel supply are
The Assumptions for electricity, heat and gas fuel supply plans for municipalities adoptedunder
the Resolution of theWrocaw City Council number XXXI/2275/04 of December 9, 2004. A
very important element of the implementation of the Assumptions is close cooperation of the
municipalitywithenergycompaniesandensuringcohesionbetweenenterprisedevelopmentplans
andtheir energysystems, andthestrategyanddevelopment plansof theWrocawagglomeration.
2.2.1 Water supply and sewage collection and treatment
A substantial majority of theinhabitants of Wrocaw(99.8%) aresuppliedwithwater by means
of themunicipal water supply system. Thebasic water intakeis theOawaRiver and theNysa
KodzkaRiver. Theexistingsystemensuresmeetingthecurrent andlong-termdemandfor water
of theWrocawagglomeration. Therearethreewater treatment plantsinWrocaw.
Mokry Dwr water treatment plant is suppliedby surfacewater intakes, NaGrobli plant by
infiltrationintakes, andthelocal water intakeinLe snicaisbasedonundergroundwater.
One of the basic problems in water distribution is the poor technical condition of pipelines,
amongother things, highlevel of incrustationof thesystem, whichsecondarily pollutes treated
water.Anotherproblemisthepoortechnical conditionof fittingsandelementsof pipesinthewater
131
supplysystem, includingpoor conditionof householdconnections. Someareasof thecitylackthe
ring-shapeddistributionsystem(Dutkiewicz, 2006).
The length of the sewage systemin Wrocaw is 1,170km. As the city is located on a flat
area, thesystemincludes22intermediatesewage-pumpingstations. TheOldTowninWrocawis
equippedwithacombinedsewagesystem, post-war housingestatesuseamixedsewagesystem
partially separate, andpartially combined. Newhousingestateslocatedinthecity centrealready
haveaseparatesewagesystem. Somehousing estates located on theoutskirts of Wrocaw still
do not have a sewage system. Sewage flow to a sewage treatment plant by means of gravity
drainagesystems, whichincludemaincollectors, e.g. Odra,
Sle
za, Bystrzyca, KolektorPoudniowy,

Kolektor Pnocny, aswell asanextensivesystemof housingestatenetworksandsewagesystem
connections.
Currently, sewageflowtooneof thethreesewagetreatment plants:
WO
S J anwek amodern, mechanical and biological sewagetreatment plant with complete

sedimentarymanagement, whichtreatsabout 70thousandm
3
of sewageaday.
PolaIrygacyjneOsobowice(Osobowiceirrigationfields) asewagetreatmentplantestablished
inthe19thcentury, basedontheprocess of neutral sewagetreatment intheground. About 45
thousandm
3
of sewageadayflowintothefields.
OczyszczalniaRaty n treatsasmall quantity of sewagefromthesouthwesternpart of thecity
(about 325m
3
aday). It istobeliquidated.
Projectsaimedatimprovingwaterandsewagemanagementandthequalityof waterarecurrently
beingexecutedinWrocaw.
Theproject entitledImprovement of water and sewage management consists inmodernisation
of 6 sections of water mains in total almost 30 kilometres of the most important water sup-
ply systems inWrocaw, redevelopment of theMokry Dwr water treatment plant, expansionof
thesewagesystem, modernisationof thewatersupplysystematStrachocin/Wojnwhousingestate
and expansion and modernisation of Janwek sewagetreatment plant inWrocawtogether with
thesewagepumpingsystem. All investmentsaretobecompleteduntil theendof 2010.
As part of the second key project entitled Improvement of water quality in Wrocaw, main
sewage collectors are being constructed: Bystrzyca,

Sle
za, the second Water Treatment Plant

Na Grobli is being modernised, the sewage and water supply systems are being extended and
modernised, including construction of road surfaces at the following housing estates: Oporw,
part of Muchobr Wielki, Stabowice, Zotniki, Wojszyce, Partynice, Krzyki Poudnie, Klecina,
Otaszyn, Brochw-J agodno.
As part of theProject, theconstruction of main sewagecollectors: Bystrzycaand

Sle
za, has
beencompletedsofar. A sewageandwater supplysystemwasbuilttogether withreconstructionof
roadsurfacesinapartof MuchobrWielki andStabowice. Extensionof thesewagesystematthe
followinghousingestates: Zotniki, Wojszyce, Partynice, Krzyki Poudnie, KlecinaandOporw,
Otaszyn, BrochwandJ agodno, isinprogress.
2.2.2 Electric energy supply
Thebasic sourceof electric energy supply for thecity isthehigh-voltagesystem(110kV), pow-
ered by: GPZ 400/110kV Pasikurowice, GPZ 220/110kV Klecina, the heat and power station
at owieckaStreet andtheheat andpower stationinCzechnica. A fragment of thepower high-
voltageline(220kV) fromKlecinato

Swiebodzice, includedinthenational energytransmission
system, runsthroughWrocaw. Themedium-voltagepower system(20and10kV) ispoweredby
thehigh-voltagesystems (110kV) through21mainpower supply points (110kV/SN), including
threestations located outsidethecity. 26 local generators areconnected to themedium-voltage
system, but their share in the electric energy turnover is very little. The medium-voltage sys-
temof 20and10kV usually operatesintheopen-loopsystemensuringduplex emergency power
supply.
132
2.2.3 Heat supply
Theheatsupplysystemiscentrallybasedontheheatandpower stationlocatedatowieckaStreet,
CzechnicaheatandpowerstationandtheheatingplantlocatedatBierutowskaStreetthatconstitute
themainsourcesof heat. Industrial andlocal boilerhousesof publicutilityinstitutions, commercial
facilities, housingestateboilerroomsandboilerroomsof multi-familyresidential buildings, which
generateheat for their ownneeds, also functioninWrocaw. Heat andpower stations supply the
municipal heatingsysteminabout 98%andmeet thecurrent exhaust emissionstandards.
2.2.4 Gas supply
Wrocaw is supplied with high-methane natural gas, which is supplied to the City through the
circumferential systemof high-pressureaswell ashigh- andmedium-pressuregaspipelines. Nearly
thewholegaspipelineringnetworkof Wrocawrunsoutsidethecitylimitsandisconnectedtothe
maingaspipelines, whichradiatetoother regionsaswell astoradial gaspipelines. Theexisting
gas supply solutionis recognisedas very good. About 97%of thecity inhabitants arewithinthe
scopeof availabilityof thegassupplysystem.
2.3 Waste management
Wrocawdoesnot haveamunicipal solidwastemanagement company. Furthermore, thereareno
municipal systemsrelatedtowastemanagement, whichcausesthatthekeyandpracticallytheonly
operatorsof thesystemareentrepreneursconductingbusinessactivityinthisfield. Aspart of this
activity, contractsfortheprovisionof adequatewastecollectioncontainerstoproperties, collection
of wasteandrecyclingor utilisationof wasteareconcluded.
Someactivities aimed at achieving adequatestandards within theCity areawereinitiated in
1998. Thanks to theefforts of thethenWasteManagement Board, thelocal systemof selective
glass andplastic packagingwastecollectionwas organisedandlaunched. Similar activities con-
cernedtheimplementationof thecampaignentitled Clean Housing Estates andtheprogramme
Expired medicine, whichenabledtheinhabitantstolegally disposeof problematic large-sizeand
dangerouswaste. In2008, thefirst municipal solidwastesortingplant startedtooperate. Itsfunc-
tioningwill enabletheCity to achievemaximumlevels of biodegradationof municipal wasteto
bedisposedat landfill sites. Theproject entitledSolid waste management in Wrocaw iscurrently
beingimplemented. Thedevelopmentof asafeandmodernbiodegradablewastemanagementsys-
temwill contributeto theimprovement intheenvironment. As aresult, theproject will prevent
potential ecological damageintheenvironment relatedtowastemanagement.
2.4 Teletechno and the Internet
Toenhanceandmodernisetheimageof Wrocawasthecitysupportingmoderntechnologies, free
accesstowirelessInternet wasenabledat heMarketplaceinWrocaw. Theserviceisprovidedby
theCityandisaddressedtotourists, inhabitantsandbusinesspeoplestayingnear theMarketplace.
Thetransmissioncapabilityof accesspointswasselectedsothatthesignal coveredthelargestarea
possible. Access to theInternet was limitedwithrespect to thepossibility of usingpeer-to-peer
programs and auction services as theseforms of access wereabused by anonymous fraudsters.
Wrocawassumesgradual development of IT functionalities, technical infrastructureandsystems
as themeans of providing an unlimited scopeof services. Theresult of such an attitudeis the
developmentof theeWrocawstrategy, inwhichinformatisationwasextendedtoensurecompre-
hensiveandextensiveoperationandintegrationof all servicesandsourcesof information, which
istoleadtotheestablishmentof theso-calledSmartCommunities. Theproductof theeWrocaw
strategy isthedevelopment of anelectronic officethat will benot only transparent andefficient,
but, aboveall, will servecitizens. Thistypeof organisationmaybeestablishedonlythankstofull
integrationandcohesionof thebasiclinksof internal ITsystemsinthelocal government, electronic
circulationof documents, thegeographic registry systemandtheInternet portal. Full integration
with other public utility units in thefield of combining thecommunications infrastructureand
133
theestablishment of abroadbandaccessinfrastructurefor theinhabitantsisextremely important
(Hanys, 2004). Theabove-mentionedactivities arerelatedto theneedto adjust themanagement
systemtotherapidlydevelopingIT systems.
3 URBANTECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTUREANDCITY MANAGEMENT
3.1 Coordination of urban technical infrastructure development plans with the citys
development. Determination of development directions and extension of infrastructure
enabling the Citys development
Thetechnical infrastructureof Wrocawleavesalottobedesired. Partof theproblemsresultsfrom
pastnegligenceandsomeotherreasons thegrowthandtransformationprocesses. Itisimpossible
neither toimprovethestandardof lifeof inhabitants, nor thecitysattractivenesswithoutextensive
efforts in thefield of modernisation and development of thesesystems. To do this, weneed to
ensure constant and satisfactory provision of all necessary utilities to the city and consistently
developtheir supplyanddistributionnetworks.
The modernised city parts are expected to be characterised by high comfort of use, eco-
friendliness, safetyandflexibility. Tomeet theserequirementsandprotect theinhabitantsagainst
nuisancerelated to excavated streets, it is necessary to coordinatedevelopment and renovation
plans of individual sections of theundergroundinfrastructure. Intheprevious century, whenall
networkssupplyingtheinhabitantswithutilitieswerestate-ownedandconcentratedat oneplace,
it was easier to manage development and operation in the command or task-oriented form. At
present, intheageof transformationandcompetition, theestablishment of directionsof network
developmentinaccordancewiththedirectionsof thecitysdevelopmenthasbecomeverydifficult.
Realisingtheimportanceof theproblem, activitiesaimedat developingapermanent platformof
cooperationwithtechnical infrastructureadministratorsinthefieldof coordinationof development
andrenovationplansof all sectorshavealreadybeentaken.
3.2 Organising the underground city space by means of building technological channels and
zoning of the underground technical infrastructure
The element used to organise the location of networks in the road cross section is zoning of
undergroundfittingsconsistinginobservingtheestablisheddistancesbetweenundergroundwires
andpipesrequiredbylegal regulations.
Under theResolutionof theMayor of Wrocawno. 1749/07of September 17, 2007, therules
andthemethodof distribution of theCatalogueof street cross sections together with zoningof
the underground technical infrastructure and road concepts for streets outlined in local spatial
development plans wereintroduced. Road concepts supplement theadopted local spatial devel-
opment plan and are the basis for project studies related to investment processes, whereas the
Catalogueof streetcrosssectionstogether withzoningof theundergroundtechnical infrastructure
forms the basis for designing streets that do not require concept development. Both the Cata-
logue, and the concepts are provided to designers by Network investors (MPWiK, EnergiaPro,
Dolno sla
ski Operator SystemuDystrybucyjnego, Fortum, Telekomunikacja, etc.) andat individ-

ual stages of assessing and developing design documentation (Department of Architecture and
Constructionof theMunicipality, DesignDocumentationCoordinationTeam, theRoadandCity
ManagementAuthority(ZDiUM), WrocawDevelopmentOffice, Departmentof UrbanEngineer-
ingof theMunicipalityetc.). Thecatalogueof typical street crosssectionstogether withzoningof
theundergroundtechnical infrastructureisalsoavailableontheInternet sitesof theMunicipality
of Wrocaw: www.um.wroc.pl
A significant probleminthefieldof zoningof undergroundfittings is theconstantly growing
number of networks, whichhaveto belocatedintheroadcross section. Constructionof multi-
layer technological channels may be a good solution in this situation. An experimental section
of a multi-layer tunnel, which was to include water supply, gas, heat ducts as well as energy
134
and telecommunications lines, was built at the Gaj housing estate in Wrocaw already in the
1970s. Constant monitoring of theoperation of thetunnel was to enablethedevelopment of a
technical andeconomic analysis of thefunctionality of theconstructionof thesefacilities as the
methodof landfittingat thenational scale. Only thefirst stageof theinvestment wascompleted
as part of the whole project, i.e. 370mof tunnel, which did not provide an objective picture
of profitability of theinvestment. Lowlevel of precision of thetunnel (during thefirst year of
operation, the tunnel was repeatedly flooded) and difficulties in operation (transport of pipes
duringrenovationworks, collisionsof locationof thegaspipelinewithrenovationworksperformed
using electrical or gas welding) consequently resulted in resignation fromthe gas pipeline and
later on removal of hot and cold water pipes fromthe tunnel. This was practically the end of
operationof themulti-layertunnel atpresent, onlylow-voltageandinternal lightingsystemwires
run through thetunnel, and thebasic problemof thehousing estateadministration is to ensure
adequateprotectionof thetunnel againstaccessof unauthorisedpeople mainlythehomeless. The
exampleabovedamagestheimageof multi-layer tunnelsanddoesnot encouragetotheir broader
application.
At present, thepossibilityof constructingtechnological channelsfor telecommunicationslines
isbeinganalysed theact onpublic roadsof March21, 1985, art. 39sec. 6providesthat during
constructionof roads, aroadadministratormaylocateatechnological channel inaroadlanetoplace
technical infrastructurefittingsnotrelatedtoroadmanagementor trafficneeds. Pursuanttoart. 39
sec. 7of theact, aroadadministrator providesinterestedentitiesappointedbywayof atender with
access to suchchannels. Problems arisewithrespect to roads that aresubject to redevelopment.
Duringredevelopment, aroadadministrator mayalsolocatetechnological channelsinaroadlane
accordingtothesamerulesasit isinthecaseof newly built roads. However, inthiscase, aroad
administrator hastosolvetheproblemrelatedtofittingsexistinginroadlaneswhosevastmajority
was placedtherebefore2003. Suchfittings aresubject to art. 10of theact amendingtheact on
publicroads, whichobligesaroadadministrator torearrangefittingsandincur thecostsrelatedto
suchrearrangement. Inthis situation, aroadadministrator must beauthorisedto determinenew
termsandconditionsfor locationof fittingsinaroadlane. Therefore, popularisationof theuseof
technological channelsmust beprecededby providingexpert andlegal opinionsestablishingthe
directionof further activities.
3.3 Current management and coordination of the functioning of urban Infrastructure systems.
Permanent platform of cooperation with network owners and administrators. Assessment,
transfer of information, identification of disruption and corrective action
Thebasisof management isinformationonwhat isat onesdisposal. Inthecaseof urbanorgan-
isms, thereisagreat diversityof facilities. Individual elementsareinterrelatedinsuchawaythat
any changesinonefieldmay causeunexpectedresultsinother areas. Most citieshaveextensive
databasesconcerningindividual facilities, which, however, asarule, donottakeintoconsideration
mutual relationsbetweendifferenttypesof facilities. Nowadays, lackof informationisnotaprob-
lem. What citymanagingauthoritiesreallyneedisaclear methodof presentationof information,
whichwill enablesimultaneousplacingof informationonvariousfacilities.
ICT infrastructureisindispensablebothtoensureefficientcitymanagement, andasuitablelevel
of standardof livingfor itsinhabitants.
The infrastructure of digital systems and tools supporting the city functioning overlaps the
existing, traditional layersof theurbantissue, whichenablestheir further, efficient operationand
development. Remotetrafficmanagement systems, monitoringsystemsusingcamcorders these
arethemost obvious, spectacular examplesof theapplicationof newtechnologies, whichsupport
current solutionsandmethodsof work of municipal services. For instance, telemetric systemsto
measureimportantparametersof municipal water supplyor gassystemsor systemssupportingthe
management andcoordinationof theactivity of municipal units andinstitutions areless visible,
but not lessimportant.
135
Wrocaw is becoming a more and more complex organism. If it is to develop, it has to be
managedinanadaptiveway respondingto theconstantly changingchallenges of theglobal and
local reality.Thisgivesrisetomanynew, previouslyunknownproblemsinthefieldof management
andplanning. Integrationof municipal informationsystems is becominginevitable. Higher and
higher complexity and dynamics of various structures and processes brings about the need to
comprehensivelyembrace, consolidateandcoordinatethegrowingnumber of spheresof urbanlife
that havebeenfunctioningseparatelysofar.
Ensuring efficient functioning of theentireWrocawrequires access to agreater and greater
amount of current, reliable, cross-sectional and interrelated information. Municipal administra-
tion and public services have to be able to constantly monitor their activities, constantly share
informationonthesituationinareas of urbanlifehandledby them. Only thenwill they beable
torespondtodifferent occurrences inaproper andefficient way. Today, theGeographical Infor-
mational SystemGIS seemstobethemost natural integrationoutlinefor circulationandsharing
of information on thesituation in thecity among various institutions and services operating in
thecity.
Informatisationincludes thebasic functions of City management andall municipal organisa-
tional units. Themost significant activity inthefieldof coordinationof thefunctioningof urban
infrastructure systems is integration of the GIS systemwith the principal map of the board of
geodesyandcadastreintheonlinemode. Informatisationwill alsoincludetheelementsof infras-
tructurethat arenot owned by thecity, but aretheinstrument of city management as awhole.
For instance, as part of The project of assumptions for electricity, heat and gas fuel supply
plansfor theMunicipality of Wrocaw, amunicipal databaseof themost important systemsand
fittings necessary to supply gas, electricity and heat is being developed. The systemis to be
integratedwiththedigital citymapandmaintainedincooperationwithenergycompanies. Munic-
ipal companiesMiejskiePrzedsie
biorstwoWodocia
gwi Kanalizacji (WrocawWater Supplyand

SewerageCompany), MiejskiePrzedsie
biorstwoKomunikacyjne(Municipal TransportCompany)
andZarza
dDrgi UtrzymaniaMiasta(theRoadandCity MaintenanceAuthority), Zarza
dZie-
leni Miejskiej (theUrbanGreeneryAdministration), Zarza
dCmentarzyKomunalnych(Municipal
CemeteryAdministration) will developspecialiseddatabasesconcerningaselectedtechnical urban
infrastructurewithinoneIT platform.
Oneof projects aimedat increasingtheefficiency of activities of municipal services was the
developmentof theOperationPlan. WhileWrocawhasdevelopedothereditionsof theLong-Term
InvestmentPlanfor manyyears, containinghintsfor all entitiesoperatinginthecityinthefieldof
largeinvestments, therewasalackof informationonoperational activities, whichisof theutmost
importancefor efficient functioningof theCity. Thedevelopment of theLong-TermInvestment
Planwasaimed, amongotherthings, atprovidingall interestedpartieswithaccesstoinformationon
thescopeof worksplannedforagivenyearanditscoordinationalreadyatthestageof development
of thedocument. Itisplannedtocontinuethedevelopmentof theOperationPlan, andthepossibility
of developingaLong-termOperationPlanisalsoconsidered. Thesedocumentsaretofacilitatethe
planningprocesswithrespect toall entitiesoperatingwithintheareaof Wrocaw.
Duetotheneedtoimprovethetransport situation, theso-calledIntelligent Transport Systems
(ITS) will beimplementedinWrocaw. TheITSwill includetasksrelatedto:
extensionof thetrafficmanagement system,
extensionof thetrafficcontrol systems,
extensionof thesystemof detectingoverspeedingfor thepolice,
monitoringof environmental conditionsaroundroads, developmentof thewarningandinforming
systemintheformof indicator boardspresentingdatatodrivers,
information radio and mobile transmission systems, development of a network of cameras
monitoring: mainjunctions, routesfor transport of dangerousmaterialsetc.,
development of anelectronicpublictransport informationsystem,
development of adigital planof WrocawtobeusedinGPSsystems.
136
Other tasks will concern the integrated municipal card of Wrocaw, whose functionalities will
enableuserstopay for car parksandseasonticketsinpublic transport. Asfar aspublic transport
management is concerned, development of the local communication system(TETRA) and its
integrationwithlocationsystems will benecessary. As for public safety, thecitys activities are
focusedontheextensionof theTETRA communicationssystem, connectinginterventionservices
tothemunicipal ICT network, development of asystemmonitoring: thewater level, water andair
pollution, developmentof asystemof camerastomonitor schools, housingestatesetc., connecting
smoke detectors to the alarmof the fire brigade, implementation of an online systemwarning
against breakdowns, variousthreatsetc. (Wie
ckowski, Najnigier, 2004).

3.4 Operational responding to emergency situations and random incidents in
the field of infrastructure
Two departments responsible for operational responding to emergency situations and random
incidentsfunctionwithinthestructuresof theMunicipality.
TheSecurityandCrisisManagement Department performstasksinthefieldof:
identification of natural and technical threats as well as development of programs preventing
their appearance,
managementof theThreatIdentificationandAlarmingSystem, theEarlyWarningSysteminthe
fieldof monitoringandalarming,
coordinationof rescue, maintenanceandprotectiveactivities, executionof tasksinthefieldof
civil defenceandpopulationprotection,
management of crisis response and civil defence tasks executed by business entities, public
institutionsandother organisations.
TheDepartmentof UrbanEngineeringperformsactivitiesaimedatsystematisinganddeveloping
a common code of conduct for organisations operating within the City in case of emergency
situationsandrandomincidentsinthefieldof infrastructure. It isavery complicatedprocess, as
part of organisationsresponsiblefor thecitysinfrastructureisnot directlysubordinatetotheCity.
Accomplishment of objectivesinthefieldof supplyingthecitywithe.g. heat, electricityandgas
fuel, requiressearchingforacompromisebetweenthepossibilitiesof themunicipalityandthelocal
energy market withrespect to theexecutionof theestablishedobjectives andobtainingapproval
for their executionfromall entitiesoperatingonthelocal energymarket.
3.5 Influence of technical infrastructure on the citys aesthetic qualities
Theessential elementsof technical infrastructure, whichnowadaysareatthedisposal of all Cities,
have a significant influence on their aesthetic qualities. In accordance with the act on spatial
planning, thenotionof technical infrastructureistobeunderstoodasorganisationormodernisation
of roads andconstructionof water supply, sewer, heating, electric, gas andtelecommunications
systemsorfittingsunder, onorabovetheground. If elementsof small-scaleurbanarchitecturesuch
as: benches, busandtramshelters, poster pillars, noticeboards, telephonebooths, fencing, power
distribution unit etc., are designed well and made of high quality materials, they significantly
influence the general appearance of a city. Uniformity and harmony of the adopted designs of
municipal furnitureisalsoveryimportant.
A catalogueof municipal furnitureaimedat systemisingits styleandcharacter dependingon
its purposeandlocationis beingdevelopedinWrocaw. Whilepublic transport stops shouldbe
identifiableintheareaof thewholecityandtheirstyleshouldbebasicallyuniform, theappearance
of, for instance, waste bins or bicycle racks, depends on the city area and the risk of possible
damage. Elementsof technical infrastructurearesubjecttoindustrial standardsandtheirappearance
sporadicallyhasapositiveinfluenceonaestheticqualities. Itisof lessimportanceinmoremodern
cityareas, wheresuchelementsas: powerdistributionunitsetc. arelessvisibleamongotherfittings,
e.g. modern-stylemunicipal furniture, however, technical infrastructureinthehistoricpart of the
137
City constitutes achallengeto peoplewanting to emphasisethehistoric character and aesthetic
qualities of such places. Moreover, elements of this type are often used to put advertisements
andannouncements. Oneof activitiestakentoprevent suchpracticesistheproposal tointroduce
poster pillars for inhabitants to placetheir small ads andinformationfor free. Fromthepoint of
view of aesthetic qualities, it is extremely important to plan necessary renovations and consult
time limits of works that lie within the competence of the City with owners of networks. For
instance, at the beginning of this year, a meeting of representatives of the City and owners of
networkswasheldatOstrowTumski inorder tocoordinaterenovationworks. Ownersof networks
wereobligedto check thetechnical conditionof their property andprovideinformationontime
limitsof possiblerenovations. Suchcoordinationof worksinthefieldof individual Cityareaswill
enablemoreeffectiveutilisationof resources of all entities operatingwithintheCity areainthe
future.
Another activity of thecity aimed at improving theaesthetic qualities of its technical infras-
tructure is to develop a uniformsystemof road signs. This type of activity supports both the
improvement of safety in theCity, and improvement of thelevel of identification of municipal
road signs, as well as of aesthetic qualities, e.g. by means of introducing a higher standard of
temporaryroadsigns. Theseassumptionsdeterminedthetermsandconditionsof atender for the
Municipal Information System. TheSpecification of theEssential Terms and Conditions of the
Orderpreciselydeterminestheselectionof materialstobeusedtomanufactureinformationboards
andthesupportingstructuresonwhichthey aretobeinstalled. Theform, dimensionsandcolour
schemeof roadsignswerespecified.TheSpecificationalsoincludedrecommendationsconcerning
themanufacturingtechnologyandguidelinesconcerningtransport andinstallationof information
boardsinorder toensurethehighestqualityandclarityof productstosupport, amongother things,
traffic safety. Thewholeplan was aimed at establishing auniformsystem, which apart from
fulfillingits informationfunction will guaranteesafety andaesthetic qualities. TheMunicipal
InformationSystemisultimatelyalsotoincludeall tourist informationsignscurrentlyexistingin
Wrocaw. Clear andreadablestreet signsandnewdesignsof addressplatesat buildingswill make
it easier for boththeinhabitants, andvisitorstomovearoundthecity. It will alsoshortenthetime
necessary for rescueservices and thepoliceto reach agiven address. Guiding boards for road
trafficwill supplement theexistingroadsignsystem. TheMunicipal InformationSystemistobe
aconvenient sourceof informationonpublic utility facilities, monuments, cultural facilities and
accessroadse.g. tooffices.
Lamppostsareequallyimportantelementsof technical infrastructure. Mostof themaremanaged
bymunicipal units. Inthiscase, attentiontoaestheticqualitiesandthematterof selectionof adequate
modelsof lampsmatchingthestyleof aspecificCityareaismuchlesscomplicated.Thematterof
aestheticqualitiesof elementsof infrastructurenot managedbythecityrequirescooperationwith
numerousentitiesand, unfortunately, therestill ismuchtobedoneinthisarea. TheCityprovides
illuminationsof buildingsattractivetotouriststogetherwithvariousentities.Thefirstilluminations
startedtoappear inWrocaw14yearsago, whenafragmentof theMarketplaceandtheUniversity
buildingwasilluminated.Then, attheendof 1996andatthebeginningof 1997, lightarrangements
appearedat Solny SquareandOstrowTumski. Sincethen, other sites gainnewappearanceeach
year. In2004, Wrocaworganisedacompetitionfortheconceptof illuminationof buildingslocated
alongtheOdraRiver. Thecompetition winner developedaconcept of illuminations of selected
facilitiesinWrocaw.Theconceptincludesilluminationsof 38facilities, includingbridges, islands,
boulevardsandselectedbuildingslocatedbytheOdraRiver.
4 DEPARTMENT OF URBANENGINEERING
In2007, asaresultof reorganisationof theMunicipalityof Wrocaw, theInvestmentandTechnical
Department (WIT) wastransformedintotheDepartment of UrbanEngineering. TheDepartment
tookoverthedutiesof WIT andextendeditsdutieswithtasksof theCityEngineer.TheDepartment
supervisestheoperationandproperfunctioningof Wrocawinitskeyareasandmonitorsthesystem
138
of collectinginformationconcerningthefunctioningof theCity.Anotherimportanttaskperformed
by theDepartment is coordinationof theactivity of administrators of all technical infrastructure
sectors, includingcooperationinassessingthereliability of servicesinthefieldof providingthe
city withelectricity, heat, gas, water, sewagecollection, wastemanagement. TheDepartment is
alsoresponsibleforassessmentof renovationplansinindividual sectors, coordinationof operating,
investmentandrenovationworks, improvementof safetyof Wrocawwithrespecttofloodhazard,
supervisionover operational respondinginemergencysituationsandrandomincidentsinthefield
of urbaninfrastructure.
In2007, theMayor of Wrocawestablishedthefunctionof theCityEngineer. A verysignificant
task of theEngineer is coordinationof development andinfrastructuremodernisationplans with
respect toindividual sectorsandcooperationwithall existingservicesresponsiblefor emergency
andcrisissituationsintheCity.
Theestablishmentof thistypeof positionwasaimedatensuringmoreefficientCitymanagement
aspart of itsresourcesandpossibilities.
REFERENCES
Dutkiewicz R. et al. 2006, Studyof Local FactorsandDirectionsof Spatial Development of Wrocaw, Reso-
lutionNo. LIV/3249/06of theWrocawCityCouncil of J uly6, 2006, Official J ournal of theWrocawCity
Council of J uly24, 2006No. 8, item253.
Ernst &Young, 2007, General track development planinWrocaw, Part I: General concept of tract transport
inWrocaw, Extendedversion, Warszawa.
HanysR., 2004, E-Wrocawodczegozacza
c?(E-Wrocawwhattostratwith?), Wrocaw2000PlusStudies
on thecity strategy, Book 4 (55) 2004, Wrocaw, theMunicipality of Wrocaw, Wrocaw Development
Office, p. 128.
MadryasC, KolonkoA., & Wysocki L., 2003, Poprawaefektywno sci wykorzystaniaprzestrzeni podziemnej
miasta dla umieszczania infrastruktury sieciowej (Improvement of the efficiency of the use of the city
underground spacefor network infrastructure), Wrocaw2000Plus Studies on thecity strategy, Book 7
(51) 2003, Wrocaw, theMunicipalityof Wrocaw, WrocawDevelopment Office, pp. 85130.
Wie
ckowski T. & Najnigier S., 2004, Czy Wrocaw potrzebuje miejskiej sieci teleinformatycznej? (Does
Wrocawneedamunicipal ICT network?), Wrocaw2000Plus Studies onthecity strategy, Book 4(55)
2004, theMunicipalityof Wrocaw, WrocawDevelopment Office, pp. 522.
139
Maintenanceof drainagesysteminfrastructurein
ButareTown, Rwanda
A. Karangwa
National University of Rwanda, Butare, Rwanda
ABSTRACT: The applicable legislative framework as regards management of wastewater in
Rwandaisnotyetdefined. Thecurrentseweragesystemdoesnotallowtheconnectionof domestic
wastewater fromthebuildings to thepublic stormdrainagenetwork. Any wastewater discharge
other thanrainwater, inthepublicsewersisprohibited. Vis-a-visthissituation, thetownof Butare
recommends that all thedomestic wastewater is collected and discharged into septic tanks and
soakawaysandthenjoiningthenatural environment throughgroundwater infiltration. According
totheimportanceof Butareitseemsthattheauthoritieshavetotakeactioninordertomodernizeits
basicinfrastructureandtomeet acceptabletechnical standards. Upgradingof water andsanitation
infrastructurehas thus becomeoneof thepriorities for theButaretown, especially becausethe
existing infrastructure is old and no longer sufficient. This paper looks at the sustainability of
current drainagesysteminfrastructureand maintenancepractices in Butare. Becauseof lack of
datainButare, especiallyintermsof maintenanceof infrastructure, afieldsurveywasconducted
in February and May 2008. The results showed that the water infrastructure suffered fromthe
problemsof corrosion, oldage, cracks, breakages, andthewater suppliedisgenerallynotadequate
forthetown.Theopendrainagesystemhadproblemsof siltation, poormaintenance, andinadequate
design capacity. Thedrainagenetwork infrastructurehadproblems relatedto poor coverage, no
institutional support for maintenanceand control, no public sanitation facilities, no regulations
and/or standards, etc. Fromthis it was concludedthat thedrainagenetwork inButareis critical
andnot sustainable. It was thereforerecommendedthat theauthorities shouldmakeacondition
inventoryof theinfrastructureandset uparehabilitationprogramme.
1 INTRODUCTION
Butareishavinga18%growthof thepopulation(source: HuyeDistrict).Thisgrowthisnotfollowed
bythedevelopmentof thebasicinfrastructuressuchasthenetworkof water andsanitation. For the
townof Butarebuildingsarenot servedbyawastewater collectingsystemandconsequentlythey
must treat onsitetheir wastewater beforedischargingthemintothenatural environment. Onlythe
drainagenetwork was plannedandunfortunately thedistrict does not havedataonthis network.
However, it is noticed that most of thestormwater drains arenot maintained. Theseissues are
associated with an ineffectiveinstitutional framework for theproper management of thewhole
water andsanitationinfrastructureswhichisnot inplace. Thispoor management isevidencedby
theoperationof thenetworkwhichcannotadequatelyconveytheexpectedloads. Thisobservation
gives theimpression that thesystemis not operating to expected standards and thereforethere
is aneedtoestablishaprogramof maintenancewhichwill beabletodeterminetheperiods and
type of intervention. This study aims at giving a contribution to the study of the maintenance
strategiesandmanagementof thewholeof theinfrastructuresof thedrainagesystemnetwork. This
studycouldof coursebeusedastoolsof referencetotheauthoritiesof theHuyeDistrict andany
personinterestedinthemanagement and/or themaintenanceof thedrainagenetwork. Theresults
of thisstudy moreover will makeit possibletore-examinethemeansof management of theflow
141
Figure1. Satelliteimageof Butare(www.maplandia.com/rwanda/butare/).
accordingtothepresent andfutureneeds. Theextent towhichtheseindividual componentscould
beinfluencedinorder toarriveat asustainableneedsfurther study.
2 MATERIALSANDMETHODS
2.1 The study area
ThemainstudyareaistheTownof Butare(Fig. 1). Butarewasthelargestandmostimportanttown
inRwandaprior to1965, whenit lost out tothemorecentrallylocatedKigali, 135kmtoitsnorth,
asthecapital of independentRwanda. Todaythesiteof several academicinstitutions, includingthe
countryslargestuniversity, Butareisatownwithapopulationof about77,000andisstill regarded
tobetheintellectual andcultural pulseof Rwanda.
ThedrainagesysteminButareisnot yet well developedandisnot availablefor all residents. In
general, Butareislackingadequatedrainageinfrastructureandaclear maintenancestrategy. The
lack of goodmanagement andthepossibility to haveeffectivecost recovery areusually blamed
to lack of financial resources. Therefore, it is important to haveinsight inthebudget allocation
mechanisms, budgetconstraints, costrecoverymechanisms, subsidiesandmaintenancestrategies.
A model onhowtoproceedwasgivenbyKok andcanbeapplyinthecontext of drainagesystem
investment.
Special attentionis to bepaidto lifecyclecostingprocess so that thedistrict authorities will
beabletoplanthemaintenancesactivitiesintime. Thefollowingchart showshowthedecisionof
maintenanceactivitiescouldbetaken(Koket al, 2003).
Inpractice, applyingthelifecycleapproachmeans developingscenarios for eachinvestment
opportunityandforecastingall expendituresduringitsentirelifecycle.
Whencomparingaset of alternativeinvestments, aDistrict decision-maker intuitivelyisfocus
uponinitial capital costs. Thebasic ideabehindthelifecyclecostingtechniqueisthentolook at
thebalancebetweeninitial andfutureexpenditures of aninvestment project. Thepresentedhere
model will helptheDistrict decisionmakerstotakeanoptimal action.
2.2 Approach, data collection and analysis
For thepurposeof analysis, threeexistingcomponentsof thewater sanitationinfrastructurewere
identified. Theseare: (1) unlinedopenchannels, (2) linedopenchannelsor riprapand(3) concrete
pipeline. Thestudyconsideredmainlystructural andhydraulical parameters, focusingontechnical
142
Generating investment alternatives
Determining the period
of inspection
Forecasting cash flows
Applying financial appraisal techniques
Investment decision (maintenance) Risk analysis
Figure2. Thelifecyclecostingprocess.
stateandmaintenancepractices. A detailedassessment of damagesfor drainageinfrastructuresin
general wasdealt withinseparatestudy (Karangwa, 1999andMadryaset al, 2002). Thecurrent
papershowsthestateof existingdrainagesysteminButareandmaintenancepractices. Considering
thefact that Butaredoesnot haveaseweragesystembut stormwater drainageonly, thisstudywill
concentrate mainly on the network of rainwater collection. The collection of rainwater by the
existing stormwater drainage systemis done by infiltration (unlined open channels) and/or by
gravitytowardsariver.Thequestionof sustainabilityof drainagesysteminfrastructureisdiscussed
incontext of itsadequacyof theinfrastructuretomeet current andfutureloads.
3 RESULTS
Inorder tofindout thereal stateof thedrainageinfrastructureinButare, aninspectionwasmade
inFebruary andMay 2008. Thespecific objectivewas to evaluatethedamages andproposethe
maintenancestrategy. Becauseof thenatureof Butaresdrainageinfrastructure, thevisual inspection
wasenoughfor determiningthestateof theabovementionedinfrastructure.
3.1 Unlined open channel
Thiscategoryoccupiesapproximately75%of thewholeof thenetwork. Thiskindof infrastructure
shows howpoor is theinvestment in water sanitation infrastructures. In addition to that is lack
of budget for maintenanceof existinginfrastructures. Theinspectionwas conductedinFebruary
andMay2008andtheresultsconcludedthat thechannelsareinverybadtechnical stateinterms
structural design, strengthandhydraulically discharge. Thephotographs takenat thetimeof the
inspectionshowtheactual stateandconfirmthat thesystemdoesnot functionproperlyduetothe
lackof maintenance.
AccordingtotheobservationmadeintheperiodfromJ anuarytoMay2008, itseemsthatatleast
amonthlymaintenanceisneededif thechannel hastobeinacceptabletechnical state.
Thepicturenr 1showsthestateafter cleaningandgrassplantingonthesideslopes. Thepicture
nr2showsthechannel withgrasses.Ascanbeseenonpicturenr2, theproposedchannel protection
measures disturbtheflowvelocity andcontributenot only to thestoppingof thewastebut also
to thedeformationof channels geometrical form. Accordingto theButaretownauthorities, the
mosaic vegetationpatternresults fromdifferences inhydro-morphology of theregionandgrass
plantingactivitieshavetomaintainmainlytheedgesof theunlinedopenchannels. Inthissituation
143
Photo1. Grazing of the cleaned storm
drainage.
Photo2. Drainage infrastructure with
grasses.
Photo3. Lined open channel on unpaved
road.
Photo4. Linedopenchannel onpavedroad.
thestrengthof thebedandedgesprotectionagainst erosionisdefinedbytheflowconditionsand
thestrengthandthetypeof soil. Thesustainability of theunlinedopenchannels is basedonthe
rainseasonandtheintensityof rain. Thismeansthatthemaintenancestrategyshouldconsider rain
seasonasanimportant parameter inmaintenanceplanning.
3.2 Lined open channel (riprap)
Thiscategoryoccupiesabout20%of theButaresrainwaternetwork.Thesechannelsareconstructed
instonesand/or bricksandaregenerallyingoodstateincomparisonwiththefirst category. One
of themainproblems notedduringtheinspectionis that thechannels arenot regularly cleaned.
Amongst theobservationswereamuddeposit of soil, solidwaste, etc. Thefollowingphotographs
showsomeof theButaresriprapchannels.
The above presented pictures show the cracks, siltation and corrosion of concrete and these
damages areobservedinmany places of this drainagesystem. This kindof damagewill slowly
reducethelinedopenchannel constructiontoatotal destructionif nonmaintenanceisdoneinnear
future.
144
3.3 Concrete and reinforced concrete pipeline
Theconcreteand/or reinforcedconcretepipelineoccupiesabout 5%of thetotal drainagesystem.
Thepipelineisusedinthecentreof thecityandinculvertconstructions.Alsothiscategorypresents
manydamages. Thephotographsbellowshowthedecreaseof strength(structural degradation) as
afunctionof alongperiodwithout maintenance.
Themostimpairmentobservedarecracks, partial and/or total destruction, corrosion, deposition
of soil andsolidwaste, poor inlet construction/cover, exposedpipes, poor pipejoint construction,
etc.Thepicture5showshowthecurrentstateof pipelineneedsanurgentattention.Thereplacement
of thepipelineisrequiredtoensurealonganddurableservicelife.
Photo5. Crackedpipe. Photo6. Grateddrainageinlet pit.
Table1. Resultsof stormdrainagenetworkinspection.
Most observed
Category damages Pictureillustration Technical state
Grazingtheunlinedchannel Nonregular bad
dimensions,
Erosion,
Sediment,
Tall grasses
Unlinedchannel Tall grasses, verybad
Strippedchannel
(Continued)
145
Table1. (Continued)
Most observed
Category damages Pictureillustration Technical state
Pipeunder publiclight Sediment deposit, Verybad
Cloggingof
culvert pipes
Linedopenchannel Grassesin good
channel,
wrench, cracks,
corrosionof
concrete
J unctionopenchannel Structural bad
witharoad degradationof
pipeandedge,
strippedpipe,
stonesor wall
wrench
Concretepipe cracks, Verybad
corrosion, pipe
without ground
cover, partial
destruction
It was also notedthat thepipelineis usedespecially alongsidetheroadButareAkanyaruand
under theroadintheplacesof junctionof thecanal withtheroad.
TheobserveddamagesarepresentedinTable1. Generallytherainwaternetworkischaracterized
byalackof maintenance, destructionof thepipe, lackof protection, etc.
4 DISCUSSION
Deteriorationof adrainagenetworkinfrastructureinButareisafunctionof itsphysical useandthe
passageof time. Itnonethatdeteriorationcanbecontrolledtosomeextentbytheprovisionof high
146
quality components and high levels of maintenance. According to theresults of theinspection,
the technical state of the drainage network infrastructure in Butare town is critical. A detailed
analysis revealedthefollowingdefects (seetheTable1): partial or total destructionof thepipes,
poor joint construction, cloggedpipes, cracks, lack of regular cleaning(excessivedepositionof
waste), destroyedand/ormissingcovers. Otherproblemsalsoincludetall grassesindrainsandpoor
slopingof unlineddrains. ThephotographsinTable1illustratethelevel of structural degradation.
Thetechnical stateof therainwater network infrastructureisthereforedescribedasbeingvery
badandinterventionsshouldbeinstitutedasamatterof urgency. Thedelayinremedial actionswill
result intheaccelerateddegradationof thedrainagestructureandtheroadnetworkinthedistrict.
5 CONCLUSION
1. Thedeteriorationof thedrainagesysteminfrastructureinButareneedsurgent attention. Most
notablytheambitioustargetssetfordrainagesystemupgradingarestill notrealized.Theresults
of inspectionindicatethat thesewerageinfrastructureneedsastructural rehabilitationtomeet
therequirementsof Butaresdrainagesystemnetwork.
2. Thegoodmaintenanceandmanagement haveanimpact ondurabilityof thedrainagesystem,
roadsandsafetyof thetownsresidents.
3. Thestandards for themanagement of all theelements that contributetothedrainagesystem
maintenancehavetobedevelopedthroughrisk assessment takingintoconsiderationthereal
stateof theinfrastructureinordertomeetthecorerequirementsof wasteandrainwaterdrainage.
6 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The creation of an enabling environment with appropriate policy and legal frameworks is
required; policyissuestobeaddressedincludeafocusonsustainabledevelopment, anddrainage
infrastructureandeconomicprinciples,
2. Institutional development, preferablybuildingonexistinginstitutions; includesnational, local,
governmental, publicandprivateinstitutions, andcommunityparticipation,
3. Human resources development; includes training, career development and performance
incentives, andstrengtheningof managerial systemsat all levels,
4. Creatingandkeepinguptodateaccurateinventoriesof seweragesystemnetwork, and
5. CreatingaDistrictsinfrastructureMaintenanceManagement System.
REFERENCES
Karangwa A. (1999) Optymalizacja doboru technologii rehabilitacji betonowych konstrucji przewodow
kanalizacyjnych, Pracadoktorska, Wroclaw, Polska
KokM. et al (2003) Asset Management, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, TheNetherlands
MadryasC., KolonkoA., Wysocki L., (2002) Konstrucjeprzewodowkanalizacyjnych, OficynaWydawnicza
Politechniki Wroclawskiej, Wroclaw, Polska.
147
Contact zoneinmicrotunnelingpipelines
A. Kmita& R. Wrblewski
Wrocaw University of Technology, Institute of Building Engineering, Wrocaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Contact zoneof thepipesinajackingpipelineisoneof thecritical pointswhich
decideon thedistancewhich may bedrilled formonewell do another. Theproblemof alocal
crushingcapacityinthiszoneof twojackingpipesispresentedinthepaper. Standardcalculations
indicate too optimistic values of the local crushing capacity for this particular case which was
concluded fromanumerical analysis. This analysis was preformed on threedimensional model
withuseof finiteelement method.
1 INTRODUCTION
A reviewof productsofferedfor thepipelines constructionaveryintensiveincreaseof production
of precast pipesisnoticedintherecent period, particularly for microtunneling. Thisisaspecific
groupof elementswhichdesignisverydifferentthandesignof pipesusedintheexcavationmethod.
A difficult task for designersof suchelementsaredesignprinciplesintroducedinnewstandards
andveryrapidtechnological progressinnewgenerationmaterials.
Sincethesubjectcoversaverywidefieldthepaperpresentsselectedissuesof reinforcedconcrete
pipesdesignwithparticularattentionpaidtothecontactzone.Thiszoneisoneof thecritical points
whichdecideonthedistancewhichmaybedrilledformonewell doanother. Fromthecontractor
pointof viewthisdistanceisoneof themostimportantparametersof thepipewhichhasaninfluence
onthecost of thepipelineconstruction. Andthis is thegenesis of theresearchontechnological
conceptswhichleadtoresist anarbitraryjackingforceinthecontact zoneof twopipes. Themost
popular methodtoincreasethejackingforceinthereinforcedconcretepipesisapplicationof high
strengthconcrete.
2 CHARACTERISTICSOF THE PRECATSJACKINGPIPESCONCRETE ELEMENTS
Designandconstructionof thejackedpipelinesrequiresconsiderationof specificloadsystemboth
inconstructionandexploitationphasewhichis reflectedfor exampleinthereinforcement used.
InFigure1anexampleof theleadingpipereinforcement is presentedandadetail of thepipes
connectionispresentedinFigure2.
Themicro tunnelingtechniqueenables constructionof thepipelines curvedinhorizontal and
vertical planes. Thecurvatureradiusisdeterminedwiththepipesdiameter, lengthandthedivider
thickness(Scherle1977) whichisillustratedinFigure3, where:
tan
l
R

s
D
a
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l
(1)
149
6
2
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8 I 1062
2
8
8
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5
0
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3000
8 I 1050
2
8
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6
0
0
.
0
9
1
6
0
1
6
0
Figure1. Reinforcement of theleadingpipeDN1400.
1
6
0
3000 18
230
130
140
1
0
3000
1
7
2
0
1
6
9
6
1
4
0
0
1
7
2
0
Figure2. Detail of thepipes connection.
D
o
R
S
f
I
Figure3. Parametersfor thecurvatureevaluation.
150
3 MAXIMUM JACKINGFORCE
Construction of the curved pipelines requires analysis of the pipes capacity In local compres-
sionandas acompressedeccentrically loadedelement. InFigure4aschematic loadsystemfor
theaxially (straight-linepipeline) andeccentrically loaded(curvedpipeline) separateelement is
presented.
For eccentric compressiontwocasesfor thecontact zonearedistinguished: closedconnection
and opened connection. Depending on the resultant force position (PN-EN-1916. 2004) stress
distributionpresentedinFigure4areachieved.
Accordingtothenotationof PN-EN-1916. 2004jackingforcesareevaluatedasfollows:
Maximumtheoretical allowablejackingforceF
jmax
(nodeviations, jackingsurfacesareperfectly
parallel):
F
j max
= 0.6f
ck
A
c
with (F
j
F
j max
) (2)
Partial safetyfactor for concreteisequal 1,67.
Maximumjackingforcefor closedconnectionF
cj
F
cj
= 0.5F
j max
(3)
F
cj
= 0.3f
ck
A
c
(4)
Maximumjackingforcefor openedconnectionF
oj
F
oj
= 0.3f
ck
e A
c
with (F
oj
= e F
cj
) and e 1 (5)
where: e =afunctionof theresultant forceeccentricity z, internal andexternal diameter of the
pipe d
i
andd
e
.
Thevalueof e iscalculatedor maybeobtained, tosimplifythecalculation, for z/d
e
fromgraphs
givenfor exampleinPN-EN-1916. 2004or inPrEN1916. 1999.
If oneconsider for anarbitrary caseof connectionthepipecapacity calculatedfromthelocal
crushingconditionandcapacityof compressedelementitisevidentthatthelocal crushingdecides.
To determine a maximumlength between the wells (jacking distance L) in a pipeline it is
necessary to evaluatethemaximumjacking force. Theapproximatejacking forceaccording to
ChapmannD. N. & J chiokaY. 1999hasfulfill thefollowingequation:
F = f
0
+ d
e
P L (6)
f
0
= (D
o
)
2

4
P
o
(7)
0
.
6
f
c
k
1 2
Figure4. Stressdistributionfor: 1 openedconnection, 2 closedconnection.
151
with: F =total jacking force, f
o
=primary resistance, P =Frictional resistance along pipe,
L =jackingdistance, D
o
=outer diameter of excavation, P
o
=faceresistance.
4 STRESSANALYSISINTHE CONTACT ZONE
Proper design of the contact zone requires not only calculation of the maximumforce for the
giveneccentricitybut alsostressdistributioninthecontact zoneisnecessary. Todeterminestress
distributioninthiszonenumerical analysiswasperformed.Theanalysiswasbasedonfiniteelement
method with useof Lusas 2008 software. Threedimensional model of thepipeconnection was
developedaspresentedinFigure5. Thetoppart wasdrivenintothebottomone.
Twoapproachesweremadefor theanalysis. Inbothcaseslinear elasticmaterial propertieswere
assumedfor thepipes concrete, steel ring, woodendivider, rubber divider andrubber gasket. In
thesimplified model thereis no contact zonebetween thedividers and thepipes, elements are
connectedinnodes. For theadvancedmodel thecontact zonewasassumed. Inthefirst caseboth
compression and tension are transmitted through the contact zone but in the second case only
compressionistransmittedsotheopenconnectionmight beproperlymodeled. Unfortunatelythe
secondmodel failedtoconvergeunder eccentricloadingandonlyresultsformthefirst model are
presented.
A seriesof calculationsweremadetoobtainstressdistributioninthecontact zonefor various
jackingloadeccentricities. Theloadlevel wasassumedtoachieve0.8f
ck
. Typical stressdistribution
inthesectionof thepipeispresentedinFigure6. Compressivestressconcentrationsareobservedat
theareaclosetothetopsurfaceof thewoodendivider. Thisistheareawereanextrareinforcement
for local crushingmightbenecessary. Thedepthof thisconcatenationisapproximatelyequal 5cm,
whichismeasuredfromFigure7, andisindependent fromtheloadeccentricity.
UnlikeassumedinPN-B-03264. 2002stressdistributionover thepipeperimeter isnotlinear, so
thecalculationsmayoverestimatethelocal crushingcapacity(thiscapacityisthelargestoneamong
all theforcespresentedinTable1). AsonecannoticeinFigures6and7largecompressivestresses
appear abovethewoodendivider. Thisistheareawhereinsomecasesanextrareinforcement for
local crushingmaybynecessary.
Figure5. Threedimensional model of thepipesconnection.
152
Figure6. Stress distribution in a section of the pipes connection. Stress along the pipes length (blue
compression, red tension).
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 0,5
Distance x [m]
A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

[
k
P
a
]
e0.78m
e0.624m
e0.468m
e0.312m
e0.156m
e0
Figure7. Stress distribution along the pipe length for various load eccentricities e (x=0.5m contact
surface). Horizontal sectionabovethewoodendivider showninFig. 6.
Table1. Thepipes capacities(concreteC40/50).
DN600/130 DN1400/160 DN2200/200
Loadingas Loadingas Loadingas
Axial for closed Axial for closed Axial for closed
DN/thickness loading connection loading connection loading connection
Local crushingacc. kN 6618 4412 17408 11605 33476 22317
toPN-B-03264. 2002
Capacityof RC kN 5024 3765 13320 9696 25388 18106
compressedelement
F
jmax
| F
cj
kN 5141 2571 14679 7340 29880 14940
153
5 CONCLUSIONS
Theresultspresentedinthepaperindicatethatstandardcalculationsaretoooptimisticinestimation
of thelocal crushingcapacityfor connectionof twojackingpipes. Thisconclusionarisesfromthe
analysisof thenumerical simulationbecausestressdistributionisverydifferentfromtheassumed
inthestandardcalculations. Largecompressivestressappear abovethedivider andthisisthearea
wereanextrareinforcement shouldbeplacedor particular attentionshouldbepiedinadesign.
Theareainwhichthis extrareinforcement shouldbeplacedis approximately equal to two wall
thickness.
REFERENCES
ScherleM. 1977. Rohrvortrieb. Sattik, Plannung, Ausfuhrung. Band 2. Wiesbaden und Berlin: Bauverlag
Gmbh.
KmitaA. et al. 2001. Prefabrykowanerury zelbetowestosowanedo mikrotunelingu. InDiagnostyka, utrzy-
manie, remonty, modernizacje oraz budowa obiektw budowlanych na terenie Lubi nskiego Zagebia
Miedziowego. Wrocaw: WydawnictwoPolitechniki Wrocawskiej.
Kmita A. 2005. Problemy projektowania rur i ksztatek betonowych w swietle obowia
zuja
cych norm i
przepiswbudowlanych. InInfrastruktura podziemna miast. IX Konferencja naukowo-techniczna. Prace
naukowe Instytutu In zynierii Ladowej Politechniki Wrocawskiej Nr 53/20. Wrocaw: Wydawnictwo
Politechniki Wrocawskiej.
PN-EN-1916. 2004. Rury i ksztatki z betonu niezbrojonego, betonu zbrojonego wknemstalowymi zelbetowe.
Warszawa: PKN.
PrEN1916. 1999. Concrete pipes and fittings unreinforced steel fibre and reinforced. CEN.
ATV_A 161E. 1990. Structural Calculation of Driven Pipes. GFA.
PN-B-03264. 2002. Konstrukcje betonowe, zelbetowe i spre zone. Obliczenia statyczne i projektowanie.
Warszawa: PKN.
Beckmann D. et al. 2007. Co J ack A new statics method of computing and controlling pipejacking. In
Tunneling and Underground Space Technology 22. Elsevier.
ChapmannD. N. &J chiokaY. 1999. Predictionof jackingforcesfor microtunnelingoperations. InTrenchless
Technology Research vol. 14, No. 1. Elsevier Science.
Lusas2008. Lusas Finite Element System. User Manual version 14. KingstonuponThames: FEA Ltd.
154
Effect of variableenvironmental conditionsonheavymetalsleaching
fromconcretes
A. Krl
Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland
ABSTRACT: Themorecommon useof alternativefuels and mineral additions in thecement
industry and in the process of concrete manufacturing constitute the reasons for the increased
focus ontheimpact of theenvironmental conditions onthelevel of heavy metals leachingfrom
concretes. Such assessments should involveavariety of environmental factors which affect the
concretesduringtheir normal servicelife.
Thispaper undertakesthesubjectof thelevel of heavymetalsleachingfromconcretesbasedon
thePortlandcement andPortlandfly ashcement. Thefactor associatedwiththeeffect of various
environmental factorsonheavymetalsleachinghasbeenparticularlytakenintoconsiderationover
extensiveresearchperiods. Hence, theeffect of thereducedpHof theaquaticenvironment onthe
level of heavymetalsleachingwasrecorded. Theconcreteswerealsosubjectedtotheimpactof sea
water environment andheavymetalsleachabilitylevelsweretaken. Theleachingwasdetermined
bothfromthemonolithicandgroundedconcreteforms.
1 INTRODUCTION
The major components of cements in commercial use include CaO, SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, SO
3
,
K
2
O, Na
2
O, TiO
2
and P
2
O. Theadmixtureof traceelements in cements depends essentially on
the incidence of natural raw materials (limestone, clay, sand, iron ore and gypsumore as well
as fossil fuels). Thepartial replacement of thesenatural resources by alternativefuels and raw
materials, whicharerecoveredfromselectedwastestreamsandindustrial by-products, mayresult
invariationsdependingontheir traceelement contentsandtheproportionused.
Thecontact of thecement-based construction materials (concrete, mortar) with water during
normal servicelife, recycling, anddisposal mayresultinanincreaseof leachingof traceelements.
Research undertaken on refuse-derived fuel in theco-incineration process examined thepoten-
tial environmental impact of heavy metals produced in the co-incineration process (Gendebien
et al. 2003).
Themorecommonuseof alternativefuelsandfuelsfromwastesstreamsinthecementindustry
andintheprocessof concretemanufacturinghasencouragedinterest intothesubject of theeffect
of environment relatedconditionsonthelevel of heavymetalsleachingfromconcretes. Whilethe
impact andtheproperties of silicafly ashandgranulatedblast furnaceslagdoes not oncement
raiseanydoubt, theassessment of theenvironmental effectsof thecement product basedonthem
remains along way frombeing comprehensive. Thereason for that is associated with thelong
durationof theprocessof studynecessaryfor theassessment of theheavymetalsreleaseintothe
natural environment. Theamounts of hazardous substances released into theenvironment from
concreteconstructionsisaffectedby anumber of factors, whichincludethetypeof theconcrete
sample(monolithic, ground)andtheenvironmentrelatedfactorsassociatedwiththecontactsurface
(ground, water, waste, chemically aggressive environment) (Dijkstra et al. 2005). The level of
heavy metals leachingfromtheconcretes is also determinedfromthestructureof thehardened
155
concrete, inparticular thecompositionsof theconcretemixture(i.e. mainlythecontentandtypeof
cement). Thehugeroleintheprocessof heavymetalsbindingisattributedtotheC-S-Hphaseand
thecalciumaluminateandsulfoaluminatehydrates, thephases whichoriginatefromtheprocess
of cement hydratation. As a result, the porousness of the hardened paste is decreased together
withthemobility of theheavy metals (Glasser. 1994). Theentiresystemof researchshouldalso
accountforthevariousenvironmentrelatedcharacteristicswhichaffectthematerial ortheconcrete
construction. Itisalsoindispensabletoassessthereleaseof thehazardoussubstancesovertheentire
servicelifeof theconcretematerials(fromthemanufacturing, throughexploitationuntil theend
of life andtheopportunitytorecycleor reusethematerials).
Theeffect onthelevel of heavymetalsleachingfromthematerial or concretestructureissub-
jectedtotheconditionsof itsexposition(i.e. applicationscenarios).Thelistincludessixconditions
of concreteexposition; however, thecombinationsaresometimesthecase(Dijkstraet al. 2005):
granulatedmaterialsplacedinsideor onthegroundsurface,
monolithicmaterialsplacedinsideor onthegroundsurface,
monolithic forms exposed to aquatic and dry environment (e.g. exposition to rainfall and
sunlight),
loosegranulatedmaterial e.g. crushedconcretewithvariousparticlesize,
pipes(e.g. for supply of drinkingwater) placedintheground(theleachingof heavy metalsis
possiblebothintothewater streamandthesurroundingground),
monolithicformsexposedtoaquaticenvironment (e.g. coastal constructions).
Thedetermination of theformin which theconcretewill occur along with theenvironment
relatedfactorsarerelevant duetothecomplexityof theleachingprocesses, whichcanaccompany
eachof thescenarios. Thereleaseof heavy metals fromconcretematerials may involveboththe
leachingfromtheexternal surfaceof theconcreteas well as solution, perlocationanddiffusion.
Concurrently, onehastobear inmindthat thelevel of theheavymetalsleachingwill bedifferent
for monolithic forms in thepermanent contact with aquatic environment fromthelevel for the
identical concreteformsincontactwiththesoil. Hence, prior tothebeginningof theassessmentof
theleachinglevel fromconcretematerialsit isnecessarytotakeintoconsiderationtheconditions
of theexposition(vander Sloot. 2000).
For the purposes of this research the material based on cement products and concretes will
beconsidered amonolith. This means that theleaching is constrained dueto conditions of the
transportation. Sincethediffusionof theionsfromtheinterior of thematrixtotheenvironment is
alengthyprocess. Thetest selectedfor thepurposesof thisstudyiscalledthetankleachtest. The
leachabilitycanbemodeledinthefirstapproachbyaone-dimensional diffusionmodel inorder to
assessreleaseover longer time- scalesthanthedurationof theleachingtest (vander Sloot. 2000).
Inthesecondlifeof cement-basedproductsmechanical demolitionor bydegradationwill result
in the reduction of particle size. The material can either be used as bound aggregate in new
concreteor anunboundaggregate. Whenthematerial isappliedasaboundaggregateinconcrete,
it isnecessarytoassesstheleachabilityof thenewproduct, whichwill besimilar tothecourseof
actiononthespecimenstestedintheir intact form(vander Sloot. 2000). Thelong-termproperties
of cement-based products in their second lifein unbound formareassessed with theaid of the
commonlyavailabletesting(e.g. methodreferredtoinEN12457-4:2002standard).
2 MATERIALSANDMETHODS
Theconductedresearchinvolvedthedesignanddevelopmentof concreteswiththeuseof: Portland
cementtypeCEMI 32,5R; PortlandcementwithflyashCEMII/B-V32,5R-HSR(contentof flyash
amountedtoca. 30%).Thechemical compositionof thecementsusedintheresearchissummarized
inTable1. Table2containsthecontentof heavymetalsinthePortlandcementandPortlandcement
withflyash.
156
Table1. Chemical compositionof cementsusedinresearches.
Content, %
Chemical composition CEM I 32,5R CEM II/B-V 32,5R-HSR
Lossonignition 3.46 3.71
CaO 64.60 48.11
SiO
2
19.20 27.10
Al
2
O
3
4.69 10.84
Fe
2
O
3
3.04 3.93
MgO 1.22 1.61
SO
3
2.65 1.95
K
2
O 0.81 1.41
Na
2
O 0.09 0.39
Cl
0.047 0.037
Table2. Content of heavymetalsincementsusedinresearches.
Content, mg/kg
Heavymetals CEM I 32,5R CEM II/B-V 32,5R-HSR
Zn 316 262
Cr 54 52
Ni 18 26
Pb 24 31
Cu 60 54
Figure1. Principles of placingconcretesampleinacontainer inaccordancewiththeEA NEN 7375:2004
standard.
The composition of the concreter mixture was as follows: cement 300.0kg/m
3
; sand
685.2kg/m
3
; gravel 28mm 600.4kg/m
3
; gravel 816mm 628.6kg/m
3
; water
180,0kg/m
3
; water/cement ratio(w/c) inthetwomixtureswas0.6.
Theresulting mixtureserver as thematerial for formation of 101010cmcubes. After 24
hoursthesampleswereremovedfromthemouldandsubsequentlysubjectedtoleachingtests.
Theaqueousextractsfromconcretesweretakenbyvariousmethods, whichcomesasaresultof
simulatingvariouslifestagesof concreteandtheeffect of environment relatedfactors:
method I procedurefollows on fromthemethodology in thestandard EA NEN 7375:2004
standard. This test involves the preparation of aqueous extract froma monolithic sample. The
concretecubes areplaced on pillars, henceenabling themto remain in contact with theliquid
acrosstheentiresurfaceof thesample(Fig. 1).
157
Thevolumeof theliquidwhichisusedtoimmersethesamplemust not besmaller thantwice
thevolumeof theexaminedsampleandistobedeterminedinaccordancewiththeformula(1).
2V
p
V 5V
p
(1)
where: V
p
volumeof sample, V volumeof liquid.
Intheconductedexaminationstheconcretesamplewasplacedinacontainer holding4litersof
distilledwater. Thetotal durationof thetest amountedto64daysandwasdividedinto8research
periods (0.25; 1; 2,25; 4; 9; 16; 36; 64 days). After each of theresearched periods an aqueous
extract was takenfromthecontainer andtheliquidwas replaced. After theperiodof thetesting
thesampleswerekept indistilledwater for aperiodof 360days. Thecontent of heavymetalswas
subsequentlytakenintheresultingextracts.
This test is a procedure to evaluate the release frommonolithic material by predominantly
diffusioncontrol (e.g., exposureof structurestoexternal influences).
method II modified method I theleaching liquid was acidified with HNO
3
until pH=4
wasgained. Thismethodillustratestheeffectof anaggressiveenvironmentwithalowpH(acid
rain, reduced acidity of ground) on thelevel of heavy metal ion leaching. At thesametime,
pH=4mustbenotedtobetheboundarylevel of expositionof concreteclassXA3(strongacid
chemical environment) inaccordancewithPN-EN206-1standard,
methodIII modifiedmethodI astheleachingliquidwasseawater preparedinaccordance
withENV 196-X:1995. Inorder toprepareseawater thefollowingadmixtureof substancesis
tobesolvedineach1000gof distilledwater:
Sodiumchloride(NaCl) 30,0g
MagnesiumchlorideMgCl
2
6H
2
O) 6,0g
Magnesiumsulfate(MgSO
4
7H
2
O) 5,0g
Calciumsulfate(CaSO
4
2H
2
O) 1,5g
Potassiumbicarbonate(KHCO
3
) 0,2g
method IV specified in standard EN 12457-4:2002 Characterisation of waste Leaching
Compliancetest for leachingof granular wastematerialsandsludges Part 4: Onestagebatch
ataliquidtosolidratioof 10l/kgfor materialswithparticlesizebelow10mm(withoutor with
sizereduction). Water extractsweremadeon100g samplesof concrete, reducedtoparticle
grain sizeunder 10mm. Thematerial was flooded with leaching liquid (distilled water with
pH=7) andsubjectedtotheprocessof leaching(agitation) for 24hours. Weight ratioof water
(L) to solid mass (S) was 10 (L/S=10). This method was applied for thesimulation of the
applicationscenarioswhichconcernthegranulatedformsof concretes(e.g. crushedconcrete).
TheresearchwasbasedonthegroundedconcretesbasedonthePortlandcement andPortland
flyashcement. Theconcreteswereleft tomatureinlaboratoryover 360days.
methodV samples of concreteafter 360days of settingweresubjectedto leachingprocess
by theapplicationof modifiedversionof methodIV sinceacidifiedliquidHNO
3
topH=4
wasusedfor thepreparationof water extract. Thismethodsimulatedtheinfluenceof aggressive
mediumwithlowpH(e.g. acidraininenvironment, aggressiveundergroundwater) onthelevel
of heavymetalsionsleaching. Thismethodillustratestheimpact of anaggressiveenvironment
withreducedpHonthegroundconcrete.
Thecontentof heavymetalsinwaterextractsreceivedduringcarriedtestswasdeterminedthanks
toemissionspectrometer withplasmainductivelyexcitedICP-AES.
3 RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
Thetotal concentrationof heavy metals inwater extract fromconcretes takenafter 64days with
methodI aresummarizedinTable3. Table4containstheleachabilityof heavymetalsfromliquid
environment withpH=4.
158
Table3. Heavy metals concentration in water extracts from concretes (monolithic concrete
sample) 64days.
Concentrationof heavymetals
inwater extracts, mg/kg
Concreteon
Concreteon CEM II/B-V Permissible Permissible
Heavymetals CEM I 32,5R 32,5R-HSR value* value**
Zn 0.01169 0.01558 3.0
Cr 0.0155 0.01235 0.05 0.05
Ni 0.00333 0.00136 0.02 0.05
Pb 0.00181 0.00145 0.025 0.05
Cu 0.00781 0.00992 2.0 0.05
* AccordingtoCouncil Directive(98/83/EC) thequalityof water intentedfor humanconsumption
**AccordingtoCouncil Directive(75/440/EEC) permissibleheavymetalsconcentrationinwaters
with A1category (surface waters requiring simple physical treatment, in particular filtering and
disinfection)
Table4. Heavy metals concentration in water extracts from concretes (monolithic concrete
sample) 64days/liquidenvironment withpH=4.
Concreteon
Concreteon CEM II/B-V Permissible Permissible
Heavymetals CEM I 32,5R 32,5R-HSR value* value**
Zn 0.01173 0.01913 3.0
Cr 0.0158 0.01283 0.05 0.05
Ni 0.00156 0.00138 0.02 0.05
Pb 0.00198 0.00164 0.025 0.05
Cu 0.00827 0.01197 2.0 0.05
* AccordingtoCouncil Directive(98/83/EC) thequalityof water intentedfor humanconsumption
**AccordingtoCouncil Directive(75/440/EEC) permissibleheavymetalsconcentrationinwaters
with A1category (surface waters requiring simple physical treatment, in particular filtering and
disinfection)
Theanalysisof thegainedresultsindicatesthattheamountsof heavymetalsreleasedfromcon-
cretesaresmall.Thedifferencesregardingthelevel of leachabilityforthesamplesplacedindistilled
water andpH=4aqueousenvironment aresimilar (Tables3and4). Thecomparisonbetweenthe
recordedlevelsof heavymetalsleachingandadmissiblevaluesof heavymetalsconcentrationsin
watersgroupA1inaccordancewithEuropeanCouncil Directive(75/440/EEC) regardingquality
requirementswhichsurfacefreshwaterusedorintendedforuseintheabstractionof drinkingwater
afterphysical treatmentthroughfiltrationanddisinfectionindicatethatthelevelsdonotcontravene
theregulationsinforce.
Concretes inmonolithic forms wereleft to beexposedto leachingliquid(distilledwater and
water acidifiedwithHNO
3
) over 360days. After thatperiodthewater extracthavebeentaken. The
concentrationof heavymetalsafter 360daysof test durationissummarizedinTable5.
TheliquidwithareducedpH leadstoanincreasedlevel of zinc leachinginconcretebasedon
cement typeCEM I; however, theleachingof chromium, nickel andleadislower. For thecaseof
159
Table5. Heavy metals concentration in water extracts fromconcretes (monolithic concrete
sample) 360days.
Concentrationof heavymetals Concentrationof heavymetals
inwater extracts, mg/kg inwater extracts, mg/kg
(leachingliquidof pH=4)
Concreteon
Concreteon CEM II/B-V Concreteon ConcreteonCEM
Heavymetals CEM I 32,5R 32,5R-HSR CEM I 32,5R II/B-V 32,5R-HSR
Zn 0.021 0.031 0.036 0.031
Cr 0.034 0.059 0.022 0.073
Ni 0.021 0.034 0.012 0.023
Pb 0.063 0.037 0.019 0.011
Cu 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.009
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
0,45
Zn Cr Ni Pb Cu
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g
/
l
CEM I (s.w.)
CEM I (d.w.)
Figure2. Comparisonbetweenheavymetal concentrationsinwater extract fromconcretesbasedonCEM I
under theeffect of distilledwater (d.w.) andseawater (s.w.) after 360daysof test duration.
concretesbasedonthePortlandflyashcementunder pH=4environmentthereleaseof chromium
ishigher, whereasthelevelsof nickel andleadarelower.
For all concretesregardlessof theusedcement typeandpHof theenvironment theleachingof
copper remains constant after 360days of test duration. After alonger periodof liquidaffecting
concretesthelevelsof heavymetalsleachingintheanalyzedwater extractsgrow(seeTables35).
Chlorides tendtobecorrosivefactors affectingthestrengthandservicelifeof concretes. The
chloridebasedcorrosiontakesplacesmostlyasaresultof theimpactof seawater ontheconcretes;
suchaneffect occursmorerarelyasaresult of minewatersandde-icingagentsusedinthewinter
period on the roads (Giergiczny, 2008). In the conducted examinations the concretes based on
Portlandcement andPortlandflyashcement weresubjectedtoseawater environment.
Theeffect of theexpositionof concretesamplesbasedonPortlandcement toseawater results
intheleachingof bigger amountsof chromium(Fig. 2) incomparisontotheconcentrationof this
metal under theeffect of distilled water. Similar results wererecorded for thePortland fly ash
cement (Fig. 3).
Theresearchshows that cements basedonCEM I tendto indicatehigher zinc leachingunder
theimpact of seawater. Theconcretes under impact of chlorides duetoseawater expositionare
subjected to the reaction between chlorides and calciumhydroxide, which originated fromthe
hydratationof theclinker phases andreducedpH of thesolution. Thediffusionof thechlorides
whichpenetratetheconcreteleadstothecrystallizationof saltsinthecapillaryporesandtoconcrete
failureas aresult (Kurdowski, 1991). If thestructureof theconcretedevelops afault thereis a
hazardof leachingadditional amountsof heavy metalsfromthenewly exposedsurfaces. Hence,
160
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
Zn Cr Ni Pb Cu
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g
/
l
CEM I (s.w.)
CEM I (d.w.)
Figure3. Comparisonbetweenheavymetal concentrationsinaqueousextractfromconcretesbasedonCEM
II/B-V under theeffectof distilledwater (d.w.) andseawater (s.w.) after 360daysof testduration.
Table6. Heavy metals concentration in water extract fromconcretes (crushed
concrete; 360daysof concretematuration).
Concreteon
Concreteon CEM II/B-V Permissible
Heavymetals CEM I 32,5R 32,5R-HSR value*
Zn 0.0057 0.0063
Cr 0.028 0.005 0.05
Ni 0.0012 0.0005 0.02
Pb 0.00043 0.00047 0.025
Cu 0.0011 0.0019 2.0
* Accordingto Council Directive(98/83/EC) thequality of water intentedfor
humanconsumption
thismayhaveformedthereasonfortheelevatedconcentrationof chromiumandzinc. Itisimportant
tonoteherethat theleachabilityof Cr andZnislower for theconcretesbasedonPortlandflyash
cement. Thismaybeassociatedwiththefact that theadmixtureof flyashtothecement resultsin
thereductionof thepermeabilityof theconcretepastes.Theporesarefilledwiththeproductsof the
pozzolanicreaction, whichisreflectedinthemorecompact microstructureof thehardenedpaste
andresultsinamorecomplexdiffusionof chloriteions(distributionsurfacemoredeveloped), the
higher concentrationof ionsineluates(Giergiczny, 2008).
Theresearchalsoinvolvedtheassessmentof howthegrindingof concretetograinssizedbelow
10mmaffectstheleachingof heavymetalsfromconcretesbasedCEM I andCEM II/B-V.
Grindingof matricesbeingsubjectedtotestshasaconsiderableimpact onthelevel of leaching
of heavymetalsintothewater extracts thelower grain-size(Hohberget al., 1994). However, the
resultingconcentrations of heavy metals fromaggregateconcretes arewell under theadmissible
levelsof heavymetal concentrationinsurfacefreshwaterusedorintendedforuseintheabstraction
of drinking(Table6).
Theleachabilitytestingof crushedconcreteswereconductedbothintheenvironmentof distilled
water andliquidwithpH=4(leachingmethods: IV andV). ThereducedpHof theleachingliquid
leadstoanincreaseintheconcentrationof heavymetalsinwater extracts(Fig. 4) regardlessof the
cement type.
Concreteswerealsoexposedtoatmosphericconditionsovertheperiodof 360days.Afterthetime
thecrushedconcretewassubjectedtoleachinginaccordancewiththeprocedureinmethodIV.Itwas
assessedthattheleachingof zincisbelowthedetectionlevel (<0.001mg/dm
3
).Theleachingof the
161
0
0,005
0,01
0,015
0,02
0,025
0,03
0,035
0,4
Zn Cr Ni Pb Cu
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g
/
l
CEM I (d.w.)
CEM I (pH 4)
CEM II/B-V (d.w.)
CEM II/B-V (pH 4)
Figure4. Comparisonbetweenheavymetalsconcentrationinwaterextractfromconcretesexposetodistilled
water (d.w.) andliquidwithreducedpH(pH=4).
0,000
0,005
0,010
0,015
0,020
0,025
0,030
0,035
0,040
0,045
Cr Pb Ni Cu
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g
/
l
CEM I (n.e.)
CEM II/B-V (n.e.)
Figure5. Concentration of heavy metals in water extracts fromconcretes after 360 days of exposition of
concretestonatural environment (n.e.).
remainingheavymetalsissummarizedinFig. 5. Itisimportanttonoteherethatinthewaterextract
fromtheconcretebasedonPortlandflyashcementtheconcentrationof all analyzedheavymetals
isbelowthelevel of theionsinthewater extract fromtheconcretebasedonCEM I. Theleaching
of leadandnickel fromtheconcretes basedonCEM II/B-V does not comply withthestandard
inforcefor drinkingwater. However, thehigher leachingof heavymetalsexposedtoatmospheric
conditionsmayhavehaditsorigininthepollutionof theenvironment, whichisassociatedwiththe
rainfall andsnowfall carryingtheloadof heavy metals. Theadditional reasonis associatedwith
theprogressivecarbonatizationof concretebasedonCEM II/B-V (Czarnecki et al., 2008).
Itisnotable, however, thattheconcentrationsdonotexceedtheadmissiblelevelsof heavymetal
concentrationinwater classA1inaccordancewithCouncil Directive(75/440/EEC) (seeTable3).
4 CONCLUSIONS
Thepaper presents an analysis of theeffects of environmental factors on heavy metal leaching
fromconcretesbasedonPortlandcementandPortlandflyashcement. Theconcreteswereexposed
toliquidwithreducedpH andtheseawater environment. Theanalysisinvolvedbothmonolithic
andcrushedconcreteforms. Itwasfamiliar thatthefactor whichdeterminestheleachingof heavy
metalsisthetimetakenfor theconcretetomature, henceit wasaccountedfor intheresearch. In
addition, theresearchinvolvedthetestingof heavymetal ionsleachingfromtheconcretesexposed
tothenatural environment of theperiodof 360days.
Theassessment of water extractsfrommonolithicformsof concretesindicatesaverylowlevel
of heavymetalsleachingfromthemover the64daysof testdurationandthelevel of heavymetals
162
is similar to thequality of water used in theabstraction of drinking. This means that concretes
basedonPortlandcementsandcementswithaconsiderableadmixtureof mineral componentsmat
beusedintheconstructionsinthedirect contact withwater.
Thecasefor theconcreteplacedinamediumof areducedpH it wasindicatedthat thelevel of
heavymetal leachingiswell withinthestandardinforce. Inaddition, itwasfoundthatthecrushed
forms of concretes releasesmall amounts of heavy metals, which does not affect adversely the
qualityof water remainingincontact withthismaterial.
ThereducedpHof theleachingliquidaffectanincreaseinthereleaseof zinc(concretebasedon
CEM I) andchromium(concretebasedonCEM II/B-V). Theeffectsof seawater (chloridecorro-
sion) incontactwiththeconcreteshasresultedintheconsiderableincreaseinchromiumleaching.
Thesamples of concretes subjectedto atmospheric factors may display increasedleachingof
heavy metalsincomparisontothesamplesstoredinthelaboratory. Thecomparisonbetweenthe
twoanalyzedconcretes leads totheconclusionthat thehigher heavy metals concentrationinthe
water extracthasbeenobservedfor thecaseof Portlandflyashcementafter theperiodof 360days
of expositiontothenatural environment.
REFERENCES
Council Directive(75/440/EEC) concerningthequalityrequiredof surfacewater intendedfor theabstraction
of drinkingwater intheMember States.
Council Directive(98/83/EC) onthequalityof water intentedfor humanconsumption.
Czarnecki L., Woyciechowski P. 2008. Methods of estimates of courses concretecarbonatization. TheIIed
Scientific and Technical SymposiumCement specificity and employment. Durability of concrete.
Krakw. pp. 97119(inPolish).
DijkstraJ.J., vander Sloot H.A., SpankaG., ThielenG. 2005. Howtojudgerealeaseof dangeroussubstances
fromconstructionproductstosoil andgroundwater. ECN-C-05-045.
EA NEN 7375:2004 Leaching characteristics of moulded or monolithic building and waste materials.
Determinationof leachingof inorganiccomponentswiththediffusiontest. TheTankTest.
Ehrnsperger R., MischW. 2006. Implementation of Health and Environmental CriteriainTechnical Speci-
fications for Construction Products. Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik (DIBt). Research Report 200 62
311/2006.
EN12457-4:2002Characterisationof waste LeachingCompliancetestfor leachingof granular wastemate-
rialsandsludges Part4: Onestagebatchataliquidtosolidratioof 10l/kgfor materialswithparticlesize
below10mm(without or withsizereduction).
EN206-1: 2000Concrete Part 1: Specification, performance, productionandconformity.
Gendebien, A., Leavens, A., Blackmore, K., Godley, A., Lewin, K., Whiting, K.J., Davis, R., Giegrich, J.,
Fehrnbach, H., Gromke, U., del Bufalo, N., Hogg, D. 2003. RefuseDerivedFuel, CurrentPracticeandPer-
spectives(B4-3040/2000/306517/MAR/E3). ReportNo. CO5087-4, WRcSwindon,TheUnitedKingdom,
p. 229.
Giergiczny Z. 2008. Methods of researchof immunity of concreteonchlorideandsulphatecorrosion. The
IIedScientificandTechnical SymposiumCement specificityandemployment. Durabilityof concrete.
Krakw. pp. 7796(inPolish).
Glasser F.P. 1994. Immobilizationpotential of cementiousmaterials. Proceedingof theInternational Confer-
enceonEnvironmental Implicationof ConstructionMaterialsandTechnologyDevelopments, Maastricht,
pp. 7786.
Hohberg I., Rankers R. 1994. Leaching properties of cement-bound materials. Environmental Aspects of
ConstructionwithWasteMaterials. Elsevier, pp. 387396.
Kurdowski W. 1991. Chemistryof cement. PWNWarsaw.(inPolish).
pr ENV 196-X:1995Methodsof testingcement. Part X: Determinationof theresistanceof cementstoattack
bysulfatesolutionor byseawater.
vander Sloot H.A. 2000. Comparsionof thecharacteristicleachingbehavior of cementsusingstandard(EN
196-1)cementmortarandanassessmentof theirlong-termenvironmental behaviorinconstructionproducts
duringservicelifeandrecycling. Cement andConcreteResearches. 30. pp. 10791096.
The current research was financially supported fromresearch project by Polish Ministry of
ScienceandHighEducationno. PB-1493/T02/2006/30
163
Designof thepipelinesconsideringexploitativeparameters
A. Kuliczkowski, E. Kuliczkowska& U. Kubicka
University of Technology, Kielce, Poland
ABSTRACT: Theexamples, whichprovethenecessityof takingintoconsiderationtheexploita-
tivefactors (evenfor pipes madeof thesamematerial), werepointed. Themethod, whichtakes
into considerationmentionedaboveexploitativefactors, likeabrasionof thebottomof pipelines
or inner corrosionwaspresented. Theelaboratedmethodenablestodesigntheconstructionfor the
exact time, giveninyears. Becauseof great diversity of material usedfor pipelinesconstruction,
untypical inothercivil engineeringconstructions, thementionedmethodshouldbewidelyapplied.
1 PROLOGUE
Nowadays, duringtheprocessof pipelinesdesign, especiallyrigidones, theexploitativeparameters
arenottakingintoconsideration. Insomecasestheseparametershaveagreatinfluenceonpipelines
lifetime. So, itseemsnecessarytoconsidertheseparameters, likeinnerandoutercorrosion, thermal
factorsor bottomabrasionandsoon, duringthephaseof pipelinesdesign.
2 THE EXAMPLESWHICHPROVETHE NECESSITY OF CONSIDERING
EXPLOITATIVE FACTORSDURINGTHE PIPELINESDESIGN
CaseA
Theinner, aswell astheouter, corrosioncanappear insewers. Materialsusedfor sewer pipes
have different resistant to corrosion. Concrete pipes made of lower class of concrete are more
susceptibletocorrosionthanthepipesmadeof higher concreteclass, seeKuliczkowski (2001). In
caseof use, for instance, theinner coatingmadeof PVCor PE-HDonecanassumethatitslifetime
increaseof additional 50years, intheaspect of inner corrosion.
CaseB
Dependingonthematerial, fromwhichthesewer pipesaremadeof, their resistancetoabrasion
is very diverseand can vary even several times, seeKuliczkowski (2001). In caseof installing
sewer pipeswithabiglongitudinal slope, thisfactor seriouslyinfluenceontheir lifetime.
CaseC
When the temperature of wastewater, transported in sewers, is high, the process of sewers
corrosion (in case of some materials) can appear or it can be accelerated. What more, in case
of plastic pipesthehigher temperatureof wastewater canadditionally influenceontheir strength
parameters, flexibilityandpossibilityof loosingtheir stability.
Thethreeexamplesmentionedaboveprove, thatduringthephaseof pipelinestrengthcalculation,
onemust takeintoconsiderationnot onlymaterial parameters, connectedwithtechnologyof their
installation, buttheexploitativeparametersaswell. Sometimestheseexploitativeparametershave
agreat influenceonpipelinesexploitation.
165
Themethod of sewer design, which considers theparameters connected with exploitation, is
presentedbelow.
3 PROPOSAL OF THE METHODOF DESIGNTHE SEWER FORTHEASSUMEDTIME
OF ITSEXPLOITATIONANDCONSIDERINGEXPLOITATIVE PARAMETERS
Intheproposedmethodsomeassumptionsaremadeasfollows:
Assumption1
ThecalculationmethodisbasedontheATV-A127guidelines oneof thewidelyusedmethods,
suitablefor pipelinesof circular shapeandontheNetzer methodincaseof noncircular sewers,
seeKuliczkowski (2004).
Assumption2
Thefollowingcorrectionsandsupplementsareintroducedintothemethodof calculation:
thecorrectionof traffic loads calculation, whichmakes its valuedependent onsoil type. The
proposal of itscalculationispublishedinKuliczkowski (2004)
during calculation of loadings for construction laid under road surface, one suggests to use
decreasingfactor connectedwithreducinginfluenceof thesurface, accordingtorecommenda-
tiondescribedinKuliczkowski (2004)
incasewhentheloadsaretransferredontosewers construction(becauseof closeneighborhood
of someobjectsor buildings), or incaseof soil stratificationabovethesewer, or occurrenceof
theloadingcausedby tram, rail, aircraft or crowdof peopleandfinally whentheresaground
waterabovethepipecrown, theadditional calculation, describedinKuliczkowski (2004), should
bemade
Assumption3
Theminimum(guaranteed) periods(T
m
) of exploitationof thesewersmadeof differentmateri-
alsareestablished, basedonpropositionsof threedifferent Germaninstitutions, seeKuliczkowski
(2001). Someimportantdivergencesinlifetimeof pipesmadeof differentmaterialscanbeobserved.
Sotill thesameperiodsof lifetimeareelaborated, oneproposestoset thevalueof T
m
asthearith-
meticmean. Thespecial attentionshouldbepaidonfact, that minimumlifetimeof concretepipes
concerns thepipes madeof class minimumB45. Accordingto thementionedaboverecommen-
dations, inthecalculationsoneshouldassumethefollowingvaluesof minimumexploitationtime
for sewer construction(giveninyears):
concreteandreinforcedpipesusedfor sanitarysewage 44
concreteandreinforcedpipesusedfor rainwater sewage 47
stonewarepipes 80
sewersmadeof bricks 59
plasticpipes 41
steel pipes 43
Assumption4
Theminimum(guaranteed) period(T
m
) of exploitationof thesewers, giveninassumption3,
insomecasescanchange(increase) of, socalled, additional minimumguaranteedtimeof sewers
exploitationT
d
. Thistimecanbeobtainedasaresult of applyingadditional protectivecoatingsin
pipelinesmadeof concrete, reinforcedconcreteor prestressedconcrete. Suchaninternal coating
protectsthepipeagainstinnercorrosionorabrasionof thesewerbottom. Thecoatingscanbemade
of resin, for instance epoxy resin or fromthermoplastics (PE-HD, PVC) prepared i.e. in BKU
system, Kuliczkowski A. (1988). Renowacja, Kuliczkowski A. (1988). Problemy. . . Whentherib
coating(PE-HD,PVC),permanentlymountedinconstructionof concretepipeisused, theadditional
exploitative timeT
d
amount to 50 years. The additional minimumguaranteed time of sewers
166
exploitationT
d
canalso beusedincaseof thickeningof thesewer wall (madeof homogeneous
material). Thevalueof additional wall thickness is designas apredicteddecreasingof thewall,
which take place during T
d
time, caused by abrasion of the sewer bottomor inner corrosion.
Thickeningof thesewer wall mayalsocompensatefor theworseparametersof thepipestrength,
connectedwiththeageingof pipematerial structure.
Assumption5
Theminimumpredictedtimeof sewer exploitationisdescribedbythefollowingformula:
T
p
= T
m
+ T
d
(1)
whereT
p
predicted timeof exploitation of sewer construction, in years; T
m
minimumtime
of exploitation of sewer construction, in years; T
d
additional time of exploitation of sewer
construction, inyears.
Additional timeof sewer constructionexploitationiscalculatedfromformula:
T
d
= T
d
+T
d
(2)
whereT
d
additional timeof sewer exploitation as aresult of wall thickness increasing: a) of
predictedloss, causedbyabrasionandinner corrosionof sewer construction; b) asacompensation
for theworseparametersof thepipestrength, connectedwiththeageingof pipematerial structure
inalonger time; T
d
additional timeof sewer exploitationasaresult of usingtheinner coating,
whichprotect sewer constructionfromnegativeeffect of abrasionandinner corrosion.
Assumption6
For theplanned timeof sewer exploitation (T
z
), assumed in project, thethickness of bottom
abrasioniscalculatedaccordingtomethoddescribedinKuliczkowski (2001). Inthismethodthe
thicknessof theabradedbottomisthefunctionof thetypeof sewer material, sewer diameter, speed
of sewageflow, thedegreeof thesewer fillingandsewer function(sanitary, rainwater or combined
seweragesystem).
Assumption7
Incaseof concrete, reinforcedconcreteandprestressedconcrete, inaccordancetoKuliczkowski
(2001), itsnecessarytocalculatethelossof thewall thicknesscausedbyinner corrosion, for the
assumedintheproject timeof sewer exploitation(T
z
).
Assumption8
For sewersmadeof plasticpipes, for thegiventimeof sewer exploitation(T
z
), oneshouldtake
intoconsiderationtheinfluenceof temperatureonthevalueof stress, accordingtothediagrams
publishedinKuliczkowski (2001). Elongationof thetimeof plastic pipeexploitationis possible
after thickeningof their walls.
Assumption9
Incaseof calculationsmadeaccordingtoassumption1, 2, thesewer constructionisdesignfor
loadings whichappear directly after its installation. So this constructionis designfor minimum
timeof exploitationT
m
, definedinassumption3(assumingthat theinner corrosionandabrasion
of thebottomhavestatisticallymeanvalue).
Theremaybefour casesof designof thesewer construction, dependingondifferenttimesof its
exploitation:
1) thedesignof thesewer for exploitationtimeT
m
.
Inthiscasethelossof wall thickness, causedbyinner corrosionandbottomabrasion, must
bedefinedaccordingtoformulapublishedinKuliczkowski (2001). Whenintheperiodof T
m
thebiglossesof thicknessareobserved, itisnecessarytoincreasethesewer wall of valueequal
thelost one. Thelargelooses of theconstruction may takeplacein caseof big longitudinal
167
sewer slopes(becauseof increasedbottomabrasion) or incaseof toolittlelongitudinal slopes
andpoor qualityof theconcrete(becauseof increasedinner corrosion);
p
, equalsT
m
plusT
d
.
Inthiscaseitisrequiredtocalculatethesewerconstruction, takingintoconsiderationenlarge-
ment of itsthicknessof thecalculatedadditional thicknessconnectedwithinner corrosionand
bottomabrasionfor theexploitativetimeT
p
p
equalsT
m
plusT
d
.
Oneshouldusetherulesmentionedinpoint 1) whencalculatingthethicknessof thesewer
for periodT
m
andadditionallyapplytheinner protectivecoating
p
equalsT
m
plusT
d
.
Oneshouldusetherulesmentionedinpoint 1) whencalculatingthethicknessof thesewer
for periodT
p
, (T
m
plusT
d
) andadditionallyapplytheinner protectivecoating.
Applyingtheinner protectivecoatings regards mainly thesewers madeof thebaseof cement
(concrete, reinforcedconcrete, prestressedconcrete, fibroconcrete)andthesteel ones. Fortheother
materials, elongationof thetimeof sewer exploitationcanbeobtainedby usingthicker coatings
or material of better quality.
Assumption10
Theinfluenceof outer corrosivefactors, describedinKuliczkowski (2001), must beestimated
andtakenintoconsiderationinstaticcalculation. Theouter isolatingcoatingsshouldbeappliedin
thepipeswhereitisnecessarytodoso(steel or cast-iron) andinsomespecial casesalsoinsewers
madeof thebaseof cement, i.e. concrete, reinforcedconcrete, prestressedconcrete, fibroconcrete.
4 THE EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION
Designthesanitarysewer, diameterd=300, concreteclassminimumB45fortheexploitationtime
equals200years, assumingtheaveragefillingof thesewer h=d/2, thevelocity of sewageflow-
5m/s.
1) Based on assumption 3, theminimumexploitativetimeof thesewer is assumed asT
m
=44
years
2) Theinner coatingmadeof PVC (BKU) basedonassumption4 isapplied. It elongatesthe
exploitationtimeof thesewer of T
d
=50years.
3) Todesignthesewerconstructionfortheperiodof 200years, itisnecessarytoincreasethesewer
wall, consideringadditionallytheinfluenceof corrosionandbottomabrasionintheremaintime,
that isinperiod200 T
m
T
d
=106years.
4) Calculation of the size of loss of sewer bottomcaused by abrasion in period of 106 years,
accordingtoKuliczkowski (2001):
material factor =1.5410
11
, takenfromtable3.6
100R
a
=1.010
12
, accordingtofigure3.13.
the size of bottom abrasion: a
s
=1.5410
11
1.010
12
=15.40mm, according to
formula3.17
5) Definingthepredictedloss of sewer wall in periodof 106years, causedby inner corrosion,
accordingtoKuliczkowski (2001):
for concreteB45, thefactor dependingonconcreteclassequalsk
z
=0.20
OM=h/d
w
=0.5
CH1=1.57, CH2=0.64(table3.4)
concretealkalinityA=1.5%, fromchapter 3.2.3
effective BZT
5
in temperature 20
C, for high sewage concentration: EBZT

5
=BZT
5
1.07
(T20)
=1.07BZT
5
=1.07400=428mg/dm
3
CR=2.070.20428/10001.570.641/1.5=0.119mm/year, according to
formula3.9
168
the loss of sewer wall in period of 106 years, caused by corrosion equals
a
k
=1060.119=12.61mm
6) Calculation of the additional thickness, which should be added to the thickness given
in catalogue. Total loss of sewer wall caused by corrosion and bottom abrasion equals
a=a
s
+a
k
=15.40+12.60=28.01mm. So, according to the ATV-A127 or the Netzer
methodandtheproposedcorrections, thewall thicknessmustbeincreasedof additional 30mm
7) TheconcretepipeDN300, designedfor 200years of exploitation, accordingto theproposed
KA-04method, shouldhaveincreasedwall thickness of extra30mmandtheadditional inner
protectivecoatingmadeof PE or PVC.
5 FINAL REMARKS
Onabaseof historical developmentof methodsof sewer calculation, thesegregationintwogroups
isproposed, that isthemethodsof the1st generationandthe2ndgeneration. Themethods, which
takeintoconsiderationtheinfluenceof theway of installationonthesizeof sewer loadings, are
gatheredinthe2nd, moreperfect group.
Themethodof calculationdescribedinthispapercouldbecalledas3rdgenerationone. Itdiffers
fromthemethodsof the2ndgeneration:
thesewersaredesignedonaassumedperiodof their exploitation(giveninyears)
additional factors(inner, outer andmaterial factors), whichdestructivelyinfluenceonthesewer
construction, aretakenintoconsideration.
Theproposal of 3rdgenerationmethodsrequires, inthenearestfuture, conductingmanysophis-
ticatedtestsandexaminationstodefinemorepreciselythevaluesof parameters, likematerial factor
or theouter andinner factors, whichinfluenceonsafetyandlifetimeof sewers(inthefunctionof
timeof exploitation), seeKuliczkowski (2001). Thespecial attentionshouldbepaidtospecifythe
exact influenceof outer andinner factorsonsafetyandlifetimeof sewers.
Thenext step would beto analyzethepossibility of applying probabilistic in thecalculation
methodsandimplementationof methodof thefinishedelements, aswell astoelaboratethepartial
safetyfactors.
REFERENCES
KubickaU. 2000. Analizaugi e c rur z PVC uo zonychwgruncie, PhD thesis, Politechnika

Swi etokrzyska,
Kielce
Kuliczkowski A. & KubickaU. 2000. Analysisof staticcalculationmethodsof plasticpipelinesaccordingto
thefieldmeasurements. VI International CongressPipelinesConstructionShow, Hamburg: 265274
Kuliczkowski A. & KubickaU. 2001. Nowepropozycjei zaleceniadotycz acedoborumetodprojektowania
ruroci agwz tworzywsztucznych. ConferenceMaterials, NoweMateriayi Urz adzeniawWodoci agachi
Kanalizacji, Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska,. Kielce: 3945

Kuliczkowski A. & Kuliczkowska E. 2000. Obci a zenia u zytkowa przewodw kanalizacyjnych od taboru
samochodowego. InformacjaInstal, no5: 3841
Kuliczkowski A. 1984. Optymalizacjaparametrwprojektowychi realizacyjnychkolektorwkanalizacyjnych
budowanych w warunkach miejskich. Obci a zenia, konstrukcje, technologie. Serial Report PRE 43/84,
Insytut Inzynierii L adowej Politechniki Wrocawskiej, Wrocaw
Kuliczkowski A. 1987. Optinierungder Projektierungs undAusfhrungsparameter vonAbwassersammlern
unter stdtichen Bedingungen. Habilitation. Technische Hochschule Lepzig, THL DI 0007233, ASB
Organisation, Dresden Weisser Hirch
Kuliczkowski A. 1988. Obci a zenia ruroci agw i kanaw uo zonych w gruncie od ruchomych obci a ze n
drogowych. Gaz, Wodai TechnikaSanitarna, no1112: 250252
Kuliczkowski A. 1988. Parciepoziomeruroci agwi kanawuo zonychwgruncie. Gaz, Wodai Technika
Sanitarna, no8: 166168
169
Kuliczkowski A. 1988. Renowacjakolektorwkanalizacyjnychzapomoc awykadzinyPCW. Ochronaprzed
korozj a, no6: 128131
Kuliczkowski A. 1988. Wspczynniki koncentracji obci a ze nwruroci agachi kanaachuo zonychwgruncie.
Gaz, Wodai TechnikaSanitarna, no7: 148150
Kuliczkowski A. 1998. Problemy bezodkrywkowej odnowy przewodwkanalizacyjnych. Monographno13,
Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska, Kielce: 205

Kuliczkowski A. 1999. Strategiaplanowaniaodnowy przewodwkanalizacyjnych. InformacjaInstal, no 5:
5760
Kuliczkowski A. 2000. Projektowanieprzewodwkanalizacyjnych.Texbook356, Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska,
Kielce
Kuliczkowski A. 2001. Rury kanalizacyjne TI. Wasno sci materiaowe. Monograph no 28, Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska, Kielce: 261

Kuliczkowski A. 2003. Ekspertyzykonstrukcyjnekanaw sciekowych. In zynieriaBezwykopowano2: 2226
Kuliczkowski A. 2004. Rury kanalizacyjneT II. Projektowaniekonstrukcji. Monographno42, Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska, Kielce

Zwierzchowski D. 2000. Analizabezpiecze nstwabetonowychi kamionkowychprzewodwkanalizacyjnych.
PhDthesis, Politechnika
Swi etokrzyska, Kielce

170
Management of sewer networkrehabilitationusingthemass
servicemodels
C. Madryas& B. Przybya
Institute of Civil Engineering, Wrocaw University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: Themass servicemodels havebeen used for many years at resolving technical
problemsinvolvingthesetsof taskswaitingfor execution, regardingthedifferentboundarycondi-
tionsandassumptions. Suchasituationisobservedalsointheoperationof sewer networks, when
thedataconcerningdamagestopipesaresent totheoperators. Theuseof massservicemodelslet
uscalculatetheoptimumnumber of servicecrewsdealingwiththequeueof damagedsewers. Itis
alsopossibletousethistheoremtooptimizetheactivityof acompanybycontrollingsewers check
procedureandalsotoestimatethebudget of rehabilitationworkat theassumedlevel of reliability
of sewer network. Theabilitiesof theuseof massservicesystemsinasewer networkarepresented
aswell astheassumptionstakenat thecalculationsbasedontheanalysisapproachdevelopedby
Kendall aredescribedandalsotheexampleof calculationof theoptimumnumber of servicecrews
isgiven.
1 INTRODUCTION
For manyyearsnow, massservicemodelsarebeingusedfor solvingtechnical problemsinwhich
varioustypesof queuesoccur. Insystemsservicingqueuesawaitingnotifications, waitinglength
is directly linkedwiththefacilities availablefor servicingthenotifications, sizeof thewaiting-
roominwhichthey await theserviceandthenumber of notificationsarrivinginunit timeat the
waiting-room. Ingeneral form, everyqueuingsystem(inother words, massservicesystem/Polish
abbr. SMO/) canbepresentedbymeansof thediagramshowninFigure1(Filipowicz 1996).
Input stream Output stream
Queuing
system
Service
channels
Waiting-room
(queue)
1
m
Figure1. Queuingsystemblockdiagram(Filipowicz 1996).
171
Solutionof taskspertainingtomassservicetheoryrequiresknowledgeof itsbasiccharacteristics:
a) sizeof inputstream(notificationstream) representedbydistributionof notificationinputtimes,
viz. distributionof timeintervalsbetweeninstantst
1
, . . . , t
n
inwhichconsecutivenotifications
x
1
, . . . , x
n
arriveintothesystem;
b) distribution of output times, viz. distribution of times required for providing services to
consecutiveclientsat servicestations, determiningthesizeof output stream;
c) queueregulations (disciplines) specifyingthemethodof selectingconsecutivenotification
for servicesincaseaqueueexists;
d) numberof placesinthewaitingroom L, specifyingthemaximumlengthof queueif all service
stationsareengaged;
e) sizeof populationserviced R;
f ) number of servicechannels r.
It is assumed that functioning of mass servicesystems is of stochastic character. Solution of
manyengineeringproblemsispossiblewhileutilizingconditional processesinwhichprobability
of systemstateatinstantt +1wheret assumesdiscretevalues0, 1, 2, . . . , dependsexclusivelyon
systemstateat instant t anddoesnot dependonthepast of thisprocess, i.e.:
P{X(t +1)/X(t), X(t 1), . . . ., X(1), X(0)} = P{X(t +1)/X(t)} (1)
Insuchconditional processesdefinedasMarkovprocesses, it ispossibletospecifysingle-step
probabilitiesof systemtransitionfromstatei tostatej ininstant t.
For engineeringsystemsof extendedoperationinso-callednormal periodof utilization, station-
ary character of Markov process is most often assumed and examined. In stationary streams of
events, their distributiondependsonly onlengthof sectionexaminedwhereasit doesnot depend
ontheplaceinwhichit waslocatedonthetimeaxis. Assumedinthiscaseistheequation
P{X(t +1) = j/X(t) = i} = P
ij
, (2)
whereP
ij
isindependent of thetimeinwhichit isrealized.
For distinguishingmassservicesystems, appliedinliteratureisthenotationmethodproposed
originally by theEnglishmathematicianD. Kendall andthenextendedbyA.M. Lee. Notationin
theformX/Y/r/d/l denotes mass servicesystemin which X is thesymbol of input notification
streamdistribution, Y thesymbol of thesenotificationsservicingtimedistribution, r thenumber
of service channels, d code of accepted queue discipline and l specifies the systemsize. In
closedsystems, systemsizel is characterizedby (R, L) i.e. sizeof populationservicedR and
number of places in the waiting-roomL. Besides this, the letter M was taken in literature to
denoteexponential distributionof servicetimesor timeintervalsbetweenadjacent notifications,
viz. Poissonsdistributionof arrivals. Thisisprobableandoftenassumedasdistributionanalysis
characterizingdamagesof water supplyandsewagesystempipelinesduringtheir so-callednormal
periodof utilization. Performanceof rehabilitationisalsocharacterizedbythisdistribution.
In this paper, the entry is used in the formM(M)r:(R,L) corresponding to the assumptions
presentedabove. Denotedby : isthequeuingdisciplineFIFO(First-In, First-Out) whereby the
first for serviceisthenotificationwaitinglongest inthequeue.
2 MASSSERVICE SYSTEM OF SEWERS
2.1 Conception of the model
For a long time now mass service systems find application in assisting management of urban
undergroundinfrastructuresystems. Incaseof sewersystems, thequeuecanbeformedbydamaged
pipelines awaiting renovation which is understood as rehabilitation process of their technical
172
state. Inthiscase, repairteamsservicingthequeue(conductingrehabilitationof damagedpipelines)
canbetreatedasservicechannels(equipment).
Insolutions concerningquantity descriptionof reliability of water supply andsewagesystem
pipelines, distinguishedamongtheleadingparametersareintensity of damage andintensity of
renovation. Intensityof damage(t) istheprobabilitythatanefficientelementatinstantt under-
goesdamageintimeinterval (t, t +t), witht 0. Withrespect tolinear objectswhoselength
does not changeor changes very insignificantly, thefollowingformulae(Koss-Tr ebaczkiewicz
et al. 1993) areapplied:
a) (t) =
1
n
n
t=1
m
i
(t, t +t)
l
i
t
(3)
or
b) simplifiedformula: (t) =
m(t, t +t)
L t
(4)
where: n =number of sewers examined(lengthof pipeline), m
i
(t, t +t)=number of damages
of i-th sewer in time interval t, l
i
=length of i-th examined sewer in time interval t, m
(t, t +t)=number of damages of all examined sewers in timeinterval t, L =total length of
examinedsewers, t =lengthof timeinterval inwhichtheobservationwascarriedout.
Duringnormal utilizationof thesewer, intensityof itsdamagehasaconstantvalue( =const.).
Alsooftenassumedisthatduringthisperiodreliabilityischaracterizedbyexponential distribution.
Intensityof rehabilitation(renovation)(t)definesthenumberof disorders(damages)eliminated
inunit time. Estimator of renovationintensityhastheform(Koss-Tr ebaczkiewicz et al. 1993)
(t) =
n(t, t +t)
n(t)t
(5)
where: n(t, t +t)=number of objectswhoserenovation(rehabilitationprocess) endeduptothe
time(t, t +t), n(t)=number of objects whoserenovationendedupto tiet, t =timeinterval
intowhichexaminedperiodsof renovation(rehabilitation) havebeendivided.
Assuming that renovation time undergoes exponential distribution, renovation intensity is a
constant (t)=, itsvaluecanbeestimatedonthebasisof theformula:
=
n
o
t
o
(6)
where: n
o
=number of renovations of examined objects, t
o
=sumtime duration of disorders
(renovations) of examinedobjects.
Through inspection of sewer network, it is possible to obtain a set of damage intensities
A={
1
, . . . ,
i
} characterizing homogeneous lengths of network (built of pipes connected in
series lengths between wells). Utilized for servicing the damaged elements is finite number
of repair teams(servicingsets) r. For simplification, assumedinthedeliberationsistheintensity
constant of renovationof damagedelement bytheteam .
Theinspirationfor thiselaborationwerepapers(Wieczystyetal. 1990) and(Denczew1998), in
whichmassservicetheory wasappliedfor describingservicingof water supply pipelinesystems
and paper (Madryas 1993) in which this theory was utilized for describing servicing of sewer
networks.
Inthefirsttwocases, assumedfordeliberationswasthemassservicesystem(Polishabbr. SMO)
typeM(M)r: (,). Figure2presents thegraphof states inwhichSMO typeM(M)r: (,)
mayfinditself at anytime(Filipowicz 1996).
In (Wieczysty et al. 1990), assumed as intensity of inflowof notifications into thesystemis
themeanweightedintensity of network damages
o
(variousdiameters, lengthsandmaterialsof
pipes), multipliedbytotal lengthof network
s
=L
o
. Probabilityof occurrenceof systemstate
173

2 3 i
r r r r r
(i1)
States without queue States with queue
E
0
E
1
E
2
E
i
E
m
E
j
E
?
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Figure2. Graphof statesfor systemM(M)r: (, ) (Filipowicz 1996).
E
i
(t) (inthesystem, i damages occurringat instant t) is ingeneral casedependent on
i
(t) and
i
(t). InstationarystateandacceptedSMOmodel:
i
(t) =
i
= =
s
,
whereas
i
(t) =
i
=
_
r for i < r
i for i r
(7)
Inpaper(Wieczystyetal. 1990), systemsolutionsaregivenasinFigure2, obtainingthefollowing
formulae:
P
k
probabilityof i-thprocessstate(probabilitythat therearei notificationsinthesystem),
P
k
=
_
k
k!C
=

k
k!
P
o
for k < r
k
r!r
kr
C
=

k
r!r
kr
P
o
for k r
(8)
where:
C = P
1
o
=

r+1
r!(r )
+
r
k=0
k
k!
(9)
=

SMOutilizationfactor
probabilityof all servicingsetsbeingengaged:
P
kr
=
kr
P
k
=

r
(r 1)!C(r )
(10)
meannumber of notificationsinE(N) systemamountsto:
E(N) =
k=0
k P
k
=
C
_

k=0
k
k!
+
( r
2
+r)
r!(r )
2
_
(11)
meannumber of notificationsinE(U) queueamountsto:
E(U) =
k=r+1
(k r) P
k
=

r+1
(r 1)!C(r )
2
(12)
meannumber of engagedservicingsetsE(Z
r
):
E(Z
r
) = E(N) E(U) = (13)
174
meannumber of freeservicingsetsE(O
r
):
E(O
r
) = r E(Z
r
) = r (14)
meantimeof stayof notificationinthesystem:
E(T
z
) =
1
E(N) (15)
meanwaitingtimefor startingof service:
E(T
w
) =
P
k>r
(r )
(16)
meanwaitingtimefor serviceif all servicingsetsareengaged:
E(T
v
) =
1
r
(17)
Solutionspresentedarevalidonconditionthat
=

< r (18)
Non-fulfillment of thisconditioncausesmonotonousgrowthof queue(number of notifications
awaitingservice) hold-upswill becreatedinthesystem.
2.2 Optimization of renovation organization
Thepurposeof optimizingrenovation(rehabilitationprocess)maybetodefinetheoptimumnumber
of repairteamsservicingthesewernetworks. Ingeneral, itshouldbestriventominimizethewaiting
time of damaged sewer for repair. This can be achieved through intensification of renovation
or (i) by increasingthenumber of maintenanceworkers. Theseoperationscannot betreatedas
optimizingtheorganizationof renovationif relevant costsarenot takenintoconsideration. It may
sohappenthat costs of employingandequippingmaintenanceworkers exceedtheadvantageous
resultingfromreliableoperationof sewers.
Inthemassservicesystem/Polishabbr. SMO) assumedabove(Figure2), thebasicconditionis
not toallowformationof hold-ups. Fromcondition(18), minimumnumber of repair teamsr
min
is
concluded(assumingconstant ).
Inpaper (Wieczysty et al. 1990), also proposedis themethodof settingoptimumnumber of
maintenance workers servicing water supply systemassuming as criterion appropriate level of
reliabilityof thissystem. Thisapproachcanalsobeassumedfor sewer system. Number of repair
teamsinSMOamountsto
r = r
min
+r
dod
(19)
where: r
dod
=additional number of repair teams accepted for meeting thecondition of required
reliabilityof operationK
w
inSMO.
It isthennecessarytocheckthecondition
K
g
(SMO) K
w
(20)
where: K
g
(SMO)=massservicesystemSMOreadinessfactor, K
w
=assumednetworkreadiness
factor.
175
Readinessfactor of massservicesystemK
g
(SMO) of reliability structurethresholdr
min
z r
iscalculatedaccordingtotheformula:
K
g
(SMO) =
r
i=r
min
_
r
i
_
K
i
(1K)
r1
(21)
Informula(21), K isthereadinessfactor of one(andevery) servicingset serviceteam. K is
definedonthebasisof statistical informationfromrandomtrial, asrelationof timeinwhichthe
teamwascapableof realizingthetasktototal timeinwhichit shouldrealizethetask.
Whileseekingthelowest, acceptablenumber of repair teams r
o
, selectionisdoneof thefirst
number meetingcondition(18) and(20):
r
o
= min{r
min
, r
min
+1, r
min
+2, ...|K
g
(SMO) K
w
} (22)
Thebasic problemassociatedwiththemethodpresentedis settingtherequiredlevel of relia-
bility of sewer network K
w
. Currently, thisproblemhasnot beenfinally solved. Already inpaper
(Wieczysty et al. 1996), animportant comment was includedthat values of K
w
aregivenintext
books arbitrarily and depending on thesource, they arecharacterized by significant dispersion.
Relevant literatureindicatesthreebasicwaysfor determiningrequiredlevel of reliability:
seekingrequiredlevel of reliabilitybywayof economical studies, takingintoaccount costsof
reliability, optimizationwiththecriterionof minimizationof losses, etc.,
conductingstudiesaimedatfixingthevalueK
w
forseveral existingsystemsandtherebydrawing
general conclusionsconcerningset of suchsystems,
analyzingthebehaviour of existingsystems (observingtheeffects of damages intheformof
losses, damagetohealth, loweringof hygienicconditions, etc.).
Seekingoptimumsolutionsthereforerequiresconductingeconomical assessmentsof takinginto
account costs of maintainingrepair teams and, what is specially difficult, rational determination
of losses fromfaulty operationof network. As it however seems, settingthevalueK
w
for sewer
network of existing systems is presently becoming possiblethanks to development of computer
databasesondamagesof suchnetworks.
Without theknowledgeof K
w
, thepresented method of optimization practically only enables
fixingtheminimumnumber of repair teams (condition (18)). It is thereforeproposedto accept
asimplified solution, creating thepossibility of real application. Thestarting point is to divide
the sewer network into areas in which the rehabilitation process and occurrence of breakdown
can be considered as similar (grouping of network sewers). The authors of paper (Wieczysty
et al. 1996) startswiththeassumptionthat settingtheapproximatecostsof unreliabilityfor some
selectedpipelinesenablesdeterminingresultant unit cost of unreliabilityfor thewholegroup. For
dividing thenetwork into appropriategroups, themethod proposed by theBritish organization
WRC (Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual. FourthEdition, Swindon, 2001) canbeutilized.
Thenumberof pipelinesincludedinappropriategroupsislimited. However, assumingthatrepair
teamsmustreacttodamagetosectionsof pipelinesbetweenwells, italsoseemsjustifiedinthiscase
to accept mass servicesystem(Polishabbr. SMO) typeM(M)r: (,) eachgroupcomprises
minimumsomescoresof elements.Theassumptionsregarding
s
andareleftunchangedreferring
themonlytopipelinesof correspondingcategory(group).
2.2.1 Method I
Forestablishingthenumberof teams, assumedasthecriterionof optimalityfor(Ko zniewska1978)
isthefunction:
f (r) = E(T
v
) (23)
whereE(T
v
) meanwaitingtimefor service.
176
If t
o
isthemaximumwaitingtimefor servicethenoptimizationwill consist inestablishingthe
leastnumber of servicingsetsfor whichthemeanwaitingtimefor serviceislessthant
o
. Assumed
thenisthenotation:
min
1rN
{E(T
v
) < t
o
} (24)
wherebycondition(13) specifyingtheminimumnumber of teamsmust befulfilled.
Timet
o
canbeset for pipelinesof variouscategoriesobligatorily. Eventhefollowingreasoning
canbeconductedleadingtoapproximatespecificationof t
o
. If all therepairteamsareengaged, any
damagedetectedmust await carryingout of renovationcausing, duringthat time, theoccurrence
of losses whichcanbeexpressedas unreliability costs K
z
. Toavoidoccurrenceof suchlosses, a
newrepair teamcanbeemployedKnowingthecosts of employment andof equippingtheteam
K
b1
, timet
a
is specifiedinwhichthecosts of unreliableoperationof pipelineK
z
will equal K
b
;
K
z
(t
a
)=K
b1
(t
a
). It canbeassumedthat timet
a
isthesought timet
o
.
2.2.2 Method II
Supposeweknowtheunit cost of unreliabilityof pipelineK
z1
andunit cost of employingarepair
teamK
b2
. Assumingthenumber of repair teams r andapplyingtheformulae(12) and(14), we
calculatetheamountof losses(unreliabilitycosts) causedbyawaitingrepairof damagesinqueue
K
1
, aswell ascostsresultingfrominactivityof servicingsetsinunittime K
2
. Assumingconstant
, thecriterionfunctionheretakestheform:
f (r) = K
1
+K
2
= K
z1
E(U) +K
b2
E(O
r
) (25)
where: E(U)=mean number of notifications occurring in thequeue, E(O
r
)=mean number of
freeservicingsets.
Functionf (r) expressesmeanlossassignedtounit time, resultingfromoperationof servicing
setsduringstationaryperiodr andoptimizationwill consist inminimizationof thisfunctionwith
respect tor.
2.2.3 Example I
It was decidedtocalculatetheoptimumnumber of repair teams for groupof pipelines specified
accordingto(WAA/WRC, 2001) ascritical pipelinesA (sewerswhosedamageisassociatedwith
the most negative consequences). Their total length amounts to 16 km. In this group, damage
intensity
i
wasspecifiedfor pipelinesacknowledgedashomogeneous:
brickworkpipelinesof diameters500 1000mmandtotal length2km:
1
=1.21/akm
stonewarepipelinesof diameters200 500mmandtotal length3km:
2
=2.31/akm
concretepipelinesof diameters200 500andtotal length5km:
3
=3.41/akm
concretepipelinesof diameters500 1000andtotal length6km:
4
=2.81/akm.
Calculated for SMO
s
=
1
l
1
+
2
l
2
+
3
l
3
+
4
l
4
=43.1 1/a=0.12 1/d. Lengths of
pipelinesbetweenwellsformelementsof populationserviced sizeof populationR=160.
Serviceintensitydefinedonthebasisof companysdataconcerningaverageengagementtime
of repair team(for objectiveor unobjectivereasons) (Wieczystyet al. 1990):
=
1
T
nbr
(26)
T
nbr
= T
br
+T
d
(27)
177
Table1. Calculationforestablishingoptimumnum-
ber of teamsr SMOtypeM(M)r:(, ).
K
z1
[z/d] K
b2
[z/d] r f (r)/10
3
[z/d]
1000 1500 3 3.489
4 2.831
5 4.005
6 5.427
Table2. Calculation of function f (r) and r
opt
for
changing costs K
z1
and K
z2
SMO type
M(M)r:(, ).
K
z1
[z/d] K
b2
[z/d] K
z1
/K
b2
r
opt
K
z1
<K
b2
100 1000 0.1 3
500 1000 0.5 4
K
z1
=K
b2
1000 1000 1 4
K
z1
>K
b2
1500 1000 1.5 4
3100 1000 3.1 5
12900 1000 12.9 6
49900 1000 49.9 7
199000 1000 199 8
where: T
br
=mean gross repair time, covering besiderepair tasks proper also intervals in work
(e.g. night breaks), but without intervalsfor timenot utilizedduetobadwork organization, etc.,
T
d
=time not utilized, connected with unforeseen circumstances (e.g. inefficient equipment or
meansof transport, lackof materials, absenceof workers, etc.).
TimeT
nbr
isreferencedtolengthof pipelinebetweenwells.Takenintheexampleis=0.051/d.
=

s
= 2.4
Minimumnumber of teams: r =3 condition(18). Criterionfunctiontakestheform:
f (r) = K
z1
E(U) +K
b2
E(O
r
) = K
z1

r+1
(r 1)!C(r )
2
+K
b2
(r ) (28)
where: C accordingtoformula(9).
Number of teams calculated as assumed for requirement of example of costs K
z1
and K
b2
:
K
z1
=1000z/d, K
b2
=1500z/d. (z currencyunit). Calculationforestablishingoptimumnumber
of teamsr presentedinTable1.
Functionf (r) assumesminimumfor number of repair teamsr =4.
Studieswerealsoconductedfor functionf (r) dependingonchangesof costsK
z1
andK
b2
. Grad-
uallychangingthecosts, optimumnumber of teamsweredetermined. Theresultsarepresentedin
Table2. Fordeterminingthenumberof teams, relationof costsisimportantandnotabsolutevalues.
Resultsof calculationsshowthat for assumedintensityof damagesandrenovationof network,
thenumber of teams r amounts to 3 or 4 for unit costs of unreliability lesser or equal to team
employment costs. If teamemployment costs areless thanunreliability costs, optimumnumber
178
R (R1) (R2) (Ri1) (Rr1) (Ri) (Rr)
(Rj)
2 3 i
r r r r r
(i1)
States without queue States with queue
E
0
E
1
E
2
E
i
E
r
E
j
E
R
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Figure3. Graphof statesfor systemM(M)r:(R,L) (Filipowicz 1996).
of teams increases gradually from4, whereby employment of consecutiveteamis justifiedwith
considerablegrowthof unreliabilitycosts(ratioK
z1
/K
b2
).
2.2.4 Example II
Thequestionariseswhether theassumptiontreatinglengthsof pipelinebetweenwellsaselements
of SMO (mass service system), is justified. Homogeneous lengths of pipelines (e.g. diameter,
material) comprising a group can be taken as elements. Additionally, maximumlength of an
element canbelimited. Inthisway, thenumber of elementscanbesignificantlylimitedmakingit
necessarytoapplySMOtypeM(M)r:(R,L). Theoretically, itispossibletodamageall thepipelines
hencethequeuecapacityamountstoL =Rr. Thegraphof statesof SMOtypeM(M)r:(R,L) is
presentedinFigure3(Filipowicz 1996).
Formulaefor probabilities of systemstates andcorrespondingvalues of waitinginstationary
statecanbefoundinsubject literature. Thecriterionfunctionheretakestheform:
f (r) = K
z1
E(U) +K
b2
E(O
r
) = K
z1
R!
r!
P
0
Rr
n=0
n
r
n
(R r n)!
r+n
+K
b2
_
r
r1
i=0
iP
i
r
_
1
r1
i=0
P
i
__
(29)
where:
P
0
=
_
_
r
i=0
R!
i!(R i)!
i
+
R
j=r+1
R!
r!(R j)!r
jr
j
_
_
1
(30)
P
i
=
R!
i!(R i)!
i
P
0
for 1 i r (31)
P
j
=
R!
r!(R j)!r
jr
j
P
0
for r +1 j R (32)
Incaseof thisSMOmodel, condition(18) neednot befulfilled.
To illustratethederivation, it was decided to calculatetheoptimumnumber of repair teams
for groupA pipelines in exampleI, distinguishing thefollowing elements (maximumlength of
elementtakenas500m): brickworkpipelinesof diameters500 1pipeline, brickworkpipelines
of diameters1000 3pipelines, stonewarepipelinesof diameters200 4pipelines, stoneware
pipelines of diameters 400 5pipelines, concretepipelines of diameters 300 5pipelines,
concretepipelines of diameters 500 6pipelines, concretepipelines of diameters 1000 15
pipelines. Total number of systemelementsR=39.
In SMO type M(M)r:(R,L), it is assumed that all elements undergo damage with the same
intensity. For pipelines, meanintensityof damage shouldbeassumed.
=

s
R
179
Table3. Calculationforestablishingoptimumnumberof teamsr SMO
typeM(M)r:(R,L), R=39.
K
z1
[z/d] K
b2
[z/d] r f (r)/10
3
[z/d]
1000 1500 1 21.33
2 5.67
3 2.22
4 2.91
5 4.24
6 5.70
Table4. Calculationof functionf (r) andr
opt
for changingcostsK
z1
andK
z2
SMOtypeM(M)r:(R,L), R=39.
K
z1
[z/d] K
b2
[z/d] K
z1
/K
b2
r
opt
K
z1
<K
b2
100 1000 0.1 2
200 1000 0.2 3
K
z1
=K
b2
1000 1000 1 3
K
z1
>K
b2
1200 1000 1.2 3
1300 1000 1.3 4
6200 1000 6.2 5
27000 1000 27 6
115500 1000 115.5 7
549500 1000 549.5 8
Intensityof damage
s
andintensityof renovation wereassumedasinexampleI:
s
= 0.121/d, = 0.051/d, =
0.12
39
= 0.0031/d, =

= 0.06.
Number of teamswerecalculatedfor K
z1
=1000z/d, K
b2
=1500z/d(Table3).
Functionf (r) assumesminimumfor number of repair teamsr =3.
SimilarlyasisexampleI, studieswereconductedof functionf (r) dependingonchangesof costs
K
z1
andK
b2
for definingtheoptimumnumber of teams. Theresults arepresentedinTable4. In
Table5, thenumber of teamsweredefinedfor SMOconsistingof 160elements asinexample
I, utilizingSMOtypeM(M)r:(R,L). For thissystem, theoptimumnumber of teamsislarger with
thesamerelationK
z1
/K
b2
thaninthecaseof alessnumeroussystem.
Comparisonof Tables5and2showsthedifferencescausedwhileSMOsof different typesare
takenfor calculations. Intheexamplespresented, thedifferencesarenot large, however theques-
tionarisesastowhat number of elementsR justifiestheapplicationof thesimpler M(M)r:(,)
system.
3 SUMMINGUP
Maintainingthetechnical efficiency of largesystems as arewater supply andsewagesystems is
costlyandcomprisesasignificantpositioninbudgetsof enterprisesmanagingsuchsystems. Seek-
ingoptimummodelsfor maintainingsuchsystemsisthereforefullyjustifiedandindispensable. It
180
Table5. Calculationof functionf (r) andr
opt
for changingcostsK
z1
andK
z2
SMOtypeM(M)r:(R,L), R=160.
K
z1
[z/d] K
b2
[z/d] K
z1
/K
b2
r
opt
K
z1
<K
b2
100 1000 0.1 3
650 1000 0.65 4
K
z1
=K
b2
1000 1000 1 4
K
z1
>K
b2
3500 1000 3.5 4
3600 1000 3.6 5
15000 1000 15 6
59000 1000 59 7
244000 1000 244 8
seemsthat mathematical basiscreatedfor modelsof mass service systems mayfindapplicationin
thiscase.
Presentedinthepaper areanalysesof theproblemfor whichinspirationswereput forthearlier,
already in the nineties of the past century, with relevant studies conducted by Polish scientific
environment. The material presented shows the full complexity of the problemwhich is most
probably the reason that up to the present in Poland, these proposals have not found practical
applicationinservicingwater supplyandsewagesystems. Undoubtedly, thereasonfor thisstateof
affairsisthefactthatduringtheperiodwhenthesaidmodelswerecreated, therewerenocomputer
databases about thesystems, their states, procedures of rehabilitationprocesses, digital maps of
thesystems, etc., intheenterprisesmanagingthesystems. Presently, thesituationhasundergone
completechangecausingthesubject tobewortharepeated, expandedscientificanalysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Part of this research was made possible by funding awarded as part of professorial grants to Prof.
Cezary Madryas by the foundation for Polish Science.
REFERENCES
Denczew S. 1998. Application of reliability principles in utilization process of water supply connections
subsystem. Gas, Water and Sanitary Engineering (GWiTS) no. 9: 378382.
Filipowicz B. 1996. Stochastic models in operation studies, analysis and synthesis of servicing systems and
railway networks. Warsaw: ScientificandTechnical Publishers(WNT).
Koss-Tr ebaczkiewiczH., Kwietniewski M., RomanM. 1993. Reliability of water supply and sewage systems.
Warsaw: Arkady.
Ko zniewskaI., WodarczykM. 1978. Reliability renovation and mass service models. Warsaw: StateScientific
Publishers(PWN).
Wieczysty A., Iwanejko R., LubowieckaT., Rak J. 1990. Defining the number of repair teams in water
distributionsubsystemapplyingmassservicemodels. Gas, Water and Sanitary Engineering (GWiTS) no.
7: 136138.
WieczystyA., IwanejkoR. 1996. Determiningtherequiredlevel of reliabilityof water supplysystemobjects.
Gas, Water and Sanitary Engineering (GWiTS) no. 2: 5458.
181
UtilizingtheImpact-Echomethodfor nondestructivediagnosticsof
atypicallylocatedpipeline
C. Madryas, A. Moczko& L. Wysocki
Wrocaw University of Technology, Wrocaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Presentedinthepaper isthespecificity of nondestructivedefectoscopemeasure-
mentsrealizedbymeansof theImpact-Echomethodindiagnosticsof undergroundinfrastructure.
Discussedhereinarebasicfactorsof themethodwithrespecttotestingthiskindof buildingobjects
givingspecial considerationtothering-sectionstructureactingonwhichisthesurroundingground.
Deliberations wereconducted on thebasis of results of applying this method for diagnostics of
atypicallylocated, reinforcedconcrete, undergroundpipeline, drainingflotationtailingsreservoir
ZelaznyMost (IronBridge) inPoland.

1 INTRODUCTION
Progress inthefieldof diagnostic examinationhaveresultedinelaborationof anumber of new
testingmethodsenablingrelativelyversatileidentificationof actual technical stateof theexamined
objectwithouttheneedforconductingexpensiveandtime-consuminglaboratorytesting. Forobvi-
ousreasons, thegreatestinterestisarousedbydiagnosticmethodswhichenableundertakingrapid
andimportantdecisions, directlyonsite, havingnotonlytechnical significancebutalsosubstantial
economical measure. Amongthenumeroustechnical solutions, suchexpectationsarefulfilledtoa
considerableextentbytheImpact-Echomethod(ASTMC138398, Carinoetal., 1992, Sansalone
etal., 1989) workedoutinUSA. Itenablesnondestructivemeasurementof thicknessof all kindsof
concreteelementshavingaccessibilityfromonesideaswell asthewidelyunderstooddefectoscope
examination (flaw detection) of concretestructures. Therangeof examining possibilities using
Impact-Echo maketheonly alternativemethodinpracticeto belaboratory testingof test pieces
takenfromthestructure. Suchtesting, leadingindeedtoverypreciseresults, however requires:
uncoveringthestructurewhichinsomecasesisnot possible,
repairingthedamagecausedbytakingtest pieces,
moreprolongedlaboratorytesting.
Ineffect, inspiteof thementionedfeatures of testingconductedontest pieces, evenif suchtest
pieces can be taken, such testing is prolonged and very expensive. Whereas the Impact-Echo
methodenablescarryingout control testsinshort periodof time, inpracticallyunlimitednumber
of measurement points.
As adefinitiveinconvenienceof themethod, onemust acknowledgethefact that this typeof
testingrequirestheapplicationof verycostlyandcomplicatedequipmentwhichcanonlybehandled
effectivelybyhighlyqualifiedengineeringstaff.ThisisprobablythereasonthatinPoland, Impact-
Echo is still insufficiently utilized particularly in case of underground infrastructure. Despite
inconsiderableexperienceinthescopeof examiningundergroundinfrastructure, theauthorsof this
paper utilizedtheImpact-Echo methodtodeterminethestructural stateof reinforcedconcrete
pipelinetransportingwater inflotationprocess. Theduct is locatedunder thebottomof

Zelazny
Most thelargest flotationtailingsreservoir inEurope.
183
2 TESTINGDESCRIPTION
2.1 Description of the reservoir
The reservoir
Zelazny Most of area 13.94km

2
and embanked with a dam14.3kmlong, is
located in the south-western part of Poland about 100kmfromWrocaw. Construction of the
storagereservoirwasbegunin1974anditsutilizationin1997.Annual quantityof flotationtailings
dumpedintothereservoir ranges from20to26milliontons. Only 25%of this mass is assigned
for further processingandtheremaining75%massof wastesconstitutestheannual growthof the
deposit. Itisenvisagedthatthereservoirwill ultimatelyaccommodate1.110
9
m
3
of wasteswhich
will causethereservoir tobeuseduntil thecopper depositsinGogwG eboki areaareexhausted.
A pictureof thereservoir ispresentedinFigure1(www.kghm.pl).
Apart fromthe basic function of the reservoir described above, i.e. utilization of wastes, it
performstwoadditional functions:
settlingreservoir clarifyingthewater abovethesediment, utilizedintheflotationprocess,
retentionanddosingreservoir of excesstechnological water usedinminingprocesscirculation.
2.2 Description of the pipeline
Taking into consideration thesaid technological processes, thebasic accessory of thereservoir
thereforeis thepipelinecarryingaway excess accumulatedwater. This ductingis laidunder the
bottomof thereservoir under theconstantlythickeninglayer of deposit whosedepthreachesupto
several dozenmeters. It carriesawaywater beyondtherangeof thestructurethroughtheoverflow
locatedonthereservoir. A pictureof theoverflowispresentedinFigure2(www.kghm.pl).
Thesubject of examinationisthepipelineconsistingof steel pipingof diameter 1200mmbuilt
upwithareinforcedconcretestructurewhosemaintaskistocarrythemechanical loadingacting
onthestructure. Cross-sectionof theductingsoconstructedisshowninFigure3.
Figure1. Pictureof thereservoir
ZelaznyMost.
184
Figure2. Pictureof theoverflowinthereservoir
ZelaznyMost.
350 600 600
1900
350
4
0
0
4
0
0
2
0
0
6
0
0
5
0
0
2
1
0
0
P
1
P
2

P
3
Existing reinforced-concrete housing

Steel pipe 1200 mm diameter
Figure3. Cross-sectional viewof thestructureexamined.
185
Figure4. Insideviewof thepipeline.
Long-termutilizationof thepipelinehascausedsubstantial incrustationof itsinternal surface
asillustratedinFigure4, makingtheexaminationdifficult.
2.3 Organization and procedure of testing
Theacceptedtestingprograminvolvedconductingnondestructiveevaluationof structural continu-
ityof selectedconcretesectionof thepipelineconstructionhousing(enclosure). Thebasicpurpose
of testingwastoobtainananswer tothequestionabout thescopeof possibledamagestothecon-
cretehousingadjacent tooneof thecompensators(expansionpipejoint) responsiblefor ensuring
failure-freeutilization/functioningof theduct. Thetaskwasexceptionallycomplicatedbecauseof
thefact that access tothestructureexaminedwas only possiblethroughthetiltingvalveleading
intothepipelinethroughthetechnical chamberlocatedoutsidethelimitingoutlineof thereservoir.
In theplaceof testing, theduct is laid at adepth of about 40mbelowthewater surface, under
several dozenmetersof deposit layer, whichevidentlyprecludeditsdetection.
An additional difficulty in realization of testing was thenecessity of ensuring adequatelevel
of safety. Of special importance was the hazard of electric shock which could result fromthe
necessityof measurementsbeingconductedbytesterskneelinginthewet interior of theduct with
residual water atitsbottomwhichoozedinafter closingflowintotheductattheoverflow. Inorder
to eliminatethis hazard, aspecial electric linewas led into thepipelinethrough theventilation
channel, to provide safe supply for the measuring equipment. Testing was conducted at three
selectedmeasuringlocationsconsideredascrucial for safetyof thetestedstructure, markingthem
onFigure3as:
P
1
(topsurface),
P
2
(right sideof pipeline),
P
3
(left sideof pipeline).
186
Figure5. Viewof measuringlocationP
2
.
Before proceeding with the measurements, sections of the pipeline assigned for testing, were
thoroughlycleanedtoremovesedimentsanddried. Viewof anexampleof testinglocation(P
2
) is
presentedinFigure5. Utilizedinthetestingwas themeasuringunit DOC-ter consistingof two
basicelements:
central processing unit, forming an integral wholewith thehigh class computer adapted for
fieldwork,
combinedsensor typeMarkII facilitating, ontheonehand, pulseexcitationof elasticwavesin
thetestedconcreteelementwhilesimultaneouslyrecordingdisplacementof theconcretesurface.
It is evident that the whole procedure of getting the equipment inside the duct as well as its
installationthereinandconductingthemeasurementswasverydifficultbecauseof thetechnically
implicatedconditionsat thetestingstation. However, inspiteof thesedifficulties, it waspossible
tocarryout thetestingwithsuccess.
Before proceeding with the actual measurements, because of lack of possibility of directly
measuringthepropagationspeedof P typewaves inthetestedmedium, its valuewas initially
taken at the level of 4000m/s, and then after analyzing the results obtained, verification was
conductedanditsvaluefinallyassumedat V
P
=4210m/s.
2.4 Principle of the testing method
Diagnosticsof concretestructuresby theImpact-Echo methodisbasedonanalyzingtheeffect
accompanyingpropagationof elasticwavesinasolidbody. Theprincipleof themethodistoutilize
thereflectionof pulse-excitedelasticwavesfrominsidesurfacesof separationof individual layers
(delamination) of themediumoccurringindamagedplacesof structural material, includingalso
itsoutsidesurface. Diagramof thiseffect ispresentedinFigure6(Moczko, 2002).
187
Time
Time Time
Converter Excitation
Of the excitation
Fault
T
t
Force
Figure6. Impact-Echomethod Principleof theoperation.
Fromthepractical point of view, of basicsignificanceinthiscaseisknowledgeof propagation
characteristics in concrete of P type elastic wave also called primary or longitudinal wave.
Propagationof this typeof waveinconcretecauses slight displacement of its surfacewhichcan
berecordedinthefunctionof timeby means of asensor specially constructedfor this purpose,
usuallyplacedindirect proximityof theplaceof pulseexcitation.
Suitability of thismethodfor diagnosticsof concretestructuresresultsmainly fromitssensi-
tivity to occurrenceof mediaof different acoustic impedance(product of mediumdensity and
propagationspeedinit of P typeelastic waves) inthetestedelement. Since, at theborders of
mediaof clearlydifferingacousticimpedance, reflectionoccursof propagatingelasticwaves. This
typeof situationoccursamongothersinthecaseof internal non-continuityof material filledwithair
or water. Asanexample, approximatevalueof acousticimpedancefor selectedmediaamountsto:
concrete 7.810.410
6
kg/m
2
s
air 411kg/m
2
s
water 1.4810
6
kg/m
2
s
rock 4.615.1kg/m
2
s
soil 0.284.210
6
kg/m
2
s.
A characteristic featureof most concretestructures constituting underground infrastructureele-
ments anddistinguishingthemfromother engineeringstructures is their linear courseas well as
thin-walled, ring section, characterized by fixed geometrical parameters along thelength of the
structure. Besides, theseobjects areusually subject to theaction of considerableloading trans-
ferredby rock massor groundsurroundingit. For thesereasons, thetestingmethodsutilizedfor
defectoscopeexaminationof suchstructuresmusttakeintoaccounttheir specificsandparticularly
theinfluenceof reactionsontheconcrete-and-groundborder.
Considerable testing/research conducted in USA (Sansalone et al., 1997) showed that short-
durationactivationof mechanical pulseonthesurfaceof concreteelementof ringsection, generates
propagationof elasticwavesinit, whosefrequencyspectrumapproximatelyequalsthedistribution
obtainedwhiletestingelementsof slabcharacterbymeansof Impact-Echomethod.Thedifferences
observedinthis caseconsist mainly inadditional occurrenceof frequency amplitudesequences
characterizingindividual formsof crosssectionvibrations(Figure7A) causedby thefact that an
188
Wzbudzenie
Wzbudzenie
Osady
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
a
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
a
0 10 20 30
Czestotliwosc [kHz]
0 10 20 30
f
1
f
1
f
T
f
T
2
2
3
4
5
6
(a)
(b)
Czestotliwosc [kHz]
Figure7. Samplespectral resolutionsof vibrationamplitudestypical forringsection, expressedinfrequency
function.
A/ ringsectioninair,
B/ concretesectionsurroundedbyground.
elementof ringsectionformsalimitedmediumforpropagationof elasticwavesinit.Theamplitudes
of thesefrequenciesarehoweverdistinctlylowerthantheextremevalues, viz. dominatingfrequency
(f
extr
). Fromthe practical point of view, they can therefore be neglected and the thickness of
undamagedringsectioncanbedeterminedusingtheknownformula, formulatedforslabelements:
T = V
P
/ 2f
extr
(1)
In casethetested section is continuous (viz. no faults occurring in its outsideto interrupt this
continuity), valueof frequency accompanyingtheextremeamplitudeis definedas theexpected
frequency (f
T
=f
extr
) which, for givenspeedof P (V
p
) typewave, correspondstothicknessof the
testedelement.
Knowledgeof thedominatingfrequency ( f
extr
) enables locatingrelatively easily any possible
placesof non-continuityoccurringinthetestedconcretesectionandtoestimatethedepthof their
locations. Interpretationof resultsobtainedinthiscaseconsistsincomparingthedominatingvalue
intherecordedfrequency bandwiththeexpectedvalue. Every absenceof extremeamplitudefor
expectedfrequency( f
T
) inthefrequencyspectrumobtainedsignifiestheoccurrenceof faultinthe
concretesection.
Weareconcernedwith aslightly different situation when testingaringsection on which the
surroundinggroundisacting(Figure7B):
firstly, valuesof frequencyamplitudeareslightlylowerbecauseof thefactthatpartof theenergy
isabsorbedbytheground,
secondly, higher formsof thecrosssectionvibrationsdonot appear intherecordedfrequency
bandsincethey aredampedby thesurroundingground, andthefrequency amplitudes visible
189
Figure8. Sample result obtained in the place where concrete section is continuous, extreme frequency
(5.9kHz) obtainedcorrespondstoexpectedthicknessof sectionequal to357mm.
init, correspondingtotwoof thefirst formsof crosssectionvibrations, arenot very clear. In
comparison, valueof theexpectedfrequency(f
T
) isexplicitlydominatinganditsidentification
doesnot present anydifficulties.
Samplespectral resolutionsof vibrationamplitudesarepresentedinFigure7(Moczko, 2002).
3 TEST RESULTS
Unique under Polish conditions, tests performed, limited to selected sections of the structure,
showed full suitability of the Impact-Echo method for evaluating the continuity of difficult to
accessconcretesectionstypical forundergroundinfrastructure. Forillustrationpurposes, presented
inFigures8and9aresampleresultsobtainedinplaceswhere:
integrityof testedconcretesectionwasconfirmed(Figure8),
occurrenceof itscrackingwasconfirmed(Figure9).
AsisconcludedfromFigure8, theexpectedvalueof frequencyconformingtoextremeamplitude
is5.9kHz whichcorrespondstotheactual sectionthicknessamountingtoabout 357mm.
Whereastheresult inFigure9illustratesthecaseof measurement inwhichit canbeaccepted
withconsiderableprobabilitythat theconcretesectioniscracked. Thisissignifiedbyoccurrence
of individual extremeamplitudefor relativelyhigher valuesof frequencythanthat resultingfrom
expectedthicknessof thesameelement( f
extr
=8.1kHz> f
T
=5.9kHz). Lackof dominatingvalue
of frequency characteristic for solidmaterial ( f
T
=5.9kHz), withsimultaneous absenceof other
extremes of amplitude in lower frequency band testifies to occurrence of damage that is large
enoughtopractically disablepenetrationof thewavebelowthefault andis consequently almost
100%reflectedfromit. Suchcrackingthereforehas thecharacter of layer separationandshould
beconsideredasasignificant hazardtosafetyof thetestedsection.
190
Figure9. Sample result obtained in the place where the concrete section is cracked, extreme frequency
obtained(8.1kHz) correspondstolayerseparationtypefaultoccurringtoadepthof about261mm.
Detailedanalysisof resultsobtainedshowedthat thetechnical stateof concretehousingof the
testedpipelineisdiversified. Inmeasurement locationdenotedP
3
(left sideof pipeline), relatively
goodstateof existingpipelinehousingwasconfirmed. Onlyat adistanceof about 10cmfromthe
compensator, thetestsconductedshowednon-continuityof concretesection(probablyitscracking).
A different situation existed in the measurement locations denoted P
1
and P
2
. In both these
areas, considerablecrackingof concretewasascertainedwithhighrateof probability. Incaseof
measuring location P
2
(right side of pipeline), the width of this crack can be estimated as not
lessthan20cmandnot morethan34cm, andincaseof thetopsectionof pipeline(P
1
), not less
than15cmandnot morethan28cm, respectively. It shouldherebestressedthat inbothcasesthe
crackingmost probablystartsat theborder of thecompensator.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Testing the state of underground pipeline reinforced-concrete structure by the Impact-Echo
methodfor thefirst timeinPolandwassuccessful andshowedthat it canbeappliedevenunder
extremelydifficult local conditions, whichhadraisedthegreatest anxietyintheauthors.
Onthebasis of presentedresults andfurther testing, decisionwas undertakento renovatethe
pipelineusingtrenchlesstechnologies. Therenovationworkshavebeencompleted.
Sincethetimeof conductingthesetests, theauthorshavesuccessfully examinedunderground
andotherstructuresbytheImpact-Echomethodseveral times, howeverneverundersuchdifficult
local conditions.
REFERENCES
ASTM C 138398: StandardTest Methodfor MeasuringtheP-WaveSpeedandThicknessof ConcretePlates
UsingtheImpact-EchoMethod.AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials, Philadelphia, PA.19103, USA.
191
Carino, N.J. & Sansalone, M.J. 1992. Void detection in grouted ducts using theImpact-Echo method. ACI
Materials Journal 89(3): 296303.
Moczko, A. 2002. Examination of structures Impact-Echo (in Polish). Building Industry, Technologies,
Architecture (Budownictwo Technologie Architektura) No1: 4850.
Sansalone, M.J. & Carino, N.J. 1989. Detecting delaminations in concreteslabs with and without overlays
usingtheImpact-Echomethod. ACI Materials Journal 86(2): 175184.
Sansalone, M.J. & Streett W.B. 1997. Impact-Echo Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete and Masonry.
Bullbrier Press, USA.
www.kghm.pl
192
Selectedproblemsof designingandconstructingundergroundgarages
inintensivelyurbanisedareas
H. Michalak
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: Thepaper describes theproblems of designingandconstructinggarages erected
indenseurbanconditions, indeeptrenches withshieldingmadeof monolithic diaphragmwalls,
propped, according to theprinciples of theroof method or rigid bracing. Studies on theimpact
(effects) of deep-embeddednewbuildingsupongrounddeformationinthenearby arehavebeen
carriedout.
1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, ensuringtheappropriatenumber of parkinglotshasbecomeoneof themostimportant
interdisciplinary issues which requiresolvingin order to ensurethenormal operation of towns.
Solvingthecar parkingandgaragingquestioninacorrectway, especiallyinintensivelyurbanised
areas, canhelptowndevelopment, whileincorrect solutionsinthisrespect may becomeanissue
inhibitingthisdevelopment.
Buildings, includingthosewithmulti-storeyundergroundpartsdestinedfor garages, shouldbe
designedanderectedtakinginto considerationtherequirements of currently bindinglegislation
andadoptedstandardsconcerningthequalityof thesestructures. At thesametimeit isnecessary
to ensurethesafety of theexistingneighbouringhouses. This conditionis mainly relatedto the
necessityof limitingthedeformationsof thegroundduringtheerectionof anew, deeplyfounded,
building.
2 EXTENDOF TRENCHIMPACT UPONVERTICAL DISPLACEMENTSOF
SOIL MASS
Excavationof deeptrenchesandthesubsequentconstructionof objectscausedisplacementsof the
adjacent groundandmovement of groundmassesintheobjectsvicinity.
Therearedifferent researchopinions andresults provingarelationshipbetweentheextent of
trench impact, themagnitudeof thevertical displacement of thesurfaceof theground and lat-
eral displacements of trench shielding, thetypeof shielding, method of propping, construction
methodof theundergroundpart of thebuilding, typeof soil, loweringof groundwater table, etc.
(Burland, Simpson&StJ ohn1979; Breymann, Freiseder &Schweiger 1997; Clough&ORourke
1998; Michalak, P eski, Pyrak&Szulborski 1998; Siemi nska-Lewandowska2001; Kosi nski 2002;
Kotlicki &Wysoki nski 2002; Michalak2005; Michalak2006).
It is estimated that theextent of thetrench impact upon thevertical displacement of thesoil
surfaceinthesurroundingareadepends, most of all, onthesoil type; it isexpressedasafactor of
thedepthof thetrenchh andequals:
24h accordingtoClough& ORourke, 1998inthegroundformedof Londonandboulder
clays,
193
22.5h accordingtoSymons& Carder, 1992inthegroundformedof Londonandboulder
clays,
1.52h accordingtoBreyman, 1997innon-cohesivesoils(fineandmediumgrainsizesand
andgravel),
23h (maximum5h) accordingtoSimpson, 1979instrongcohesivesoils,
insand2.0h, inclays2.5h, andinsilts34h accordingtoKotlicki & Wysoki nski 2002; it
hasalsobeenfoundthat whenthegroundwater tablelowers, theextent of theimpact islower
byapproximately20%.
Fromtheresearchworks(Michalak, P eski, Pyrak&Szulborski 1998; Michalak, P eski, Pyrak&
Szulborski 2001; Wysoki nski 2002; Szulborski &Michalak2003; Michalak2005; Michalak2006)
itfollowsthatthelargestvertical movementof groundsurfaceoccurswithinazoneof 0.5to0.75h
fart fromthetrenchedge. Thedisplacementsdisappear at adistanceof 2h, andwhentheground
water tableislowered(for depressionwellslocatedoutsidetrenchoutline) itdisappearswithinthe
distance34h fromtrenchedge.
Thepublisheddatapresentedhererefer toanassessmentof theeffectsof trenchexcavation, but
donot includemovementsoccurringduringtheerectionof theundergroundpart of thestructure,
followedbytheerectionof theabove-groundpart of thebuilding.
3 THE EXTENT OF THE EFFECTSCAUSEDBY THE CONSTRUCTIONOF A NEW
BUILDINGWITHA MULTI-STOREY BASEMENT UPONTHEVERTICAL
DISPLACEMENTSOF THE GROUNDSURFACE
Theexcavationof deeptrenchesandthesubsequent constructionof objectscausedeformationsof
theadjacent groundandmovement of massesnearby. Amongother things, theyaretriggeredby:
modificationof groundstressandstraincondition, relatedtotrenchshieldingdisplacement,
grounddeformationdueto strainrelief by atrench(destressing), andloadby anewbuilding
(Fig. 1),
settlingof thegroundsurfaceduetoaloweredgroundwater table.
Thesedeformations, althoughinevitablyrelatedtotheexecutionof deepfoundations, mayoccur
morefrequentlywhenirregularitiesor errorshappentooccur duringexecution.
Vertical displacementsof thegroundsurfacenear theexcavationsandtheextent of theimpact
of anewbuildingconstructionmainlydependon: thetypeof soil, appliedtrenchshieldingandthe
methodof propping(spreaders, floorsof basement storeys roof method, injectionanchors), the
adoptedstaticscheme, executionphases de-stressingandloadingtheconditionof ground.
Vertical grounddisplacementswithinthezoneadjacent toanewlyconstructedbuildingarethe
result of thesuperpositionof thesubsequent phases of works covering: constructingashielding
(Berlin wall, pile wall, diaphragmwall etc.), deepening the trench and its successive lagging,
constructingabuildingbasement, andthewholestructureanditsusability(cf. Fig. 1).
It is believed that theprocess of themovement of sandy soil in practiceis finished just after
the completion of the construction, while in cohesive grounds it lasts even 3 years longer. On
average, it canbeassessedthat innon-uniformsoil thisprocesslastsapproximatelyoneyear after
thecompletionof aconstructionandthefull loadingof thenewstructurewithitsoperational load.
Frommyownsurveysandcalculationanalysesof objectsconstructedinWarsawinthelastdecade
(Michalak2005; Michalak2006) itfollowsthatthemagnitudeof thevertical displacementsof the
groundsurfaceandtheshapeof thesettlementbasinmostlydependonthesoil type, appliedtrench
shieldingandthestaticbehaviour scheme, theconstructionmethodof thebuildingbasement and
theconstructionphase.
Thepresent study covered shielding by diaphragmwalls, top-propped and madeby theroof
method(Fig. 2).
194
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Figure1. Numerical model of vertical displacementsof thegroundinthefollowingphasesof construction
of abuildingwithmulti-storeybasement: (a) de-stressingbytrench, (b) loadingbybuilding.
Ithasbeenobservedthatinobjectswherethebasementwasconstructedbytheroof method(from
0floorlevel upwards) orwhenthetrenchwasproppedbywedgingthestrutsonthecappingbeam
or pre-bracingfromlevel 0) lateral movementsof trenchshieldingareinsignificantcomparedto
thevertical displacementsof thisshielding.
Anareaoutsidethelayout of theexcavationsfor theplannedbuildingwherevertical displace-
mentsexceeding0.6mmoccur, hasbeenadoptedasthezoneof impactof anewbuildinguponthe
displacement of thegroundsurfaceandtheneighbouringhouseslocatedinthisarea. Suchlimited
valueresultsfromtheprecisionof conductinggeodeticsurveyconcerningvertical displacements,
whichcanbeachievednowadays.
195
(a) (b)
Figure2. Constructionof buildingbasement: (a) roof method, (b) proppeddiaphragmwalls.
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
X
Y
Figure3. Extent of impact of anewbuildingconstruction(phaseIII) foundedinsands (Michalak, 2006):
Y factor of vertical displacement valuev
0
; X distancefromtrenchedgeexpressedasafactor
of trenchdepthh.
Withintheextent of theimpact of anewbuilding, 4zoneshavebeenset apart S
0.75
, S
0.50
, S
0.25
andS
0
withareachdependentontheabsolutevalueof vertical displacementsonthetrenchedgev
0
not exceeding0.75v
0
, 0.50v
0
, 0.25v
0
and0, respectively(declineof displacements). Theanalyses
whichwerecarriedout consideredthefollowingphasesof construction:
phaseII correspondingtotheexecutionof thebasement structure,
phaseIII correspondingtotheerectionof thebuildingandloadingwithfull operational load.
It has beenobservedthat theextent of thetrenchimpact (of zoneS
0
) depends ontheground
type.Theextentof thetrenchimpactcorrespondingtobuildingswhicharefoundedinnon-uniform
196
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X
Y
Figure4. Scopeof impact of anewbuilding construction (phaseIII) founded in clays (Michalak, 2006):
Y factor of vertical displacement valuev
0
; X distancefromtrenchedgeexpressedasafactor
of trenchdepthh.
Table1. Impact zonesof theconstructionof newbuildingsuponthevertical
displacementsof thesurroundinggroundsurface.
Zonerange
Construction
phases S
0.75
S
0.50
S
0.25
S
0
II 0.5h 0.7h 1.1h 1.7h sands
5.4h silts
III 0.5h 0.8h 1.3h 2.8h sands
5.4h silts
soilswithsandydepositsor siltsdepositedbelowthebottomslablevel hasbeenstudied(Figs. 3,
4andTable1).
Fromfirst-handanalysescarriedoutbasedontrue(measured) lateral andvertical displacement
of surveyedbuildings, thefollowingconclusionscanbedrawnasconcernstheextentof theimpact
zonesof newbuildingsonthemovementsof thegroundsurface:
1. thebiggest vertical displacement of thegroundsurfaceof absolutevalueupto 0.75v
0
occurs
withinthedistanceupto0.5h inconstructionphasesII andIII,
2. the vertical displacement of the ground surface of absolute value 0.750.50v
0
occurs at a
distanceof upto0.7h inphaseII and0.8h inphaseIII,
3. the vertical displacement of the ground surface of absolute value 0.500.25v
0
occurs at a
distanceof upto1.1h inphaseII and1.3h inphaseIII,
4. thedeclineof thevertical displacement of thegroundsurfacedependsonsoil typeandoccurs:
for sandy deposits: withinthedistance1.7h fromthetrenchedgeinphaseII, andwithina
distanceof 2.8h fromthetrenchedgeinphaseIII,
for clays: withinadistanceof 5.4h fromtrenchedgeinbothphases,
5. theextent of zoneS
0.75
doesnot dependontheexecutionphaseof thebuildingconstruction,
6. anincreaseof extent of eachzoneinphaseIII comparedtophaseII hasbeenobservedoutside
zoneS
0.75
.
197
4 THE RELATIONSHIP DETERMININGTHEVERTICAL DISPLACEMENTSOF THE
GROUNDSURFACE DUETOTHE CONSTRUCTIONOF A NEWBUILDING
A BASEMENT
Inorder todeterminethegeneral relationshipdescribingthevertical displacement of theground
surfacein thevicinity of newly constructed buildings with an underground part, constructed in
deeptrenches, true(measured) valuesof vertical displacementobtainedfromalandsurveyandthe
vertical displacement valueat thetrenchedge, calculatedby the3-axial strainmethodhavebeen
analysed(Michalak2006).
Calculatingtheanalysesincludedbuildingswithabasement constructedbytheroof methodor
byproppeddiaphragmwallsduringphaseIII of theconstruction. Theuniformloadof surfacethe
of theelastichalf-spaceof theanalysedbuildingshasbeenadopted, diminishedbytheloadvalue
correspondingtode-stressingbythetrench.
Inthecasesanalysed, aratiolinkingthetrueandcalculatedvaluesof thevertical displacementof
thegroundsurfacehasbeendeterminedbythemethodof leastsquares.Theempirical ratioobtained
fromtheanalysesandapproximationof thecurveof thevertical displacementof thegroundsurface
applyingthesquarefunctionledto obtainingthesought after relationshipfor non-uniformsoils
formedof sandydepositsor clayeydepositsbelowthelevel of thebottomslab.
Basedonmy ownanalyses(Michalak 2006) it hasbeenadoptedthat afunctiondescribingthe
vertical displacement of thegroundsurfaceduetotheconstructionof buildings onnon-uniform
ground, formedwithinthezonelayingbelowthesandydeposit slabhasthefollowingshape:
V
y
=
_
0,00883
x
2
h
2
+0,0482
x
h
0,0655
_
n
i=1
q
i
B
_
1
2
i
_
E
0i
(1)
where: h trenchdepth; x distancefromtrenchedge; n number of groundstrata; q
uniform
load by building, considering de-stressing by trench (under the basement);
i
coefficient
dependentonshapeof loadedarea(foundation), itsrigidityandlocationrelatedtotheloadedarea;
i
Poissons ratio of ith stratum; B width of foundation (trench); E
0i
modulus of original
deformationinithstratum.
Inthecaseof buildingswhicharefoundedonclaysbelowbottomslab, therelationshipbetween
vertical displacement of groundsurfaceandtheerectedbuildingcanbeformulatedasfollows:
V =
_
0,00614
x
2
h
2
0,0453
x
h
+0,0652
_
n
i=1
q
i
B(1
2
i
)
E
0i
(2)
Thespecifiedfunctionsenablethetotal vertical displacementsof groundsurfacetobeforecasted
(includinggroundde-stressing, andlateritsloadingwiththenewbuildingweight) inthevicinityof
buildingswithbasement partsembeddedindeeptrenchesbuilt bytheroof methodor byapplying
proppeddiaphragmwalls. Inpractice, they canbeappliedtoestimatethevertical movements of
thegroundinthecaseof stratasimilar totheonediscussedinthepresent paper.
5 ANALYSISOF THE EFFECTSOF THE GROUNDDEFORMATIONUPONTHE
TECHNICAL CONDITIONOF HOUSING
Whenabuildingisconstructedinadenseurbanareait isnecessarytolimit thelateral movements
of thetrenchshieldingfor eachphaseof managingtheinvestment:
investment preliminaryphase: it isnecessarytoinvestigatethetechnical infrastructure,
designphase: instaticcalculationsof trenchshieldingmovementsit isnecessarytodesignthe
trenchproppingaheadof earthworksprogress,
executionphase: it isnecessarytoobeytechnological regimes.
198
Basedonstudies(Michalak, P eski, Pyrak&Szulborski 1998; Szulborski 1999; Michalak2005;
Michalak 2006) it canbeconcludedthat themost beneficial of thecomments onthelimitingof
groundmovementintheneighbourhood, isconstructingmulti-storeybasementsintrencheswhich
areshieldedby diaphragmwalls proppedby pre-stressedspreaders or thefloors of underground
storeys(roof method). Duetotherequiredlimitationof lateral displacementsthesewallsshouldbe
adequatelyrigid, embeddedbelowbottomslablevel andcross-braced. Proppingshouldbeapplied
onseveral levelsdependingonthedepthof thetrenchwhilelimitinglateral displacementsof this
shielding is the most effective if it proceeds along with the earthworks progress starting from
0 level.
Itshouldhoweverbenotedthatthecircularplanof thebasementof thebuildingisoptimal bearing
inmindthelimitationof groundmovement andtypeof static interaction. Thissolutionhasbeen
appliedinFrancethankstothedevelopmentof anewmethodof cavitydeepeningandconstruction
of diaphragmwallsformingringshielding, thuseliminatingtheneedtopropthewalls. Thisallows
theamount of reinforcingelementsof diaphragmwallstobereduced, provideswater-tightnessin
wall contactsandischeaper thantraditional shieldingmethodsinFrenchconditions.
Published data (Michalak, P eski, Pyrak & Szulborski 1998; Runkiewicz 2001; Kotlicki &
Wysoki nski 2002), engineeringpracticeandresultsof myownstudies(Michalak 2005; Michalak
2006) indicatethat arelationship between thetypeand sizeof damages occurring in buildings
(buildingfacilities), andthetypeof buildingstructureandgrounddisplacementswithinalocation
areaexists.
Basedonanalysesandobservations, manyresearchershavecharacterisedempirical limits, usu-
ally measuredby tilting of different types of buildingstructures, thesurpassingof whichmay
causevariousdamagesinthefurnishingsor thestructural componentsof thesebuildings.
Fromthe aforementioned data and my own survey it follows that the damages of buildings
(mainlytheirarchitectural components), includingcracking, canoccurwhenthetiltingof abuilding
equalsor exceedsthevalue1/6001/500, i.e. 1,662,00mm/m.
In general, theprobability of crack occurrencein building components appears when tilting
amounts to 1/5001/300, i.e. 2,003,33mm/m, and cracking occurs when tilting is equal to
1/3001/150, i.e. 3,336,67mm/m. Small andmediumstructural damagesoccur usuallywhen
tiltingequalsto1/2001/150(i.e. 5,006,67mm/m), andheavydamages whentiltingisgreater
than1/150(greater than6.67mm/m).
Evidently, thevaluesrelatedtospecifiedbuildingdamagescandiffer slightly, dependingonthe
truetechnical conditionof building(itsnatural wear) duringtilting, aswell astoitssusceptibility
tothedeformationof materialsandstructureappliedinconstruction.
6 METHODSOF PROTECTINGANDREINFORCINGBUILDINGSTRUCTURE
Duringpreliminary constructionworks for abuildingwithamulti-storey basement theexisting
housing should be scrutinized within the zone of the planned trench impact (Michalak, P eski,
Pyrak& Szulborski 1998; Szulborski & Michalak2003).
Dependingonthevalueandcharacter of thegrounddeformationunder theexistingbuildings
(uniformor non-uniformdisplacements) andthetechnical conditionof thesebuildings, sometimes
it isnecessarytoprotect or reinforcethestructural components, namely:
(a) reinforcement of thefoundationzone, including.:
piling (including micropiling) in order to transfer the load of the building foundation to
bearinggroundstratalayingbelowthewedgeof theblock formedinthegroundduringthe
deformationof trenchshielding(whenexceedinglimitingstrains),
circumferential reinforcedconcretetieslocatedonthegroundfloor level of thebuilding,
high-pressure injection method consisting in increasing the load-bearing capacity of the
groundunder thefoundations(especially, inthecaseof expectednon-uniformsettlement of
substratum, optional loosening, etc.),
199
(b) reinforcement of theaboveground part of existing buildings, e.g. by steel braces along load
bearingwalls, usuallyonseveral levels, aswell asthepossibleexecutionof additional elements
cross-bracingthestructure.
Requirements concerning themaximumaccepted dislocations and deformations of theexist-
ingbuildings andgrounddeformationshouldbeconsideredwhendesigninganewbuilding. In
principle, indesigningthetrenchshieldingandconductingtheworkssurpassingpermissiblewall
deformations and ground settlement nearby should be avoided with reference to neighbouring
housing.
7 SUMMARY
The analysis of almost 50 buildings with multi-storey basements erected in Warsaw in the last
decade, allowsustoconcludethat:
thedislocationof thegrounddepends onthedepthof thetrench, typeof shielding, strutting,
typeof soil, phaseof construction,
thevalueof thegroundmovement canbeaffectedby selectinganappropriatetypeof trench
shielding, andespeciallystrutting,
in thecaseof constructing abuilding basement by theroof method or by means of propped
diaphragmwalls, vertical movementsdominateamonggrounddislocations.
Theprocessof grounddislocationends, dependingonthesoil typeformingtheground; forsandy
soil it ends directly after completing theconstruction and starting operation, whilein cohesive
groundsthisprocesslastsfor upto3yearsmore. Onaverage, it isestimatedthat innon-uniform
stratathisprocesscontinuesthenextyearaftercompletingtheconstructionandafterloadinganew
structurewithitsoperational load.
Whenthebasement part isconstructedbytheroof methodor byproppeddiaphragmwalls, the
total extent of theimpact of anewbuilding, also includingconstructingits abovegroundpart, is
ca2.8h innon-uniformsoil withsandydepositsinthefoundationarea, andca5.4h inclays.
REFERENCES
BreymannH., FreisederM.&SchweigerH.F.1997. Deepexcavationsinsoftground, in-situmeasurementsand
numerical predictions. Proceedingsof theXIV International Conferenceof Soil MechanicsandFoundations
Engineering. Hamburg.
BurlandJ. B., SimpsonB. & St J ohnH. D. 1979. MovementsaroundexcavationsinLondonClay. Materiay
Konferencji. Designparametersingeotechnical engineering. BGS, London.
Clough G. W. & ORourkeT. D. 1998. Construction induced movements of in-situ walls. Proceedings of
ConferenceDesignandPerformanceof EarthRetainingStructures. NewYork.
Grodecki W., MadryasC., Tajdu sA., TokarzA., Wichur A. &

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ictwapodziemnego. Grnictwoi Geoin zynieria, UczelnianeWydawnictwaNaukowo-DydaktyczneAGH,
vol. 3/1, Krakw.
Kosi nski B. 2002. Projektowanieobudwg ebokichwykopw. Materiayseminariumpt. G ebokiewykopy
naterenachwielkomiejskich. IDiM PWoraz IBDiM. Warszawa, 19November 2002.
Kotlicki W. & Wysoki nski L. 2002. Ochronazabudowy w s asiedztwieg ebokich wykopw. ITB, pracanr
376/2002. Warszawa.
Michalak H., P eski S., Pyrak S. & Szulborski K. 1998. O wpywiewykonywaniawykopw g ebokich na
zabudow es asiedni a. In zynieriai Budownictwo, nr 1/1998.
MichalakH. 2006. Ksztatowaniekonstrukcyjno-przestrzennegara zypodziemnychnaterenachsilniezurban-
izowanych. Pracenaukowe seriaarchitektura, vol. 2. OficynaWydawniczaPolitechniki Warszawskiej,
Warszawa.
Michalak H. 2005. Wybrane problemy projektowania gara zy podziemnych na terenach zurbanizowanych.
In zynieriai Budownictwo, nr 11/2005.
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Runkiewicz L. 2001. Wpyw g ebokiego posadowienia budynkw plombowych na destrukcj eistniej acych
obiektw. Materiay XVI Oglnopolskiej Konferencji Warsztat Pracy ProjektantaKonstrukcji. PZITB,
Oddzia wKrakowie, Ustro n, 2124February2001.
Siemi nska-LewandowskaA. 2001. Przemieszczeniakotwionych scianszczelinowych. OficynaWydawnicza
Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa.
SimpsonB. & oth. 1979. Designparametersfor stiff clays. Proceedingsof theVII ECSMFE, Brighton.
Symons I. F. & Carder D. R. 1992. Field measurements on embedded retaining walls. Geotechnique, nr
1/1992.
Szulborski K., Michalak H., P eski S. & Pyrak S. 2001. Awarie i katastrofy scian szczelinowych. XVI
OglnopolskaKonferencjaWarsztatPracyProjektantaKonstrukcji. PZITB,Oddzia wKrakowie, Ustro n,
2124February2001.
Szulborski K. & Michalak H. 2003. Uwarunkowania realizacji budynkw z kilkukondygnacyjn a cz e sci a
podziemn awstrefachzabudowyzwartej. XLIX KonferencjaNaukowaKILiWPANi KNPZITBKrynica
2003. Warszawa-Krynica, 1419September 2003.
Szulborski K. 1999. Problemy konstrukcyjne w realizacji inwestycji wznoszonych w zabudowie zwartej.
V KonferencjaNaukowo-TechnicznaWarsztat Pracy Rzeczoznawcy Budowlanego. ITB, Kielce, 2729
April 1999.
Wysoki nski L.2002. Badaniageotechniczneprzedi wtrakciewykonywaniag ebokichwykopwbudowlanych.
Conference papers G ebokie wykopy na terenach wielkomiejskich. IDiM PW i IBDiM, Warszawa,
19November 2002.
201
Material structureof municipal wastewater networksinPolandinthe
periodof 2000to2005
K. Miszta-Kruk, M. Kwietniewski, A. Osiecka& J. Parada
Technology Institute of Warsaw, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Water Supply and Wastewater
Removal Department, Warsaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Thematerial structureof wastewaternetworksinPolandhasbeenchangingsteadily
since1990.Thispaperpresentsactual resultsof changesintheperiodof 2000to2005. Effectsshow
thattheactual trendof systematicincreaseof PVCmaterial applications. Itpertainstobothoutside
networks andsewer houseconnections. TheWaterworks companies takeinto considerations life
expectancyof pipesandsewer houseconnectionsaswell asdurabilityof jointsduringtheprocess
of matchingthematerial tothesewer networksconstructions.
1 INTRODUCTION
Thematerial structureof wastewaternetworksinPolandhasbeenchangingsteadilysince1990.The
trendshownbythosechangespointstoawideuseof productsmadeof thermoplastics, especially
asystemof pipes andpipefittings madeof PVC. It is so bothincaseof external networks and
housesewers.
Developmentsinapplicationof variousmaterial solutionsinconstructionof wastewaternetworks
inPolandhavebeenmonitoredby Water Supply andWastewater Removal Department of Tech-
nological Instituteof Warsawfor at least 15yearsinfive-year cycles(Kudra2002, Kwietniewski
etal. 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2004). Thispaperdiscussestheresearchresultsfromthemostrecent
period(2000to2005).Theresearchresultshavebeencombinedwiththeresultsof theobservations
madeintheprecedingperiodsof timetocreateageneral pictureof developmental trendsintheuse
of variousmaterial solutionsfor constructionof wastewater networksintheentire15-year period
coveredbytheobservation.
2 OBJ ECTIVEANDSCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
Theobjectiveof theresearchwastoassessthedevelopmental trendsshownbymunicipal wastewater
networks inPolandintheperiodof 2000to 2005. Emphasis was placedonidentificationof the
material structureof thesewersunder constructionandthecriteriaappliedinselectionof materials
thesewersusedfor thenetworkconstructionpurposesweremadeof.
Thesourcesof dataincludedwater supplyandwastewater enterprisesbutsomeinformationwas
obtainedfrommunicipal offices, aswell. Inthedatacollectionprocessit wasfoundthat inmany
enterprises the quality of the wastewater facility and network records continues to be far from
theexpectedlevel. Inmanycasesmanyimportant datarequiredfor awell-plannedoperationand
maintenanceof thosefacilities aremissing. Nevertheless moreandmorefrequently introduction
of GIS-typecomputer databases is plannedor inprogress inmany enterprises; thedatabases are
anexcellenttool whichcanbeemployedtoorganisethestocktakingof undergroundinfrastructure
facilitiesinastructuredway.Atpresenteverysecondlargeenterpriseisintroducingthosedatabases
intotheir operations.
203
Table1. Examinedwastewater networks
.
Length Share
Specification (km) (%)
Wastewater networksinPoland 80130.8 100
Examinedwastewater networks 13216.5 16.5
asat 31December 2005.

Table2. Homeconnectionsintheexaminedwastewater networks
.
Length Share
Specification (km) (%)
Sewer houseconnectionsinPoland 17545.12 100
Examinedwastewater networks 3022.79 17.2
asat 31December 2005.

Table3. Material structure of the wastewater networks examined in 2000 taking into
considerationtherangeof sewer diameters.
Lengthof sewers
Rangeof diameters
Item Material mm km %
1 Stoneware 1001600 5536.28 45.6
2 Concrete 1502500 2996.51 24.6
3 PVC 1001400 1428.74 11.7
4 Reinforcedconcrete 1502500 1343.90 11.0
5 PE 801400 296.52 2.4
6 Cast iron 1001200 193.00 1.6
7 Other 381.64 3.1
TOTAL 12181.69 100
Theresearchcovered13,200kmof wastewaternetworks, i.e. 16.5%of themunicipal wastewater
networksinPoland(Table1) andover 3,000kmof housesewers, i.e. about 17.2%of all thesewer
homeconnections in thecountry (Table2). Theexamined networks wereused by over 33%of
inhabitantsbenefitingfromcollector-basedwastewater networks.
Thescopeof theresearchwasasfollows:
Structural analysis of the wastewater networks and home connections under construction in
termsof thetypesof materialsused;
Trendsintheuseof variousmaterialsfor constructionof wastewater networksintheperiodof
2000to2005;
Analysisof thecriteriaappliedinorder toselect sewer materialstobeusedfor constructionof
wastewater networks.
3 DEVELOPMENT OF WASTEWATER NETWORKS
Atthebeginningof theperiodcoveredbytheresearchstonewarepipeswerethedominatingmaterial
inthewastewater network structure(Table3, Fig. 1). Sewers madeof stoneware(most of them
wereold-typepipes) accountedfor 45.6%of thelengthof theexaminedwastewater networks.
204
50%
45%
45.5%
11.0%
24.6%
11.7%
2.4%
1.6%
3.1%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Other Cast iron PE PVC Concrete Reinforce concrete Stoneware
Figure1. Material structureof thewastewater networksexaminedin2000.
Table4. Sharesof accumulativegainsinthelengthof wastewater networksmadeof variousmaterialsinthe
periodof 2000to2005.
Lengthof sewers
Rangeof diameters
Item Material mm km %
1 PVC 90630 1618832 81.2
2 Stoneware 1001600 172323 8.6
3 PE 801400 51685 2.6
3 Compositematerials 1501200 37647 1.9
4 PP 1001200 21170 1.1
5 Concrete 1001400 20034 1.0
5 Structural materials 2001200 11436 0.6
6 Other
48176 2.4
TOTAL 1993826 100
other materials: steel, east iron.

Asyoucanseeconcretewassecondmost popular material usedfor constructionof wastewater
networks (accountedfor 24.6%of thenetwork length). Theshareof pipes madeof thermoplas-
tics, mainly PVC (11.7%), andreinforcedconcreteinthematerial structureof thenetwork was
considerable, too.
Inthis context thefollowingquestioncanbeasked: what materials wereusedfor production
of pipesthat wastewater networksweremadeof intheperiodof 2000to2005andwhat wastheir
shareinthetotal lengthof thenetworksbuiltatthattime?Toanswer thisquestionall thematerials
usedfor constructionof wastewater networksinthat periodof timehavebeenspecifiedinTable4
belowinanaccumulativeformat, andtheglobal percentageshares of sewers madeof individual
materialshavebeenshownonFig. 2. Moreover, Fig. 3illustratesthedevelopment of wastewater
networksbuilt usingvariousmaterialsinindividual yearsof theperiodcoveredbytheresearch.
205
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
8.6%
0.6%
1.0%
2.6%
1.1%
1.9%
0.6%
2.4%
81.2%
Stoneware PVC Rainforce
concrete
Concrete PE PP Composite
materials
Structural
materials
Other
Figure2. Percentageshares of accumulativegains in thelength of wastewater networks madeof various
materialsintheperiodof 2000to2005.
100000
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000
Stoneware PVC Reinforced concrete & concrete PE PP
Composite materials Structural materials Other Pressure conduit
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
2
9
5
5
0
3
3
6
2
8
5
2
7
8
9
0
1
7
5
3
4
3
1
6
8
6
2
0
7
1
8
3
1
1
5
0
4
4
9
6
1
8
1
6
8
2
5
0
8
0
1
0
5
0
0
1
7
9
0
1
0
5
7
8
1
2
6
2
5
7
3
9
9
8
1
1
6
7
8
0
7
9
2
9
4
7
0
0
3
5
2
0
1
1
7
0
9
1
9
3
6
9
1
6
0
2
4
4
2
9
2
9
8
7
7
4
7
7
1
9
2
08
1
6
1
6
7
6
5
1
3
9
8
3
7
9
1
7
3
3
3
6
1
0
4
2
8
1
0
6
5
0
1
3
0
4
1
2
6
5
2
1
8
8
0
4
9
2
7
2
0
5
0
0
1
5
9
7
0
1
8
9
0
0
3
1
7
2
3
0
6
7
5
2
5
2
9
7
1
5
4
3
0
3
8
7
7
2
5
0
0
0
8
2
3
7
3
6
1
2
8
8
9
9
7
2
4
1
4
3
5
Figure3. Gaininthelengthof wastewater networksmadeof variousmaterialsintheperiodof 2000to2005.
ThedatashownonFigures2and3clearlyshowthatintheperiodof 2000to2005thewastewater
networkswerebuiltmainlyof PVCpipes. Asmuchas81.2%of thetotal networklengthwasmade
of thatmaterial. Other materialswerelessimportantinconstructionof wastewater networksinthat
periodof time. Onlythenewgenerationstonewareisworthmentioninginthiscontext: about8.6%
of theexaminedwastewater networkswasmadeof it.
MoreoveritisimportanttopointoutthatPVCpipescontinuedtobequiteapopularconstruction
material for theentireperiodcoveredby theobservations althoughaslight downwardtrendwas
recorded.
Theresultsproducedbythemostrecent(available) researchconductedinorder todeterminethe
material structureof thewastewater networks[6] areshownonFig. 4.
206
0.1%
50%
45% 44.0%
26.6%
20.9%
1.1%
0.7%
1.9%
3.8%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Stoneware Reinforced concrete
& concrete
PVC PE Asbestos-concrete Iron Composite materials Other
Figure4. Material structureof wastewater networksin2003.
Figure4shows that thematerials that thewastewater networks aremadeof canbeclassified
intermsof their shareinthenetworksinthefollowingorder: 1. stoneware44.4%, 2. concrete/
reinforcedconcrete26.6%, 3. PVC 20.97%, 4. PE 1.06%, 5. asbestos cement 0.71%, 5.
cast iron1.90%, 6. compositematerials0.1%. Theshareof other materialsamountstoabout
3.83%.
Thus, it is quiteclear that thematerial structureof thewastewater networks continues to be
dominatedbystonewarebut, apartfromtraditional materialslikeconcreteandreinforcedconcrete,
theshareof PVCisratherhigh, too. Generally, itcanbeconcludedthatover90%of thewastewater
networksismadeof stoneware, concrete/reinforcedconcreteandPVC pipes.
Theresultsproducedbytheresearchpointtoasubstantial diversificationinthematerial structure
of thewastewater networksthat hastakenplaceinthepast fewyears(Fig. 1andFig. 4), namely:
Theshareof concreteandreinforcedconcretepipeshasdecreasedfrom35.6%to26.6%
Theshareof PVC pipeshasincreasedfrom11.7%toalmost 21%.
The share of the stoneware pipes has remained at the same level, however some traditional
stonewarepipeshavebeenreplacedbynewgenerationstonewarepipes. Theshareof thestoneware
pipeshasremainedatthesamelevel, however sometraditional stonewarepipeshavebeenreplaced
bynewgenerationstonewarepipes.
4 DEVELOPMENT OF SEWER HOME CONNECTIONS
Among other things, in thecourseof theresearch thedevelopment of sewer homeconnections
regarded as separatenetwork elements was analysed. Special attention was paid to thematerial
structureandtrendsintheuseof variousmaterialsfor constructionof theconnections. Theresults
of theanalyses(Fig. 5and6) areverysimilartothoseproducedbytheanalysisof thewholenetwork
(Fig. 2and3). Housesewerswerebuilt almost exclusively of PVC pipes(95.5%of all thehouse
sewers). Highshareof thelatter showedanupwardtrendintheexaminedperiod(2000to2005).
207
Structural materials
0.002%
Stoneware
3,79%
Other
0.2%
PE
0,38%
PVC
95,63%
Composite materials
0,002%
Figure5. Percentageshareof accumulativegainsinthelengthof sewer homeconnectionsmadeof various
materialsintheperiodof 2000to2005.
100000
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
1
0
8
0 0 1
1
1
0
5
5
4
6
1
8
4
0 0 3
0
2
2
2
4
4
2
2
0
1
0
0 1
3
7
2
8
2
6
1
4
0
0 0 1
1
4
3
1
8
9
1
7
2
0 1
0
0
1
9
6
2
8
0
0 0 6
0
1
6
1
4
5
5
2
0
3
7
0
2
5
8
9
1
8
7
9
8
3
0
6
5
6
5
3
5
07
3
2
6
6
Stoneware PVC PE Composite materials Structural materials Other
Figure6. Gainsinthelengthof sewer homeconnectionsmadeof variousmaterialsinindividual years.
5 ASSESSMENT OF CRITERIA APPLIEDTOSELECTIONOF MATERIALSTOBE USED
FOR CONSTRUCTIONOF WASTEWATER NETWORKS
As aresult of theresearchthefollowingtypes of criteriahavebeenidentified. Thecriteriahave
beenclassifiedaccordingto theweights attributedto themintheprocess of choosingaproduct
madeof agivenmaterial for constructionof awastewater network(Table5).
Theanalysis of thecriteriaapplied to theselection of thematerials used for construction of
sewers indicates that in general their influenceon thechoiceof thematerial is not excessively
diversifiedandvarieswithinquiteanarrowrangeof 7.8to12.7%. Althoughnoselectioncriterion
208
Table5. Classificationof criteriaaccordingtotheirweight(importanceinselectionof thematerial).
Criterionassessment Share
Item Criterion score
(%)
1 Durabilityof pipesandjoints 230 12.7
2 Tightnessof joints 208 11.4
3 Constructioncosts 192 10.6
4 Structural strengthof thepipes 191 10.5
5 Defectivenessof thesewers 180 9.9
6 Negativeinfluenceof wastewater onthematerial 177 9.7
7 Resistancetocorrosion 172 9.5
8 Pipeandpipefittingpurchasecosts 169 9.3
9 Easyassembly 144 7.9
10 Availabilityof pipesandpipefittings 142 7.8
11 Other 13 0.7
TOTAL 1818 100
Eachcriterionwasassessedonthescaleof 5to1.
5 themost important criterion,
4 veryimportant criterion,
3 important criterion,
2 satisfactorycriterion,
1 theleast important criterion.
clearlystandsout it canbeseenthat thedurabilityof pipesandjointswastakenintoconsideration
most frequently.
Onecan noticethat such criteriaas: durability, tightness of joints, structural strength, defec-
tiveness, negativeinfluenceof wastewater onthematerial andresistancetocorrosiondescribeone
commoncharacteristicof thenetworkwell, namelyitsreliability. Thecriteriamentionedherewere
takeninto considerationin63.4%of decisions concerningtheselectionof thematerial. Thus, it
canbenoticedthathowtoensurehighoperational reliabilityof thenetworkisthebiggestproblem
facedbytheoperatorsof wastewater networks. Thereforetheyassesstheusabilityof thematerial
andstructural solutionsavailableonthemarket for constructionof thewastewater networksfirst
andforemost inthiscontext.
Theinvestment costs constituteanother significant criterion. It is important to point out that
suchacrucial aspect aseasier maintenanceandoperationof anetworkbuilt of agivenmaterial or
theoperatingcostsconnectedwithsewersmadeof that material hasnot beenmentioned.
6 DEVELOPMENT OF WASTEWATER NETWORKSINTHE PERIODOF 1992TO2005
Theresultsof theongoingresearchweresupplementedwiththeresultsobtainedinthepreceding
periodsof time, i.e. 1990to1995and1995to2000, togenerateinformationdescribinglong-term
trends shown by the wastewater networks built in Poland. This information is demonstrated in
Table6andillustratedbythediagramscreatedonthat basisandshownonFig7.
Analysisof theobtainedresultsindicatesthat therearetwoperiodsthat canbedistinguishedin
thedevelopment of wastewater networks, namely, PeriodI from1992to1995andPeriodII from
1995to2005. InPeriodI (1992to1995) aclear dominationof stonewarepipesasamaterial used
for constructionof wastewater networkscanbeseen. At that timealmost 50%of all thenetworks
werebuilt of pipesmadeof that material. But inthefollowingperiodof time(startingfrom1996)
PVCpipeswereusedmoreandmorewidelyandit isthemthat hadadominant shareinthenewly
built wastewater networks. Thesharegrewfrom43.6%(in1996) to89.4%(in2001).
209
Table6. Percentagegains inthelengthof wastewater networks madeof various materials intheperiodof
1992to2005.
Material 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Stoneware 50.06 55.93 54.94 33.33 27.20 23.06 19.26 10.51 8.34 3.39 4.28 6.42 16.76 10.55
Reinforced 11.80 13.51 14.33 14.46 10.60 4.37 3.20 2.43 0.50 0.93 1.05 0.02 0.84 0.34
concrete
Concrete 33.16 20.03 19.49 19.63 13.04 14.62 10.90 2.50 0.45 0.53 1.46 0.03 2.63 0.55
PVC 1.55 9.73 9.67 30.57 43.64 52.67 61.20 79.85 83.90 89.45 84.73 78.63 71.74 80.30
PE 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.41 3.94 3.17 4.23 2.27 2.41 0.24 2.75 8.09 1.97 0.63
Composite 0.00 0.14 0.77 0.13 0.52 1.54 0.95 2.07 0.49 2.36 2.69 2.48 2.59 0.68
materials
Other
3.43 0.65 0.44 1.48 1.06 0.58 0.27 0.36 3.90 3.10 3.05 4.33 3.47 6.95
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
GlassReinforcedPlastic aresinstrengthened(reinforced) withglassfibre;
Other: greycast iron, ductilecast iron, structural pipes(of theDuo, Spiroetc. type)
100,0
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

r
a
t
e

[
%
]
90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
stoneware
stoneware
PVC
PVC
concrete
concrete
reinforce concrete
reinforce concrete
other
other
PE
PE
composite materials
composite materials
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
0,0
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
Figure7. Trendsintheconstructionof wastewater networksbasedonpipesmadeof variousmaterialsinthe
periodof 1992to2005.
Inthiscontext it isimportant topoint out that theupwardtrendintheuseof thePVC pipesfor
constructionof wastewater networks hadbeenobservedsince2001. Sincetheendof PeriodII a
decreasedinterestintheuseof thismaterial hasbeenrecorded, resultinginaslightdownwardtrend.
Nevertheless, theshareof PVCcontinuestoexceedsubstantiallythesharesof other materialsused
for constructionof newwastewater networks.
Moreover, theanalysisof datapresentedinTable6andonthediagrams(Fig. 7) indicatesthat
theuseof traditional materialsfor constructionof wastewater networks, e.g. stoneware, concrete
andreinforcedconcrete, showsadownwardtrendintheentireperiod(1992to2005) withaslight
increaseintheuseof thenewgenerationstonewarepipesintheperiodof 2004to2005.
210
7 CONCLUSIONS
Recapitulationof the2000to2005researchresultsleadstothefollowingconclusions:
1. Wastewater networks andhousesewers arebuilt mainly of PVC pipes (81.2%of thenetwork
length); 95.5%of thehousesewers (interms of their length) was built of that material inthe
analysedperiodof time.
2. Theeffectsof thewastewaternetworkdevelopmentintheanalysedperiodof timeareasfollows:
theshareof thestonewarepipesinthewastewater network structureremainedat thelevel of
about 44%;
theshareof thePVC pipesincreasedbyabout 10%;
theshareof theconcreteandreinforcedconcretepipesdecreasedbyabout 9%.
Analysisof thewastewater network development intheperiodof 1992to2005showsthat the
pipes madeof PVC hadbeenusedquiteextensively for constructionof thenetworks since1996
andtheirsharechangedfrom43.6%(in1996) to89.4%(in2001) of thenewlybuiltnetworklength.
REFERENCES
Kudra, M. & Kwietniewski, M. & Le sniewski, M. 2002. Wyniki bada n zakresu wykorzystania r znych
materiaw w rozwoju sieci kanalizacyjnych w Polsce. In Materiay IV Oglnopolskiej konferencji pt.
Nowe technologie wsieciach i instalacjach wodociagowo kanalizacyjnych, 397 409, Ustro n, Politechnika
Sa
ska.
Kwietniewski, M. & Chudzicki, J. & Goa
b, A. 1997. Stosowaniemateriawwwodocia
gachi kanalizacji ze
szczeglnymuwzgle
dnieniemtworzywsztucznychwPolscei na swiecie. InRynekInstalacyjnynr. 1/1997,

716.
Kwietniewski, M. & Goa
b, A. 1996. Tendencje w zakresie stosowania materiaw do budowy sieci

wodocia
gowych i kanalizacyjnych w Polsce i na swiecie. In Materiay I Oglnopolskiej Konferencji

Naukowo-Technicznej, Nowe materiay i urzadzenia w wodociagach i kanalizacji, 1726, Kielce-Cedzyna
Kwietniewski, M. 1999. Kierunki rozwoju rozwia
za n materiaowo konstrukcyjnych wsieciach kanaliza-

cyjnych. InMateriayVI SeminariumInstytutuZaopatrzeniawWode
i BudownictwaWodnegoPolitechniki
Warszawskiej, 204212, Warszawa
Kwietniewski, M. &Zawadzki, J. 2000. Oglnetendencjewzakresiestosowaniarur ztworzywsztucznychdo
budowy przewodwwodocia
gowychi kanalizacyjnychwPolscezeszczeglnymuwzgle
dnieniemPE. In
Materiaykonferencji Nowe technologie w sieciach i instalacjach wodociagowo kanalizacyjnych, 1828,
Ustro n, Politechnika
Sa
ska.
Kwietniewski, M. 2004. Rurocia
gi polietylenowew wodociagach i kanalizacji rozwj rynku w Polscei

niezawodno s cfunkcjonowania. Gaz, Wodai TechnikaSanitarna, 7082, nr. 3/2004.
211
TwoHDDcrossingsof theHarlemRiver inNewYorkCity
J amesP. Mooney, J r
Consolidated Edison Company of NewYork, Inc., USA
J acekB Stypulkowski
MRCE, NewYork City, USA
ABSTRACT: This articlediscusses thechallenges facedby thedesignteamof twounder river
crossings of electric transmissionfeeders inanurbanarea. Theunder river crossingof a138kV
transmissionfeeder was successfully completedthroughHDD. A secondunder river crossingof
a345kV feeder, wasinitiallydesignedasHDD, but wasredesignedasautilitytunnel becauseof
siteconstraintsonbothsidesof theriver.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Site setting
NewYork City is adeepwater port connectedtovarious estuarinecourses totheeast, west, and
north. Thecity is comprisedof fiveboroughs; Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, StatenIsland, and
theBronx. Manhattan, anisland, isthemost denselypopulatedpart of thecity, andissurrounded
bytheHudsonRiver tothewestandtheHarlem/EastRiver tothenorthandeast. NewYorkharbor
liestothesouthof Manhattan. UtilitiessupplyingManhattanmustcrossoneof thesewaterbodies.
TheelectricitysupplyprovidedbyConsolidatedEdisonCompanyof NewYork, Inc. (ConEdison)
isonlyoneof manyutilitiesfacingthischallenge. Overheadcrossingsarenotpractical inthisurban
environmentandhavebeenoutof favor withthepublicfor quitesometime. Spacebeneathbridges
has been largely taken. Bridgecrossings arealso less desirabledueto difficulty in installation,
maintenance, andbecauseof security issues. Theonly optionsleft arewater crossings. Thereare
threetypes of crossings currently under consideration: direct burial intheriver mud, horizontal
directional drill (HDD)crossings, andutilitytunnels.Thisarticledescribestwoelectrictransmission
feeder crossingsof theHarlemRiver withwhichtheauthorshavebeeninvolved. Bothcrossings
wereoriginallyintendedtobeinstalledusingHDDtechnology.
1.2 Regulatory framework
Thepotential permittingapprovalsnecessaryfor thedesignandconstructionof anyriver crossing
arenumerous. Significant considerationmust begiventothepermits actually required. A list of
potential permitsandapprovalsfor HDDcrossingsandutilitytunnelsispresentedinTable1.
Additionally, directburial intheriver mudwouldrequireseveral yearsof environmental assess-
mentandthetimetoperformactual constructionislimited.A listof additional permitsispresented
onTable2.
1.2.1 Article VII
Recognizingthecomplexityinherent inthepermittingprocess, ArticleVII of theNewYork State
PublicServiceLawwasestablishedasareviewprocessfor theconsiderationof anyapplicationto
construct andoperateamajor utilitytransmissionfacility.
213
Table1. Permit requirements.
Regulation Activity
Federal Agency
USACE Sect. 10/ Sect. 404 Notificationof proposedactivity
State agency
NYSDEC 6NYCRR Part 750757State Dischargeof water generatedby
PollutionDischargeElimination dewateringactivities
System
NYSDEC 6NYCRR Part 750StatePollution Landdisturbancegreater thanoneacre.
DischargeEliminationSystem; Stormwater management during
Article17, Titles78andArticle70 construction
of ECL
NYSDOS 19NYCRR Part 600StateCoastal Project locatedinNewYorkStateCoastal
ZoneManagement Program Zone
NYSOGS Article6Section75PublicLandsLaw Permission/licensefor useof lands
underwater
NYSOPRHP Article14StateHistoricPreservationAct Potential impact onhistoricresources
Local Agency
NYCDCP Title62CCNYRR Ch. 5andE. O91 CityEnvironmental QualityReview
of 1977asamendedin1991
NYCDCP Section197-cof theCityCharter UniformLandUseReviewProcedure
NYCDBS Section1301(2)(c) CityCharter Constructiononwaterfront property
NYCDBS Section1301(2)(c) CityCharter WorkNotice/Permit for pipeline
construction
NYCDPR Constructionworkinparklandtree
protection
NYC Landmarks NYC LandmarksLaw Potential impact tohistoricresources
NYC Planning NYC Local Waterfront Revitalization ConstructioninNYC Coastal Zone
Program
NYCDEP NYCDEP NoiseControl Code ConstructionNoiseVariance
USACE: UnitedStatesArmyCorpsof Engineers
NYSDEC: NewYorkStateDepartment of Environmental Conservation
NYSOPRHP: NewYorkStateOfficeof Parks, RecreationandHistoricPreservation
NYSDOS: NewYorkStateDepartment of State
NYSOGS: NewYorkStateOfficeof General Services
NYCDEP: NewYorkCityDepartment of Environmental Protection
NYCDBS: NewYorkCityDepartment of BusinessServices
NYCFD: NewYorkCityFireDepartment
NYCDPR: NewYorkCityDepartment of ParksandRecreation
TheNewYorkStateLegislatureenactedArticleVII in1970toestablishasingleforumforreview-
ingtheneedfor, andenvironmental impactof, certainmajorelectricandgastransmissionfacilities.
ArticleVII wasmeanttobeaone-stopshoppingapproval, intendedtosupersedelocal city, town,
county, andother stateagency permittingrequirements. Thelawrequires that anapplicant must
applyforaCertificateof Environmental CompatibilityandPublicNeed(Certificate)andmeetArti-
cleVII environmental andneedrequirementsbeforeconstructinganysuchfacility. Asestablished
by NewYork State law, the Public Service Commission (PSC), the five-member decision-
making body that regulates investor-owned electric, natural gas, steam, telecommunications,
and water utilities in New York State, is responsible for reviewing and issuing Article VII
Certificates.
Dueto theextensiveeffort required to satisfy numerous regulatory requirements, thedesign
processusuallystartswithpreliminaryconceptsand, oncethepermitsaregranted, itisfollowedby
214
Table2. Additional permit requirementsfor direct burial.
Regulation
Federal Agency
USACE DredgeandFill Permit (CleanWaterAct, Section404)
Department of Federal Coastal ZoneManagement ProgramReview(16USC,_Chapter_33,_
Commerce Section_1451)
Coast Guard DockingApproval
State Agency
NYSDEC StatePollutionDischargeEliminationSystem(Environmental ConservationLaw,
Article17, Title8; 6NYCRR Parts750through757)
NYSDEC Water QualityCertification(CleanWaterAct, Section401)
NYSDEC Protectionof WatersPermit (Environmental ConservationLaw, Article15, Title15;
6NYCRR Part 608)
NYSDEC Tidal WetlandsPermit (Environmental ConservationLaw, Article25, 6NYCRR 661)
NYSDEC StateFacility(Air) Permit (Environmental Conservation_Law,_Article_19;_6
NYCRR_200317)
NYSDOS Coastal Management Plans(Part 600of Title19NYCRR)
NYSDOH StateEnvironmental ReviewCertificationfor NewYorkRevolvingFundProgram
(PublicHealthLaw, Sections_1161_and_1162;_21_NYCRR Part 2604)
adetaileddesignphase. Sometimesparticular designdetailsmaychangethepreliminaryconcept
entirelyandtheadditional involvement of permittingagenciesisinevitable.
2 SITE DESCRIPTION
2.1 General
TheHarlemRiver is atidal strait in NewYork City that with Spuyten Duyvil flows eight miles
betweentheEastRiverandtheHudsonRiver, separatingtheboroughof ManhattanfromtheBronx.
At thetimeof Europeandiscovery, theHarlemRiver wasapproximately900to1,000feet widein
theareaof theproposedcrossings, asopposedtoitscurrentwidthof approximately425feet.A map
of upper Manhattanat thetimeof discovery isshowninFigure1. FillingonboththeManhattan
andBronxsideshastakenplacesincethentocreatethecurrent HarlemRiver shoreline.
Inheavily urbanizedareas whereriver courses havebeenalteredover thelast several hundred
yearsandnumerousstructureswerebuilt anddemolished, discoveringwhat might havebeenleft
inplaceis achallenge. Informationonburiedfoundations andother manmade, steel-containing
obstructions are very important for HDD technology. Initial planning usually relies on easily
availableinformation, suchasknownutilitiesandvisiblestructures.
2.2 Willis Avenue Bridge setting
TheWillisAvenuesiteislocatednorthof theWillisAvenueBridgeasshowninFigure2. A search
of historical recordsledtovariousinterestingdiscoveries. For example, approximately100to200
feetnorthof theproposednorthernalignment, asteel railroadbridgecrossedfromSecondAvenue
in Manhattan to theBronx carrying theelevated SecondAvenueTransit subway line. This was
demolishedbetween1951and1968. Between1951and1968, theHarlemRiver Drivehighway
(HRD) wasconstructedinManhattan, parallel totheshoreline, andthebulkheadwasextended
to its current location. At theproject site, HRD is elevated and supported on deep foundations
to bedrock. As aresult, existingpilefoundations arethepotential obstructioninthepathof the
proposedcrossinglocation.
215
Figure1. TheIslandof Manhattanat theTimeof EuropeanDiscovery.
Figure2. WillisAvenueBridgeSite.
Therearealsotwoexistinglive13.8kV feeder crossingsinstalledbyHDDinthe1990saswell.
A retired submarinecrossing installed by cut-and-cover in theHarlemRiver exists south of the
proposedcrossing.
All four proposedcrossings arelocatedintheproposedsubway tunnel access paths (approxi-
mately30feetwideasshowninFigure3) leftbetweentheHRDdeepfoundationsandthebulkhead
relievingplatformdeepfoundations. Thesesubwaytunnel accesspathsweresetasideinthe1950s
for tensubwaytunnelstocarryanundergroundSecondAvenuesubway. Fortunatelyfor thedesign
team, theseaccesspathsarenotproposedfor useonanynewsubwayconstructionbasedonknown
NYCT plans.
A known waste transfer facility was identified on the Bronx side. The facility is owned by
NewYork StateDepartment of Transportation(NYSDOT), whichleasesit toHarlemRiverYards
(HRY).HRY,inturn, leasesportionsof thesitetoCSX(WasteManagementandInter-modal), which
operatesfreighttrainsontheexistingtracks. Sincerelocationof thisfacilitywasoutof thequestion,
atechnologyhadtobefoundtosatisfyrailroadconcerns. Fortunately, yardspeedsaremuchlower
thanonmainlinetracksandrisksassociatedwithpotential tracksettlementsaregreatlyreduced.
OntheManhattanside, thesitefor theproposednorthernalignmentisapavedrecreational park
containingfour basketball courtsandonehandball courtalongwithtreesandbenches. Thesitefor
theproposedsouthernalignmentisagrassytriangleof parklandcontainingtrees, boundedontwo
sidesbytheHarlemRiver Driveaccessramps, andonthesouthby127thStreet. Therecreational
216
Figure3. ProposedSecondAvenueSubwayRight-of-Way.
Figure4. LandmarkCrackisWack.
park has alandmark Keith Haring mural on thehandball court wall called Crack is Wack as
showninFigure4.
2.3 Willis avenue bridge challenges
Drilling fluids were expected to impact the HRY railroad tracks. Downhole erosion caused by
drillingfluiderodessoil beneaththerailroadtracks, whichresultsinpotential settlement. Because
therailroadagencyrequiredtheuseof surfacecasingbeneaththetracks, therisk of impact tothe
trackswasexpectedtobelow. However, duringconstruction, theprocessof installingthesurface
casingcausedsettlement of therailroadtrack, andthetrack settledmorethanfiveinches. Since
therail cars moveat speeds less than20mph, it has not causedany operational problems to the
facility. Assoonasthetrackinstrumentationrevealedsettlement thetrackwasreleveled.
Arborists voiced their concern that the existing vegetation in the park may be affected. The
natureof theHDDoperationcombinedwiththelargesizeof thenecessaryequipment essentially
217
Figure5. Pilot holesinthePark.
destroyed most surface plants, which will have to be replaced once the construction has been
completed. StartingfromtheBronxwassomewhat easier sincethat sitewasapavedparkinglot.
Thenortherncrossingsuccessfullyextendedthroughsoil belowtheHarlemRiver andtheHRD
(Figure5). Minormisalignmentof thesouthernHDDpaththroughbedrockdespitetheveryaccurate
technology that wasusedfor thelocationof thepilot hole Paratrack resultedinaproblem. The
actual drilledpathcrosseddirectlyunder therock socket supportingHRDfoundation. Numerical
analysis indicatedthat theinfluenceof the30-inchopeningonthefoundationperformancewas
negligibleandthecontractor wasallowedtocontinuewithreamingtheholetothefinal diameter.
2.4 Marble hill setting
Another siteis locatedintheInwoodsectionof northernManhattanIsland, andtheMarbleHill
sectionof theBronxinthevicinityof theBroadwayBridge.Thiscrossingisapartof the9.5-miles-
long345kV primarily undergroundtransmissioncircuit, runningnorth-southfromSprainBrook
substationinYonkers to upper Manhattan. Part of thecurrent courseof theHarlemRiver at this
locationisthemanmadeHarlemRiver ShipCanal. Thecanal runssomewhatsouthandwestof the
former courseof theriver inthegeneral sitearea, isolatingasmall portionof NewYork County
(MarbleHill) ontheBronxsideof theriver (Figure6).
In 1888, work began on the HarlemRiver Ship Canal to provide a navigable connection to
theHudsonRiver viaSpuytenDuyvil Creek. Constructionof thechannel involveddredgingsoil
across Dyckmans Meadowandexcavatingbedrock to providea15- to 18-feet-deepchannel. At
thesitearea, thechannel wasexcavatedthroughsoftalluvial andsanddeposits. TheArmyCorpsof
Engineersconstructionintheprojectareacomprisedstone-filledtimber cribwallsatthechannels
edge. Channel work by theArmy Corps of Engineers was completedin1895, andat somepoint
between then and 1911, the railroad was realigned to follow the new channel. The banks are
generally lined with rip-rap stone. Notes on the 1911 drawings state that the crib face moved
towardtheriver several inchesbetween1908and1911just southeast of thenortheast pier of the
BroadwayBridgeandthat10cantilever timber pilesweredrivenatthefacetohaltthemovements.
In1931, plansweremadebytheRailroadfor thetimber cribwall tobereconstructed. Subsidence
of thetrack ballast andslopefailureshadoccurredinthepast, promptingconcernsregardingthe
stabilityof theexistingtracksduetoproposedconstructionactivities.
2.5 Marble hill challenges
Thefirst location was picked along theexisting right-of-way and decommissioned low voltage
crossingburiedintheriver mud. Sincetwolargeretail storeswerebuilt inthevicinity, therewas
218
Figure6. HarlemRiver CrossingFirst StudySitePlan, Options1& 2.
nospacetolayouttheHDDcrossing. Thereforethedesignteamsuggestedtwotechnicallyfeasible
options(1& 2) asshowninFigure6, above. However, permissionfromall theinterestedparties
still neededto beobtained. A number of considerations ledto thelocationof proposedoptions,
whichareexplainedbelow.
One constraint was the need to cross in bedrock to ensure the stability of the Metro North
Railroad (MNR) commuter train tracks. These tracks receive heavy use bringing thousands of
daily commuters fromnorth of NYC to Grand Central Terminal. Thepreliminary geotechnical
investigationconcludedthat InwoodMarbleis shallowenoughandHDD-friendly geometry was
proposed.
Other obstructions identified included theoriginal MarbleHill Station. In 1975, thepresent
elevatedplatformstructureswereconstructedfarthernorthandtheoriginal stationabandoned. The
original platformswereremoved. However, foundationsof theplatformsandelevatorpitremained.
Theplatformfoundationconsistedof anchoragepilesandsteel cablesorsteel rods.Thesteel cables
or steel rodsspanfromtheplatformtotheU.S. pier andbulkheadline.
Inaddition, a54-inchInterceptingSewer hasbeenidentifiedintheprojectarea. Thesewer runs
parallel toMNRtracksfromBroadwaytoapumpstationlocatedsouthof theApplebeeRestaurant.
Theinvert islocatedapproximately25feet belowgroundsurface. Duetothepresenceof organic
soilsat thissite, thissewer wasfoundedontimber piles.
A 48-inchFlatTopReinforcedConcreteSewer ontimber pileswasidentifiedunderWest225th
Street withaninvert approximately17feet belowgroundsurface. Thissewer wouldinterferewith
option1B.
Numerouspublicandprivateshallowutilitiesexist inthevicinity of thesite, primarily located
belowthestreetsandsidewalks. Theexistingutilitieshadbeenconstructedover aperiodof time
spanning fromthe late nineteenth century to the present, and they would most likely require
relocationprior toanyHDDinstallation.
TheHDDlaunchingpointwasmovedfurther northtoallowadrill angledeepenoughtobypass
the numerous obstructions, settling in the parking lot of the Marble Hill Houses. The Marble
Hill Houses arepublic housingownedby theNewYork City HousingAuthority (NYCHA) and
mortgagedbythefederal government. Locatingthelaunchpoint onNYCHA propertyresultedin
additional permitting, environmental, andcommunityrelatedissues.
219
Figure7. HarlemRiver CrossingSecondStudySitePlan, Options1, 2& 3.
Atthisstage, all partieswerecontactedandthefirstfeedbackwasreceivedfromtheConEdison
real estategroup. Owners of theproperties affectedappearedvery concernedwiththeproposed
combinationof thetechnologyandthelocationof constructionactivities. Thisledtoanother study
inthevicinityof thebridgeasshowninFigure7.
Alignments 1 and 2 fromFigure7 would requirelengthy permitting process associated with
the NYC Parks requirements. Therefore Option 3 was chosen as the most suitable for further
consideration. Options1and2wouldalsorequireafull environmental assessment becauseof the
wetlands. Inaddition, theHDD wouldhaveto miss deck foundations of theapartment building
complex on theBronx sideand MNR tracks. With Option 3, thelay down areawas limited to
parkinglotsandcitystreetsandwasperceivedtobeabetter optionat thetime. Thelaydownarea
ontheBronxsideislocatedbetweenhigh-risehousing.
Any constructionactivitiesthat cannot closeafter dark intheresidential areacreateaproblem
dueto NYC noiserestrictions. Unfortunately, someof HDD operations oncestarted cannot be
stopped, whichledtotheevaluationof quiet, non-diesel-drivenequipmentandothernoisereduction
measureswereidentified, suchasanoise-insulatedtent.
OntheManhattanside, whichistheonlysidewherepipehastobesplicedandlaiddownbefore
thepull, anelementary school, andnumerous businesses withdrive-inaccess arelocated. Noise
fromtheHDDactivities, closingthestreet andlimitingaccesswasconsideredadifficult taskand
not practical. A temporaryabovegroundtrestletoelevatethepipeaboveentranceswasconsidered
afeasiblealternative. Thepresenceof theelementary school complicatedthetraffic andaccess
requirementsduringconstruction.
A workableHDDalignmentwasfoundandthecontractdocumentswerepreparedwhilewaiting
forthereal estatedepartmenttofinalizeaccessandeasementagreements. Thegeotechnical profile
aswell astheproposedHDDfeederroutingisshowninFigure8.Thelaydownarearequiredaccess
to theparkinglot ontheManhattanside, whichfor years hadbeenacoal andoil storagedepot,
waspreviouslycontaminatedwithhydrocarbons, andconsideredabrownfield site.
Environmental liabilityissueswereverydifficulttoaddress, whichledthedesignteamtoanew
crossingconcept: theutilidor. Inadditiontotheconstraintsmentionedabove, themitigationcostsof
differentaspectsof HDDtechnology(risksof drillingfluidpenetratingintothebasementsof nearby
houses, settlement of undergroundutilities, etc.) ledtotheconsiderationof other alternatives.
220
Figure8. Geotechnical profileof theHDDHarlemRiver Crossing.
3 UTILITY TUNNEL
Thenon-HDDsolutionrequiredre-evaluationof thelayout, since345kV pipeshaveamaximum
bendingradiusof 25feet.A traditional shafttunnel layouthadtobecustomizednotonlytofacilitate
sweepsbutalsotoprovideaspaceforsplicinginthebottomof theshaftorinthetunnel.Todetermine
whichtunnelingtechnologycouldbeused, clearancerequirementshadtobeestablished. A small
tunnel showninFigure9couldbepotentiallyexcavatedusingmicrotunnelingtechnology; however
thisoptionwouldnotallowfor splicingandrepairs. Aninternal diameter of 7
couldbeachieved
insideof alargediameter concretepipejackedfromtheshaft usingthemicro tunnelingboring
machineinthefront. However, accessforinspectionwasnotpossibleinthisconfinedenvironment.
Tofacilitatesplicingof the345kVcableinsidethetunnel, amedium-sizewasdevelopedasshown
inFigure10.Tunnel internal diameterschangedto11
high10
wideandcouldbeexcavatedusing
NATM technologyor D&B inrock.
Thelargetunnel option(19
17
) was briefly contemplatedif additional spaceinthetunnel

couldhavebeenmarketedto theother utilities. This optionwas not pursuedany further beyond
initial cost estimates.
Utilidorsaretunnelshousingdifferentutilitiesusuallybuiltindenselypopulatedareasorinareas
withcatastrophicenvironmental hazards, liketsunamis. Theyprovideaccessfor maintenanceand
inspectionandthey do not requirediggingto look for problems. Their costs whilehighinitially
becomecompetitiveif numerousutilitiesareplacedinthemandlong-termmaintenancecostsare
considered.
Lookingatthegeotechnical conditionspresentedinFigure8, bothsoil androckcrossingsshould
beconsidered. Tocheck thefeasibility of thesmall layout usingmicrotunnelingtechnology, the
designteamlookedatanumberof configurationsasshowninFigure11.Tosatisfytherequirements
of variousfacilities, multiplecombinationswereanalyzedresultinginlargerectangularshaftsabout
80ft deep, 24to28ft wideand55ft long. However, duetothepresenceof amanmadecribwall
supportingMNR tracks, soft groundtunneling/microtunnelingwasconsideredbyConEdisonto
betoorisky, andwouldnot havebeenacceptabletoMNR.
Thisstudyledtotheconclusionthattunnelingtechnologiesneededtobeconsideredinthiscase.
TheproposedHarlemRiver Tunnel crossingconsistedof two shafts, withaninsidediameter of
24feet andapproximately160feet deepandtunnel about 700feet long. Totakeadvantageof the
economyof scaleatunnel provides, additional facilitiesweredesignedtobeincludedintheHRT.
Thefacilitiesincludeseveral additional 345kV feeders, several 13.8kV distributionfeeders, and
ahigh pressuregas header. Theshafts and tunnel weresized to accommodateall theproposed
additional Con Edison facilities. TheBronx Shaft will belocated in theparking lot adjacent to
221
Figure9. Small utilidor.
Figure10. Mediumutilidor.
Ground surface
Micro-tunnels
Figure11. Different launchwall of shaftsconsideredinmicro-tunneling.
222
Metro-Northrailroadtracks. TheManhattanShaft will belocatedintheparkinglot adjacent to
NinthAvenue. ItisexpectedthattheManhattanShaftwill provideaccessfor tunnel excavationand
mucking.
Thetunnel tocarrythenewConEdisonfacilitieswill behorseshoe-shaped, waterproofed, and
concrete-lined. It will cross under theHarlemRiver, whichhas awater depthof between17and
25 feet and approximately 450 feet widein thevicinity of thetunnel. At thetimeof thearticle
submittal, Con Edison is in the process of negotiating the construction contract with notice to
proceedexpectedinJ uly2008.
223
Preliminarydesignfor roadtunnelsonTrans-EuropeanVcCorridor
motorway, sectionMostar North SouthBorder (Bosniaand
Herzegovina)
I. Mustapi c, D. ari c& M. Stankovi c
Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia, Zagreb, Croatia
ABSTRACT: Thispaper presentspreliminarydesignpreparationfor roadtunnelsontheTrans-
EuropeanVc Corridor motorway, section Mostar North South Border (LOT 4), which passes
throughBosniaandHerzegovina. Total lengthof abovementionedsectionis67,3km, 14kmbeing
intunnels(whichisabout21%of total lengthof thesection).Thechallengesfacedbythedesigners
were obvious, especially due the fact that the Corridor route mostly passes through difficult,
mountainousterrain. Duetothisfact, 16roadtunnelsof differentlengthsandcross-sectionshadto
bedesigned, inatotal lengthof tunnel tubesof approx. 29kilometers.Thereforeitcanbeconcluded
that thetunnels represent thekey part of thesection Mostar North South Border (LOT 4) of
theTrans-EuropeanVcCorridor motorwaywhichpassesthroughBosniaandHerzegovina. These
tunnelsweredesignedinaccordancewiththestate-of-the-artguidelines, primarilytheDIRECTIVE
2004/54/EC ON MINIMUM SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR TUNNELS IN THE TRANS-
EUROPEANROADNETWORK.Asaresultof differentsoil characteristics, differentconstruction
methods were proposed, primarily the NATM (NewAustrian tunnel method) and the CUT &
COVER method.
1 INTRODUCTION
TheVcCorridor isincludedintheTENtransport infrastructurenetworkof South-EasternEurope
andpassesinthedirectionBudapest (Hungary), viaOsijek(Croatia), Sarajevo(B&H), tothePort
of Plo ce(Croatia). Thelengthof theVccorridor routethroughBosniaandHerzegovinaamounts
toabout 330km, andrunsinthedirectionNorth-Souththroughthemiddleof thecountry, inmost
favorablenatural conditionsandthroughthevalleysof theBosnaandNeretvarivers.
Itisexpectedthattheconstructionof thishighwayshall beaprimemover of economicactivities
enablingB&HtobeincludedinthemainEuropeantrafficstreamsandglobal Europeaneconomic
system.
SectionMostarNorth SouthBorder(LOT 4) of theVccorridoris67,3kmlonganditisdivided
intofivesubsections, withdifferent lengths, passingthroughvariousterrains. Thesesectionsare:
Section1: beginningof LOT 4Mostar NorthInterchange(9,800km),
Section2: Mostar NorthInterchangeMostar SouthInterchange(16,450km),
Section3: Mostar SouthInterchangePo citelj Interchange(19,650km),
Section4: Po citelj InterchangeMed
ugorje(Zvirovi ci) Interchange(12,100km), and

Section5: Med
ugorje(Zvirovi ci) Interchange endof LOT 4(9,329km)

General layout of thesection Mostar North South Border (LOT 4) of theVc corridor with
markedtunnelsispresentedonthefollowingpage.
225
Figure1. General layout of thesectionMostar North SouthBorder (LOT 4) withmarkedtunnels.
1.1 General information about the tunnels on LOT 4 of the Vc Corridor,
passing through B&H
Tunnels are designed with two tubes and the spacing between tunnel tube axes is min. 25m.
Anticipatedtunnel executiontechnologyisNATM (NewAustrianTunnel Method).
Tunnels shorter than 500mare designed with an emergency lane along its total length, and
tunnelslonger than500maredesignedwithlay-bysat amaximumdistanceof 1000minsteadof
anemergencylane.
Thewidthof tunnel carriageway isselectedonthebasisof requirementsfor anequal widthof
trafficlanesasontheopenpart of theroute.
Tunnels shorter than500marenot mechanically ventilatedandthetunnels longer than500m
areventilatedwithlongitudinal reversibleventilation.
Oneverylay-by, thereisatransversal passagefor vehicles. Transversal passagesfor evacuation
areplacedat maximumdistanceof 500m.
226
Figure2. Two-lanetunnel without invert. Figure3. Two-lanetunnel withinvert.
Figures4and5. Three-lanetunnel withemergencylane, without invert andwithinvert.
Intunnelswithlargerlongitudinal carriagewayslopes, transversal pedestrianpassagesareplaced
at maximumdistanceof 250m.
SOSrecessesarespacednear theportalsandat maximumdistanceof 150mandareequipped
withTPSandmanual firealarmwithtwofireapparatusesfor initial extinguishing.
Hydrant networkisdesignedintunnelslonger than500m.
All thetunnelsareequippedwithlightingsystem. Tunnelslonger than2kmareequippedwith
videoandaudiosystemandtunnelslonger than1kmareequippedonlywithradiosystem.
2 CROSS-SECTIONSOF TUNNEL TUBES
2.1 Types of cross-sections used
Therearethreetypesof tunnel crosssectionsontheobjectivesection, dependingontheir length,
providedtechnologyof execution, aswell asonthenumber andwidthof trafficlanesontheopen
part of theroute.
Two- andthree-lanetunnelsaredesigned, takingintoconsiderationthat onthepart of theroute
wherethereisanadditional lanefor vehicles, three-lanetunnelsaresomewhat larger inprofilein
relationtothedesignedthree-lanetunnel appliedincasesof tunnelswithemergencylane(shorter
than500meters).
227
Figures6and7. Three-lanetunnel withadditional lane, without invert andwithinvert.
Accordingtotheabovementionedterms, mostfrequentlyusedarethethree-lanetunnelswithan
emergencylane. Thereare7tunnel likethis(Komi c, Vijenac, Osoje, Gorica, Ki cin, unjaGlava,
BijelaVlaka), total lengthof nearly5km, followedbytwo-lanetunnels, of whichthereare5(Orlov
Kuk, DebeloBrdo, Otri Rat, Samac, Kvanj), buttheir total lengthisapproximatelynearly20km.
After this, wehave4three-lanetunnelswithanadditional lane(Rudine, Ko cine1, galleryKo cine
2, Roni Kuci), total lengthof nearly4km. All theabovementionedtunnelsaredesignedwithtwo
tunnel tubesexcept Ko cine2whichhasasinglecarriagewayinagalleryandtheother onanopen
route.
Dependingonthechosencross-sectiontype, wehavedifferent clearancesurfaceareas. Profile
clearanceis 59,13m
2
for two-lanetunnels, 83,90m
2
for three-lanetunnels withemergency lane
and94,30m
2
for three-lanetunnels withadditional lane. Suchcross-sections completely satisfy
demandsfor profileclearanceasdefinedbytheBylawonbasicrequirementsfor publicroadsand
their elementsoutsidesettlementsregardingtrafficsafety, aswell astherequirementsfor profile
clearancedefinedby theAustrianRVS guidelines andTEM standards. Moreover, thementioned
cross-sectionallowsfortheaccommodationof all thenecessarydevicesandequipment, andenables
aeration by means of horizontal ventilation. Thespeed limit of 100km/h must beprovided , as
requiredbythedesign.
Width of tunnel carriageway is selected on thebasis of requirements that thesamewidth of
trafficlanesandmarginal stripsshouldbemaintainedasontheopenpart of theroute. Total width
is8mfor two-lanetunnels, 10,75mfor three-lanetunnelswithemergency lane, and11,75mfor
three-lanetunnels with additional lane. Inspection lanes areelevatedfromthetraffic surfaceof
thetunnel by 15cm. Total width of inspection lanes is 90cm, for two-lanetunnels and 100cm
for three-lanetunnels. Under theinspection walkways therearechannels for installation of the
requiredtunnel facilities. Thechannel ontheinner sideis usedfor placingthehydrant network,
whilethechannel ontheouter sideservesfor supply andtelecommunicationinstallations. Power
supplyinstallationductsshouldbeexecutedwiththecrossfall of 2%towardstheedgewherethe
channel dischargeis located. Thetunnel cross section is rotated following thecross fall of the
carriageway.
All threetypesof cross-sectionsareshownbelow:
2.2 Lining
Tunnel liningismadeof concreteC25/30. Itsminimumthicknessis30cmfortwo-lanetunnelsand
40cmfor three-lanetunnels. Generally, theliningis not reinforced, except near recesses, inthe
rock massof V classzones(for three-lanetunnelsliningisslightly reinforcedinthebasecalotte
228
part intherock mass of IV class zones), onlay-bys, transversal passages for vehicles whichare
equippedwithTS substationrecess, at points of connectionwithtransversal pedestrianpassages
andpassagesfor emergency vehiclesandinportal zones. Also, thefoundationthresholdistobe
reinforcedalongtheentiretunnel length.
Betweenthetunnel liningandprimarytunnel supportapermeabilitylayer isprovidedbyaPVC
foil protected by geotextile. ThePVC foil is provided with signaling layer, madein onepiece,
2mmthickness. Theinsulationis laidonthegeotextilelayer, minimumweight of 500g. Tunnel
insulationis providedalongtheentirelengthof thetunnel andontheentirecalottesurfaceand
tunnel flanks, andit shall beexecutedafter theexcavationandtheexecutionof theprimarytunnel
security, andafter thesettlingof possibledisplacementsintheprimaryliningof thetunnel tube.
3 TUNNEL DRAINAGE
Thetunnel drainageconsistsof acentrallylaidsewagepipe, 500mmdiameter, whilecarriageway
drainageis doneby means of ahollowcurb systemwhich collects water fromthecarriageway
surface.
Consideringthecharacteristicsof rockmass, thetunnel passesthroughakartsterrain, creating
a possibility of significant water inflow, which needs to be collected and directed by a special
pipelineto thedischargeat asuitableplacewithinthetunnel (cave) or out of thetunnel into the
terrain.
At thetunnel flanks, aRAUDRIL drainagepipeof 150mmdiameter isprovidedfor collection
of hill water anditsdrainageintothecentral sewer. Inorder toallowaccessandinspectionof the
sidedrainagepipe, recesses aredesignedwheredrainagemanholes shall besituated. Discharge
fromthesemanholestothesewermanholeisexecutedbyPVCpipesof 150mmdiameter. Distance
betweenmanholesamountstoapproximately50meters.
Carriagewaydrainageinthetunnel referstoliquidsderivingfromliquid(inflammable) outflow
duringatraffic incident andrequires acarriageway drainagesystemwhichensures thedrainage
of incident liquids, withaintakecapacity of 200l/s at carriageway lengthof 200m. Inorder to
meettheabovementionedconditions, hollowcurbisprovidedwithacontinuedhorizontal opening
of reinforcedconcreteC30/37of 30cmdiameter. Thehollowcurbis manufacturedas aprecast
element whichisintegratedontothepreparedbaseonthefoundationthreshold.
Siphonoutletsareexecutedwithaspillwaydaminordertopreventspreadingof fireinthesewer.
Thesiphonoutlet isexecutedof reinforcedconcreteC30/37. Theliquidfromthesiphonoutlet is
takenbyPVCpipes, 20cmdiameter, intothesewer manhole. Thedistancebetweensiphonoutlets
isapproximately100meters.
Themainsewersystemismadeof impermeablePVCpipesof 500mmdiameter.Thesewerinthe
twolanetunnel islocatedinthecarriagewaycenter, inthree-lanetunnelswithanadditional lanein
thecarriagewaycenterlineandinthree-lanetunnelswithemergencylane, thesewer issituatedin
theemergencylane.
The carriageway liquids, water collected through side drainage systemand water fromthe
drainageof pavement structuresub-baselayer aretakenintothesewer throughmanholes.
Manholesareprovidedatmutual distanceof approx. 50m. Manholesareexecutedasmonolithic
constructions of reinforcedconcreteC25/30or as precast, withprecast reinforcedplateandcast
ironcover of 600mmdiameter, of 400kNbearingcapacity
4 TUNNEL VENTILATION
Tunnelsaredesignedwithlongitudinal ventilation.
Tunnelswithatotal lengthlessthan500mareventilatednaturally.
Tunnels from500 mto approximately 800mlength are designed according to demand that
ventilationsystemmust beabletoreachtheair flowspeedof min. 1,5m/s.
229
Ventilationof tunnelslongerthan800misdesignedaccordingtotherequirementthatventilation
systemmust beabletoreachcritical speedof 3m/s.
Sensorsfor air flowvelocityaredesigned, sothat management of theventilationsystemcould
functionproperly. AlsothereareCOconcentrationandrigidparticlessensors. Minimum2pieces
arerequired, alsooneCOsensor andonefiredetectionsensor ineachfirezone.
5 FIREALARM SYSTEMS
Firealarmsystemsaredesignedintunnelslonger than500m. Itsmainpurposeisfastandreliable
firedetection.
Except theabovementionedit hastosatisfythefollowingrequirements:
Selectivealarmactivation
Communicationwithsurveillanceandmanagement center
Initializationof actionsregardingtoinitial fireextinguishing
Evacuationof people
At detectionlevel, systemis executedwithuseof two kinds of communicators. Sensor cable
is placed through total length of main tunnel tubes and spot communicators areplaced in SOS
recesses, TSandUPSrooms.
6 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
Lightingisdesignedinall of thetunnelsaswell asinportal zones.
The designed lighting systemis as follows: adjustable, basic tunnel lighting and anti-panic
lighting.
Followinginstallationsareconnectedonreservepower supply:
recesslighting
ventilationmeasuringdevices
safetytunnel lighting
anti-paniclighting
fluorescent SOSdevicesandSOSdistributionfacilities
variabletrafficsignalization
trafficsignalization, lightingandremoteguidancecontrollersandwarningdevices
firealarmsystem
videosystem
Also, there is a low-voltage power supply unit for supplying and management of electro
ventilationsystem.
7 PORTAL STRUCTURES
Generally, portal structuresaredesignedasstructuresextractedfromthetunnel tube. Thedesigned
lengthof theportal constructionis12m.
Portal constructionisprovidedfromreinforcedconcreteC25/30. Liningthicknessamountsto
minimum60cm.
A drainagesystemmust bemadenear thetunnel flanks, withpipes RAUDRIL DN 150type,
wit adischargeinto themanholes at tunnel portals. A channel must beexecutedat theapproach
cuttingface.
Theportal constructionwaterproofingis providedinthepart whereportal constructionis cut
andcoveredwithexcavationmaterial. WaterproofingisexecutedwithPVC foil.
230
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Figure8. Lay-bysandtransversal passagefor vehicles.
8 LAY-BYSANDTRANSVERSAL PASSAGES
8.1 Lay-bys
Lay-bys aredesignedas surfaces 40meters longand3meters wide. They areusedfor stopping
broken-down vehicles, so they are equipped with SOS devices. Except that, in every lay-by, a
surfacefor accommodationof UPSandhydrant isdesigned.
8.2 Transversal passages for vehicles
Transversal passagesfor vehiclesareusedasanevacuationrouteincaseof fire, andfor redirecting
trafficincasethatonetunnel tubeisimpassableor closed. Theyarelocatedoppositetothelay-bys
andareequippedwithsubstations.
Transversal passagesfor vehiclesaredividedwithfirewalls. Oneveryfirewall thereisaslide
door for vehicleswithdimensions4,5m* 5mandtwoglassdoorsfor pedestrianswithdimensions
100* 220cm. Doorsandwallsarefireresistant for 90minutes.
8.3 Transversal passages for emergency vehicles
Transversal passagesfor emergencyvehiclesareusedfor evacuationof peoplefromonetubeinto
another andfor accessof emergencyvehiclesatplaceof theincident. Theyaresituatedatdistance
of nomorethan500m.
Transversal passagefor emergency vehicles has profileclearanceof 3,6m* 3,5m. They are
dividedwithfirewall. Oneveryfirewall thereisaslidedoor for emergencyvehicleswithdimen-
sions3,6m* 3,5mandtwoglassdoorsfor pedestrianswithdimensions100* 220cm. Doorsand
wallsarefireresistant for 90minutes.
8.4 Transversal passages for pedestrians
At sections with larger longitudinal slopes, transversal passages for pedestrians weredesigned.
Theyareplacedhalfwaybetweenpassagefor emergencyvehiclesandpassagefor vehicles.
231
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360
100
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Figure9. Transversal passagefor emergencyvehicles.
300
100 100
Figure10. Transversal passages
for pedestrians.
Theyallowevacuationof tunnel usersfromonetubeintoanother. Designedprofileclearanceis
250* 225cm, andateveryendof thepassagethereisafireproof bulkheadwithbuilt-inrounddoor
for pedestrians, dimensions 100* 220cm, withfire-proof glass dimensions 40* 100cm. Doors
andbulkheadsarefireresistant for 60minutes.
8.5 SOS recesses
SOS recesses aresituatedat maximumdistanceof 150m. They areequippedwithTPS, manual
firealarmandwithtwofireapparatusesfor initial extinguishingof fire.
SOS recesseshavedimensions240* 225* 130cm. They areclosedwithfire-proof bulkhead.
Onbulkheadtherearedoors that havedimensions 210* 70cm, andthey areglassedwithglass
dimensions40* 100cm.
8.6 Hydrant recesses
Hydrantrecessesaredesignedwithdimensions240* 225* 100cm, andtheyaresituatedatdistance
of approximately125m. Bythedesign, theyareplacednear everytransversal passageandhalfway
betweentwotransversal passages.
9 EXECUTIONMETHODS
Chosenmethodof executionisNATM (NewAustrianTunnel Method). CUT & COVER method
isusedat lower thicknessof overburden.
9.1 Cut & cover method
FollowingtunnelsweredesignedtobeexecutedusingCut & cover method:
right tubeof tunnel Komi c(0,457km)
part of right tubeof tunnel Rudine(app. 0,132km)
part of right tubeof tunnel Orlovkuk(app. 0,080km)
galleryKo cine2(0,120km)
After thefirsttemporarycuttingisexcavated, slopesmustbeprotected. After thatitisnecessary
toexecutechannelsontheflanksof aworkingcut.
232
Cut&cover tunnelsaredesignedtobeexecutedfromreinforcedconcreteC25/30. Thicknessof
liningisminimum60cm.
It isnecessarytoexecutedrainagedowntheflanks.
After thetunnel liningis concreted, inopencut, it is necessary toexecutehydroisolationthat
hastobeprotected.
Backfilling is executed in layers with maximum thickness of 50cm, and compacts with
appropriatecompactingutilities.
9.2 NATM (NewAustrian Tunnel Method)
NewAustrianTunnel Methodisanexcavationmethodwhichisveryflexibleregardingoftenchanges
of geological andgeotechnical conditions. Followingtunnelsweredesignedtobeexecutedusing
NATM:
left tubeof tunnel Komi c(0,500km)
Tunnel Rudine(cca. 0,415km)
Tunnel Orlovkuk(cca. 4,797km)
Tunnel Gorica(0,804km)
Tunnel Kvanj (5,355km)
Tunnel Ki cin(0,748km)
Tunnel BijelaVlaka(0,988km)
Tunnel Debelobrdo(2,096km)
Tunnel Vijenac(0,217km)
Tunnel Osoje(0,270km)
Tunnel Otri rat (5,648km)
Tunnel Samac(1,267km)
Tunnel Ko cine1(0,753km)
Tunnel Roni kuci (2,404km)
10 TUNNEL SUPPORT SETS
Designedsupport setsaswell asrecommendationsof measuresonexcavationandstabilizationof
tunnel cuttings, werechosenbasedonexperienceacquiredfromprevious designs incarbonated
rocks. It will beshownfor followingrockmassclasszones:
rockmassof II classzone
rockmassof III classzone
rockmassof IV classzone
rockmassof V classzone
10.1 Basic tunnel support set type II
Support is used in basic rock mass of class II according to the geo-mechanical classification
(RMR=6180), andcontainsthefollowingsupport elements:
crown
shotcreteof 5cmthickness,
systematicanchoringwithadhesionbar anchors, corrugatedsteel 25mm, 3.0mlong,
spacedat 2.5m.
walls
without support.
233
10.2 Basic tunnel support set type III
Support isusedinbasicrockmassof theclassIII, accordingtotheGeo-mechanical classification
(RMR=4160), andcontainsthefollowingsupport elements:
crown
steel weldedmeshQ131,
spacedat 2m.
walls
shotcrete5cmthick.
10.3 Basic tunnel support set type IV
Support isusedinbasicrockmassof theclassIV, accordingtotheGeo-mechanical classification
for RMR=2140, andcontainsthefollowingsupport elements:
crown
spacedat1.7m(if necessarywithself-drillinginjectionanchorstypeIBOR25N25/14mm).
walls
shotcrete10cmthick
spacedat2.0m(if necessarywithself-drillinginjectionanchorstypeIBOR25N25/14mm).
10.4 Basic tunnel support set type V
Has been provided fro integration in the fault and fracture zone sin the V class rock mass
(RMR<20), andit consistsof thefollowingsupport elements:
crown
twosteel weldedmeshesQ221,
systematicanchoringwithself-drillinginjectionanchorstypeIBOR32N32/18.5mm, 4.0m
long, spacedat 1.4m,
trussgirders, Pantex95/20/30spacedat 1.0m.
walls
twosteel weldedmeshesQ221,
systematicanchoringwithself-drillinginjectionanchorstypeIBOR32N32/18.5mm, 5.0m
long, spacedat 1.4m,
trussgirders, Pantex95/20/30spacedat 1.0m.
invert
twosteel weldedmeshesQ221
Consideringthefact that thereis no initial stability of groundexcavations intheclassV rock
mass, theprogressshall bemadebyforepolingof thesteel ribs(corrugatedsteel 25mm, 4.0m
long) spacedat 30cm, over thetrussgirders. Steel ribsneedtobeforepoledonly inthezoneof
tunnel crown.
234
11 CONCLUSION
Complexityof sectionMostar North SouthBorder (LOT 4) of theVccorridor isvisiblefroma
factthatfromtotal lengthof 67,3km, asmuchas21%(14km) isintunnels. Becauseof thiswecan
saythattunnelsareoneof thekeypartsof theobjectivesectionfromaspectof financing, building,
usingandmaintenanceof themotorway.
Apart fromgivenTEM standards, thesetunnelsweredesignedinaccordancewiththestate-of-
the-art guidelines, primarilytheDIRECTIVE 2004/54/EC ON MINIMUM SAFETY REQUIRE-
MENTSFORTUNNELSINTHETRANS-EUROPEANROADNETWORK. Accordingtogiven
directives, special attentionwasgiventosafetystandards.
REFERENCES
Directive2004/54/EC onminimumsafety requirementsfor tunnelsintheTrans-EuropeanRoadNetwork,
EuropeanParliament andCouncil, Bruxelles, 2004.
Preliminary design corridor Vc motorway Mostar North South border (LOT 4), designs of tunnels and
structures, Civil EngineeringInstituteof Croatia, Zagreb, 2006.
RVS9.281, RVS9.282, StrasseundVerkehr (FSV), Wien, 2002.
Regulations onbasic conditions to bemet withby public roads andtheir elements outsidetowns fromthe
point of viewof trafficsafety, CroatianMinistryof sea, transport andcommunication, Zagreb, 2001.
235
Mappingtheunderworldtominimisestreet works
C.D.F. Rogers
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper seeks to describethegenesis, progress andoutcomes so far fromthe
MappingtheUnderworldproject, agovernmentresearchcouncil-fundedproject, jointlysupported
byUK WaterIndustryResearch, thatseekstodeveloptechniquestolocateandmapall of theburied
pipesandcablesthatmakeupourutilityserviceinfrastructurewithoutresortingtoexcavation.This
isagrandchallenge thatstemsfromalong-termvision, developedin1996betweentheUK water
and gas industries, and has developed via a programme of drawing academia and the relevant
stakeholderstogether tocollaborate. Thisprocessof academe-industrycooperationisexplainedin
thecontext of a25-year visionof researchanddevelopment that will ultimatelybenefit roadusers
andsocietymoregenerally.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The problem and its ownership
Mostutilityservices, includingelectricity, water, gasandtelecommunications, aredistributedusing
buriedpipelines or conduits, or viadirectly buriedcables, andthemajority of this buriedutility
infrastructureexistsbeneathroads.Trenchingisusuallyrequiredwhenevertheyneedmaintenance,
repair or extensionandthisoftencausesdisturbance(andsometimesdamage) toother utilityser-
vices, delaystotrafficand/or damagetotheenvironment. Inaccuratelocationof buriedpipesand
cablesresultsinfar moreexcavationsthanwouldotherwisebenecessary, thereby creatinganui-
sanceandincreasingthedirectcostsof maintenancetotheserviceproviders, yetgreatlyincreasing
thecoststoothers, thesinglemostimportantbeingtheenormousdirectcostof trafficdelaystobusi-
nessanddirectandindirectcoststoprivatemotorists. Thesesocial costs of congestionintheUK
aloneareestimatedtobeashighas5.5billionper annum(McMahonetal. 2005), 5%of whichis
attributedtoutilityworks.Therearealsoveryconsiderableenvironmental costs duetotrafficcon-
gestion, asignificantproportionof thedamagetotheplanetderivingfromvehiclesthataredelayed.
Neverthelessutilityserviceproviders, whoareunder enormouspressurefromtheregulatorsto
improveperformancein all sorts of ways and minimisecosts to customers, retain theopen cut
approach and accept the inconvenience of dry holes as a marginal cost addition. There is an
enormous benefit to begained by accurateservicelocation, but theimpact is felt by business,
societyandtheenvironment. Responsibilityfor fundingtheresearchnecessarytobringthisabout
restswiththeorganizationsthat work onbehalf of society (i.e. governments), andintheUK this
responsibility lies withtheEngineeringandPhysical Sciences ResearchCouncil (EPSRC) since
it acts as theconduit for technologically-based government-funded research; EPSRC is theUK
bodythat neededtobeconvincedof theneedandvalueof theenablingresearch. Thisgovernment
responsibilityisnowbeingacceptedinseveral countriesastheenvironmental pressurestoreduce
trafficcongestionbecomeever stronger.
1.2 Aims of the paper
Thispaperaimstodescribethedevelopmentof theMappingtheUnderworldprojectintheUK, but
it attemptstoplacethedevelopment inaglobal context of considerablecomplementary research
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and development. Whileaccepting that technologies areconstantly improving, it aims to make
clear thelimitations of current locationtechnologies whendeployedsequentially, to outlinebest
practicegiventheselimitationsandtoexplaina25-year visionthat will streamlinethesepractices
to minimise the disruption currently caused. More particularly, it will outline the genesis and
progress so far of research that aims to address the key barriers preventing fast and effective
location practices, and explains in detail proposed research to createand deploy amulti-sensor
device that would facilitate remote location of all buried utility services without the need for
provingexcavations.
2 CURRENT PRACTICE
2.1 The need for trenches
Utility services providethebasis for moderncivilizedliving, cleanwater provision, wastewater
removal andenergy(i.e. electricity, gas) supplybeingconsideredtobeessential minimumrequire-
mentsinmanycountries. Addtothistheever-growingdemandfor telecommunicationcablesand
theneedfor serviceconnectionstoeachindividual buildingalongthesesupplynetworks, andthe
potential for congestionintheutility servicecorridors becomes apparent. Theseutility service
corridors typicallyconsistof theundergroundspacebeneaththestreetsbetweenbuildings, above
whichthereisvehicular andpedestriantraffic. Theundergroundspaceisrestrictedfurther bythe
needtoservicethestreets, bystreet lightingcables, trafficlight cabling, highwaydrainage, andso
on. Inmanycountries, theessential servicesystemshavebeeninplacefor manydecades, andeven
centuries, andtheburiedserviceshavedeterioratedsuchthattheyhavebeenrepairedorabandoned
to bereplacedby alternativeservicelines. Fittingthis buriedinfrastructuretogether beneaththe
streetscapeisproblematicinitself, suchthat theideal patternof linear, parallel serviceswithsets
of parallel sub-perpendicular lateral connectionsat different depthsdoesnot exist.
This is thelegacy that current engineers facewhendealingwithburiedutility services. When
workinginthegroundbeneaththestreets, for whatever reason, it isclearlynecessarytoestablish
what ispresent beforeusingmechanizedor manual excavation. Shallowsurfacegeophysical tech-
nologiesprovidetheobvioussolution, but they only provideanabsolutesolutionif they areable
todetect, andidentify, everythingthat ispresent, andif thegoal istoaddtothecongestionof the
undergroundspacetherebyreveal theplaceswherethereisnothingpresent. A subsequent section
of thispaper will demonstratethat thereiscurrently noabsolutesolution, sothebest that canbe
doneatpresentistouseshallowsurfacegeophysicstoprovideasmuchinformationaspossibleand
thereafter toproceedwithcautionwhileexcavatinglocally toprovetheresultsof thegeophysics
(whether thisisthespecificintentionof theexcavationor whether theexcavationisfor theprimary
purposeof workingbeneaththestreets).
Manynewtechnologiesarebeingdevelopedtomakeworkinginthegroundbeneaththestreets
less disruptive, either by avoiding occupation of thesurfaceor by making theoperations more
efficient to reducethetimerequired for occupation. However most of thesetechnologies, such
astheenormousnumber of processesthat fall under theumbrellaof trenchlesstechnologies, rely
uponanaccurateknowledgeof thesub-surfaceandoftencannot beusedwithadequatecertainty
of avoidingdamagetowhat isalreadyburied. Quiteapart fromthis, theutilityservicecompanies
responsiblefor installingandmaintainingthepipelinesandcablesburiedbeneaththestreetsoften
viewdirectexcavationasacheaper optionthanadoptinglessdisruptivetechnologies, andfall back
ontheargumentthatwithoutasureknowledgeof themakeupof theundergroundspacetheyhave
nooptionbut toexcavate. ThistensionisnicelyexpoundedbyFarrimond& Parker (2008).
2.2 The benefits of accurate location practices
Procedures for workinginthestreets differ indifferent countries, partly as aresult of historical
legacies and thedifferent owners of theburied utility services. Themost coherent procedureis
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perhapstheSubsurfaceUtilityEngineering(or SUE) processadoptedintheUS(ASCE, 2002), if
only becauseit makesit clear that thequality of informationprovideddependsuponthelevel of
investment madeinthesurvey. SUE seekstodeliver oneof four levelsof service, onlythehighest
level of whichwill guaranteetoprovidecomprehensiveinformationontheutilitiesburiedbeneath
thesurveyarea.Thishighestlevel of surveyingserviceisonlyreached, however, followingtheuseof
local provingexcavationstobackupthepriordeskstudies, walk-oversurfacesurveysandsequential
deployment of shallowgeophysical techniques. Without provingexcavations, noguaranteecanbe
given, andthisaccuratelysumsupthestateof surveyingtechnologydevelopment.
If theSUE processisdeployedfully andaccurately, it hasbeenshownmarkedly toreducethe
costs of subsequent constructionthroughaccurateplanningandmitigationof constructionrisks.
For example, case studies at Purdue University (US DoT, 2000) and the University of Toronto
(Osman & El-Diraby, 2005) showed that sums of $4.62 and $3.41, respectively, weresaved in
avoided costs for every $1.00 spent on SUE. Thesefindings areconsistent with theexperience
of Geotechnical Engineers, who consistently advocatean appropriatelevel of spending on and
planningof siteandgroundinvestigationinorder toavoidunnecessaryconstructioncostsarising
fromunforeseencircumstances. SUE is, ineffect, anintelligent formof specificsiteinvestigation
andlong-termdatacapture.
Thesefiguresmakesenseindirect economic termsasfar asthecontactorsareconcerned, but
asour appreciationgrowsof thewider costsof thework that iscarriedout daily inthestreets, it
becomesevenmorecost-effectivebecauseof benefitstosocietyandtheenvironment. Governments
areadvocatingamoresustainableapproachtoworkcarriedoutontheirbehalf andthussustainability
cost accounting, whichusesatriplebottomline approachinwhichthedirect economiccostsof
work arebalancedby social andenvironmental costs(seee.g. Hunt & Rogers, 2005; Hunt et al.,
2008). Suchaccountingmakespriordetailedsurveyingevenmorecompelling, butuserconfidence
intheresultsof thesurveysisof paramount importance.
2.3 Capabilities of current utility location practices
Current locating techniquesfall intotwobroadcategories: thesimpledevicesarestrictlylimited
in their target detection capability and used immediately prior to excavation by siteoperatives,
whilethemoresophisticated techniques aredeployed, and theresults requireinterpretation, by
specialist contractors. Controlledtrialscarriedout byUKWIR demonstratedthat evenwiththese
sophisticateddetectiontechniques, detectionrates areoftenpoor. Thesetrials revealedthat even
in thebest of scenarios (i.e. most helpful ground conditions), thedetection ratein urban areas
with many different types of utilities is rarely much better than 80%(Ashdown, 2001). Recent
researchefforttoaddressthisproblemhasfocusedonimprovingGroundProbingRadar (GPR) for
utilitydetection. For example, arecently-completedEU project (GIGA), seekingtoimproveGPR
performance, resultedonlyinan81%successrate, andeventhenprovidedacaveatthatsuchsuccess
couldonly beachievedincertaintypes of groundconditions, andanewEU project (ORFEUS,
see www.orfeus-project.eu; Manacorda et al., 2007) is seeking to make further improvements.
However, theproblemisoneof adequatesignal penetrationinwet soil andhencetheapplication
of GPR ingroundconditionssuchassaturatedclaysoilsmilitatesagainst traditional surfaceGPR
ever beingadequatealonefor buriedutilitydetection. Althoughtherehavebeensomeimpressive
recent GPR developments, for examplethosepresentedat therecent International Conferenceon
GroundProbingRadar (GPR, 2008), theyhavebeenfor different applications(suchaslandmine
detection) andthereforehavedifferenttargets; theyavoidtheessential problemof deeppenetration
into saturated ground. However, it should be noted that current GPR thinking solely adopts a
surfacelookingdownwards approach. Theonly exceptionis anin-sewer GPR system, but this
is for condition assessment of the sewer pipe itself and detection of voids immediately behind
thesewer wall, andis restrictedto man-entry sewers. It is clear that, evenaccountingfor recent
advancesmadewithGPRsystems, GPRwill nevercompletelysolvetheproblemof utilitylocation
for all typesof utilityinfrastructureandgroundconditions, andhenceother technologiesmust be
usedinparallel withGPR todetect everyburiedservice.
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Several othertechniquesareavailable(Costelloet al., 2007; Debet al., 2001; Metjeet al., 2007),
includingacousticsandavarietyof electromagnetictechniques. Recent researchcompletedunder
thefirst phaseof theEPSRC-fundedMappingtheUnderworld locationproject (MTU PhaseI),
hasdemonstratedthat all suchtechniquesoffer considerablepotential tolocateindividual typesof
serviceindifferent groundconditions. However, they all suffer thesamedrawback inthat, when
deployedinisolation, evenwhendeployedinsequencebyexpertoperatorswithouttimeconstraints,
theydonotprovideanadequatesolutiontoidentifyall typesof buriedinfrastructureandeachtype
of systemhasitsownspecificlimitations. ThisfindingisconfirmedbythefactthatUSSubsurface
Utility Engineering(ASCE, 2002) statesthat theonly methodof guaranteeingthelocationof all
buriedutilitiesisbycarryingout local provingexcavations, intheir caseusingvacuumexcavation
techniques. Thereis thereforeaneedtodevelopamulti-sensor devicethat combines theoutputs
of different complementary technologies inorder to maximizethelikelihoodof detectingevery
buriedutilityservice.
2.4 A 25-year vision
Thiswasrecognizedastheideal scenarioasfar back as1996, whenthetermbodyscanner inthe
street wascoined. Itderivedfromameetingbetweenmembersof theUK water andgasindustries,
who recognized theproblemand thepotential impacts that it might haveon their business, but
equally recognized that theprimary beneficiaries of theconsiderableresearch and development
necessarytobringabout suchadevicewouldnot bethewater andgasindustriesthemselves. The
adverseimpactstotheutilityindustrystemmedfromUK discussionsof meansof reducingtraffic
congestionandincludedsuchfeaturesaslanerentalsforutilitywork, addingasubstantial directcost
to utility work andpenalizinginefficient practices arisingfrompoor prior utility detection. The
conundrumthuspresenteditself of anurgentneedtoavertathreat, butaninabilitytojustifytothe
water andgascompaniestheexpenditureonR&Dthatwoulddoso. Thusthesituationremainedof
anacknowledged25-year vision, theoverall framework for whichispresentedinFigure1, but an
uncertaintyabout howthevisioncouldberealized. Tellingtheboardsof thecompaniesthat there
wasacorporatesocial responsibility wouldraisetheresponsethat thereshouldbesomeformof
corporateresponsibilityfor fundingthesolution.
1996
UKWIR
Commissions
Location Trails
Project VISTA advances
Mapping and Knowledge
Management elements of MTU
Assessing the
Underworld:
Creating
Multi-Sensor
Device for
Remote
Assessment
Monitoring of
Asset Condition
. . . and more
sustainable
forms of utility
service
provision
researched
NETTWORK Workshop:
Underground Mapping Pipeline
Location and Condition Assessment
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020
Water / Gas
Industry Vision:
Bodyscanner in
the Street
Location of Underground Plant and Equipment Initiative
Minimising Streetworks Disruption
MTU Project
- Location
- Mapping
- Data
integration
- Asset tags
- Network
MTU Location
Project: Multi-
Sensor Device
Generation,
Assessment,
Protocols
Streetworks
become more
sustainable
- road occupation
minimised
- night surveys
- trenchless
installtion /
replacement /
rehabilitation
- congestion
reduced
Ideas Factory:
Mapping The Underworld
term coined
UJKWIR
AWWARF
KIWA 3-Day
Workshop
Figure1. Overviewof theminimisationof street worksdisruptioninitiative.
240
3 REALIZINGTHEVISION THE MAPPINGTHE UNDERWORLDPROJ ECT
3.1 Genesis of mapping the underworld
IthasbeenestablishedinSection1.1thatitistheresponsibilityof governments, actingonbehalf of
thesocietiesthattheygovern, tofundthenecessaryresearchtoreducetrafficcongestion, butequally
it has beenestablishedinSection2.4that thereshouldbecooperationfromtheutility industries
insupportingsuchaninitiative. However therearevery many demands onagovernments purse
andlobbyingfromall sides for funding; thegovernment must besurethat it is investingwisely.
Althoughtheneedfor better means of utility detectionandlocationwas evident, quantification
of thescaleof theproblemand thebenefits that would derivefromtheconsiderablenecessary
investment, andindeedthesizeof thenecessaryinvestmentitself, wasnot. ConsequentlyUKWIR
commissionedthetrialsreportedinSection2.3(seeFigure1andAshdown, 2001)todemonstratethe
limitations of thethencurrent locatingtechnologies. A government-fundedEPSRC Engineering
ProgrammeNetwork inTrenchless Technology (NETTWORK, seeRogers et al., 2004), which
brought academic andindustrial stakeholderstogether viaaseriesof fiveworkshopstoestablish
theresearchneedsinthebroadtopicareaof trenchlesstechnology, concludedatitsfirstworkshop
that accurateutility detection was absolutely crucial to thegrowth of thetrenchless technology
industryanddeliveryof theenormousbenefitsthat trenchlesstechnologycouldbring(seeRogers
et al., 2002). SubsequentlyUKWIR convenedathree-dayinternational workshopjointlywiththe
AmericanWater WorksAssociationResearchFoundation(AWWARF) andtheDutchequivalent
(KIWA) of academicsand(mostly) industrialiststoscopeout aset of projectsthat woulddeliver
solutionstotheproblemnowandinthefuture(seeFigure2andBurtwell et al., 2003).
Thisprovidedthefinal pieceof theevidencebaseneededtoconvincetheUK government, and
EPSRC acting on its behalf, that funding should be devoted to the topic. At that time EPSRC
wasdevelopinganovel meansof awardingfundingtotheUK academic community toengagein
large, multi-disciplinarychallenges, suchasthat presentedbytheburiedutilitiesproblem, known
as an IDEAS Factory, or sandpit (see www.epsrc.ac.uk). An IDEAS Factory involves a highly
multidisciplinary mix of academic andindustry participants, whoareinvitedfollowingaprocess
1
2
3
4
5
A
Making the
best of what
we have
User need
requirements
Data collection &
Exchange
standards
Best practice
for existing
technologies
Real costs of
buried assets
Better
regulation
New technologies
for buried assets
location
Asset avoidance for
Directional
drilling
Keyhole access
Through wall
in pipe
visualisation
Improving GPR
Development of a
multi-system
location tool
Asset
tagging
Novel appraches
to underground
infrastructure
Mapping pig
Smart pipe
technology
Improved
surface based
survey
techniques
Below ground
survey
techniques
Doing
things
differently
B C D
Figure2. Theminimisingstreetworksdisruptionresearchprogramme(after FarrimondandParker, 2008).
241
of peerselection, aresetthechallengeand, overaperiodof several days, developaseriesof research
projects viafacilitatedworkshopevents. This process aims to drivelateral thinkingandresult in
novel methods for theformulation of solutions to research problems. EPSRC chosetheburied
utilitylocationchallengefor itsfirstIDEASFactoryandcoinedthetermMappingtheUnderworld
(MTU) asitstitle.
3.2 The Mapping the underworld project and its developments
TheMTU sandpit identifiedfour complementaryresearchprojects:
BuriedAssetLocation, IdentificationandConditionAssessmentusingaMulti-SensorApproach.
Thisaimedtoassessthefeasibilityof arangeof potential technologiesthat canbecombinedin
asingledevicetodeterminethelocation, andwherepossibleidentification, of buriedpipesand
cables(conditionassessmentwasrapidlyconsideredasteptoofarfornow).Advanceshavebeen
madeinGPR technologies (Shanet al., 2006), acoustics (Muggleton& Brennan, 2006), low
frequencyelectromagnetics(Lim&Atkins, 2006), theinfluenceof soil andgroundconditionson
theresultingdata(Thomaset al., 2007), andthepotential for combinationof thesetechnologies
intoacoherent operatingsystem(Rogerset al., 2008b).
MappingandPositioning. Thisaimstodevelopareliablepositioningsystem, withanaccuracy
of approximately onecentimeter, effectiveeven in city streets containing high-risebuildings
(so-calledurbancanyons, seeOgundipeet al. 2008; Tahaet al., 2008; Robertset al., 2007).
Knowledge and Data Integration. This project is investigating the construction of a unified
databaseof all thelocationdatastoredby thevarious utility companies operatingintheUK,
together withnewdatagenerateddailyfromutilitysurveys, henceprovidingacommonmeans
for datasharing(seeBeck et al., 2007). Constructingsuchadatabaseisaparticular challenge
owingto thecurrent incomplete, andpartially inaccurate, stateof records, someof whichare
not evenindigital form, andinconsistent methodsof datastoragebetweencompanies.
Enhancedmethodsof detectionof BuriedAssets.Thisaimstodevelopmethodsof improvingthe
visibility of undergroundpipeswhensurveyedfromthegroundsurfaceusingelectromagnetic
techniques. A seriesof resonant labels, or RFIDtags, havebeendeveloped(Haoet al., 2007).
Thesearerelativelysimplemetallicstructuresthatcouldbeencapsulatedwithinanewpipeprior
toinstallation. They wouldprovideaneffectivemeansof reflectingelectromagnetic signalsat
predeterminedfrequencies andareexpectedto leadto cost effectivemethods of labelingnew
pipes, or repairstoexistingpipes, sothat theycanbeeffectivelylocated, whenrequired, inthe
future.
In addition, EPSRC also funded a MTU Engineering Programme Network that, like
NETTWORK, aimed to bring together industrialists and academics to further develop knowl-
edgeanddebateresearchneedsinthebroadfieldof buriedutilitylocation, mappingandcondition
assessment, aswell asservetoco-ordinatethefour MTU researchprojects.
Themappinganddataintegrationelementsof MTUspawnedafollow-onprojectentitledVISTA,
whichisworth2.3millionandisfundedjointlybytheUK government(seewww.vistadtiproject.
org) and industry. VISTA aims to bring together existing paper and digital records with data
fromsatellite- andground-basedpositioningsystemstoformulatethemeansof creatingathree-
dimensional electronic map of buried utilities. This is a pressing goal, given the requirement
of the UK Traffic Management Act that all utility providers be able to exchange digital utility
positions by J une2008. Most recently, afull research programmehas been funded to build on
the outcomes of the feasibility study of the multi-sensor location device and this is described
hereafter.
Inaparallel development theAmericanshaverecognizedthecompellingneedfor actioninthis
areaandhaveawardedtwo research contracts under their Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP). ThefirstisentitledStrategiesfor IntegratingUtilityandTransportationAgencyPriorities
inHighwayRenewal ProjectsandisbeingledbyIFCInternational. ThesecondisentitledEncour-
agingInnovationinLocatingandCharacterizingUndergroundUtilities, isbeingledbyProfessor
242
Ray Sterlingat LouisianaTechUniversity andis muchmoreclosely alignedto theMappingthe
Underworldinitiative(seeSterlinget al., 2008). Thisinternational activity complementstheEU-
fundedresearchreferredtoearlier, whichliketheMTUproject(seeRogerset al., 2008a) wasalso
presentedat therecent GPR2008conference. Specificinterest inextendingthescopeof thework
in IndiaandAustraliafollowingtheGPR2008conferenceproves theassertion that theproblem
anditssolutionaretrulyof international importance.
4 MAPPINGTHE UNDERWORLD MULTI-SENSOR DEVICE
4.1 Introduction
Phase2of theMTULocationProject, worth3.5million, hasbeenfundedbyEPSRCtoresearch
indetail amulti-sensor devicethat candetect all buriedpipesandcables, specificallyitscreation,
assessment andprotocolsfor itsuse(seewww.mappingtheunderworld.ac.uk). Theresearchseeks
to utilize every possible advantage to see through the ground and focus on the targets, and is
necessarilyamulti-disciplinaryinitiativecombiningacademicsfromtheUniversitiesof Birming-
ham, Bath, Southampton, LeedsandSheffieldandsome40project partnersandsupporters. The
project consistsof eight workpackagesandthesewill bedescribedbelow.
4.2 Ground penetrating radar
Theaimof thisworkpackageistoadvanceGPRtechnologiesspecificallyinsupport of themulti-
sensor device, for deployment bothalonefromthesurfaceandwhencombinedwithin-pipeGPR
transmitters/receivers. Novel arrays of GPR antennas andtheir integrationwiththemulti-sensor
arrays, will beresearchedtoincreasetheprobability of target detectionandaccuracy of location
information(plananddepth). Theanticipateddeliverables of this work packageincluderecom-
mendations on antenna deployment strategies for surface and in-pipe deployment and creation
of specifications and aprototypein-pipedevicethat meets current standards for safe, practical
applicationinsewers.
4.3 Acoustic technologies
Theaimof this work packageis to determinetheeffectiveness andlimitations of acoustic tech-
nologiesfor buriedutility servicelocation, basedonbothpipeandgroundexcitationtechniques,
whenoperatedalongsidethecomplementary sensor technologiesinthemulti-sensor device. The
anticipateddeliverablesincludethedesignandconstructionof aprototypeacousticsensorforstand
aloneuseandaspart of themulti-sensor device; acomparativeperformanceassessment between
theoutputsandusefulnessof geophonesandscanninglasertechnology; operational protocolswhen
deployedinisolationandinthemulti-sensor device; andmethodstomitigatethepotential adverse
effectsof sensor interferencewhendeployedwithother technologies.
4.4 Low frequency electromagnetic field technologies
The aimof this work package is to conduct four inter-related studies based on low frequency
electromagnetics:
Toattempt torecreatetheresultsachievedinthelaboratoryinthefeasibilitystudyunder MTU
PhaseI (seeLim&Atkins, 2006) whentestinginthefield, andtherebymakethetransitionfrom
laboratorytofieldapplication.
To develop techniques that will distinguish discrete objects, including relatively short linear
objects, fromcontinuous (utility service) targets, and thereby minimisethenumber of false
alerts registered.
243
Toexploretheefficacy of usingstreamingpotentialstodetect buriedutility servicesinwhich
flowoccurs, andtoexaminewhether thetypeof flow, andhencethetypeof utilityserviceline,
canbeidentified.
Toexploretheefficacyof utilisingbreaksintheintegrityof services, suchasinsulationbreak-
downfailuresandperforationsinthestructureor coatingsof pipelines, andalsotheleaksfrom
thesystemthereby caused, as ameans of detecting, andpotentially identifying, buriedutility
services.
Theanticipateddeliverablesincludeanimprovedprototypelowfrequencyelectromagneticdetec-
tiondevicefor mappingtheunderworld(particularlysmall, near-surfaceservices), bothasastand
alonedeviceandwhenincorporatedinto themulti-sensor device; anewmethodology to predict
insulationbreakdownfailures, andthereforethepotential todetectleaks; andamatrixof operational
capabilityof lowfrequencyelectromagneticfieldsystems.
4.5 Magnetic field technologies
Theaimof thisworkpackageistoutilizeapassivearrayof magneticsensorstogetherwithadvanced
signal processing techniques to detect underground electricity cables and other metallic buried
infrastructure, evenwhenstackedor laidincloseassociation, andtodevelopthetechniquesothat
it canbeintegratedinthemulti-sensor device. Theanticipateddeliverables includeanewfinite
elementmodel toanalyzemagneticfieldsandtolocatemetallic buriedinfrastructure, particularly
whenincomplex, closeassociation; designandconstructionof aprototypesensortobetestedalone
andinconjunctionwiththemulti-sensor device; andamatrixof theoperational characteristicsof
magneticfieldtechnologyfor implementationwithinamulti-sensor headdevice.
4.6 Intelligent tuning of the device to the ground and targets
Thisworkpackageaimstodevelopequipmentforuseinfieldtestingof geophysical soil properties
and, in conjunction with the British Geological Survey (BGS), to create a Knowledge Based
System(KBS) that will allowgeophysical soil datatobepredictedusinggeographically mapped
geotechnical andgeological data. Bothareintendedtoinform, andsignificantly improve, utility
location during theplanning, siteoperations and datainterpretation phases of sitesurveys. The
deliverablesfromthisworkpackageincludeaKBSforapplicationwiththenewmulti-sensordevice;
asetof soil suitabilitymapsfor thefour geophysical techniques, basedontheKBSandassociated
geographical softwaremodel, for anumber of casestudysites; andasetof testmethodologies, and
associatedapparatus, suitableforprovidingdataonsoil geophysical propertiesinthefield, tofurther
optimizetheKBSandmulti-sensordevice, atsurveylocationswhereaccesstosoil canbeobtained.
4.7 Intelligent data fusion from the multi-sensor device and statutory records
Theaimof this work packageis to fusegeo-referenced information frommultiplesensors and
to combine this with an integrated database of buried asset records to increase confidence in
their presenceandlocation, andtodeterminemissingasset records. Theanticipateddeliverables
includetechniques to resolvedifferences in resolution, positioning and depth sensitivity for the
sensor typesandtheavailableburiedassetrecords; techniquestocomputespatial correspondences
between interpreted sensor readings and utility records; and techniques to determinewhether a
sensor haslocatedanunrecordedasset or whether arecordedasset isundetected.
4.8 Creation of multi-sensor device, deployment strategies and signal processing
Theaimof thisworkpackageistodevelopamulti-sensor arraydemonstrationunit, withbespoke
softwareto integratedataprocessing, fine-tuningto groundparameters andsupply of datainan
appropriate formfor data visualization, by bringing together the outputs of all of the previous
work packages, whichareineachcasespecifically focusedonsupportingthedevices creation.
244
Theanticipateddeliverablesincludeasurfacemulti-sensor arraydevicethat maybeusedtomap
100%of theunderworld at shallowdepths; anin-pipedevicefor useintandemwiththesurface
device; protocols for the use of the devices; and a means of data fusion that will result in a
cross-sectional probabilitymapof thelikelihoodof anasset beingpresent.
4.9 Proving trials and specification of national MTU test facility
Theaimof thisworkpackageistoconductacomprehensiveandrigorousprogrammeof proof tests
of theabovetechnologiesbothwhenappliedinisolationandwhencombinedinthemulti-sensor
device, andprovetheefficacy of accurately tuningthedevicestodifferent soilsandgroundwater
conditions. A further objectiveis to refinetheset of criteriacompiled under MTU PhaseI for
aUK National Test Facility. Thedeliverables will includeobjectivereports on theperformance
assessmentof bothexistingtechnologiesandtheprototypetechnologiesbeingdevelopedbyMTU;
anddevelopmentof aspecificationandconstructionguidelinesforanewUK National TestFacility
includinglayout andbest practicefor operation.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Thereareseveral essential conclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromtheexperienceof bringingaboutan
ambitiousresearchprogrammethat addressesthecomplex problemsof howtolocateandrecord
thepositionof buriedutilityservicesburiedbeneaththestreetsof our urbanareas.
Accurate detection, location and recording of the position of buried utility services delivers
enormous benefits to those working in the streets and, importantly, to society in general since
theconsequenceof inadequateutility locationistraffic congestionanditsmanifest adversecon-
sequences. Thoserepresentingsocieties, i.e. governments, shouldfundthenecessary researchto
facilitateaccuraterecordingof utility locations, albeit withthefull cooperationof utility service
providers. Thisiswhat ishappeningintheUK.
Thecasefor theresearch, thoughobviousinaqualitativesense, neededmakingquantitatively
andthiswasdonebyindependenttrialsof equipmenttoprovecurrentcapabilitiesandviaacademic-
industryworkshopstodefinepreciselytheresearchneedsandtheoutlineprojectsthatwouldaddress
theseneeds (thesewerevaluedat morethan10millionin2003; researchfundingapproaching
thislevel hasnowbeensecured seeFarrimondandParker, 2008).
A multi-sensor locationdeviceisanessential component of thesolutiontotheproblem, but a
feasibility study wasnecessary toprovethecasefor theundoubtedly ambitiousresearchthat the
creation of such adevicerequires; funding of afull research programmein theabsenceof the
feasibility study would almost certainly not havesucceeded viathepeer review processes that,
rightly, guidetheawardof government-fundedresearch.
TheMappingtheUnderworldproject wouldwelcomethecollaborationof any personor orga-
nizationthat isinterestedinadvancingitsaims. Contact detailsareavailableonthemappingthe
Underworldwebsite(www.mappingtheunderworld.ac.uk).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Theauthors gratefully acknowledgethefinancial andother support providedby theUKs Engi-
neering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and UK Water Industry Research
(UKWIR).
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247
Assumptionsfor optimizationmodel of sewagesystemcooperating
withstoragereservoirs
D. Sy s& J. Dziopak
Department of Infrastructure and Sustainable Development, Rzeszw University of Technology, Poland
ABSTRACT: Thepaper presents assumptions andtheoretical fundamentals of anoptimization
model, called SEW, which shall then be developed further to a software tool for conducting a
multi-criterionanalysis of availableinvestment options of sewagesystemcooperatingwithstor-
agereservoirs. Objectivefunctionfor theoptimizationtask, as well as decisionvariables of the
developedmodel arepresented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Storage reservoirs are the elements of the majority of modern sewage systems. They are used
for hydraulic relief of stormwater sewagesystems, wastewater treatment plantswithincombine
sewagesystemsandwastewater recipients.
Storagereservoirs, locatedbeforeoutletstosurfacewater recipients, areoftenusedincombined
andseparatesewagesystemsforcontrol of wastewateroutflowtorecipientsandtreatmentprocesses
(Huebner & Geiger 1996, J acopinet al. 1999, Michelbach&Wei1996).
Storagereservoirs locatedbeforewastewater treatment plants regulates wastewater flowand
equalizes its composition, enabling thereduction of quantity and frequency of stormwater dis-
chargesfromsewagesystemsandstabilizationof functioningparametersof wastewater treatment
plants.
Incaseof reservoirs locatedwithinstormwater andcombinesystems of canalization, which
havetolightentheburdenonsewagesystemandreduceitsdiametersby transformationof short
storminflowsof highintensityintoinflowsof greater longevityandlower intensity, thetreatment
process of wastewater not always is favorable. So inmany cases this process is renouncedand
wastewater istreateddirectlybeforeitsdischargetosurfacewaters. Itisdictatedbyeconomicand
exploitationreasonsandthenecessityof simplifyingof sewagesludgemanagement.
From the point of view of reservoirs projecting within sewage system for its relief, the
establishment of number andlocalizationof theseobjectsisveryimportant task.
These two factors are closely connected with following project parameters of storage reser-
voirs andsewagesystem: storagereservoirs accumulationcapacity, wastewater flowreduction,
maximumfillingof reservoir, canals, slope, itsundergroundlevel anddiametersof canals. These
parametersarethedecidingfactorsof economical effectsof storagereservoirs usagewithinsewage
systems.
Takinginto account thesignificanceof problemandpossibleinvestments savings duringthe
building of stormwater transport system, the researches were carried out in order to elabo-
ratetheprojectmethodologyforseweragerelievingstoragereservoirscomprehensivelyconsidering
thechoiceof their optimal number andlocalizationwithinsewagesystem. Theinvestmentoptions
analysis, whichis thesubject of theresearches, is basedontheelaboratedsoft-wareinstrument
SEW andsimulationprograms of storagereservoirs functioningwithinsewagesystem(Sy s &
Dziopak2006, Sy s2006).
249
2 GETTINGSTARTEDPURPOSE FUNCTIONOF OPTIMIZATIONMODEL SEW
Thetask of optimizationistofindtheset of decisivevariablesx ={x
1
, x
2
, x
3
.x
p
}, whichmaxi-
mizesorminimizesthepurposefunction. Incaseof sewagesystems optimizationfromeconomical
point of view, thepurposefunctionisunder minimizationandcanbedescribedbyEquation(1):
min
x
F(x) = Kc (1)
whereKc =total investment cost; x =decisivevariables.
Researches of sewagesystems optimization, co-actingwithstoragereservoirs, werebeganin
PolandbyDziopak(1997, 2006), whoinhisoptimizationmodel consideredthefollowingdecisive
variables: fillinglevel, sewagesystemlengthandwastewater flowreduction.
Optimizationmodel of sewagesystemSEW, elaboratedbytheauthor, aimedtotheestablishment
of optimal number andlocalization of storagereservoirs in complex sewagesystems, considers
additionallytheinfluenceof canals slopesbeforeandbehindthereservoirs, aswell astheinfluence
of averagediametersoneconomical efficiency. Thepurposefunctionfor thismodel iddescribed
byEquation(2):
min
(i
dz
, i
wr
, h
m
, L
n
,
i
)
F (i
d
z
, i
wr
, h
m
, L
n
,
i
) = Kc (2)
wherei
dz
=canal slopebehindthereservoir; i
wr
=canal slopebeforethereservoir; h
m
=maximal
fillingbywastewateringravitational partof reservoir; L
n
=distancefromthebeginningof sewage
systemsectiontoreservoir;
i
=coefficientof flowintensityreductionforstormwaterinreservoir.
Thedecisivevariablesinoptimizationmodel SEWarethefollowing:
coefficient of flowintensity reductionfor stormwater inreservoir
i
whichvaries:
1
,
2
, . . .,
n
inthelimitsof 01;
thedistancefromthebeginningof sewagesystemsector tostoragereservoir L
n
definedbythe
valuesof L
1
, L
2
, . . ., L
k
;
maximal fillingby wastewater ingravitational part of reservoir h
m
, withfollowingvalues h
1
,
h
2
, . . ., h
o
;
canal slopebehindthereservoir i
dz
whichhasthefollowingsequenceof values: i
d1
, i
d2
, . . ., i
dy
;
canal slopebeforethereservoir i
wr
withfollowingvalues: i
w1
, i
w2
, . . ., i
wt
.
Thenumber of optimizationtaskZinaccordancewiththenumber of combinationpossibilities
for variablescanbedeterminedfromEquation(3):
Z = n k o y t (3)
wheren =acceptednumberof possiblevaluesof flowreductioncoefficient; k =acceptednumber
of possiblelocalizationsof storagereservoir withinsewagesystemsection, o =acceptednumber
of possiblemaximumfillingsof reservoirbywastewater; t =acceptednumberof possibleslopesof
canal beforethereservoir; y =acceptednumber of possibleslopesof canal behindthereservoir.
3 ALGORITHM OF SEWOPTIMIZATIONMODEL CALCULATIONFOR SINGLE
SEWAGE SYSTEM SECTION
Incaseof singlesewagesystemsectionsanalysisthecalculationmodel SEWprovidestheusageof
elaboratedmethodfor establishmentof optimal number of storagereservoirslocatedwithinsingle
sewagesystemsection.
First stepof optimizationcalculationsfor singlesewagesystemsectionisthedeterminationof
optimal canalsslopei
opt
anditsdiameter D withoutstoragereservoir. Total investmentcostisKc
1
consideringthecost of exploitationor not.
250
Next step is theoptimization in order to determinethemost economically favorablestorage
reservoir localizationL
opt
. Toachievethisaimitwasnecessarytocalculatethefollowinghydraulic
parametersandtotal investmentcostsconnectedwiththemfor individual storagereservoirs local-
izationL
1
, L
2
, . . ., L
k
withinanalyzedsystemsection. Thecalculations haveto beprovidedfor
particular valuesof maximumfillinglevel inreservoir: h
1
, h
2
, . . ., h
o
. It isalsonecessarytocon-
sider theoptimizationof canal slopewhichinfluenceswastewater flowrateandcapacityof canals
of different diameters.
So, for storagereservoir localization L
1
andvalues of maximumfillinglevel in gravitational
part of it h thefollowingequations, describingproject parameterswerereceived:
V
11
(
1
), D
d1111
(
1
, i
d1
, L
1
), D
w111
(i
w1
, L
1
)forh
1
,
V
21
(
1
), D
d2111
(
1
, i
d1,
L
1
), D
w211
(i
w1
, L
1
)forh
2
,
upto
V
k1
(
1
), D
dk1
(
1
, i
d1
, L
1
), D
w21
(i
d1
, L
1
) for h
k
.
whereV =demandedcapacity of storagereservoir; D
d
=pipediameter belowstoragereservoir;
D
w
=pipediameter abovestoragereservoir.
Thesamecalculationsmust bemadefor thefollowingvaluesof flowreductioncoefficient
2
,
3
, . . .,
n
andappropriativelocalizations of storagereservoir withinsewagesystemL
2
, L
3
, . . .,
L
k
andthevaluesof canals slopesi
d2
, i
d3
, . . ., i
dy
andi
w2
, i
w3
, . . ., i
wt
.
Onthebaseof estimatedprojectparameterscalculationstotal investmentcostscanbedetermined
for the following reservoirs localizations L
1
, L
2
, . . ., L
k
considering different flow reduction
coefficients
1
,
2
, . . .,
n
andappropriativediametersbehindstoragereservoirsD
d11
, D
d12
, . . .,
D
dnyk
, particular values of maximumfiling level in reservoir chambers h
1
, h
2
, . . ., h
o
, canals
slopesi
d1
, i
d2
, . . ., i
dy
andi
w1
, i
w2
, . . ., i
wt
.
Determinationof optimal reservoirslocalizationwithinsewagesystemdemandstheestablish-
ment of minimal valueof investment costs amonginvestment costs rangefor particular project
parameters. For thefollowingvaluesof flowreductioncoefficient andconstant valuesof other
decisivevariablesinvestment costsratesarethefollowing:
Kc
11111
= V
11
(
1
) Kin
zj
+L Kin
sdj
(
1
, i
d1
, L
c
L
1
)+(L
c
L
1
) Kin
swj
(i
w1
, L
c
L
1
),
Kc
12111
= V
12
(
2
) Kin
zj
+L Kin
sdj
(
2
, i
d1
, L
c
L
1
)+(L
c
L
1
) Kin
swj
(i
w1
, L
c
L
1
),
upto
Kc
onkyt
= V
on
(
n
) Kin
zj
+L Kin
sdj
(
n
, i
dv
, L
c
L
k
)+(L
c
L
k
) Kin
swj
(i
wt
, L
c
L
k
).
A priori acceptedassumption, that oneorelessstoragereservoirscanbelocatedwithinsewage
systemsection, isimproper. Soit isnecessary tomakeanoptimizationof sewagesystemsection
under assumptionof storagereservoirs number morethanone.
Wastewater sectionoptimizationwithoneor morestoragereservoirs requires theacceptation
of definitemethodology of optimal solutions selection. Optimization model SEW assumes the
selectionof numberandlocalizationof theseobjectsbasedonprinciplesof dynamicprogramming.
Theprecursor of themethodologyof optimal solutions searchisBellman(Bellman1952) who
formulatedthefollowingoptimizationprincipleusedindynamicprogramming: everysectionof
optimal track isalsotheoptimal track, that means, that optimal steeringdependsonly onactual
state, but not onpreviousstatesof thesystem. Thesystemat everystagecanbeinoneof definite
statesthat aretheresultsof definitedecisions.
Thesearchof optimal solutionfor greater number of reservoirswithinanalyzedsewagesystem
sectionisbasedonthemethodof optimal solutionschoiceunder assumptionof onereservoir. This
methodis determinedas theresult of total investment costs analysis for all possibleinvestment
variants.
251
(a)
(b)
(c)
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
, i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(2)
Kc
(1)
Kc
(1)
A B
A
A A' B
B
Figure1. Draftof calculationstages sequencefor singlesewagesection: a) stage1 sewagesystemwithout
storagereservoir; b) stage2 sewagesystemwithonestoragereservoir; c) stage3 sewagesystem
withtwostoragereservoirs.
Methodologyof selectionof optimal storagereservoirs number andlocalization, suggestedby
optimizationmodel SEW, arebasedonhypothetical divisionof sectionintotwopartsandsearchof
optimal solutionfor particular partsof thesectionaccordingtodynamicprogrammingprinciples.
Thenitisnecessarytomakeoptimizationcalculationsof sewagesystemandreservoirs parameters
andinvestment costswithinparticular sectionsaccordingtopreviousscheme.
If total investment cost Kc
(2)
in caseof two storagereservoirs within sewagesystemsection
exceeds thetotal cost of theinvestment with onereservoir Kc
(1)
it must berecognized that the
increaseof reservoirs number ispointless.
Therefore, optimal solutionforthissystemmustbeselectedamongoptimal solutionsforsewage
systemwithout storagereservoir or sewagesystemwithonereservoir.
Incasewhentotal investment cost of sewagesystemsectionwithtworeservoirsKc
(2)
islower
thantotal investment cost of systemwithonereservoir Kc
(1)
andof thesystemwithout reservoirs
Kc
(0)
it isnecessary tocarry out thecalculationsfor greater number of reservoirswithfollowing
divisionsof analyzedsection.
Calculationsfor optimal solutionsfor particular subsectionsmust bemadeaccordingtowaste
water flowdirectionanddynamicprogrammingprinciples, i.e. optimal selectionof parametersfor
particular sectionsbringstooptimal solutionfor total system.
The draft of calculation stages sequence for single sewage systemsection is presented by
Figure1.
4 CALCULATIONALGORITHM OF SEWOPTIMIZATIONMODEL FOR COMPLEX
WASTE WATER SYSTEMS
Inoptimizationmodel SEWtheprincipleof dynamicprogrammingisusedfor analysisandchoice
of optimal solutionfor multisectionsewagesystem. Optimizationof consecutivesewagesystems
sectionsarecarriedout accordingtowastewater flow. Inconformitywithoptimal track principle
thechoiceof optimal solutions is madefor particular stages that aretheconsecutivesections of
projectedsewagesystem. Itmeansthatoptimal solutionsfor particular sectionsaresimultaneously
theoptimal solutionsfor total sewagesystem.
Theideaof optimization model SEW, theaimof which is thechoiceof optimal number and
localizationof storagereservoirswithintwosewagesystemssectionsarrangedinrows, isshown
252
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
(a)
A B C
A B C
A B B C
(b)
(c)
Kc
(00)
Kc
(0)
Kc
(0)
,
Kc
(01)
Kc
(0)
Kc
(1)
Kc
(01)
Kc
(0)
Kc
(2)
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
, i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
Figure2. Draft of calculationstudiessequencefor twosectionsof sewagesystemarrangedinrows, assum-

ingthat optimal solutionfor AB sectionexcludes theconstructionof storagereservoir: a) stage
1 sewagesystemwithout storagereservoir withinsectionsAB andBC; b) stage2 sewagesys-
temwithout storagereservoir within sectionAB and onereservoir within section BC; c) stage
3 sewage system without storage reservoir within section AB and two reservoirs within
sectionBC.
Kc
(0)
, L, i
opt
, D
A
A
A
B
B B'
B
C
C
C
Kc
(10)
Kc
(1)
Kc
(0)
,
Kc
(11)
Kc
(1)
Kc
(1)
,
Kc
(12)
Kc
(1)
Kc
(2)
,
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
dopt
, i
wopt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
Kc
(1)
, L
opt
,
opt
, h
opt
,
i
d opt
, i
w opt
, D
d
, D
w
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure3. Draft of calculationstudies sequencefor two sections of sewagesystemarrangedinrows under
assumptionof AB sections optimal solutions withstoragereservoir: a) stage1 sewagesystem
with storage reservoir within sectionAB and the lack of reservoir within section BC; b) stage
2 sewagesystemwithstoragereservoir withinsectionAB andonereservoir withinsectionBC;
c) stage3 sewagesystemwith storagereservoir within sectionAB and two reservoirs within
sectionBC.
onFigure2andFigure3for possiblecalculationcases. Incaseof situationpresentedbyFigure2,
whenoptimal solutionfor initial sectionABexcludesstoragereservoirslocalization, thenfor next
sectionBC thefollowingcalculationsarepossible.
Analogical situationisinthecaseof oneor morestoragereservoirswithininitial sectionAB. In
thissituationit isassumedthat choiceof optimal solutionwasprovidedandoptimizationisbeen
253
carryingoutfor thenextsewagesystemsectionBC, arrangedinthiscaseparallel toAB. Thedraft
of optimal solutionsearchfor two-sectionsewagesystem, whichoptimal solutionfor first section
considersthelocalizationof onestoragereservoir, isillustratedbyFigure3.
5 STORAGE RESERVOIRS FUNCTIONINGSIMULATION
Duringlongtimeinorder to establishtherequiredcapacity of storagereservoirs thesimplified
methods, assumingthedefinitewastewaterflowtypethoughsewagesystemsintheformof triangle
or trapezium, wereused.
Actually owing to thedevelopment of soft-wareinstruments and significant resourceof pre-
cipitationmeasurement datait is possibleto carry out thedynamic simulations of storagewater
reservoirs functioningfor any precipitationsituations andstormwater flowrates transportedby
sewagesystems(Dziopak& Sy s2007).
Equally intensively theresearches of storagereservoirs aredevelopedinorder to analyzenot
only hydraulic parameters but also qualitative parameters concerning waste water treatment in
processesof sedimentationinconcreteandgroundconstructions(Hubner &Geiger 1996; J acopin
et al. 1999; Michelbach&Wei1996; Calabr&Viviani 2006).
In presented optimization model SEW the elaborated programs of one- and multi-chamber
storage reservoirs functioning simulation are used (Dziopak & Sy s 2007; Sy s 2006; Sy s &
Dziopak 2006), whichallowstoinvestigateanywastewater flowfunctioninsewagesystemsand
toselect thehydraulicparametersof suchtypeof objects.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Stormwater retentioninseparateandcombinedsewagesystemshasagreat significancenot only
for thereasonsof water ecosystems safetybut for economical andexploitationreasons.
Thekey issueof storagereservoirs usagefor thepurposeof sewagesystemhydraulic relief is
their number andlocalizationwithinsewagenet, thatdeterminestheprojectparametersof sewage
systemand reservoirs. The feedback of parameters, which are closely connected and mutually
influenced, takesplace. Thisdemandsverycomplicatedcalculationscarriedoutintraditional way.
Thepaper dealswiththematter of modelingof storagereservoirs number andtheir localization
withinsewagesystemonthebaseof elaboratedoptimizationmodel SEW. Itconsiderstheinfluence
of all significant project parametersof sewagesystemcooperatingwithstoragereservoirs: canals
slops aboveandbelowthereservoir, maximumfillingof storagereservoir, coefficient of waste
water flowreduction, appliedhydraulicschemeof wastewater accumulation.
Theelaboratedsoft-wareinstrument is basedonpreviously elaboratedprograms for hydraulic
processes simulationinmulti-chamber reservoirs andtheir project parameters investigationfor
anytypeof wastewater flowfunctions.
REFERENCES
Bellman, R. 1952. OntheTheoryof DynamicProgramming. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences
USA.
Biedugnis, S. 1993. Metody optymalizacyjne w wodociagach i kanalizacji. Wydawnictwo NaukowePWN.
Warszawa.
Calabro, P. &Viviani, G. 2006. Simulationof theoperationdetentiontanks. Water Research 40: 8390.
Dziopak, J. & Sy sD. 2007. Modelowanie zbiornikw klasycznych I grawitacyjno-pompowych w kanalizacji.
RzeszwUniversityof Technology. Rzeszw.
Dziopak, J. 1997. Multi-chamber storage reservoirs in the sewerage system. Technical University of
Czestochowa. Czestochowa.
254
Dziopak, J. 2006. Selection of Optimal Variant of Storage Reservoir within Sewage System. Ecological
Chemistry and Engineering. 13(11): 12691286.
Huebner, M. &GeigerW. 1996. Characterisationof theperformanceof anoff linestoragetank. Wat. Sci. Tech.
34(34): 2532.
J acopin, Ch. etal. 1999. Characterisationandsettlingof solidsinanopen, grassed, stormwater sewer network
detentionbasin. Wat. Sci. Tech. 39(2): 135144.
Krajewski, K. 1993. Metody optymalizacji w in zynierii srodowiska. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej. Warszawa.
Michelbach, S. & Wei, G. 1996. Settleablesewer solids at stormwater tanks with clarifier for combined
sewage. Wat. Sci. Tech. 33(9): 261267.
Sy s, D. &Dziopak, J. 2006. Simulation of Trough-FlowChamber Operation in Storage Reservoirs. Ecological
ChemistryandEngineering13(10): 11431155.
Sy s, D. 2006. Simulationmodel of gravitation-pumpstoragereservoir. Environment Protection Engineering
32(2): 139146.
255
Curvaturejackingof centrifugallycast GRP pipes
UlrichWallmann
HOBAS Rohre GmbH, Bottrop, Germany
Dariusz Kosiorowski
HOBAS System Polska, Bedzin, Poland
ABSTRACT: Inrecent projects for exampleKrefeldGermany or WarsawE1(3,5kmDN2000
min. Radius300m) centrifugallycastedGRPjackingpipeshaveproventheirfavourableproperties
incurvaturejackinginstallationsinEurope. Withtheuseof thecurvaturejackingtechnologyGRP
pipeshavebeeninstalledsafelyinaveryeconomical way. Thesmallestradiuswasrealisedin2004
by driving centrifugally casted GRP jacking pipes DN1000 in ZielonaGoraPoland in aradius
of 90m.
Particular in curvature jacking the high compressive strength and the elasticity of GRP are
favourablefeatures. Thecentrifugally cast GRP jacking pipeis becauseof theelasticity of the
material ableto react to eccentric loads by means of spigot deformations. Thereforethecontact
between thecentrifugally cast GRP jacking pipes for thetransmission of jacking forceremains
totallyuntil thedeformationlimitsarenoexceeded. Sothereisnoneedof woodpackers.
PipetestsinGermanyhaveshown, thatbelowtheallowablecompressivestressof 90N/mm
2
the
GRP material reacts linear elastic without beeninfluencedby wetness. Thereforethecalculation
of thedeformationandtheallowablejackingforcefor thecurvatureinstallationof centrifugally
cast GRP jackingpipesisveryaccurateandreliable.
1 INTRODUCTION
Forenvironmental andeconomical reasonscurvaturejackingismoreandmorerequiredbydesign-
ersandclients. Inalot of casestheseparationof theproject intostraight sectionswithbendsonly
insideof thejackingpitsrequiresmoreanddeeper jackingpits. Withthehelpof curvaturedrives
thequantity andthedepthof thejackingpits canbeoptimized. Ontheother handcurveddrives
requireaspecial jackingequipment andaspecial designof theallowablejackingforces.
Acurvaturedriveresultsalwaysinanangulardeflectionof thejointsandaneccentriclongitudinal
loadingof thepipes. Theeccentric longitudinal loadinghas tobeconsideredinparticular by the
calculationof themaximumallowableangular deflectionof thejoint betweenthepipes andthe
maximumallowablejackingforceof thepipes.
2 THE PIPE SYSTEM
Centrifugally cast GRP jacking pipes areproduced in diameters fromDN200up to DN2900in
unit lengthof 1m, 1.5, 2m, 3mand6m. Thepipesaredesignedeither for gravityor for pressure
applications up to PN10. The coupling of the pipe is available in GRP (figures 3 and 4) and
stainlesssteel (figure5and6). Theallowablejackingforceof centrifugallycastGRPjackingpipes
is depending of the wall thickness. Centrifugally cast GRP jacking pipes have been supplying
257
Figure1. Transport of acentrifugallycast GRP jackingpipeDN1400inZielonaGora, Poland.
Figure2. Curvedinstalledcentrifugallycast GRP jackingpipesDN2000inWarsaw.
jacking projects sincemorethan 20 years. Thepipes areinherently corrosion resistant, rugged,
solid-walledandprovidealongmaintenancefreelife.
Becauseof thehighcompressivestrengththesepipeshaveasmallerwall thicknessandthereforea
smallerexternal outsidediameterthanmostof theotherconventional pipesforjacking.Thesmaller
external diameter resultsinareductionof excavation, lubricationandequipment costs.
258
Figure3. Pipe spigot for the stainless steel
coupling.
Figure4. Thestainlesssteel coupling.
Figure5. Pipespigot for theGRP
coupling.
Figure6. TheGRP coupling.
CentrifugallycastGRPjackingpipeshavealongrecordinEurope, J apanandtheUSwithmore
than500kmof pipesinstalledbythejackingmethod.
3 THE JACKINGFORCE CALCULATION
Centrifugallycast GRP jackingpipeshavethefollowingpropertiesintheaxial direction:
Ultimatecompressivestressinaxial direction
a
=90N/mm
2
Elongationat breakinaxial direction
a
=0.7%
259
P
r r
D
0
D
1
0
0
volting
A
Figure7. Centricloading.
P
r r
x
D
0
D
1
0
0
volting
0
min
= 0
G
max
= 2G
0
volting
A
Figure8. Eccentricloading.
Theallowablejackingforceunder centricloadingcanbecalculatedwiththeequation(1):
P =

a
S
A
R
(1)
A
R
=Cross-sectional areaof thepipewall at thethinnest point
S =Material safety(1.75)
P =

a
1.75
(Da
2
Di
2
)

4
(2)
ThejackingforceP isapurelytheoretical figurethat cannever beappliedinpractice. Assome
steeringalwayshastobeanticipated, evenfor plannedstraight installations. For thecalculationof
allowablejackingforceallP at least thefollowingeccentricityhastobeconsidered.
allP =
1
2
P (3)
P fromequation(2)
allP =

a
2 1.75
(Da
2
Di
2
)

4
(4)
If thepipesaresubjectedtotheeccentricallowablejackingforceallP thespigot isdeflectedas
showninfigure4, whichcanbecalculatedbyequations5and6.
all =

a
1.75
(5)
1
= all L (6)
L =Applicablelength(usuallyhalf of thepipelength)
260
1
P
L
Figure9. Spigot deformationunder eccentricloading.
Table1. Allowableangular deflection of thejoint under theassumption of afull contact
betweenthepipes.
Max. permissibleangular deflection(Pipelength)
OutsideDiameter
OD 1m 2m 3m
272376 0.48 1.0 1.5
401550 0.33 0.6 1.0
616752 0.24 0.5 0.7
818860 0.21 0.4 0.6
9241099 0.16 0.3 0.5
12291348 0.13 0.25 0.4
14341720 0.10 0.2 0.3
18422047 0.15 0.25
22522740 0.10 0.2
For thecalculationof
1
half thepipelengthcangenerally betakenas theapplicablelength.
Dueto theelastic spigot deformation
1
theallowableangular deflection of thejoint shown in
Table1occursunder theassumptionof afull contact betweenthepipes.
V =
1
max
o
P (7)
P fromequation(1)
Z = Widthof thecontact area
If the angular deflection shown in Table 1 is exceeded during pipe jacking, the joint bet-
ween the pipes will gape and the full contact between the pipes is lost, which in turn reduces
thecontact area.
261
z
d
1
d
2
d
0
d
0
d
i
d
i
d
i
d
2
0.9
0.8
0.7
d
2
d
2
d
2
d
max
d
max
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
z
0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure10. Relationbetweenthestress ratio
max/
o
andtheratioZ/D.
d
1
d
1
L
Z
Figure11. Spigotdeflectionwithagapingjoint.
To prevent thepermissiblecompressivestress
a
frombeing exceeded, theallowablejacking
forcehastobereduced. ThereducedpermissiblejackingforceV inagapingjointcanbecalculaed
by takingfigures 10and11intoconsideration. Thefollowingconsiderations andequations only
apply provided that no wooden packing rings are inserted between the pipes. In this case the
allowableangular defectionbetweenthepipesisonly theresult of their elastic deformability and
theacceptedgapinthejoint.
Thepartial deflectioncausedbytheeccentricloadV canbecalculatedasfollows:
tan =

a
1.75
L
Z
(8)
Thepartial gapwidth
2
intheareaof thegapingjoint iscalculatedasfollows:
2
= tan (Da Z) (9)
Thetotal deflection of thepipejoint isthen
=
r
+
l
(10)
or byapproximation
= 2 (11)
262
Figure12. Thetest rigof IKT Gelsenkirchen. Figure13. ThebendedGRP pipe.
Thetotal gapwidth inthepipejoint isthen
=
2r
+
2l
(12)
or byapproximation
= 2
2
(13)
4 PIPE RESEARCHTESTS
Over thepast 25yearsdozensof independent verificationsof thepropertiesof centrifugally cast
GRP pipeshavebeenperformed. Testshavebeencarriedout bytestingsamplesof stripsandfull
pipesunder centricandeccentricloads.
At University of Illinois, at University of Bochum, at University of Dortmundandat thetest
laboratory of IKT Gelsenkirchen full length pipes in diameters between DN500 and 700 were
tested.
In2005attheUniversityof Aachenatestof centrifugallycastGRPpipesunder acyclicangular
deflectedjointhasbeencarriedoutwiththeresultthatthesepipereactlinearelasticundereccentric
longitudinal loading. Whilethepipewas loadedby alongitudinal forceandthepipeends were
moved20cmrectangular tothepipeaxisthelongitudinal stressandstrainweremeasuredat the
spigotsandover thepipelength. Thematerial propertiesof:
ultimatecompressivestressinaxial direction
a
=90N/mm
2
elongationat breakinaxial direction
a
=0.7%
wereevenunder thistest circumstancesverified.
263
Figure14. Thetest rigof AachenUniversity. Figure15. Thetestrigof AachenUniversity.
Figure16. Therouteof thepipelineof theE1project inWarsaw.
5 PROJ ECTS
5.1 The Warsaw Project E1
Fortheoptimizationof thedowntownsewersystemWarsawWaterworksdesigneda3,5kmgravity
sewer pipelineinadiameter of 2000mmfor theconnectionof adowntownlivingquarter withthe
newsewer treatment plant Czajka. For therealizationof aslopeof 0,063%thepipelinehadto
264
Figure17. Thelocationof thepipelineof theE1project inWarsaw.
Figure18. Thelocationof thejackingpit of thefirst driveof theE1project inWarsaw.
beinstalledinadepthbetween4.7mand10.6m. Themaximumexpectedgroundwater level was
2mbelowthesurface.
Particular problemsof therouteof thepipelinearethecrossingof theWarsawUndergroundin
adistanceof only 0.6m, thecrossingof amainrailway toWarsawMainStationandthecrossing
of several sewers. Becauseof this problems and theinstallation under partly very narrowroads
WarsawWaterworks decidedfor jackinginstallationwithcurveddrives inaminimumradius of
300m.
Forthepipematerial WarsawWaterworksfinallychoosecentrifugallycastGRPpipesforseveral
reasons. First of all WarsawWaterworks madeagoodexperienceduringtheinstallationof more
than 10kmof centrifugally cast GRP pipes in diameters between DN1000 and DN2400 within
thepast 10years. Thehighcorrosionresistancewouldguaranteealonglifetimeandthesuperior
hydraulicswouldprovideahighflowcapacity.
Theproject wascontractedinsummer 2006andstartedinOctober 2006. For therealizationthe
pipelinewaspartitionedin15sections. Thelongest drivehadalengthof 543mwithacurveina
radiusof 400m. Inorder tosatisfy thevariousrequirementsof all sectionsthecontractor finally
decidedfor 3different pipes. For thestraight partsapipewithanominal stiffnessof 32000N/m
2
andanallowablejackingforcewas selected. For thecurvedparts pipes withanominal stiffness
of 50000N/m
2
wereselectedinaunit lengthof 1.5mandanallowablejackingforceof 3600kN
265
Figure19. J ackingof centrifugallycast GRP pipesDN2000at theE1project inWarsaw.
for the300mradiusandinaunit lengthof 1mandanallowablejackingforceof 3000kN for the
200mradius.
5.2 The Zielona Gora Project in Poland
In theyear 2003 apipelinein adiameter of 1000mmin alength of had to bebuild in Zielona
Gora, Poland. Thelocationof thepipelinewasdowntownunder aroadbetweenaneggshapesewer
DN700/1000 and the foundation of a multistory building. Under consideration of the difficult
trafficsituationtheCityof ZielonaGorafor acurvedjackinginstallation. Theroutewiththeleast
disturbanceof traffic wasacurveddrivewitharadiusof 90m. Theclient wasfully awareof the
riskof adrivewitharadiusof 90m. Becauseof goodexperienceswithseveral curveddriveswith
centrifugally cast GRP pipes in diameters 1200 and 1400mmtheCity of ZielonaGorafinally
approved the installation of centrifugally cast GRP pipes DN1000 with an outside diameter of
1099mmand anominal stiffness of 160000N/m
2
. Thesepipes weredesigned for an allowable
jackingforceof 4000KNfor thestraight partsandfor 1400KNfor thecurveddrive. All thepipes
which had to pass thecurvehad aunit length of 1m, whiletherear straight part was madeby
3mlongpipes. Despiteof thetechnical challengewithout anyproblemsupto24mper daywere
successfullyinstalled.
5.3 The Krefeld Project
Insummer 2000thecityof Krefeldhadtobuildasewer withanoverflowtoincreasetheexisting
capacity of the Rundweg combined sewer. Because of the aggressive industrial effluent, the
existingDN2000interceptor, whichwasinoperation, couldonlybeaccessedfrompoorlyventilated
manholeswithbreathingapparatus.
To providethegreatest possiblecorrosion resistancefor thenewsewer, theclient demanded
centrifugallycastGRPpipes. Thetender specifiedpipeinstallationbyjacking.Theprojecttotaling
318minlengthwasdividedintotwosections. Thefirstpushmeasuring282mwascarriedoutata
depthof 6.5to7.5m, partlyparallel toaprivaterailwaylineunderaninner-citysideroad.Atalength
of 36mandcover of 4to7mthesecondpushhadtocrossthebusyB 288federal highway. GRP
266
Figure20. Thelocationof thepipelineinZielonaGora, Poland.
jackingpipeswithanoutsidediameter of 2400mmandawall thicknessof 76mmwereselected
for jacking. TheseGRP jackingpipes haveanominal stiffness of 32,000N/m
2
andanallowable
jackingforceof 9460kN (angular deflectionper non-gapingpipejoint 0.2
). A civil engineering
contractor wasawardedthecontract for mannedpipejacking. Anauger protectedbyashieldwas
usedtoremovethenativesoil attheface, whichwasthenloadedontotrolleysbyaconveyor.Awinch
pulledthetrolleys, whichranonrails, tothejackingpitwheretheywereliftedbyacrane. Thepipe
jackingroutewasmeasuredwithagyrocompassandtheelevationwithinclinometers.Tocheck, the
jackedpipelinewasalsomeasuredelectro-opticallyatcertainintervals.The2,9mlongGRPjacking
pipeswereinstalledaccordingtothefollowingprocedure. Behindtheshield, whichwas2840mm
inlength, thereweretwo2900mmlongworkingpipesmadeof centrifugallycast glassreinforced
polyester. Theseworkingpipes housedall theauxiliary equipment requiredfor jacking, suchas
conveyor, winchetc. Nexttothemthefirstintermediatejackingstationwassetup. After installing
another120mof GRPpipes, whichwerejackedinastraightlinewithminimal steeringadjustments,
camethesecondintermediatejackingstation, althoughthemaximumjackingforcesmeasuredup
tothispointwerelessthan45%of thepermissiblelimit. Oncetheintermediatejackingstationhad
beeninstalledthepipeswerejackedatacurveradiusof 1500muntil afteranother160mandatotal
of 32workingdays, thereceptionshaftwasreached. Onthepipemanufacturersrecommendation,
no wooden packing rings wereused to transfer thepressureat thejoints. Theelastic deflection
incentrifugally cast GRP jackingpipesof 8mmper pipewassufficient toinstall themroundthe
curveat aradius of 1500mwithout damageandstill haveenoughreserves for steering. Only in
exceptional cases, e.g. whenstartingjackingagainafter aweekend, didjackingforcesof justunder
7000kN havetobeappliedtoget thepipelinemovingagain. Astherequiredjackingforceswere
only 70%of theallowablelimit for GRP jackingpipes, thesecondintermediatejackingstation
wasnot usedat all duringthejackingprocess.Thefirst intermediatejackingstationwasoperated
at ajackingforceof 500to700kN andservedonlytoovercomethepeak resistanceof theshield.
Thismeansthat theentirepushof 288mincludingthecurvewasjackedwithaverageof 6500kN
andamaximumjackingforceof 8000kN. Over theentiredrive, thenativesoil mainly consisted
of medium-densetodensesandygravel. Atthebeginningof thefirstpush, clayhadtoberemoved
267
Figure21. Thejackingpit inKrefeld. Figure22. ThepipeinstallationinKrefeldGermany.
fromthepipecrown area. Thegroundwater table, which was at aheight of 1.0 to 1.5mabove
thepipebottom, was lowered belowit with wells during theconstruction work. During normal
operation, jackingwascarriedoutatarateof approx. 9mpershiftandamaximumof 12mpershift.
Thiswasalsoachievedbecauseof thecomparativelysmall volumeof material transportedthanks
to thethinwalls inGRP jackingpipes. Comparedto concretepipeof thesameinsidediameter,
thevolumeof excavatedmaterial herewasapprox. 30%less. Whenappliedtothetotal installation
lengthof 318m, thetotal savinginsoil transport is around650cum. Inaddition, thecontractor
confirmedthat thefavorablejackingforcedevelopment resultingfromthesmoothnessandclose
tolerancesof thepipeswasanaddedbonusduringinstallation.
268
Reliningwithlargediameter GRP pipes
UlrichWallmann
HOBAS Rohre GmbH, Bottrop, Germany
ABSTRACT: Thereliningof largediameterpipelineswithGRPpipesisworldwidecontinuously
growingoverthepast20years. Forthestructural designof linerpipeswithsignificantdeviationsto
circular shapesarenostandardsor guidelinesavailable. TheATV-M127Part2andtheWRCSRM
(sewer rehabilitationmanual) provideonlyhintsandnotesfor acoarsecalculationof noncircular
liner pipes, but no comprehensivestructural design. In particular arch-profiles, kite-profiles or
profileswithinvertscanmerelydesignedbythepreviousmentionedguidelines.Areliableapproach
for thestructural designof thesekindsof profilesisthefiniteelement method.
1 INTRODUCTION
After theflooddisaster intheeightiesandtwofloodsin1993and1995thecityof Colognedecided
in1996for afloodcontrol concept for theprotectionof thethreatenedcityareas. Anintegral part
of thefloodcontrol concept wastheadjustment of thestormwater outfallsintotheriver Rheinto
thenewheight of thedykes. Thisledtohigher internal andexternal loadsonthepipelines.
Theoutfalls are90 year old masonry constructions with circular and non circular profiles in
diametersupto3,5m. Previousinspectionsrevealedahighnumber of leaks. Becauseof thehigher
requirementsof thenewfloodcontrol concept, inparticular theinternal pressureof 0,75bar and
the external pressure of 1 bar, the structural load capacity of the masonry could no longer be
guaranteed. Soanextensiverehabilitationof theoutfallswasimperative.
Figure1. TheGRP pipe: DN3190/2585L =2m.
269
Figure2. Drawingof thepipeline. Figure3. Therelinedpipeline.
2 PROJ ECT DESCRIPTION
Thecity of Colognecontracted various consulting companies to carry out complex analyses of
rehabilitation strategies and their costs. The prime target of the rehabilitation was to size the
renovatedoutfalls as tight as possibleto theold. Besides thesizeof upto 3,5m, misalignments
andcurvesof themasonryoutfallswerefurther problemsfor rehabilitation.
Because of the high structural load requirements, the issues of leak tightness and the short
possibleconstructiontimetheclient finallydecidedtorehabilitatetheoutfallswithprefabricated
GRPpipes. Beforethepipeswereorderedthecontractorcarriedoutadetailed3dimentional survey
of themasonryinordertohaveaclearpictureof theoldpipeline.Aftertheevaluationof thesurvey
datatheGRP pipes wereselectedas following: for themasonry archprofileof DN3500/2900a
GRPpipewithanoutsidediameterof 3190/2584mm, forthemasonryarchprofileof DN2700/1750
aGRP pipewith an outsidediameter of 2368/1454mmand for themasonry circular profileof
DN2400acircular GRP pipewithanoutsidediameter of 2520mmwereselected.
3 THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
For thedeterminationof thewall thickness of theGRP pipes thestructural designof therelined
noncircular masonrywascarriedout byfiniteelement calculations, whilethecircular partswere
calculatedbyATV-M127Part 2. For all calculationsthefollowingpipepropertieswereused:
Flexural modulus(short term): E
k
=9000N/mm
2
Flexural modulus(longterm): E
L
=5625N/mm
2
Allowablebendingstress(short term): b
k
=120N/mm
2
Allowablebendingstress(longterm): b
L
=75N/mm
2
Poissonratio =0,35
Thefiniteelement calculationwasdonebyLGA BautechnikGmbHTillystrae290431Nrn-
berg Germany with the help of the finite element programNISA. For 5 different load cases 3
different finiteelement modelswereformulated.
3.2 Load case1 and 2 (LC1 and LC2)
Loadcase1and2areconsideringtheminimumandthemaximumdepthof cover plustrafficload
(SLW60). Thecalculationwascarriedout for 50yearsdesignlife. For theGRP pipe, themasonry
andthesoil PLANE elements wereused. For theconnectionbetweenthepipeelementsandthe
270
Figure4. Thefiniteelementmodel for LC1and
LC2.
Figure5. ThedeformationduetoLC1.
Figure6. Thefiniteelementmodel for LC3and
LC4.
Figure7. ThedeformationduetoLC3.
Figure8. Thefiniteelement model for LC5. Figure9. ThedeformationduetoLC5.
masonry elements and for theconnection between themasonry elements and thesoil elements
GAP elements (purecompression transmition) wereused. TheGRP pipewas represented by
its actual profile, whilefor themasonry 4joints, 1inthecrown, 1inthebottomand1ineach
springline, wereconsidered.Thesoil elementsontopandbesidesthepipeweregivenanE-modulus
of 5N/mm
2
, whilethesoil elementsunderneath20N/mm
2
.
3.3 Load case 3 and 4 (LC3 and LC4)
For bothloadcasesthemasonrycarriestheimposedsoil andtrafficloads. Loadcase3considers
onlyanexternal water level of 7,5mabovetheinvert. Loadcase4isconsideringanexternal water
level of 1,5m. Loadcase3is for short term, whileloadcase4is for longtermdesign. For the
271
Figure10. The trolley for the transport of the
pipes.
Figure11. Thetrolleypulledbyaforklift.
Figure12. Thesteel cradlesforfixingthepipes. Figure13. Themisalignment.
GRPpipePLANEelementswereused.Thestiff embedmentwasrepresentedbyGAPelements.
For thebottomof theGRP pipeapredeflectionof 20mmandbetweentheGRP pipeandthestiff
embedment (thegrout) agapof 1mmwasassumpt.
3.4 Load case 5 (LC5)
Inloadcase5theliner pipeiscalculatedfor short termexternal pressureof grout 1mabovethe
bottomof the pipe. For the GRP pipe PLANE elements were used. The grout pressure was
consideredasanequal circumfentural load.
4 THE PIPE INSTALLATION
Theevaluationof thefiniteelement calculationtogether withtheresult of theevaluationof the
surveydatagavethefollowingresult for theprefabricatedGRP pipes:
Outsidediameter: 3190/2584, wall thickness: 60mm, length: 2,0m, weight: 2300kg
Outsidediameter: 2368/1454, wall thickness: 50mm, length: 2m, weight: 1300kg
Outsidediameter: 2490, wall thickness: 45mm, length: 2m, weight: 1800kg
272
Figure14. Thelaminationof thesteps. Figure15. Thelaminatedsteps.
Figure16. Thepressuretest of thejoints. Figure17. The installation of the pipe
DN2400.
TheprefabricatedGRP pipeswereinsertedintotheoldpipelinethroughinstallationpits. From
thepitstheGRPpipeweretransportedtotheir destinationbyaforkliftpulledtrolley. After jointing
the GRP pipes were fixed by steel cradles with a spacing of the pipe length. The cradles are
preventingtheGRP pipesfromfloatingduringthegroutingof theannular spacebetweentheold
masonryandtheliner pipes. For thereliningof thecurvedsectionsGRP pipesinlengthof 0,5m
and1mwereused. Toavoidwidegapsduetotheangular deflectionafter jointingthespigotsof
theGRP pipesfor thecurveswere1
obliquecut. At themisalignmentsof themasonrythepipes

wereconnectedby handlaminates. After aninstallationtimeof 4months thetotal pipelinewas
checkedbyapressuretestof all jointsof 1bar. Thetestswerecarriedoutwiththehelpof aspecial
joint test equipment for circular andnoncircular profiles.
Becauseof thehighfinishedquality of this project thecity of Colognein2008to do another
300mof reliningwiththesameGRP pipesDN3190/2584.
REFERENCES
Doll, Dr.Ing. 2006. GutachterlicheStellungnahmefr Kln, Theodor-Heuss-Ring.
Doll, Dr.Ing. & Schimmel. 2007. Refurbishingof largecaliber drainandsewer sectios.
273
Undergroundinfrastructureof historical citiesasexceptionally
valuablecultural heritage
M. Wardas& M. Pawlikowski
University of Science and Technology, Krakw, Poland
E. Zaitz & M. Zaitz
The Historical Museum of the City of Krakw, Krakw, Poland
ABSTRACT: Historical sequencelayersandundergroundinfrastructureof Krakw, Kazimierz
andtheir suburbshavebeenexplored, for many years, by archaeologistsandhistorians. Ground-
explorers, (hydro)geologists and geomorphologist, as well as mineralogists and geochemists, in
thecourseof interdisciplinary study, havecompleted theknowledgeof theorigin and extent of
pollutionof the, formedinthepast, depositedmatter, together withits cultural levels. Thedata,
achievedasaresult of multidisciplinary approachtotheproblem, particularly, informationabout
heavymetal content, makeprobablypossiblethedeterminationof thecontaminantmigrationrouts,
as well as areconstructionof theenvironment stateinthepast. A mineralogical-chemical study
of historical sequencelayers of underground Krakw showed astrong geochemical Pb and Cu
anomaly, whichrevealedaconsiderableactivityof inhabitants, concerningmanufacturinganduse
of metal objects. Thelocalitiesof higher anomaly havebeenanalyzed, asfar asthepresenceand
originof metallogenicphases, aswell asthepresenceandageof, foundbyarchaeologists, artifact
areconcerned. Identificationof placescharacterizedbynonstandardmetal contentmayalsothrow
thelighttotheproblemof ecologyandathreattohealthandenvironmentof amanlivinginKrakw
inthepast. Historical sequencelayers, duetothecontent of artifactsbut alsoduetothepossible
identification of ecofacts, as a result of thedetermination of elements, organic matter, pollens
andseeds, constitute, sametimesthelast, disappearing sourceof knowledgeof thehistoryand
lifeof peopleof that time. That is why, thedepositedmatter, evenif devoidof artifacts, should
berecognizedasaparticularlyvaluablecultural heritage, unfortunately, extinguishinginthecourse
of roadandbuildinginvestments.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historical stratification as a record of the citys history
Therearemany forms of recordinghistory andevents. Themost classical is thewrittenwordin
theformof manuscripts onpaper, or beforethat onpapyrus madeof plants, or parchment made
of animal skin, or on the bark of various trees. Another onetime formof making records was
rockdrawingsor paintings, refinedandtransformedintoanalphabet(hieroglyphics, for instance).
A contemporary formof record is photography or filmimages (whether static or moving) on
conventional or electronic media. Technology is still incapableof recordingtaste, smell or touch
impressions.
There is, however, another formof recording events geological or archaeological strata,
known as stratification. Knowing a specific (geological or archaeological) language, one can
readagreatdeal of interestinginformationfromstratification. Thisisobjectiveinformationthat
hasnot beenalteredby anartist apainter, poet or writer, all of whomaddinterpretationtothe
factstheyrender.
275
Thelanguageresearchersusetoread informationfromsediment androcksof varioussortsis
specifiedandoftendifficult. Inmanycases, evensomeonewhoknowsthelayerswell candiscernor
understandalmostnothing. Often, however, therearemanynewandinterestingfactstobelearned.
For example, wasit wet or dryduringthesedimentationperiodof thelayers?Warmor cold?Was
it createdbywind, water, or man? Howdidit comeabout?What areitscomponent parts?
If thelayer hasanthropogeniccomponents, thismaybeseenasevidenceof humanactivity, and
it might tell uswhat peopledidhere. Thisismost oftenunrecordedinformation. Didapotter or a
glazier work here, or perhapstherewasasmithy wherebronzeor leadcastsweremade? Perhaps
ironwassmeltedandforgedintheresearchsite, orgrainwasgroundforflour, leavingbehindbran.
Thestratificationcancontainpollenandseeds fromplants that allowus to reconstruct theplant
lifeinagivenplace inspiteof thefact that it grewheremanymillenniaago, andthat thereseem
tobenopractical remainsof whatoncewas. Isotopedatingallowsustoestablishhowlongagothe
stratumwasformed(Kluj et al. 2006, Sokoowski et al. 2006).
All thesequestionsposedandanswersachievedbroadenour knowledgeabout thepast andare
often thebasis for current activities and decisions. Oneexamplemight bethepresent research
under newly-built architectural sitesor futurehighways. Sometimesprecioushistorical structures
areunearthedthroughthisexploration, whichresultsinnecessary changestopreviousintentions
andprotectionof thegivensite.
Thisstratificationandknowledge, bothwhat hasbeenresearchedandwhat liesinitspotential,
is our cultural heritage, vital for understandingthehereandnow. This is why it shouldbeboth
researchedandprotected. Whenitisexcavated, irreplaceablehistorical material islost. Thisiswhy
historical researchof stratificationisalsosovital, particularlyintheregionof old, historical cities.
If weaccuratelydecipheranddrawconclusionsfromthehistorical recordsof ourancestors, wecan
sometimesavoidunfavourabledecisions, andmakeonlythoseessential forthefurtherdevelopment
of thepeopleandthenation.
1.2 Historical stratification as cultural heritage
Thehistorical stratificationandundergroundinfrastructureof Krakow, Kazimierzandtheirsuburbs
havebeenresearchedby archaeologists andhistorians for many years. For sometimenow, land
specialists, (hydro)geologists andgeo-morphologists, as well as mineralogists andgeo-chemists
havebeen carrying out interdisciplinary research to supplement their knowledgeon thegenesis
andlevel of thepollution, theembankmentsformedinthepast, andthestateof their culture. Data
acquired through amulti-tiered approach to this question and information about heavy metal
contentinparticular mightallowustoestablishthepathof pollutionmigrationandtoreconstruct
thestateof theenvironment inthepast (Kluj et al. 2006, Sokoowski et al. 2006, Wardas et al.
2006a, b, 2007, Wardaset al. inpress., Wardas& Suchinpress.).
Archaeologists in particular consider theunderground infrastructureof historical cities to be
exceptionally valuable cultural heritage. These researchers, knowing the language of archae-
ological stratification, are able to very accurately estimate what historical period it should be
affiliatedwith, andat aglance(Zaitz & Zaitz, inpress.).
2 THEATTRIBUTESOF KRAKOWSHISTORICAL STRATIFICATION
2.1 The early mediaeval period
Krakowearly-mediaeval settlementsaredominatedbysandy-claystrataof relativelylowpulpiness
(upto6080cm), whichhaveaccumulatedmaterial tracesof variousfarmingactivity. Theymost
oftencontainshardsof claydishes, splinteredanimal bones, crumbledcharcoal andbitsof pugging;
muchmoreinfrequently therearemetal objects (fromiron, bronzeandcopper), glass products,
animal bones, horns, semi-preciousstonesetc.Therearealsoorganicandnon-organicmicro-traces
of treebranches, stemsandleavesof plants, seeds, fruitandpollen, or evenslagaffiliatedwiththe
waste, productionandmanufactureof metal objects(Radwa nski 1975, Zaitz 1998).
276
Onthetopof thisstratificationwerewoodenbuildings, oftenlog-styleandwithnofoundations.
Variousearth-formedsitesdugintothesandy, natural subsoil werealsoproducedfromthesurface
of thisstratification. Theseincludedthelower partsof residential half-dug-out buildings, various
caverns affiliated with farming and production, and wasteditches for organising thesettlement
terrain, liquidatingbuildings, andremovingthewreckagefollowingvariouscataclysms.
Other earth-formed sites included wells and various water reservoirs, both for consumption
andproductionpurposes. Theearlymediaeval settlementswerealmost totallydevoidof plumbing
facilities. Excesswater andsewagewasdrainedacrossthesurfaceof thelandtoflowingwater, or
it gradually soakedintothecultural strata, penetratingtothenatural subsoil. Amongthehighest
humusstrata, theremainsof levelsthat oncefunctionedasroads, streetsandsquareshard-paved
withpebblesor gravel standout, asdothelevelsshapedbytheinteriorsof buildings. Amongthese
wasadirt floor, tracesof woodfloors, andinmorerepresentativesites, flooringmadeof various
stones, plaster, mortar, or firedclay(Zaitz 2006, Firlet & Zaitz 2007, Zaitz & Zaitz 2007a, b).
2.2 The late mediaeval period
Anewtypeof settlementappearsinKrakowinthelatemediaeval period.Theseareurbansettlements
(thenewly-foundednovacivitasinOkolcities, Kazimierz, Florencjaknownasaltacivitas, and
later Kleparz), whichwereplacedonthefringesof theearly-mediaeval settlement concentration,
just outsidetheRoyal Citys domain. Thesesettlements weredensely populated, bredlivestock,
andfarmedvariouscrops(Radwa nski 1975, Zaitz 1998).
Humus andsandy stratificationstill formed, not unliketheearly-mediaeval formations. But it
started to bereplaced by other stratification in theareas of most concentrated farming activity.
Apart fromthehumusformationswithdominant sandandclaycomponents, therealsoappeareda
seriesof stratadirectlyaffiliatedwithfarmingandlivestock. Itreachedapulpinessof 300400cm,
whileits chief component was alargequantity of various plant materials (fromleaves, branches
andsplinters, toseeds, pollen, fruit, remainsof woodenconstructionsandeveryday objects) and
animal waste(animal dungandmanure), aswell asbrickandstonerubble, charcoal, glass, metal,
boneandstoneobjects, mortar andother refuseassociatedwiththefarmingactivitiesof thecity
andoutlyingresidents.
Among these humus and organic formations there appear the cobbled surfaces of roads and
streets, in Krakow most often madeof calciumstonelaid on asand base, flagstones (madeof
bricks andflagstones), clay threshingfloors, woodenfloors andgrassy surfaces whichwerenot
paved. Thelate-mediaeval development of stoneconstructionalsoborefruit intheappearanceof
constructionlayers of brick fragments andtiny calcium(or sand) stones andstrataof wreckage.
They werealso very often accompanied by levelling embankments, whosetask was to achieve
acorrect configurationof theterrainsituatedinsidetheconstructions, onthestreets, or intheir
nearbyvicinity.
Thenewurbanagglomerationsweredistinguishedbycondensedbuildingsandintensifiedeco-
nomic activity (trade, various handcrafts, farming), as well as attempts to satisfy peoples basic
needs. Larger andlarger wellsfor collectingwater appearedwithinthecity(therewereatleastfour
ontheMainSquarealone, initsfour corners), awoodenwater pipewasbuilt todrawwater from
theRudawatowellsandbarrelsscatteredaroundsquaresandinthevicinityof bourgeoisflats, and
reservoirsweremadetocollectwater for agricultureandfire-fighting. Thepavedsurfacesof roads
andsquares, ontheother hand, hadgutterstoleadtheexcesswater andsewageoutsideof therange
of thebuildings, whilesepticpitsof over tenmetresdeepwereduginthebacksof someproperties,
thuscollectingasignificantportionof humanandanimal wastematerialsfromtheproperty(Zaitz
2006, Firlet & Zaitz 2007, Zaitz & Zaitz 2007a, b).
2.3 Modern Times
In modern times after the17th century organic stratato alargedegreevanish, such as that
affiliatedwithlivestock breedingwithinthebounds of mediaeval cities. Their placeis occupied
277
bycompensatorylayersandlevellingembankments, aswell aspractical levelswithasoft surface
(earth) or reinforcedwithstones(calciumstones), breakstone, gravel, rubble, aswell asgrounds
madeof bricks, flagstonesandpouredcalcium. Theprocessof excessivecollectingandpilingof
stratagraduallycomestoanend.
Therebuildingof asurfacenowmorefrequentlytakingapart theoldlevel andreplacingit with
anewsurface. Atthesametime, oldcobblestones(or thelessfrequentlyusedflagstonesor bricks)
are often used repeatedly for a new surface and supplemented with new materials. Because of
thevarious ground and construction jobs on embankments, pedestrian levels and other modern
strata, thereoccur formations composedof destroyedolder cultural strata(mainly early andlate
mediaeval) (Zaitz 2006, Firlet & Zaitz 2007, Zaitz & Zaitz 2007a, b).
3 RESEARCHSUBJ ECT
3.1 Archaeological characteristics
Archaeological researchesof KrakwCity, conductedduringrecent yearsintheareasof theMain
Market Square, Reformers Monastery andother architectural constructions, registeredseries of
undisturbedsettlement sequencelayers, of early andlateMiddleAges. Inthewesternpart of the
Main Market Squarethebeforetown location settlement (Early MiddleAges) was represented
by ahumus layer, of relatively small thickness. It was covered by thelatemediaeval strata, the
oldest of the second half of 13th century, the youngest associated with the beginning of 15th
century. Withinthemremainedfragmentsof trade-, representative- andresidential constructions,
built of bothstoneandwood. Thelayers werecoveredby levelingdepositedmatter of 19thand
20thcentury, withpreservedremains of pavingof that time. Intheceilingof thelatemediaeval
andmodernsequencelayersthevariouswater andsewer installationshavebeenfound. Theoldest
of them(stoneblock canal) havebeenbuilt inthebeginningof the19thcenturyandrebuilt then,
severedtimes, inthe20thcentury. Abovethoseinstallations, aconcreteconstructionof thepaving
foundations, originatedfrom1960s, havebeenfound(Zaitz 2006, Kluj et al. 2006, Wardaset al.
2006a, b). Over them, inturn, therearethenewconstructivelayersof therecentlypavedsurfaceof
theMarket.
Fromthesequencelayers, exploredwithintheMainMarketSquare, several dozenof thousands
of variousartifacthavebeengained. Fromthem, thesamplesfor thepaleobotanical, palinological,
geological andgeochemical investigationshavebeentaken.
3.2 Geochemical characteristics
The subject of detailed study are layers of deposited matter, exposed in the course of rescue
excavations, conductedinthewesternpart of theMainMarket Square, andregardthevariability
of CuandPbaccumulation(Table1, Figs12).
Theresults arecomparedto thoseof thestrataexcavatedintheareaownedby theMonastery
of ReformersinKrakw. Theaimof thecomparisonwastopresent theextent of themanufacture
activity, associatedwithtradeandmetal melting. Thepossiblecentreof that activity was theSE
part of thetodayMainMarket Square. Particularlyinterestingplace, asfar asthemigrationroutes
of pollutionsareconsidered, istheReformers Monastery. Itisplacednotonlyfar fromthesources
of CuandPbemission, but accordingtothetowntopography, higher thanhistorical manufacture
centers, liketheSmall- andtheGreat Balance, aswell.
Theprevious investigations of historical strataof grounds andsediments showedconsiderable
variations andastrongCuandPbanomaly, exactly intheareaof mentionedabovemanufacture-
tradingobjects. Onthemapof Krakw, limitedtotheareawithinthePlantyGardenandtheWawel
Hill (Fig. 3), thediagramsof metal accumulationvariability, andmorphologyof thethentownare
presented.
278
Table1. 170cmthickprofileinthewesternpart of theMainMarket Square.
Layers
Depthincm Microscopicdescriptionof layersandproportionof characteristicconstituents
010 Mixedmaterial, ignoredinresearch,
1020 Yellow-gray, sandy, aggregatesof organicmatter, fragmentsof debrisandbricks,
2030 Elementsof buildinginfrastructure, samplesnot taken,
3040 Light, sandy, badlysorted, fragmentsof limestonesanddebris,
4050 Grey-brown, loose,
5060 Brown, compact aggregates, fragmentsof organicmatter,
6070 Black, compact aggregates, fragmentsof organicmatter, bricks, limestones,
7080 Grey-brown, compact aggregates, singleshort sticks,
8090 Light-grey, mixedwithblack, compact, fragmentsof ceramics(4cm),
90100 Brown, black, prettyfragmentsof ceramicsandorganicmatter,
100110 Brown-black, richinorganicmatter, compact aggregates, fragmentsof bones,
110120 Brown-black, prettyfragmentsof organicmatter, ceramics, bricks, limestones,
120130 Black, finegrained, compact, fragmentsof plantsandstems,
130140 Brown-black, fragmentsof ceramics, clay, organicmatter, shellsof nuts,
140150 Greyandbrown, silt, clay, fragmentsof ceramics(5cm), organicmatter,
150160 Brown, compact withaggregates, prettyfragmentsof ceramics(6cm),
160170 Black, compact, bigamount of organicmatter, grainof quartz.
Figure1. Sampling site (arrow) of historical sequence layers fromthe western part of the Main Market
Square. Theprofilewas metrically divided and thesamples taken fromeach 10cmthick layer,
alonggrooveprofile.
4 METHODOLOGY OF GEOCHEMICAL RESEARCH
Theway of geochemical treatment of thesamples, coming fromtheexplored by archaeologists
areas, isalwaysthesame(Wardasetal 2006a, b, 2007). Onthepreliminarystage, whilethegrain-
sizeandthephasecompositionaredetermined, themeasurement of physic-chemical factorslike
pHandEhtakesplace. For that purposethewater suspensionswithproportionof sampletowater
1:10and1:3, dependingontheexpectedconcentrations of contaminants, areprepared. Inwater
extracts, usingIonicChromatography(IC) method, theconcentrationsof F
, Cl
, SO
2
4
, NO
3
and
PO
3
4
aremeasured.
279
Figure2. General viewof theremainswithinsequencelayersof undergroundinfrastructureof Krakw.
Thesamples areusually collected directly on theexpositions of archaeological strataor as a
result of drilling-probe. Thesamples of ca. 500gareair dried, diminishedto thelaboratory size
(100g) byquartering, andseparatedtofractionsusingplasticssievesof 2mm, 1mm, 0,5mmand
0,18mm. Sometimes, inorder toassesstheproportionof silt-clayandclayfractions, thesievesof
0,063mmand0,020mm, respectivelyareused.
The samples are treated 2h with concentrated HNO
3
at 130
C, to obtain extracts of heavy

metals: Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, MnandFe. Their concentrationis determinedbyAAS method.
Analytical qualitycontrol isrealizedbyanalysesof doublesamples, repeatedanalyses, andreference
analysesof certifiedsamples. Additionally, theinter-laboratory calibrationusingAAS, ICP-AES
andICP-MSmethodsareperformed. Especiallycarefullyaretreatedthesamplescomingfromthe,
socalled, undisturbedlayers, asarule, list polluted.
5 RESULTSOF GEOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
5.1 Concentration of heavy metals
Investigationsof sequencelayers, inthewesternpart of theMainMarket Square, showedahigh
variabilityof metals, particularly, PbandZn(Fig. 4). Thelevelsof metal concentrations, especially
Pb, revealedinnumerousanalyzedsamplesthemanytimeshigher valuesthanobservedinnatural
grounds, andevenanthropogenic ones. Most distinct contaminationis observedonthedepthof
7080and120130cmbelowthesurfacelevel. Thehigher content of metalsinthesurfacelayer
is probably aresult of its contamination by theearth taken up whileexcavation works. On the
diagram, thetwodistinctlylesspollutedlayer maybeobserved, onthedepthof 90and150cm.
5.2 Salinity
Thenext diagram(Fig. 5) shows variablesalinity of thegrounds. Thehighest concentrations of
watersolubleCl
anionsrepresentthelayersonthedepthof 120and130cm. Lyingslightlyhigher,

110cmdeep, soyoungerlayer, showsthehighestconcentrationof SO
2
4
. Elevatedconcentrationsof
F
andNO
3
werefoundinthehighestlayers. Inothersones, theirconcentrationwereimmeasurable
by IC method. It was a consequence of the too high dilution of anions in the suspension used
(1:10). That is why, thefutureinvestigations of that typewill becontinuedwithsampletowater
proportion1: 3.
280
Figure3. Samplingsitesandareasof geochemical researchof historical layers Krakw Centre, morpho-
logical reconstructionintheEarly MiddleAges, thelevel of theprimary soil undisturbedlayer
(accordingtoRadwa nski 1974, Wardas& Such, inpress., Wardaset al., inpress).
Summarizing, the highest concentrations of Cl
and SO
2
4
are observed in the layer on
the depth of 110cm. On the depth of 150cm, the highest conductivity of the samples has
been registered. That suggests that some other anions, unmeasured by the method used are
present there.
281
0
50
100
150
0 100 100000
(mg / kg)
Fe
Mn
Cd
Ni
Cr
Co
Zn
d
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
0
50
100
150
0 200 400 600 800
(mg / kg)
Pb
Cu
d
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Figure4. Concentrationsof heavymetalsof thegroundsamples(fraction<0,18mm) of sequencelayersin
westernpart of theMainMarket SquareinKrakw.
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
EC
cm depth
mS/cm
0 1 2 3 0 10 20 30
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
Cl-
mg/dm
3
mg/dm
3
mg/dm
3
mg/dm
3
mg/dm
3
cm depth
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
S042-
cm depth
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
NO3-
cm depth
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
F-
cm depth
0 50 100 150 0,0 0,3 0,5 0,8 0 0,1 0,2 0 50 100 150
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
anions
cm depth
Figure5. Salinity of theground samples (proportion of raw sampleto water 1:10) of sequencelayers in
westernpart of theMainMarket SquareinKrakw.
5.3 Grain-size distribution and the part of organic matter
Inthefigure6, thegrain-sizedistribution, andthepartof organicmatter arepresented. Itisvisible
that the percentage of organic matter and that of the finest fraction (<0,18mm) overlap. The
proportionof bothmeasuredconstituentsdecreasestowardsthetopof theprofile.
5.4 Acidity and red-ox potential
Inthenextdiagram(Fig. 7) thevariabilityof pHandEhof samplesareshown. Ingeneral, onecan
saythattheolder(thedeeper)thelayerthemoreacidic.Aswasmentionedearlier, theorganicmatter
seemstoberesponsiblefor that. Onthedepthof 90and130cmtheEhvaluesshowconsiderable
decrease. Onthepresentstageof research, thereisnopossibletogiveanyunambiguousexplanation
282
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
cm depth
fraction (mm) % wt.
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
cm depth
fraction (mm) % wt.
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
cm depth
fraction (mm) % wt.
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
cm depth
% wt.
Figure6. Grain-sizedistributionandpartof organicmatter of thegroundsamples(proportionof rawsample
towater 1:10) of sequencelayersinwesternpart of theMainMarket SquareinKrakw.
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
cm depth
6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 0 200 400
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
mV
cm depth
Figure7. Variabilityof pHandEh(proportionof rawsampletowater 1:10), samplesof stratainthewestern
part of theMainMarket Square.
of that. It seems, however, that slightly higher concentration of Fewith organic matter together
might havecausedthehigher consumptionof oxygen, resultinginloweringof red-oxpotential.
5.5 Results of geochemical investigations Monastery of Reformers
For thesamplescollectedintheareaof Reformers MonasteryonlyCuandPbconcentrationshave
beendetermined. Theresultsshowconsiderableincreaseof measuredelementsbut, surprisingly,
283
withinsurfacelayers, describedby archaeologists as modernones. Intwo drilling-probes (depth
150 and 330cm), theelevated Pb concentration (even to 800mg/kg) havebeen determined. In
the case of Cu, the elevated concentration up to 200mg/kg showed one drilling-probe, within
subsurfacelayers(upto180cm). Thehighcontentof Cumaybearesultof roof coveringsmadeof
copper whilePbenrichment withinlayers may becausedby popular usageof water andsewage
pipes madeof lead. At present, leadmaterials for thosepurposes areeliminatedinKrakw. The
researchwill becontinued.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Formedthroughagesgroundsof historical sequencelayers, investigatedintheundergroundarea
of theMainMarketSquareinKrakw, showedconsiderablevariabilityof their archaeological and
geochemical character. Intheir composition, they recordedchanges of theMainMarket Square
functioning, what resulted in transformation of grounds, which had formed primary thenatural
sediments, changed next into primary soil, and at last into anthropogenic grounds. Chemical
investigationrevealedstronggeochemical anomaliesof PbandCuwhat certainmay beassumed
of historical contamination. Pollutionof groundswithheavymetalscomesfromdifferent artifact,
butalsofromwastes, particularlyslag, richinmetalogenicphases, bothmineral andanthropogenic
ones. Thelevel of metal concentrationreflectstheactivityof thetownsmen, usingmetal objectsor
dealingwiththeminthecourseof theproductionand/or trading.
Introducingtothegroundof variableorganicwastescausedinaconsequencecertainsalinityand
acidity, asaresult of different accumulationof water. Indicationwithinsequencelayersof zones
characterizedby nonstandardcontent of heavy metals, andhighsalinity andacidity, may throw
thelight tothekindof economic activity of thetownononeside, andtoitsecological problems
ontheother one. It makes possibleinthefutureto assess athreadto healthof aman, livingin
Krakwinthepast. Hiddenunder modernlevels of theoldtowns, thehistorical sequencelayers
thatcontainprofilesof sequencestructurewithmicrorelicsof thepast, variouschemical elements,
organicmatter, pollensandseeds, maketheexplorersabletorecall historical andecological reality.
That kindof sourceof knowledge, containinghistory of places andpeople, shouldbetreatedas
exceptionallyvaluablecultureheritage, andshouldbepreservedfor thefuturegenerations.
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Zaitz E. 1998. Sprawozdaniez bada narcheologicznychprzy RynkuBydle
cymnaKazimierzuwKrakowie
(przebudowakamienicyprzyul. sw. Wawrzy nca13), Materiay Archeologiczne 31: 103118.
Zaitz E. 2006a. Sprawozdaniez bada narcheologicznychprowadzonychwKrakowiew2004rokuprzyprze-
budowienawierzchni pyty RynkuGwnegopozachodniej stronieSukiennic, Materiay Archeologiczne
36, 79142.
ZaitzE. 2006b. Osadnictwowczesno sredniowiecznenaterenieKrakowa. InZ. Firlet&E. Zaitz(eds), Katalog
wystawy Krakw w chrze scija nskiej Europie XXIII w.: 220272. Krakw: MuzeumHistoryczneMiasta
Krakowa.
Zaitz E. & Zaitz M. 2007. Badaniaarcheologicznenatereniezabudowa nUrze
duMiastaKrakowa. Siedziby
wadz MiastaKrakowa, Krakowska Teka Konserwatorska, T. VI: 297332.
ZaitzE. &ZaitzM. inpress. Nawarstwieniana sredniowiecznychosadachzterenuKrakowa. I ForumNaukowe
Nawarstwienia historyczne miasta Krakowa; 26 pa zdziernika 2007 Krakw.
285
Author Index
Abel, T. 1
Admiraal, J.B.M. 9
Arends, G. 45
Astore, G. 15
Baron, C. 55, 67
Bezowski, A. 27
Baszczy nski, T.Z. 37
Broere, W. 45
Buessing, R. 55, 67
Burska, K. 129
Dijkstra, J. 45
Dowe, A. 55, 67
Dziopak, J. 75, 249
Eandi, S. 15
Falter, B. 83
Giergiczny, Z. 97, 107
Goawska, H. 129
Grasso, P. 15
J oussin, J.M. 115
Kaczkowski, W. 129
Karangwa, A. 141
Kasprzak, K. 129
Kmita, A. 149
Kosiorowski, D. 257
Krl, A. 155
Kubicka, U. 165
Kuliczkowska, E. 165
Kuliczkowski, A. 165
Kwietniewski, M. 203
Madryas, C. 171, 183
Michalak, H. 193
Miszta-Kruk, K. 203
Moczko, A. 183
MooneyJ r. J.P. 213
Mustapi c, I. 225
Osiecka, A. 203
Parada, J. 203
Pawlikowski, M. 275
Przybya, B. 171
Pu zak, T. 97, 107
Rameil, M. 55, 67
Rogers, C.D.F. 237
ari c, D. 225
Sy s, D. 75, 249
Sokoowski, M. 97
Stankovi c, M. 225
Str zyk, P. 27
Stypulkowski, J.B. 213
Wallmann, U. 257, 269
Wardas, M. 275
Wessing, W. 67
Wrblewski, R. 149
Wysocki, L. 183
Zaitz, E. 275
Zaitz, M. 275
287

Underground Infrastructure of Urban Areas

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UNDERGROUNDINFRASTRUCTURE OF URBANAREAS

SELECTED AND EDITED PAPERS FROMTHE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

ZBA, Wrocaw University of Technology, Poland

tnwThermal-ElectricPower Stationunder theductleadingwater to

tnw KoninPower Plant Complex.

kawwCIPP aichtrwao s c Andrzej Kolonko,

strainperpendicular toUDreinforcement fibres

LCL long-termstrengthfor failureprobabilityof 2.5%

M1 1.9 12.8 0.23

For theunidirectional layers(UD) axial andtransverseYoungsmoduli aregiven; thesame

wedges. Theintentional gapontheaxisisremeshedandmergedwith

C and 20 bar no failures occur at thePipeNotchTest after

C. For all of thevarioustypesof

C. Dueto that atest instituteperformedaRCP full

C, eveninalonger term. This wouldfit quite

C and20bar was alsoset

C. For all of thevarioustypesof

(Polyamide12) grades to manufactureprod-

level of fillinginsteeringchamber KS intheperiodof dryweather withreferencetocomparative

C, consistingof 90%of water, 0.75%sodiumhydrox-

za, Bystrzyca, KolektorPoudniowy,

S J anwek amodern, mechanical and biological sewagetreatment plant with complete

za, the second Water Treatment Plant

ski Operator SystemuDystrybucyjnego, Fortum, Telekomunikacja, etc.) andat individ-

gwi Kanalizacji (WrocawWater Supplyand

dDrgi UtrzymaniaMiasta(theRoadandCity MaintenanceAuthority), Zarza

ckowski, Najnigier, 2004).

C, for high sewage concentration: EBZT

Swi etokrzyska,. Kielce: 3945

Swi etokrzyska, Kielce: 205

Swi etokrzyska, Kielce: 261

Swi etokrzyska, Kielce

Swi etokrzyska, Kielce

ZelaznyMost (IronBridge) inPoland.

Zelazny Most of area 13.94km

Existing reinforced-concrete housing

asat 31December 2005.

asat 31December 2005.

other materials: steel, east iron.

GlassReinforcedPlastic aresinstrengthened(reinforced) withglassfibre;

dnieniemtworzywsztucznychwPolscei na swiecie. InRynekInstalacyjnynr. 1/1997,

b, A. 1996. Tendencje w zakresie stosowania materiaw do budowy sieci

gowych i kanalizacyjnych w Polsce i na swiecie. In Materiay I Oglnopolskiej Konferencji

za n materiaowo konstrukcyjnych wsieciach kanaliza-

gi polietylenowew wodociagach i kanalizacji rozwj rynku w Polscei

) was briefly contemplatedif additional spaceinthetunnel

ugorje(Zvirovi ci) Interchange(12,100km), and

ugorje(Zvirovi ci) Interchange endof LOT 4(9,329km)

Figure2. Draft of calculationstudiessequencefor twosectionsof sewagesystemarrangedinrows, assum-

obliquecut. At themisalignmentsof themasonrythepipes

C, to obtain extracts of heavy

anionsrepresentthelayersonthedepthof 120and130cm. Lyingslightlyhigher,

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