Middle Ages

Charlemagne- first Holy Roman Emperor crowned by Pope Leo III. His empire, HRE, united most of Western
Europe.
Feudalism- Political, economic and social system based on loyalty and military service
Medieval Manor- village near a river. Included churches, manor house/castle, bake house, mill, 3 field system,
common pasture, roads etc.
Serfs-Work for the Lord, Lord gives them food. Not free to leave, they are connected to the land.
Peasants- dominated by aristocrats. Provided the wealthy with food from fields. Free to leave if wished.
Aristocracy-high class, wealthy people. Landowning nobility, lived in nice, big castles.
Guild- people grouped together in business associations. Ex. merchants, artists, bankers etc. Part of the middle
class, bourgeoisie.
Scholasticism-emphasized truth and reason behind religious matters. Thomas Aquinas: Harmonized works of
Aristotle with the teachings of the church.
Magna Carta- document limited the power of the English monarchy.
Lay Investiture- the appointment of bishops, abbots & other church officials by feudal lords and vassals.
Reconquista- Success of several Christian kingdoms in conquering Iberian Peninsula from Islamic.
Renaissance
Conditions that led to Renaissance:
1. New trade routes and Crusades allowed Europeans to come in contact with each other.
2. Church lost much of its power; people doubted its ultimate authority.
3. Middle class grew and in wealth. Wanted to enjoy/show off their wealth philosophy of enjoying life.
4. Competition between wealthy people for statusdevelopments in education & art, patrons of the arts.
rebirth of culture, specifically ancient culture of the Greeks and Romans. Was centered in Italian city states.
Ideas:
Individualism: People sought to receive personal credit for achievements, opposed to giving glory to God.
Humanism- four essential aspects:
1. Admiration and emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
2. Philosophy of enjoying life, instead of waiting for the next one.
3. Glorification of humans, individuals can do anything.
4. Belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention.
Civic Humanism: Belief that participation in public affairs was essential for human development. Served Florence
as diplomats, helped make changes by being a part of the government.
Humanist Thinkers
- Petrarch: Father of Humanism Admired Greeks and Romans.
- Pico della Mirantola: Oration on the Dignity of Man positive Platonic view of human potential
- Castiglione: The Courtier manual for proper behavior of the Renaissance man
- Machiavelli: The Prince Expansion of political power to restore and maintain order.
Renaissance Art Characteristics
1. Ideas of Ancient Greeks and Romans
2. Realism and Expression- signs of emotions
3. Depth and perspective
4. Themes were less religious, focused more on earth and humans (Individualism)
5. More detailed backgrounds
6. Geometrical Arrangement of Figures
7. Light and Shadowing/ Softening edges
Renaissance Artists
- Donatello: free standing bronze statue of David. Symbolized Florentine heroism. Dignity of humanity.
- Brunelleschi: built dome over the Cathedral of Florence. Inspired by architectural monuments of ancient
Rome. 1
st
dome in W.Europe since collapse of Roman Empire.
- Leonardo da Vinci: scientist, writer, inventor and painter. Mona Lisa, The Last Supper
- Raphael: classical paintings-School of Athens.
- Michelangelo: sculpted the statue of David, beauty of the human body and its glory.
- Jan van Eyck: emphasis on middle class and peasant life. Giocanni Arnolfini and his Bride
Society: First Estate (Clergy), Second Estate (Nobility), Third Estate (Peasants, inhabitants of towns/cities)
Medici expanded cloth production into commerce, real estate, and banking. (Florence)
Northern Renaissance
- Christian Humanism: believed people could achieve higher by studying early Christian authors.
- Erasmus: criticized what he thought were the problems with the Church. Committed in reforming the church,
not abandoning it. Helped the path of Refomation.
- Thomas More: Believed in religious devotion and universal power of Catholic Church. Utopia-concerns with
economic, social, and political problems then.
Reformation
Protestant Reformation
Final splitting of the Western Church into two halves. Catholicism and Protestantism
The Avignon Papacy or Babylonian Captivity: Seat of the Pope was moved from Rome to Avignon. (7 popes)
Great Schism: Split within the Church. Both greatly undermined power and prestige of the church. People
questioned the holiness and power of the Papacy.
John Wyclife (followers Lollards): Bible was Christians only authority, everything must be from Scripture.
Questioned transubstantiation, the ability of priests to turn wine and bread into Christs blood and body.
Jan/John Hus: horrified by immoral behavior of clergy. Burned at the stake but followers continued to revolt.
Simony: buying and selling of church positions.
Pluralism: holding more than one church office.
Martin Luther
- Outraged by the buying of indulgences, posted his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517.
- Pope Leo V excommunicated Luther, but Luther responded by calling the Pope Anti-Christ.
- Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, ordered him to offer his defense against the decree at Diet of Worms.
- Luther refused to retract his statements, so Charles ordered Luther be arrested and his works burned.
- He safely hid at the castle of Prince Frederick of Saxony.
- Justification by faith alone leads to salvation, not by good works or sacraments.
- Bible is the only authority.
- All people are equally capable of understanding Gods word from Bible, do not need help from intermediary.
John Calvin: Predestination- The concept that God already knows whether a person will go to heaven or not. French
Calvinists were Huguenots.
Anabaptists: believed that Baptism should only be administered to adults who asked to be baptized, not infants.
English Reformation
Henry VIII was supportive of the Catholic Church, criticized Martin Luther.
Attempted to end marriage with Catherine of Aragon, she failed to produce male heir. Henry fell in love with
Anne Boleyn, she would only sleep with him if he made her his queen.
Relied on Cardinal Wolsey, high ranking church official to obtain annulment of marriage.
Cranmer validated Henrys marriage to Anne, but the baby was a girl named Elizabeth.
Act of Supremacy: declared that king was supreme head on earth of the Church of England.
Church of England moved in a more Protestant direction.
Mary, Henrys first daughter attempted to restore England to Roman Catholic but failed.
Counter- Reformation/ Catholic Reformation
Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation
Council of Trent: dominated by the papacy. Reform within the Catholic Church and reaffirmation of Catholic
doctrine.
Jesuits: founded during Catholic Reformation. Emphasized on education, Catholic missionaries.
Absolutism
Old Imperialism: exploitation and search for resources.
- Causes: God, Gold, and Glory.
- Mercantilism: economic theory that foreign trade is important. Gold should flow in exports be sold out.
Favorable balance of trade should be maintained. Export more than import more wealth.
Spain: Marriage of Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castile.
- Spanish Inquisition: method of Spanish monarchy to root out suspected Protestants
- Spanish Armada: An attempt of Phillip, Charles V son, to conquer England under Queen Elizabeths rule, who
was aiding the Dutch Rebels.
HRE: Charles V ruler of Habsburg was elected as emperor. Failed to create a unified German State.
- Peace of Ausburg: signified end of religious wars. Principle that prince decides religion of territory. This did
not grant recognition to Calvinists.
- The 30 years War: Struggle that combined political and religious issues. Catholics vs. Protestants.
- Bohemian Phase (Ferdinand II is emperor), Danish Phase (uses Wallenstein for army help), Swedish Phase
(France and Sweden involved, Gustavus Adolphus invades HRE), Franco Swedish Phase (Cardinals Richelieu of
France), French Phase (All countries involved, most destructive phase)
- Edict of Restitution: Restores lost land of Catholics, Protestants except Lutherans dont have religious and
political rights.
- Peace of Westphalia: marked the end of the Thirty Years War struggle.
France: Henri IV, began Bourbon dynasty which ruled France until the French Rev.
- Edict of Nantes: Grants the Huguenots freedom of worship and assembly.
England: Tudor Dynasty: Henry Tudor (VII), Queen Elizabeth. Stuart Dynasty: King James VI, Parliament.
- English Revolution: Oliver Cromwell defeated Charles I, took control of English throne. When Cromwell died,
James II succeeded the throne.
- Glorious Revolution: William of Orange and Mary, overthrew James and took the throne in a bloodless battle.
Enlightenment/Scientific Revolution
Period of time in which many breakthrough discoveries were made in science and philosophy, as well as an era
in which the Europeans perception of the universe and their role in it was changed forever.
Philosophes- not original thinkers, publicized ideas of new thinking. Analyzed society evils and advanced reforms.
Rationalism- a.k.a deduction, advocated by Rene Descartes. Truth can be attained through reason.
Empiricism- a.k.a induction, advocated by Francis Bacon. Truth can be attained through experimentation.
Enlightened Despots- Rulers that were influenced by the Enlightenment, and embraced its principles. They
promoted limited reforms but refused to limit their royal prerogatives. Ex. Fredrick II of Prussia, Joseph the II of
Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia.
War of Austrian Succession- Prussia vs. Austria. Military victory for Prussia seized and kept territory of Silesia.
Seven Years War- World war that involved major powers of Europe. Began when Prussia and Austria fought
over control of Germany in order to gain supreme rule in Europe.
French Revolution
Maximilien Robespierre- leader of Committee of Public Safety, created by the Convention during the Reign of
Terror. Part of the Jacobins along with Danton and Carnot.
Abbe Sieyes- Wrote a pamphlet about Third Estate and the importance of it.
Jacques-Louis David- Influential French painter in the Neoclassical style.
Edmund Burke-leading British politician. Wrote Reflections on the French Revolution, opposing the Revolution.
Reign of Terror- 10-month period where suspected enemies of the revolution were guillotined by the thousands.
Great Fear- Rumors that feudal aristocracy were organizing groups to attack and steal from the peasants.
Continental System- Established by Tsar Alexander I, attempt to ban British goods from arriving on the continent.
Industrial Revolution
Adam Smith- a nations true wealth was the goods produced by the labor of its citizens.
- 2 revolutionary ideas: 1) specialists have natural skills and can produce their specialties faster and
better than others. 2) Trade could enrich everyone.
Thomas Malthus/David Ricardo- Population was growing at a rate that would eventually outstrip food supply.
Payment of workers should be low, less jobs less children and more food. Iron law of wages
Saint Simon- argued that society needed to be organized on a scientific basis. Creation of hierarchical society led
by an intellectual class that improved society and those on the bottom of the social ladder.
Robert Owen/Fourier- Utopian Socialist, designed a planned community.
Chartism-centered on the belief that the problems of the working class could be corrected by changes in the
political organization of the country.
Corn Laws-imposed high tariffs on imported grain to support domestic growers. Eliminated in 1846.
Utilitarianism- a moral philosophy that judges all actions by their utility (usefulness)
Socialism- People as a society would operate and own the means of production, not individuals. Goal: society
that benefited everyone, not just a rich, well-connected few. Tried to build perfect communities [utopias].
Luddites- destroyed machines b/c believed that they caused economic and social problems.
Reform Act 1832- expanded the electorate. Abolished slavery in colonies.
19th Century
Legitimacy- to reestablish peace and stability in Europe it was necessary to restore the legitimate
monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions.
Risorgimento- Nineteenth century movement for Italian unification inspired by the realities of the new
economic and political forces at work after 1815, the liberal and nationalist ideologies spawned by the French
Revolution of 1789, and the ideas of eighteenth century Italian reformers and illuministi.
Camillo di Cavour- leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification.
Guiseppe Garibaldi- Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general and politician.
Otto von Bismarck- significant political figure who united the German States.
Crimean War- conflict between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire,
the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Klemens Von Metternich- Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs, and conservatist. Helped form alliance
against Napoleon I and restored Austria as a leading European power. Hosted Congress of Vienna.
Congress of Vienna- conference of ambassadors of Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain, and France. Took place
September 1814 to June 1815. Goals: create balance of power, maintain status quo.
Liberalism- embraced change, carry out ideals of French Rev. & Enlightenment, Individual Freedoms, people can
make rational decisions for themselves (they are good), like successful revolutions, limited constitutional gov.
Conservatism- maintained tradition, restore monarchy and religion, persons value is inherited, people are not
trust worthy. This was more successful, more power and better in maintaining it.