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F. O. J.

Oboh
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African Scientist Vol. 13, No. 2, June 30, 2012 1595-6881/2012 $5.00 + 0.00
Printed in Nigeria 2012 Nigerian Society for Experimental Biology
http://www.niseb.org/afs



AFS 2012056/13205



Palm oils in dairy substitutes

Fred O.J. Oboh

Department of Basic Sciences, Benson Idahosa University, P.M.B. 1100, Benin City, Nigeria


(Received April 21, 2012; Accepted May 29, 2012)


ABSTRACT: The replacement of milk fat with vegetable fat or blends is undertaken by food processors due to lower cost, better
performance, availability and nutritional factors. Palm oils or their blends, when substituted for milk fat offer good taste stability,
improved nutritional value, excellent crystallization behaviour and favourable cost. Vegetable oil processing technologies offer
refined, bleached and deodourised palm oils and fats of highest quality, opening up new possibilities for their use as dairy fat
replacers. This paper examines the utilisation of palm oils as milk fat substitutes in dairy products.

Key words: Dairy substitutes, Palm superolein, Lauric oils, Amazonian palm oils.



Introduction

Food manufacturers have developed many dairy- related products that contain vegetable fats and non-fat milk
solids or products derived from them and/or vegetable protein (e.g. soy based protein-enriched products). These
products contain an emulsifier system selected from a variety of edible marine and vegetable carbohydrate gums in
combination with fat based emulsifiers (for example partial acyl-glycerols and lecithin) in interaction with protein
(McClements, 2002) To these are added flavour, colour and vitamins and water as required.
Vegetable-fat based dairy substitutes are products that are similar in taste and function to dairy products, but in
which milk fat has been totally replaced by vegetable fat. Vegetable fats and oils may be incorporated into dairy
products as a replacement for dairy fat for several reasons. Local supplies of cows milk may be inadequate, as in
some tropical countries, where the climate is not suitable for large-scale dairy farming. Also it may be undertaken
because of consumers concerns about the saturated fatty acids and cholesterol present in cows milk. In addition, it
is possible to produce vegetable oil based milk fat replacement in a more stable and convenient form.
Lipid scientists and technologists have devised several technologies for the refining and modification of
vegetable oils. Such technologies have made possible, the production of refined bleached and deodourised oils and
fats of the highest quality, tailor made for various applications, such as dairy fat substitutes (Gunstone, 1998, 2001).




E- mail: fredoboh67@yahoo.co.uk
Phone: +2348036677636


African Scientist Volume 13, No. 2 (2012)
100
The dairy-substitute products can be broadly classified into three groups:

1. Made with milk solids
2. Solids coming from both milk and non-milk sources, and
3. Based entirely on non-dairy ingredients.

The first two, which have some milk solids, are the filled products, while the third is the fully synthetic (imitation)
product.
This article examines the characteristics of some some palm oils and relates them to their utilisation in vegetable
dairy products.

Requirements for Fats
Functional

The crystal habit and polymorphic form of a fat are determined by its TAG structure and the method of its
solidification (Thomas, 1978). Triacylglycerols can crystallise in different crystal modifications corresponding to
different packing of the fatty acyl chains. This phenomenon is known as polymorphism (Hagemann, 1988).
Basically TAGs present three polymorphic forms: , , and with increasing stability and melting point in that
order (Larsson, 1994). The crystal habit (size and shape) of crystals in a fat is related to its polymorphic state. TAG
acyl chain length diversity stabilises a fat in the -form. This is because variation in the chain length results in a
more disordered packing of TAGs leading to less chances of the more stable and tightly knit -form being formed.
The crystal habit and polymorphic form of a fat are determined by its TAG structure and the method of its
solidification (Thomas, 1978). Triacylglycerols can crystallise in different crystal modifications corresponding to
different packing of the fatty acyl chains. This phenomenon is known as polymorphism (Hagemann, 1988).
Basically TAGs present three polymorphic forms: , , and with increasing stability and melting point in that
order (Larsson, 1994). The crystal habit (size and shape) of crystals in a fat is related to its polymorphic state. TAG
acyl chain length diversity (as in milk fat) stabilises a fat in the -form. This is because variation in the chain length
results in a more disordered packing of TAGs leading to less chances of the more stable and tightly knit -form
being formed. Fats which exhibit crystallinity have crystals that are relatively small and needle like, appear
smooth, provide good aeration, and can incorporate a large amount of liquid in their crystal network (Dian et al,
2003; Charteris and Keogh, 1991; Wiederman, 1978). The -crystals give products good spreadability, smooth
texture and glossy surface.
Milk fat crystallises and is stable in the beta-prime () polymorph. This gives milk fat some desirable
characteristics among which are:

i. High crystallisation rate
ii. Good foam stabilising properties
iii. Small crystals

Milk fat has good melting properties, being quite hard and melting completely at body temperature. This is
important for mouth feel and flavour release while eating the finished product. A vegetable fat should have similar
melting properties in order to replace milk fat, with a maintained quality of finished product. The consistency of
milk fat and vegetable fat blends is also affected by the melting profile of the fat, influencing for example, the
texture and eating properties of butter blends, ice cream and cheese. While milk fat shows seasonal variations in
hardness, the vegetable fats are produced to and even consistency throughout the year (AAK Aarhuskarlshamn,
2007).
Palm oil, its fractionation products (palm stearin palm mid-fraction and palm olein), and palm kernel oil and
coconut oil exhibit crystallinity.

Orgaoleptic

It is important that vegetable fats utilised in vegetable-dairy products meet the following basic requirements.
They should:

F. O. J. Oboh
101
Be bland. Fats and oils, if bland in flavour, will release and enhance the flavours of other ingredients. Generally
sharp melting fats, which have lower viscosity when melted release flavours rapidly whereas higher melting fats
retard flavour release.
Have good flavour stability i.e. be resistant to oxidative deterioration (which results in the development of off-
flavours) under the usage conditions. The shelf life of products containing fats and oils is related directly to the
oxidative stability of these ingredients. In turn the oxidative stability of the fat is related to its fatty acid
composition. Saturated fats are the most stable followed by monounsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fats are the
least stable. Generally, stability to oxidation decreases as the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases.
Lauric fats because of their high levels of saturates, are resistant to off-flavour development resulting from
oxidation.
Be resistant to hydrolysis. Hydrolysis which occurs during storage of food products may affect the vegetable
dairy product and could result in:

(i) development of off-flavours - this is particularly true for lauric fats which develop a soapy taste after only
minor hydrolysis
(ii) increased acidity and reduced pH
(iii) increased susceptibility of fatty acids to oxidation
(iv) changes in functional properties
- Be easy to store and handle during manufacture of the product
- Have a melting point low enough to avoid imparting a greasy sensation in the mouth when used in the final
product.

In food systems fat contributes to palatability by imparting lubricity and flavour release and is important in cooking
and food processing for imparting tenderness, for example to baked goods.

Nutritional

Dietary fat has five important functions:

As a source of energy
For cell structure and membrane functions
As a source of essential fatty acids for cell structure and prostaglandin synthesis
As a vehicle for oil-soluble vitamins
For the control of blood lipids.

The substitution of a vegetable oil or oil-blend for milk fat in vegetable substitute products offers several
nutritional benefits. Vegetable fats and oils are generally cholesterol-free, whereas animal fats contain considerable
amounts of this substance (beef tallow and butter oil contain 2000-3000ppm and 1000ppm respectively) (Gunstone,
2002a).
With few exceptions (e.g. palm oil, lauric fats and cocoa butter) animal fats (excluding fish oils) are more
saturated than vegetable oils. Current practice in human nutrition focuses on reducing dietary intake of saturated
fatty acids. Meat and dairy products are principal sources of these fatty acids.
Tallow and butter oil contain 3-8% trans-fatty acids (Hunter, 2004; Gunstone, 2002a), which are significant
components of all ruminant fats, being produced by bio-hydrogenation of dietary lipids. It is interesting to observe
here that significant amounts of trans-fatty acids are found in partially hydrogenated oils notably soybean and
cottonseed oils, which have been used or have been suggested as replacements for palm oils in food formulations
(Akoh et al, 1998). Recent research indicates unfavourable effects of trans-fatty acids on low-density and high-
density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. They raise the former, which has a strong correlation with coronary heart
disease (CHD) and lower the latter, which is associated with a decreased risk for heart disease. They have a more
adverse effect on coronary heart disease than saturated fatty acids (Hunter, 2004). From a nutritional viewpoint
therefore, the ideal vegetable oils for use as milk- fat replacer should be:
African Scientist Volume 13, No. 2 (2012)
102
Cholesterol free
Be unsaturated but not unstable to oxidation and
Be trans-acid free

Palm oils

Lauric oils

Palm kernel oil and coconut oils are free flowing liquids at room temperature, are highly saturated and therefore
highly stable to oxidative deterioration - 79% of the fatty acids of the former and 80% of those of the latter are
saturated. Of these, the short chain fatty acids (C6:0-C10:0) constitute 7% of palm kernel oil fatty acids and 15% of
those of coconut oil. Dietary short chain fatty acids are oxidized and metabolised in the liver as rapidly as
carbohydrates, and lower blood and tissue cholesterol in animals and humans. They are not deposited in depot fat
(Akoh et al, 1998). Other benefits of dietary short chain fatty acids have been enumerated elsewhere (Akoh et al,
1998; Traul et al, 2000; Lee & Foglia, 2000). Other fatty acids of palm kernel oil and coconut oil are stearic (which
constitutes 3% of the fatty acids of each oil), oleic (15% of palm kernel oil and 6% of coconut oil) and linoleic (2%
of the fatty acids of each of the oils). Dietary stearic acid does not exert a hypercholesterolemic effect probably
because it is converted to oleic acid by an endogenous desaturase (Gurr, 1991). Oleic and linoleic acids exert a
hypocholesterolemic effect, the latter being also an essential fatty acid and a prostaglandin precursor. Based on these
facts palm kernel and coconut oils should be excellent materials for inclusion in vegetable-dairy products and have
been oils of choice for such applications (Kolar et al, 1979; Hamilton, 1968).
Viewed from a health perspective however, the problem is in their lauric, myristic and palmitic acids, which
constitute 72% of palm kernel fatty acids and 74% of coconut fatty acids. Dietary lauric, myristic and palmitic acids
exert a hypercholesterolemic effect, the medium chain lauric and myristic having a stronger effect than the long
chain palmitic. The fatty acid compositions and analytical characteristics of palm kernel oil, coconut oil, their
fractions and hydrogenated products are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Typical lauric fat composition
a


Fat Fatty acids
b
(% body wt.)
IV
3
6:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2
Palm kernel oil 17.5 7 48 16 9 2 15 2
Palm kernel stearins 9 6 53 21 9 2 8 1
7 4 55 22 9 2 7 1
2 3 50 30 12 3 2 0
Palm kernel stearin (I.V.
c
7) 4 4 55 22 9 6 5 0 0
- hydrogenated to lower I.V. 0.4 4 55 22 9 9 0.5 0
Palm kernel stearin (I.V. 7)
-re-fractionated to lower I.V. 3 3 56 26 9 2 3 0.5
Coconut oil 8.5 15 48 18 8 3 6 2
Coconut stearin (25% yield) 4 9 55 22 9 2 3 0.5
Hydrogenated coconut stearin 1.5 9 55 22 9 5 2 0
Palm kernel olein 21 9 45 13 9 3 19 2
Coconut olein 10 17 46 17 7 3 7 3
a
Rossell (1985).
b
Fatty acids: 6:0, hexanoic; 8:0, octanoic; 10:0, decanoic; 12:0, lauric; 14:0, myristic; 16:0,
palmitic; 18:0, stearic; 18:1, oleic; 18:2, linoleic.
c
I.V. Iodine value (Wijs).

The presence of saturated medium and long chain fatty acids and lack of significant polyunsaturation (which are
their shortcoming from the nutritional standpoint), offer advantages where (e.g. in dairy substitutes), flavour stability
is an important factor. Lauric oils, oleins and stearins (with or without hydrogenation), are among the best
substitutes for milk fat. They have excellent flavour stability, are clean and bland, when refined, have similar
melting points to milk fat and offer excellent mouth feel.
Filled milk is made from skim milk powder reconstituted with an appropriate vegetable oil, which should be free
of linolenic acid, have a low content of linoleic acid and contain antioxidant so that it is stable to oxidative
deterioration. Palm kernel oil and coconut oils are among frequently used oils. They may be partially hydrogenated
F. O. J. Oboh
103
to provide further stability against oxidation (Gunstone, 2002b). Lauric oils give very satisfactory performance when
used in ice cream formulation (Berger, 1975). Vegetable fat-based cheeses have been developed and formulations in
which dairy fat has been replaced by lauric oils have been described (Gunstone, 2002b; Yu & Hammond, 2000a; Yu
& Hammond, 2000b).
Lauric oleins and stearins are used in non-dairy coffee whiteners and whipped cream powders, where they
impart easy air incorporation during whipping resulting in a high overrun and good shape retention (Rossel, 1985;
Hamilton, 1968). Non-dairy coffee whiteners that are available in powder or liquid form generally contain 35-45%
fat, which is usually partially hydrogenated palm kernel oil. Non-dairy whipping creams made with hardened palm
kernel oil and coconut oil (each about 17%) are convinient because they have a long shelf life at ambient
temperature (Gunstone, 2002b).
Though previously considered inferior, utilisation of palm kernel and fats derived from it in edible formulations
is increasing at the expense of coconut oil. Modern fat technology allows production of palm kernel fats similar to
those based on coconut. This enables the user to switch from one fat to the other as soon as the price relation
between the two changes.
Palm superolein
Palm superolein, the second liquid fraction from the double-stage fractionation of palm oil (Oboh, 2012; Deffense,
1985) has as its major fatty acids palmitic (36.8%), oleic (43.4%), and linoleic (12.9%). Stearic acid constitutes
4.7%. Thus over half of its fatty acids are unsaturated and hypocholesterolemic, with about 13% of this being the
essential fatty acid linoleic, a prostaglandin precursor. This oil has a high (for a vegetable oil) proportion (10.3mol
%) of its triacylglycerol palmitic acid (40.5mol %) in the sn-2 position, a factor that could increase its adsorption
(Oboh, 2012; Kritchesvsky, 2002). Crude palm superolein is rich in beta-carotene (provitamin A) and tocopherols
(vitamin E) (Oboh, 2012). Though the former is destroyed in the refining of the oil to meet specifications that are
demanded for taste, flavour and colour, a considerable part of the latter is retained (Kritchesvsky, 2002). Palm
superolein is liquid and free flowing at room temperature and highly stable to oxidative deterioration due to its fatty
acid composition and distribution in its triacylglycerols, and its tocopherol content (Oboh, 2012). The characteristics
of this oil make it highly desirable for inclusion in vegetable-dairy formulations. The analytical characteristics and
fatty acid composition of palm superoleins are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Fatty acid composition of superoleins and tallow oils

Fatty Acid Superoleins Tallow oils
A
a
B
a
C
a
D
b
A B
12:0 - - - 0.3 - -
14:0 - - - 1.5 3.1 3.9
14:1 - 3.9 1.3
16:0 37.3 35.6 34.9 36.4 20.8 23.8
16:1 - - - - 5.2 4.5
17:0 - - - - 0.8 1.1
17:1 - - - - 1.5 1.3
18:0 4.1 4.0 3.7 4.7 7.5 9.7
18:1 43.8 44.2 46.9 43.8 56.3 50.4
18:2 12.3 13.4 12.1 12.9 1.9 2.3
18:3 - - - - - -
Others 0.6 1.7
a
Deffense (1985).
b
Oboh (2012).
c
Luddy et al (1973).

Also given in Table 2 is the fatty acid composition of another oil that has featured in the literature on milk-fat
substitute dairy products, the liquid fraction from the acetone fractionation of tallow (Luddy et al, 1973; Holsinger et
al, 1978). This oil has oleic and palmitic acids as major fatty acids. Stearic acid constitutes slightly less than a tenth,
and palmitoleic acid about 5%. Although its monounsaturated fatty acid content is high, it is low in linoleic acid.
This coupled with the presence of trans- acids and cholesterol in the oil makes this fraction less attractive than palm
superolein for use as milk fat replacer. Palm superolein (pure or partially hydrogenated) is suitable for use as a dairy
fat replacer in fllled milk.

African Scientist Volume 13, No. 2 (2012)
104
Emerging Palm Pulp and Kernel Oils.

The mesocarps of the six palm species Astrocaryum vulgare Mart., Jessenia bataua Jacq., Euterpe oleracea
Mart., Oenocarpus bacaba Mart., Elaeis oleifera H.B.K., and Bactris gasipaes H.B.K. which are indigenous to
South and Central America have been used by the indigenous people for the production of milk-like beverage
referred to as vegetable milk (Cavalcante, 1977; Balick & Gershoff, 1981). The mesocarp of these species have been
found to bear protein of high nutritional value and considerable quantities of high-oleic acid oils (Oboh & Oderinde,
1988a; Balick & Gershoff, 1981, Lubrano et al, 1994), which could be suitable for use in vegetable-dairy products.
The oil from the mesocarp of the A. vulgare fruit has been fractionated to produce a liquid fraction that has a higher
linoleic and oleic acid and lower palmitic acid content than the whole oil (Oboh & Oderinde, 1988b). The fatty acid
compositions of these oils are shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Fatty acid composition of emerging palm mesocarp oils

Fatty
Acid
J. bataua
a
A. vulgare
b
E. olereaceae
a
O. bacaba
a
B. gasipaes
a
E. oleifera
a
Olein
16:0 21 32 23.7 22 18 32 23
16:1 1 - - 2 0.5 3.5 0.5
18:0 1.5 1.0 1.4 2 3 3 2.5
18:1 70 58.6 61.0 60 39 54 66
18:2 4 2.9 10.4 12 38 4.5 5.5
18:3 tr. - - tr tr tr tr
20:0 2 5.5 3.5 2.5 1 3 3

a
Lubrano et al, 1994.
b
Oboh & Oderinde, 1988b.

Tucum pulp oil and the olein derived from it by fractionation are free flowing at ambient temperature and have
high proportions of their triacylglycerol palmitic acid in the sn-2 positions and may be suitable for use as dairy fat
replacers in dairy substitutes.
The kernels and kernel fats of some Nigerian grown Amazonian palms have also been examined (Oboh, 1987;
Oboh & Oderinde, 1988c; Oderinde & Oboh, 1988; Oboh & Oderinde, 1989). These kernel fats especially that of
Astrocaryum vulgare (tucum), its fractions from acetone fractionation, and the kernel fat of Arecastrum
romanozoffianum (pind) (Oboh & Oderinde, 1988d) could be suitable for use in vegetable dairy products. Table 4
shows the fatty acid composition and physico-chemical properties of these fats.

Table 4: Fatty acid composition and slip melting points of some emerging palm kernel fats
a


Fatty Acids (% body wt) Slip
8:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 Point (
o
C)
Tucum kernel fat 1.9 3.0 53.7 23.3 5.5 1.9 8.8 1.9 32.0
Tucum kernel fat 2.0 2.4 45.5 21.3 8.5 3.1 13.6 4.4 30.0
fraction 1 0.6 1.2 44.8 31.8 7.6 3.8 8.6 1.6 34.0
fraction 2 1.3 1.9 48.5 20.4 6.9 4.1 12.6 4.5 31.0
Pind fat 1.7 2.0 55.5 20.4 6.6 1.7 10.2 1.7 27.0

a
Oboh & Oderinde, 1988d.

F. O. J. Oboh
105

They are similar in fatty acid composition and slip point to palm kernel oil and its stearins and could be used in
vegetable dairy product formulations.

Vegetable Dairy Substitutes.

Table 5 shows dairy substitute formulations for filled milk, imitation milk, coffee whitener, imitation sour cream
and whipped toppings. To these formulations colour, vitamins and flavours are added.

Table 5: Dairy substitutes (Hamilton, 1968)

Formula Filled Milk
(%)
Imitation Milk
(%)
Coffee
Whitener (%)
Imitation Sour
Cream (%)
Whipped
Topping: With
Milk Solids
(%)
Whipped
Topping: With
Sodium
Caseinate (%)
Formula % % % % % %
VegetableFat. 3.5 3.5 8-11 14-18 24-28 24-28
Corn Syrup Solids. 1.5-3.0 9-10 3-5
Sucrose. 3-5 7-10 10-15
Stabiliser. 0.3-0.6 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.75 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4
Skim Milk Solids. 10.0 8-10 5-7
Sodium Caseinate or Soy
Protein.
1.0-3.5 1-2 1-2
Phosphates. 0.1-0.2 0.25-0.4
Emulsifiers. 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
Water To 100 To 100 To 100 To 100 To 100 To 100


They are all vegetable fat in water emulsions incorporating non-fat milk solids, high-protein vegetable
preparations (typically soy protein isolates and/or sodium caseinate), emulsifiers and stabiliser, which simulate the
chemical, physical and organoleptic properties of the natural dairy product. Like natural milk, filled milk can be
condensed, evaporated, spray dried to powders or processed to yoghurt or cheese (AAK Aarhuskarlshamn, 2007).
The fat should satisfy the organoleptic and nutritional requirements stated above. Fat levels in vegetable dairy
products are specified in standards of identity and quality and by end user applications (Hamilton, 1968; AAK
Aarhuskarlshamn, 2007). The imitation liquid products containing vegetable fats are claimed to have a similar shelf
life to their natural counterparts, but when highly stable fats are used, the advantage is in favour of the former. In the
dried products, there is a clear superiority of vegetable fat over milk fat, as is evident in products, e.g. dried whole
milk, dried ice cream mix, coffee whitener and whipped topping (Hamilton, 1968). Like the natural product filled
milk can be made into unripened and ripened cheeses. The characteristic flavour of ripened cheese is a result of
bacterial and enzymatic degradation of the milk components including the milk fats. Thus the replacement of the
butterfat by vegetable fat will produce a different flavour. In addition the degree of homogenisation and emulsifier
level will alter the texture and body of the cheese (Hamilton, 1968; Gunstone, 2002b & AAK Aarhuskarlshamn,
2007).
Homogenisation and emulsification of the fat are keys to a satisfactory product. Emulsification is determined by
the interaction of homogenisation, protein, stabiliser, fat, emulsifier and water (McClements, 2002), and each
particular product requires a different mix of these. Proteins and polysaccharides are the two most important
biopolymers used as functional ingredients in food emulsions. These biopolymers are used principally for their
ability to stabilise emulsions, enhance viscosity, and form gels. The viscosity of biopolymer solutions is related to
the mouthfeel of a food product. For example, a certain amount of viscosity is needed to contribute to the creaminess
of a product (McClements, 2002). Gel formation imparts desirable textural and sensory attributes, as well as
preventing emulsion droplets from creaming.
African Scientist Volume 13, No. 2 (2012)
106
A range of non-fat solid products is available for use in vegetable dairy products. For filled products the choice
is skim milk, preferably fresh or good quality non-fat dry milk. The imitation product can use sodium caseinate,
protein isolates, or high protein flours. The preferred material is however sodium caseinate and/or high quality soy
protein.
Hydrocolloids derived from plants and bacterial fermentation are widely used as stabilisers by the dairy industry.
Chemically they are long chain polysaccharides with polyhydroxyl groups. Some of them contain carboxyl and
sulphate groups; thus they are negatively charged when dissolved in water, Due to their high affinity for water
molecules, hydrocolloids absorb moisture rather efficiently. They swell, thicken and gel in aqueous systems,
exhibiting gummy characteristics. Many of the hydrocolloids also have the ability to emulsify fat particles and
stabilise emulsions. In vegetabledairy formulations these properties are of utmost importance. In these products the
hydrocolloid stabiliser is carefully selected to increase emulsification of fat particles and increase viscosity by
interacting with protein. They are important also in promoting freeze-thaw stability (Barnum, 1998; Hamilton,
1968).
The optimum stability of pure o/w emulsions is obtained by the use of emulsifiers or their blends, which have
medium hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of 8-12 because they form condensed monolayers at the interface.
Hydrophobic interaction between the closely packed fatty acid hydrocarbon chains in condensed monolayers is an
important factor for obtaining surface films with viscoelastic properties which provide maximum stability against
coalescence. This is usually achieved using a combination of mono- and diglycerides, which has a low HLB,
medium HLB emulsifiers e.g. lactylated monoglyceride and sodium steroyl-2-lactylate, and a high HLB emulsifier,
for example polysorbate 60 (Krog, 1977).
A sufficiently high concentration of the emulsifier may result in the formation of liquid crystalline surface films
built up by association of the emulsifier, oil, and water (Krog, 1977). The structure of emulsifier-water mesophases
has been related to rheological properties of surface films and emulsion stability (Krog, 1977; Hemker, 1981). The
formulation for a whippable imitation cream is given in Table 6.


Table 6: Recipe for a whippable imitation (Hemker, 1981)

Ingredient Weight (%)
Fat (hardened coconut oil) 22.0
Emulsifiers:
SSL
a
0.3
Polysorbate 60 0.1
GLP
b
0.6
Sucrose 6.0
Sodium caseinate 2.0
Sodium phosphate 0.1
Salt 0.1
Stabiliser (Na-CMC) 0.4
Water, flavour, colour 68.4
TOTAL 100.0

a
Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate.
b
Lactylated monoglycerides.


F. O. J. Oboh
107
The protein in the formulation also acts as an emulsifier; an example is in whipped toppings where the major
functional roles of protein are to aid the formation of an emulsion and assist in the incorporation of air during
whipping (Kolar et al, 1979).
Sugar (sucrose or lactose) or sweetener is added as required, as are flavour, colour and vitamins, the levels of
fortification being generally consistent with levels found in milk fat. For details on formulation and processing of
vegetable-dairy products, the reader is referred to excellent reviews on the subject (Hamilton, 1968, AAK
Aarhuskarlshamn, 2007).
In selecting the vegetable oil to be used in a vegetable-dairy product, the manufacturer must consider the cost of
the oil, its availability and the ease with which the oil can be processed. Palm kernel oil, coconut oil as well and
products from their fractionation and/or hydrogenation as well as palm superolein feature prominently in
international commerce, and are raw materials for a broad range of food applications. Of the emerging lauric oils,
small quantities of tucum kernel oil have featured in international trade. It has found application as confectionery fat
(hard butter). Some others have featured in local commerce in their areas of origin (Arckol, 1988; Cavalcante,
1977).

Conclusion

The inclusion of palm oils in vegetable dairy products has been discussed. Palm oils are suitable for application
due to their desirable nutritional and functional properties. Although the emerging palm oils possess the required
characteristics, they are not yet available in sufficient commercial quantities for such applications.



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