CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW AND BASIC IDEA
Aim of Our Project Is To design a mechanism that will produce Uni-Directional Output for
Bi-Directional Rotation of Input Shaft .Main Motive behind This Idea Is to Produce
Unidirectional Motion of Shaft in Wind Mills, Where Turbine Can Rotate in Both Direction
Due To Wind Direction.

This Mechanism Will Allow Us To Rotate The Shaft Of Dynamo in Single Direction For
Continuous Generation Of Energy, Independent Of The Direction Of Wind Or Independent
Of Direction Of Turbine Blade.

1.2 GEARS
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with
another toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most cases with teeth on the one gear
being of identical shape, and often also with that shape on the other gear. Two or more gears
working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical
advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices
can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is
for a gear to mesh with another gear; however, a gear can also mesh with a non-rotating
toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
When two gears mesh, and one gear is bigger than the other (even though the size of the teeth
must match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds and the torques
of the two gears differing in an inverse relationship.
1.2.1 TYPES OF GEARS
a.) External vs. Internal Gears
An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone.
Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or
cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees.
Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal.




Fig: 1.1 Internal Gears Fig: 1.2 External Gears


b.) Spur Gear
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or
disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form (they
are usually of special form to achieve constant drive ratio, mainly involute), the edge of each
tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed
together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Fig: 1.3 Spur Gear

c.) Helical Gear
Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth
are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this
angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in
parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each
other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this
configuration the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears".

Fig: 1.4 Helical Gears
d.) Double Helical Gear
Double helical gears, or herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented
by "single" helical gears, by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. A double
helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears joined together. This arrangement
cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction
resulting in a net axial force of zero. This arrangement can remove the need for thrust
bearings. However, double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more
complicated shape.
For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible arrangements for the
oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. One arrangement is stable, and the other is
unstable. In a stable orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is
directed toward the centre of the gear. In an unstable orientation, both axial forces are
directed away from the centre of the gear. In both arrangements, the total (or net) axial force
on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears become misaligned in
the axial direction, the unstable arrangement will generate a net force that may lead to
disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force. If
the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a
stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa.
Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for
different bearings.

Fig: 1.5 Double Helical Gears
e.) Bevel Gear
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel
gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also
intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle
between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal
numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called mitre gears.

Fig: 1.6 Bevel Gear
f.) Spiral Bevel Gear
Spiral bevel gears can be manufactured as Gleason types (circular arc with non-constant tooth
depth), Oerlikon and Curvex types (circular arc with constant tooth depth), Klingelnberg
Cyclo-Palloid (Epicycloide with constant tooth depth) or Klingelnberg Palloid. Spiral bevel
gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as
helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below
5 m/s (1000 ft. /min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.

Fig: 1.7 Spiral Bevel Gears
g.) Hypoid Gear
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch
surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of
revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact
between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel
gear teeth, but also have a sliding action along the meshing teeth as it rotates and therefore
usually require some of the most viscous types of gear oil to avoid it being extruded from the
mating tooth faces, the oil is normally designated HP (for hypoid) followed by a number
denoting the viscosity. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel
pinion, with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of
hypoid gears.

This style of gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials;
which are normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.

Fig: 1.8 Hypoid gear
h.) Worm Gear
Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical
gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.
Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually
somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction;
and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm
and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix.
If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth.
If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to
have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals
along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is
called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple
thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead
angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.

Fig: 1.9 Worm Gear
i.) Rack and Pinion
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large
radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion:
the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles
to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an
interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth
shapes for gears of particular actual radii are then derived fromthat. The rack and pinion gear
type is employed in a rack railway.

Fig: 1.10 Rack and Pinion Gear


1.3 GEAR MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1.3.1 Introduction
Gears are used extensively for transmission of power. They find application in:
Automobiles, gear boxes, oil engines, machine tools, industrial machinery, agricultural-
machinery, geared motors etc. To meet the strenuous service conditions the gears should
have: robust construction, reliable performance, high efficiency, economy and long life.
Also, the gears should be fatigue free and free from high stresses to avoid their frequent
failures. The gear drives should be free form noise, chatter and should ensure high
load carrying capacity at constant velocity ratio. Below, we shall discuss the various
materials and manufacturing processes to produce gears.
1. 3. 2 Materials used in gear manufacturing process
The various materials used for gears include a wide variety of cast irons, non-ferrous
material & non material materials the selection of the gear material depends upon:-
i) Type of service
ii) Peripheral speed
iii) Degree of accuracy required
iv) Method of manufacture
v) Required dimensions & weight of the drive
vi) Allowable stress
vii) Shock resistance
viii) Wear resistance
1) Cast iron is popular due to its good wearing properties, excellent
machinability & Ease of producing complicated shapes by the casting method. It is
suitable where large gears of complicated shapes are needed.
2) Steel is sufficiently strong & highly resistant to wear by abrasion.
3) Cast steel is used where stress on gear is nigh & it is difficult to fabricate the gears.
4) Plain carbon steels find application for industrial gears where high toughness combined
with high strength.
5) Alloy steels are used where high tooth strength & low tooth wear are required.
6) Aluminium is used where low inertia of rotating mass is desired.
7) Gears made of non Metallic materials give noiseless operation at high
peripheral speeds.
1.3.3 Classification of gears
1. Milling process
(i) Disc type cutter
(ii) End mill cutter
2. Gear planning process
(i) The Sunderland process
(ii) The Maag process
3. Gear shapers
(i) Rack type cutter generating process
(ii) Pinion type cutter generating process
4. Gear hobbing
(i) Axial hobbing
(ii) Radial hobbing
(iii) Tangential hobbing
5. Bevel gear generating
(i) Straight Bevel gear generator
(ii) Spiral bevel gear Generator
1. 4 Gear manufacture by casting method
Gears can be produced by the various casting processes. Sand casting is economical and can
take up large size and module, but the gears have rough surfaces and are inaccurate
dimensionally. These gears are used in machinery where operating speed is low and where
noise and accuracy of motion can be tolerated, for example, farm machinery and some
hand operated devices. Send casting is suitable for one off or small batches. Large
quantities of small gears are made by Die Casting. These gears are fairly accurate and
need little finishing. However the materials used are low melting ones, such as alloys of
zinc, aluminium and copper so, there gears are suitable for light duty applications only (light
loads at moderate speeds), for example, gears used in toys. Cameras and counters and
counters etc. Gears made by Investment Casting may be accurate with good surface
finish. These can be made of strong materials to withstand heavy loads. Moderate size
gears are currently being steel cast in metal moulds to produce performs which are later
forged to size. Light gears of thermoplastics are made by Injection Moulding. This
method is satiable for large volume production. However, gear tooth accuracy is no high
and initial tool cost is high. These gears find use in instruments, household appliances etc.
For phosphor bronze worm wheel rims, centrifugal casting is used far more extensively
than any other method. Centrifugal casting is also applied to the manufacture of steel gears.
Both vertical and horizontal axis spinners are used. After casting, the gears are annealed
or normalized to remove cooling stresses. They may then be heat treated, if required, to
provide the needed properties. Centrifugally cast gears perform as well as rolled
(discussed ahead) gears and are usually less expensive. Shell moulding is also sometimes
used to produce small gears and the product is a good cast gear of somewhat lower
accuracy than one made by investment casting but much superior to sand casting.

1. 5. Methods of forming gears
Roll forming:-
In roll forming, the gears blank is mounted on a shaft & is pressed against hardened steel
of rolling dies. The rolls are fed inward gradually during several revolutions which
produce the gear teeth. The forming rolls are very accurately made & roll formed gear teeth
usually home both by not and cold. In not roll forming, the not rolled gear is usually cold
rolled which compiles the gear with a smooth mirror finish. In cold roll forming, higher
pressures are needed as compared to not rolling many of the gears produced by this
process need no further finishing. It becomes stronger against tension & fatigue. Spur &
helical gears are made by this process.

Stamping:-
Large quantities of gears are made by the method known as stamping blanking or
fine blanking. The gears are made in a punch press from sheet; up to 12.7 mm think such
gears find application in: toys, clocks 4 timers, watches, water & Electric maters & some
business Equipment. After stamping, the gears are shaved; they give best finish &
accuracy. The materials which can be stamped are: low, medium & high carbon steels
stainless steel. This method is suitable for large volume production.

Powder metallurgy:-
High quality gears can be made by powder metallurgy method. The metal powder is
pressed in dies to convert into tooth shape, after which the product is sintered. After
sintering, the gear may be coined to increase density & surface finish. This method is
usually used for small gears. Gears made by powder metallurgy method find application in
toys, instruments, small motor drivers etc.
Extrusion:-
Small sized gear can also be made by extrusion process. There is saving in material &
machining time. This method can produce any shape of tooth & is suitable for high volume
production gears produced by extrusion find application in watches, clocks, type writers etc.
1.6 GEAR GENERATING PROCESS
1. 6. 1 Gear Hobbing
Hobbing is the process of generating gear teeth by means of a rotating cutter called a hob.
It is a continues indexing process in which both the cutting fool & work piece rotate in a
constant relationship while the hob is being fed into work. For in route gears, the hob has
essentially straight sides at a given pressure angle. The hob and the gear blank are
connected by means of proper change gears. The ratio of hob & blank speed is such that
during one revolution of the hob, the blank turns through as many teeth. The teeth of hob cut
into the work piece in Successive order & each in a slightly different position. Each hob
tooth cuts its own profile depending on the shape of cutter, but the accumulation on the
shape of cutter, but the accumulation of these straight cuts produces a curved form of
the gear teeth, thus the name generating process. One rotation of the work completes
the cutting up to certain depth.
1. 6. 2 TYPE OF HOBBING
1)Arial hobbing
This type of feeding method is mainly used for cutting spur or helical gears. In this type,
firstly the gear blank is brought towards the hob to get the desired tooth depth. The table
side is them clamped after that, the hob moves along the face of the blank to complete the
job. Axial hobbing which is used to cut spur & helical gears can be obtained by climb
noting or convential hobbing.

2) Radial hobbing
This method of hobbing is mainly used for cutting worm wheels. In this method the hob &
gear blank are set with their ones normal to Each other. The gear blank continues to
rotate at a set speed about its vertical axes and the rotating hob is given a feed in a radial
direction. As soon as the required depth of tooth is cut, feed motion is stopped.
3) Tangential hobbing
This is another common method used for cutting worm wheel. In this method, the worm
wheel blank is rotated in a vertical plane about a horizontal axes. The hob is also held its
axis or the blank. Before starting the cut, the hob is set at full depth of die tooth and then
it is rotated. The rotating hob is then fed forward axially. The front portion of the hob is
tapered up to a certain length & gives the fed in tangential to the blank face & hence the
name Tangential feeding.
1. 7. Gear shaping (The Fellows process)
In gear shapers, the cutters reciprocate rapidly. The teeth are cut by the reciprocating motion
of the cutter. The cutter can either be rack type cutter or a rotary pinion type cutter.
1. 7. 1. Rack type cutter generating process
The rack cutter generating process is also called gear shaping process. In this method,
the generating cutter has the form of a basic rack for a gear to be generated. The cutting
action is similar to a shaping machine. The cutter reciprocates rapidly & removes metal
only during the cutting stroke. The blank is rotated slowly but uniformly about its axis and
between each cutting stroke of the cutter, the cutter advances along its length at a speed
Equal to the rolling speed of the matching pitch lines. When the cutter & the blank have
rolled a distance Equal to one pitch of the blank, the motion of the blank is arrested, the
cutter is with-drawn from the blank to give relief to the cutting Edges & the cutter is
returned to its starting position. The blank is next indexed & the next cut is started
following the same procedure.
1. 7. 2. Pinion type cutter generating process
The pinion cutter generating process is fundamentally the same as the rack cutter
generating process, and instead of using a rack cutter, it uses a pinion to generate the
tooth profile. The cutting cycle is commenced after the cutter is fed radically into the gear
blank Equal to the depth of tooth required. The cutter is then given reciprocating cutting
motion parallel to its axis similar to the rack cutter and the cutter & the blank are made
to rotate slowly about their axis at speeds which are Equal at the matching pitch surfaces.
This rolling movement blow the teeth on the blank are cut. The pinion cutter in a gear
shaping m/c may be reciprocated either in the vertical or in the horizontal axis.
Advantages:-
1) The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.
2) Both internal & external gears can be cut by this process.
3) Non convential types of gears can also be cut by this method.
Disadvantages:-
1) The production rate with gear shaper is lower than Hobbing.
2) There is no cutting on the return stroke in a gear shaper.
3) Worm & worm wheels cant be generated on a gear shaper.
1. 8. Gear cutting by milling
1. 8. 1 Disc type cutter
For cutting a gear on a milling m/c, the gear lank is mounted on arbor which is
supported b/w a dead centre & a lieu centre in the in dering head. The cutter is mounted
on the arbor of the cutter must be aligned exactly vertically with the centre line of the
indexing head spindle. The table of m/c is moved upward until the cutter just touches the
periphery of gear blank. The vertical feed dial is set to zero. The table is then moved
horizontally until the cutter clears the gear b lank. The table is then moved upwards by an
amount Equal to the full depth of the gear tooth. The vertical movement may be less if the
gear is to be cut in two or more passes. After this, the longitudinal feed of the table is
engaged. The gear blank moves under the rotating cutter & a tooth space is cut. After this,
the movement of the table is reversed so that the cutter again clears the gear blank. The gear
blank is then indexed to the next position for cutting the second tooth space. This
procedure is repeated until all the teeth have been milled.
There is a flat circular disc type cutter and the plane of rotation of the cutter is radial
with respect to the blank.
1. 8. 2 End mill cutter:-
In this method the cutter rotates about am axis which is set racially with respect to the
blank & at the same time the cutter is traversed parallel to the axes of the blank. The
cutting edge tie on a surface of revolution, So that any axial cross- section of the cutter
corresponds to the shape required for the space b/w two adjacent teeth on the finished wheel.
The milling m/c used in this method is vertical milling m/c.
The End mill cutter is mounted straight on the milling m/c spindle through a chuck.
1) The disc type of cutter is used to cut big spur gear of cutter is Employed for the
manufacture of pinion of large pitch.
2) This method is very slow since only one tooth is cut at a time. To overcome these
drawbacks, multiple tools shaping cutter head is used to cut all the tooth spaces of the gear
at the same time.
Advantage
1) Gear milling is a simple, Economical & flexible method of gear making.
2) Spur, helical, bevel gears and racks can be produced by this method.

Used
The major disadvantage of this method is that a separate cutter must be used not only for
every piton but for every no. of teeth.
1. 9. Bevel Gear Generating
The teeth of bevel gears constantly change in form, from the large to the small Encl. There
are two common types of bevel gear generators, on cuts straight teeth & other cuts spiral
teeth.
1. 9. 1 Straight Bevel gear generator:-
For generating straight bevel gears, the rolling motions of two pitch cones are
employed motions of two pitch cones are employed instead of pitch cylinder.
In this method, two reciprocating tools which work on top & bottom sides of a tooth & are
carried on the machine cradle. The cradle & work roll up together with the gear blank at
the top of roll, when a tooth has been completely generated, the work is withdrawn from
the tool and the m/c inclined, while the cradle is rolled down to the starting position. The
operating cycle is repeated automatically until all the teeth in the gear have been cut.
The advantages of this process are that a previous roughening cut is not necessary,
thus saucing one handling of the blank, longer cutter life, improved quality of gear
and less set up time.
1. 9. 2 Spiral bevel gear Generator:-
In this method, a rotating circular cutter generates spiral teeth that are curved & oblique
proper tooth profile shapes are obtained by relative motion in the m/c b/w work cutter.
The m/c has adjustment by which both spiral bevel gears & hypoid gears can be
generated.
Spiral bevel gears have an advantage have on advantage over straight bevel gear is that
teeth are engage with one another gradually by eliminating any noise & shock in their
operation.
1. 10 Gleason Method:-
In this method, two disc milling cutters are employed, fig. The tools form the blanks of a
tooth simulating the basic crown wheel. Cutter teeth are inter meshing and the discs are
inclined to each other at the pressure angle (usually 20*). The following motions are
involved while cutting a tooth:
1. The rotating cutters revolve about their axes to provide the cutting action
2. They travel in planes passing through the sides of the teeth on the imaginary crown gear
to shape the teeth along their teeth.
3. At the same time, they participate in the relative rolling motion between the cutters and
blank to obtain the required tooth profile.
Indexing takes place after each tooth space has been completed and the machine is
fully automatic in its motions. When gear has been completed, the machine stops, the
cutters i s withdraw and the workpiece can be changed with little delay. This type of
machine is a high production rate machine and very useful for dealing with large batches
of identical gears.
1. 11 Templet Gear cutting process:-
The templet gear cutting process involves the production of a gear tooth profile by a
single point cutting tool, which is racy probated and made to follow a guided path by a
templet. After one tooth is finished, the blank is indexed by the usual manner. The
templet method is employed for producing very large spur gear teeth & for cutting accurate
bevel gears.
1. 12 Gear finishing process:-
The following processes are generally used for finishing of gears.
1. 12. 1 Gear shaving:-
Gear sharing is the most common method for gear finishing. In this method, a very hard
gear is used to ramous fine chips from the gear tooth profile. The sharing cutter can be:
Rotary type or Rack type in rotary shoring, the cutter & the gear are run in mesh. As they
rotate, the gear is traversed longitudinally across the shaving cutter or vie versa. The
rotary sharing cutter has a member of peripheral gashes or grooves to from a series of
cutting Edges. The cutter & Gear are set up in a gear shoring m/c with crossed axes in the
form of spiral gearing. The usual angles are 10* to 15*.
In rock sharing, the cutter is in the form of a rack. During the operation, the gear is rolled
in mesh with the cutter. The cutter is reciprocated & at the End of Each stroke is fed into the
year.
1. 12. 2 Gear grindings:-
Grindings is the most accurate method of gear finishing. By grinding, teeth can be
finished either by generation or forming. In forming, the work is made to roll in contact
with a fiat faced rotating grinding wheel, corresponding to the face of the imaginary rack
meshing with the gear. One side of the tooth is ground at a time. After the grinding wheel
is given the shape by space b/w two adjacent teeth. Both flanks are finished together.
The second method tends to be rather quicker, but both give equally accurate results and
which of the methods is to be used depends upon the availability of the type of grinding
m/c.
Disadvantage.
1) Considerable time is consumed in the process.
2) Low production capacity.
3) Grinding wheels are Expensive.
1. 12. 3 Gear lopping:-
It is another extensively used process of gear finishing & it is accomplished by having
the gear in contact with one or more cast iron lap gear of true shape the work is mounted
b/w centre & is slowly driven by rear lap. It is in term driven the front lap & at the same
time both laps are rapidly reciprocated across the gear face. Each lap has individual
adjustment & pressure control. A fine abrasive is used with kerosene or light oil to
assist the cutting action. The largest time of gear lapping is about 15 minutes. Prolonged
lapping damages the profile.
1. 12. 4 Shot blasting:-
It provides a finishing process resembling that produced by lapping although it has other
functions, such as removing slight burrs, reducing stress concentration in tooth fillets &
sometimes providing slight tip & root relief to teeth.
1. 12. 5 Phosphate coating:-
It is a chemical process which attacks the treated ferrous surface and leaves a deposit on it
about 0.01 mm. in thickness. It prevents from scuffing, particularly in hypoid gears, by
permitting the engaging tooth Surface under the prevailing boundary lubrication
conditions
1. 13 Gear planning:-
This is one of the oldest methods of gear production but is still extensively used. It
employs rack type cutters for generation of spur & helical gears. Involutes rack has
straight Edges & sharp corners can be (Easily) manufactured easily & accurately. There are
two types of gear planning machines, one based on The Sunderland process & the
other on The Maag process Both the methods are identical in principle but differ in
m/c configuration & detail.
1. 13. 1 The Sunderland process:-
In this method, the work (gear balance) is mounted with axis horizontal & the cutter slide
is carried on a saddle position that moves vertically downward as cutting proceeds.
For cutting super gears, the cutter reciprocates parallel to the work axis (but) because it can
be swivelled in the vertical plane to any desired angle. The m/c is also used for cutting
single helical gears. The cutter is gradually fed to the desired depth of teeth after which
the depth remains constant. Simultaneously the gear blank is rotating & rack is traversed
at a tangent, the motion of rack & blank being geared to act on their respective pitch
lines. This relative motion beings fresh part of the blank & rack into contact & thus causes
the teeth of the cutter to generate wheel teeth of the cutter to generate wheel teeth. The
indexing really consisting slopping the rotation of the blank & causing the rack to
moue. The process is repeated until the blank has completed one revolution.
1. 13. 2 The Maag process:-
In this method, the work is mounted on the m/c table with its axis vertical. The rack cutter
is carried in a cutter head: that is made to moue in a vertical plane but the actual direction
of motion can be set at any desired angle.
1. 14 Principle of gear planning:
The cutter during its cutting stroke is in contact with several teeth at the same time but with
different part of each tooth, it planes comparatively a narrow strip on each tooth at each
stroke and a different part of each tooth is submitted to the action of the cutter at the next
stroke.
1.15 Sprocket
A sprocket or sprocket-wheel is a profiled wheel with teeth or cogs that mesh with
a chain, track or other perforated or indented material. The name "sprocket" applies generally
to any wheel upon which are radial projections that engage a chain passing over it. It is
distinguished from a gear in that sprockets are never meshed together directly, and differs
from a pulley in that sprockets have teeth and pulleys are smooth. The word "sprockets" may
also be used to refer to the teeth on the wheel.
Sprockets are used in bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tracked vehicles, chainsaws and
other machinery either to transmit rotary motion between two shafts where gears are
unsuitable or to impart linear motion to a track, tape etc. Perhaps the most common form of
sprocket may be found in the bicycle, in which the pedal shaft carries a large sprocket-wheel,
which drives a chain, which, in turn, drives a small sprocket on the axle of the rear wheel.
Early automobiles were also largely driven by sprocket and chain mechanism, a practice
largely copied from bicycles.
Sprockets are of various designs, a maximum of efficiency being claimed for each by its
originator. Sprockets typically do not have a flange. Some sprockets used with timing
belts have flanges to keep the timing belt centered. Sprockets and chains are also used for
power transmission from one shaft to another where slippage is not admissible, sprocket
chains being used instead of belts or ropes and sprocket-wheels instead of pulleys. They can
be run at high speed and some forms of chain are so constructed as to be noiseless even at
high speed.

Fig: 1.11 Sprocket
1.16 Stress
Uniaxial stress is expressed by,

Where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m
2
]. The area can be the unreformed area or the
deformed area, depending on whether engineering or true stress is of interest.
The various types of stresses acting on mechanical elements are:
There are two types of stresses under consideration:
1. Mechanical stresses: These are the stresses occurring due to the mechanical forces
acting on the system. These include Tensile stress, Compressive stress, Shear stress
etc.
2. Thermal stresses: These act due to the varying temperature acting on a part surface.
These stresses, when for a prescribed limit (or Yield Strength exceed for a certain type of
material used for a part may lead to the failure of the part. This failure can be sudden and can
prove to be fatal sometimes.
Therefore, to avoid such a situation it is suggested to do the stress analysis of the parts. There
are a number os techniques and methods for stress analysis that can calculate the total amount
of stress analysis that can calculate the total amount of stress acting on the part and reduce the
chances of failure by not allowing the stresses to exceed the fatigue point for the material.


1.17 Factor of Safety
Factor of safety, also known as safety factor (SF), is a term describing the structural capacity
of a system beyond the expected loads or actual loads. Essentially, how much stronger the
system is than it usually needs to be for an intended load. Safety factors are often calculated
using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is impractical on many projects, such
as bridges and buildings, but the structure's ability to carry load must be determined to a
reasonable accuracy.
Laboratory test are usually performed on material samples in order to determine the yield
strength and the ultimate strength that the material can withstand before failure. Often a
separate factor of safety is applied to the yield strength and to the ultimate strength. The
factor of safety on yield strength is to prevent detrimental deformations and the factor of
safety on ultimate strength is to prevent collapse.

Margin of safety or design factor are the other ways to express the factor of safety value.
1.18 Material failure
In material science, material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a material unit.
This definition introduce the fact that material failure can be examined in different scales,
from microscopic, to macroscopic. On the other hand, due to the lack of globally accepted
fracture criteria, the determination of the structures damage, due to material failure, is still
under intensive research.


1.18.1 Types of material failure
a.) Microscopic failure
Microscopic material failure is defined in terms of crack propagation and initiation. Such
methodologies are useful for gaining insight in the cracking of specimens and simple
structures under well-defined global load distributions. Microscopic failure considers the
initiation and propagation of a crack. Failure criteria in this case are related to microscopic
fracture. Some of the most popular failure models in this area are the micromechanical failure
models, which combine the advantages of continuum mechanics and classical fracture
mechanics. Such models are based on the concept that during plastic deformation, microvoids
nucleate and grow until a local plastic neck or fracture of the intervoid matrix occurs, which
causes the coalescence of neighbouring voids. Such a model, proposed by Gurson and
extended by Tvergaard and Needleman, is known as GTN. Another approach, proposed by
Rousselier, is based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM) and thermodynamics. Both
models form a modification of the von Mises yield potential by introducing a scalar damage
quantity, which represents the void volume fraction of cavities, the porosity f.
b.) Macroscopic failure
Macroscopic material failure is defined in terms of load carrying capacity or energy storage
capacity, equivalently. Li presents a classification of macroscopic failure criteria in four
categories:
1. Stress or strain failure
2. Energy type failure (S-criterion, T-criterion)
3. Damage failure
4. Empirical failure.
Five general levels are considered, at which the meaning of deformation and failure is
interpreted differently: the structural element scale, the macroscopic scale where macroscopic
stress and strain are defined, the mesoscale which is represented by a typical void, the micro
scale and the atomic scale. The material behaviour at one level is considered as a collective of
its behaviour at a sublevel. An efficient deformation and failure model should be consistent at
every level.
1.19 Failure theories

There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal
stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of
these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle
materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter
three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material,
which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For
simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories
will give the same result.
1. Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the
material determined from uniaxial testing.
2. Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material
as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only. The
maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided
by factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less
than ultimate compressive stress divided by factor of safety.
3. Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when
the strain energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain
energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.
4. Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy
theory or von Mises-Hencky theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur
when the distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals
the distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total
elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in
volume, and the other part causes change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of
energy that is needed to change the shape.
5. Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine
Irwin. This important theory is also known as numeric conversion of toughness of
material in the case of crack existence.
6. Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including
creep rupture criterion must be combined nonlinearly.
1.20 Bending
In Applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behaviour of a
slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a
longitudinal axis of the element.
The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small
fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two. When the length is considerably longer than
the width and the thickness, the element is called a beam. For example, a closet rod sagging
under the weight of clothes on clothes hangers is an example of a beam experiencing
bending. On the other hand, a shell is a structure of any geometric form where the length and
the width are of the same order of magnitude but the thickness of the structure (known as the
'wall') is considerably smaller. A large diameter, but thin-walled, short tube supported at its
ends and loaded laterally is an example of a shell experiencing bending.
In the absence of a qualifier, the termbending is ambiguous because bending can occur
locally in all objects. To make the usage of the term more precise, engineers refer to
the bending of rods, the bending of beams, the bending of plates, the bending of shells and so
on.
1.21 Stress analysis
Stress analysis is an engineering discipline that determines the stress in materials and
structures subjected to static or dynamic forces or loads. A stress analysis is required for the
study and designs of structure, e.g. tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames,
among others, under prescribed or expected loads. Stress analysis may be applied as a design
step to structures that do not yet exist.
The aim of the analysis is usually to determine whether the element or collection of elements,
usually referred to as a structure, can safely withstand the specified forces.
Different methods of analysis were as:
1. Analysis may be performed through mathematical modelling or simulation,
2. Through experimental testing procedures, or
3. A combination of techniques.

1.21.1 Experimental testing
Stress analysis can be performed experimentally by applying forces to a test element or
structure and then determining the resulting stress using sensors. In this case the process
would more properly be known as testing (destructive or non-destructive). Experimental
methods may be used in cases where mathematical approaches are cumbersome or
inaccurate. Special equipment appropriate to the experimental method is used to apply the
static or dynamic loading.
There are a number of experimental methods which may be used:
1. Tensile testing is a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is
subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly
used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict how
a material will react under other types of forces. Properties that are directly
measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and
reduction in area. From these measurements properties such as Young's modulus,
Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics can be
determined.
2. Strain gauges can be used to experimentally determine the deformation of a
physical part. A commonly used type of strain gauge is a thin flat resistor that is
affixed to the surface of a part, and which measures the strain in a given direction.
From the measurement of strain on a surface in three directions the stress state in
the part can be calculated.
3. Neutron diffraction is a technique that can be used to determine the subsurface
strain in a part.
4. The photo elastic method relies on the fact that some materials exhibit
birefringence on the application of stress, and the magnitude of the refractive
indices at each point in the material is directly related to the state of stress at that
point. The stresses in a structure can be determined by making a model of it in a
photo elastic material.
5. Dynamic mechanical analysis is a technique used to study and characterize
viscoelastic materials, particularly polymers. The viscoelastic property of polymer
is studied by dynamic mechanical analysis where a sinusoidal force (stress) is
applied to a material and the resulting displacement (strain) is measured. For a
perfectly elastic solid, the resulting strain and the stress will be perfectly in phase.
For a purely viscous fluid, there will be a 90 degree phase lag of strain with
respect to stress. Viscoelastic polymers have the characteristics in between where
some phase lag will occur during DMA tests.

1.21.2 Modern techniques for stress analysis
Now a days stress analysis of mechanical parts is also done on computer using vaious
mechanical softwares like Catia, Pro-E, Ansys, Inventor and SolidWorks etc. In these
softwares a solid model of the part considered is drafted on these softwares. These parts are
then loaded with all the forces and moments actin on them in different directions just like
they would be occurring on the real part under mechanical motion. The software then
automatically generates a stress concentration diagram of parts showing the areas of
maximum stress concentration. These results are further studied to create a safer design with
reduced and bearable levels of stresses to reduce the chances of failure.

1.22 Engineering Materials in design
Design is the process of translating a new idea or a market need into the detailed information
from which a product can be manufactured. Each of its stages requires decisions about the
materials from which the product is to be made and the process for making it. Normally, the
choice of material is dictated by the design. But sometimes it is the other way round: the new
product, or the evolution of the existing one, was suggested or made possible by the new
material. The number of materials available to the engineer is vast: something between
40,000 and 80,000 are at his or her (from here on his means both) disposal. And although
standardization strives to reduce the number, the continuing appearance of new materials
with novel, exploitable, properties expands the options further.

How, then, does the engineer choose, from this vast menu, the material best suited to his
purpose?
Must he rely on experience? Or can a systematic procedure be formulated for making a
rational choice?

The question has to be answered at a number of levels, corresponding to the stage the design
has reached. At the beginning the design is fluid and the options are wide; all materials must
be considered. As the design becomes more focused and takes shape, the selection criteria
sharpen and the shortlist of materials which can satisfy them narrows. Then more accurate
data are required (although for a lesser number of materials) and a different way of analysing
the choice must be used. In the final stages of design, precise data are needed, but for still
fewer materials perhaps only one. The procedure must recognize the initial richness of
choice, narrow this to a small subset, and provide the precision and detail on which final
design calculations can be based.
The choice of material cannot be made independently of the choice of process by which the
material is to be formed, joined, finished, and otherwise treated. Cost enters both in the
choice of material and in the way the material is processed. And it must be recognized, good
engineering design alone is not enough to sell a product. In almost everything from home
appliances through automobiles to aircraft, the form, texture, feel, colour, decoration of the
product- the satisfaction it gives the person who buys or uses it are important. This aesthetic
aspect (known confusingly as 'industrial design') is not treated in most courses on
engineering, but it is one that, if neglected, can lose the manufacturer his market. Good
designs work; excellent designs also give pleasure.

1.22.1 The Evolution of Engineering Materials
Throughout history, materials have limited design. The ages in which man has lived are
named for the materials he used: stone, bronze, iron. And when he died, the materials he
treasured were buried with him: Tutankhamen with shards of coloured glass in his stone
sarcophagus, Agamemnon with his bronze sword and mask of gold, each representing the
high technology of his day.

If they had lived and died today, what would they have taken with them? Their titanium
watch, perhaps; their carbon-fibre reinforced tennis racquet, their metal-matrix composite
mountain bike, their polyether-ethyl-ketone crash helmet. This is not the age of one material;
it is the age of an immense range of materials. There has never been an era in which the
evolution of materials was faster and the range of their properties more varied. The menu of
materials available to the engineer has expanded so rapidly that designers who left college
twenty years ago can be forgiven for not knowing that half of them exist. But not-to-know is,
for the designer, to risk disaster. Innovative design, often, means the imaginative exploitation
of the properties offered by new or improved materials. And for the man in the street, the
schoolboy even, not-to-know is to miss one of the great developments of our age: the age of
advanced materials. This evolution and its increasing pace are illustrated in Figure 3.1.


Fig. 1.12 The evolution of engineering materials with time.

1.22.2 Classification and Selection of Engineering Materials
The engineering materials can broadly be classified as:
a) Ferrous Metals
b) Non-ferrous Metals (aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
c) Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
d) Ceramics and Diamond
e) Composite Materials
f) Nano-materials


Fig 1.13 Classification of engineering materials

The engineering materials are often primarily selected based on their mechanical, physical,
chemical and manufacturing properties. The secondary points to be considered are the cost
and availability, appearance, service life and recyclability. In the present day, strict
environmental legislations have forced the designers and engineers to select the environment
friendly materials which have minimum environmental impact. Materials are often selected
for their mechanical, physical, chemical and manufacturing properties for ensuring proper
functioning under desired conditions. When several materials are suitable for a particular
design requirement, the cheapest one is usually selected.

1.22.3 Classification of Processing Techniques
The basic aim of processing is to produce the products of the required quality at a reasonable
cost. The basic processes can be broadly classified as:
a) Primary Forming Processes
b) Deformative Processes
c) Material Removal Processes
d) Joining Processes
e) Finishing Processes

Most of the engineering materials are processed either individually or in combination by the
above mentioned processes. The processes can further be classified as conventional and
advanced processes. The specific application area of each will depend on the design
requirements and the ability with which a material renders itself to various processing
techniques. The selection of a processing technique for any engineering material would
broadly depend on the properties (mechanical, physical, chemical) of the material and the
required number of parts to be processed.