Summary

PITS, SILOS AND OTHER ASPECTS. A CATALOGUE OF

PREHISTORIC FEATURES IN EUROPE

By Josep Miret i Mestre

This book is a catalogue of more than sixty features that can be found in the
excavation of prehistoric sites. The book seeks to define elements that enable us to
identify the function of the features. This is a multidisciplinary study, combining data
from agronomy, ethnography and archaeology.
We have attempted to enable the function of a pit to be identified as naturally as
possible, by means of the shape, content or other, easily verifiable, characteristics.
Despite my efforts, many of the features continue to be difficult to define or are even
controversial: there are numerous examples of this throughout the book.
Firstly, the features are classified into positive and negative. It is well known that
positive features are created by adding material (sediment, stones, mud), while
negative features are cut into the substrate forming the foundation of the site. At the
same time, positive features will be classified by the type of material of which they are
composed: stone or mud. In contrast, negative features will be classified by their
shape, then by their content or certain specific characteristics (e.g. rubefaction of the
walls).
Some types of feature can be constructed with stone or mud. For this reason, they are
repeated several times in this book.

Constructions
In general, constructions can be classified according to the main material used to build
the walls. This enables us to refer to stone houses, mud houses or wooden houses. If a
mixture of techniques is used, involving the use of different materials, the main
material takes priority. Roofs are nearly always made from vegetable matter (logs,
branches, straw, etc.).
Stone houses. Stone houses can have walls made from dry stone, meaning that no
type of binder is used to join the stones, or the stones can be joined with mud. Houses
with stone walls are found in places where stones are plentiful, such as the
Mediterranean (Fig. 2.3).
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Mud houses. Different techniques are used in construction with mud: adobe, mud
walls, cob (called bauge in French), and wattle and daub. Houses made from adobe or
mud walls often have a dry stone base to prevent dampness in the floor (Fig. 2.4).
Wooden houses. These houses have walls made of wooden posts driven into the
ground to support the weight of the roof. The walls can be made exclusively of logs,
but it is very common for them to be made with wattle, with warped branches covered
by a layer of mud (wattle and daub). In archaeology, wooden houses are identified by
finding post holes arranged at regular intervals, or foundation trenches with post holes
(Fig. 2.5 and 2.8).
Storehouses and granaries. The granary was a room or building designed to store all
types of grain and pulses. It was used preferably to store large volumes of grain and
pulses in the short and medium term. The granary could take many forms, as it could
be a separate building or a room high up in the house. In this work, we differentiate
between granaries with grain compartments, granaries on posts, granaries on stones
and granaries supported by parallel walls. Chapter 2 of the book provides a description
of each type of granary (2.10-2.12).

TYPE FORM IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Stone houses Circular, oval, rectangular,
etc.
With stone walls
Mud houses Circular, oval, rectangular,
etc.
With mud walls
Wooden houses Circular, oval, rectangular,
etc.
With walls made from logs
Storehouses and granaries Circular, rectangular Variations:
- On wooden posts
- On stones
- On walls

Table 1.1: Types of feature documented in prehistoric Europe

Positive Features
Stone features
Stone features are usually paved and can correspond to any of the features described
below, in order of size, from the largest to the smallest.
Threshing floors. Threshing floors are places in which grains and pulses were threshed.
They usually consist of spaces with a circular base of large diameter (approximately
fifteen metres in traditional threshing floors). Threshing floors from prehistoric times
have rarely been identified in excavations. However, as there is some paving in
traditional threshing floors, I believe that it is important that they should at least be
mentioned.
Haystacks. Traditional haystacks are piles of straw, usually stacked around a central
post. In some regions, traditional haystacks have an upper section protected by a layer
3

of mud. However, haystacks from prehistoric times have been identified very rarely
(Fig. 6.4).
Stone walls. These are walls made mainly from stones. They can be dry stone (if no
element joins them together) or connected by mud, lime or any other binder.
Benches. A bench is a low wall (typically 0.5 m) attached to another wall, which serves
as a corbel on which to place millstones, large earthenware jars and all types of utensil.
A variation on the bench is the pot holder, which has small hollows into which the base
of the earthenware jars fit. There are also benches and pot holders made from adobe,
as shall be seen below.
Granary bases. These are paved, generally forming a circular shape, to support a
wooden granary. These features are found outside houses and vary in shape and size
(Fig. 2.11).
Above ground silo bases. These are paved in a circular or rectangular shape, and can
be inside or outside houses. Among and on top of the stones (if preserved), there
should be a layer of settled clay and the beginning of the mud walls (Fig. 4.3).
Hearths. Some fires have a hearth made from stone pebbles, the aim of which was to
store the heat of the fire above, releasing it gradually to cook food slowly. These
hearths usually have a circular base and a diameter of around 0.60 m, although they
are also known to be oval and even slightly irregular.
Grain compartments. A grain compartment is a compartment of low height within the
granary or in the room of the house used to store the grain in bulk. It can be made of
stone or mud. The stone grain compartment was created by placing slabs vertically to
define an area. It can also be in the corner of a room (Fig. 3.10, 1).
Millstone supports. Millstone supports consist of a stone or mud feature that fixes the
millstone to the floor, in order to collect the flour or to raise the millstone from the
ground, making it more accessible (Fig. 3.14).
Pot holders. With a circular base of small diameter, these stones supported a large
earthenware jar or a basket. Pot holders can also be negative features, as shall be seen
below (Fig. 5.8).
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TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Threshing floor Circular Paved area of large diameter
Haystack Circular Large paved area
Stone wall Elongated Aligned stones
Bench Elongated Low wall
Granary base Generally circular Paved
Above ground silo base Circular or rectangular Paved with mud remains
Hearth Circular or square A set of stones or pebbles
Ash and charcoal
Grain compartment Circular or square Slabs placed vertically
Millstone support Circular Paved, and above which is a
hand-operated millstone
Pot holder Circular in plan and of small
diameter
A circle of stones of small
diameter

Table 1.2: Positive stone features

Mud features
There are a significant number of features made from mud, including above ground
silos, grain compartments, ovens, fire hearths, etc. It should be noted that, in some
cases, the same features are repeated as those made with stone. This is because there
are features that can be made from stone or mud. I have described them in order of
size, from the largest to the smallest.
Above ground silos for grain. This is a silo found above ground level. Unanimity does
not exist between archaeologists, ethnographers and agronomists on the difference
between a granary and an above ground silo. The same construction can be described
by one author as a granary and by another as a silo. In the absence of consensus, I
suggested using the word granary for constructions made from wood and vegetable
fibre to store grain, and the word above ground silo for those made from mud and its
derivatives (Miret 2010: 52-53). It should be noted that an above ground clay silo can
have a stone base (see above) (Fig. 4.3).
Benches. As stated previously, this is a low wall attached to another wall, which serves
as a corbel on which to place millstones, large earthenware jars and all types of utensil.
In this case, it is a bench made from adobe.
Domed pottery kilns. The most well known pottery kilns are those with a dome and
double chamber, a fire chamber and a cooking chamber, separated by a grill with
perforations. Sometimes quite well preserved kilns are found, but we often identify
pottery kilns by finding fragments of the grill made from fired mud (Fig. 10.8).
Domed domestic ovens. Domestic ovens (ovens for cooking bread and other food,
found inside houses or in their vicinity) can be divided into domed ovens and ovens
dug into the ground. The first type is a positive feature and the second type is a
negative feature. Domed ovens are constructed with a mesh of branches that support
5

the clay walls in a semi-spherical shape, or as a truncated cone (Fig. 3.5 and 3.6). To
cook bread, a fire is lit inside the oven. When the desired temperature is reached, the
ash and logs are removed, and the bread, or food to be cooked, is placed in the oven.
In an archaeological excavation, the base of ovens is sometimes found, but often only
fragments of mud walls thrown into a waste pit can be identified.
Grain compartments. A grain compartment is a compartment of low height made
from cob or wattle and daub in order to contain grain (Fig. 3.10, 2). A grain
compartment can be located in the corner of a room, used to preserve grain or other
elements. It can have straight walls or a wall curved into one quarter of a circle.
Fire hearths. There are fires with a mud hearth as a base that re-emitted the heat of
the fire lit within. Below, there may be a layer of pottery fragments or pebbles (Fig.
3.1).

TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Above ground silo Circular or square Walls of cob or wattle and
daub
Bench Elongated Low wall
They can have hollow spaces
to support large earthenware
jars
Domed pottery kiln Circular or square Two chambers separated by a
fired-mud grill
Fired-mud walls
Domed domestic kiln Circular Hearth made from mud and
stones
Fired-mud walls
Grain compartment Circular or square Low mud walls
In a house or granary
Fire hearth Circular or square Hearth made from mud
Charcoal and ash

Table 1.3: Positive mud features

Negative Features
The pits or negative features have already been described above. I now wish to
indicate simply that negative features can be deep or shallow. Firstly, we will address
the deep features, the depth of which is greater than the width. We will see that they
can be classified according to whether they are circular, rectangular, oval or elongated
in plan. Further on, we will discuss shallow features, special-shaped features (usually
industrial pits designed to obtain a particular product) and those with a non-specific
shape, defined by the objects found inside.



6


Deep features that are circular in plan
We will begin by discussing the deep negative features, and, within this category,
those that are circular in plan. They are ordered by diameter, from the largest to the
smallest.
Underground silos for grain. These are considered the most common type of pit in
prehistoric settlements in Europe, except on sites with wooden houses, where the
most common feature is the post hole. In terms of shape, the analysis of reference
works from the fields of agronomy, ethnography and archaeology shows that silos for
storing grain are the only underground features that are truncated cone-shaped, egg-
shaped or bottle-shaped (Fig. 4.1). Cylindrical silos are also normal, but this shape is
shared by many other types of pit, which makes it necessary to seek other elements to
correctly identify a silo for grain. Other criteria that enable a silo to be identified are: 1)
A carpological analysis of the sediment in the bottom of the silo, in which grain
appears. 2) A mud coating on the walls in order to improve waterproofing. 3) A slight
rubefaction of the walls, caused by burning waste from a previous silo. 4) The presence
of circular stone slabs or lids made from mud, etc.
Storage pits with intact pottery. Storage pits with intact pottery are storage pits for
grain, which, when empty (usually in the summer), were used to preserve food in
pottery. They are identified by the presence of intact pottery in the bottom of the
storage pit. The pottery should preferably be large earthenware storage jars. This is a
key element that differentiates them from domestic cache pits and ritual pits (Fig. 5.6
and 5.7).
Semi-underground silos for cereal grains. In semi-underground silos, the grain is found
partly underground and partly above ground. In ethnography, these are not very
common, and, in archaeology, it should be noted that they are difficult to identify
because the base that remains is a basin or a shallow cylindrical pit, which is difficult to
distinguish from other types of pit (Fig. 4.2).
Root storage pits. Root storage pits are found in other latitudes. In Europe, they have
not been documented for certain until the end of the Middle Ages (Fig. 5.2).
Silage pits. Silage pits did not become widespread until the 19
th
century, although
some authors believe that they may have been used in the Iron Age (Fig. 5.3).
Wells. A well is a cylinder of significant depth that extends from the old surface of the
ground to the water table, where water is found. The depth is nearly always greater
than 2 or 3 m, and there are cases of Neolithic wells of up to 15 m. Those of a later
date can be even deeper. The lower section generally consists of walls covered with
logs or dry stone walls. Central European prehistorians differentiate between different
types of well: Kastenbrunnen, Rhrenbrunnen, wickerwork, etc. depending on the
structure that prevents the walls from collapsing (Figs. 3.11 and 3.12).
Sandy bed pits. This was a rare type of feature in prehistoric times (I do not know of
any definite example), but it is well described by ancient agronomists and in
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ethnography. They are cylindrical or cubic pits with a layer of sand in the bottom. Food
(fruit, roots, nuts, etc.) was placed inside to be preserved (Fig. 5.4).
Vats. These are cylindrical pits covered with a skin and used to contain liquid such as
whey. I do not know of any prehistoric examples in Europe and only have information
from ethno-archaeology (Fig. 5.12).
Fermentation pits. These are pits coated in leaves in which fruit and roots were
fermented, enabling the products to be preserved for longer. They are used, above all,
in tropical areas and are unknown in Europe (Fig. 5.13).
Storage pits for nuts. The few storage pits for nuts found from prehistoric times are
cylindrical and have smaller dimensions than silos for grain. Ethnographical examples
that are rectangular in plan are also known. In archaeology, storage pits for nuts are
identified by finding the remains of nuts (generally charred) inside a cylindrical pit (Fig.
5.1).
Storage jars buried to the neck. These are large earthenware jars buried to the neck in
cylindrical pits, usually with a concave base adjusted to the shape of the jar. Storage
jars buried to the neck contained liquids such as wine, oil or water. According to
ethnographical data, they could also preserve some types of fruit (Figs. 5.9 and 5.10).
Underground mortars. This type of mortar consisted of a simple pit made in the
ground, in which seeds were placed in order to crush them using a stick or a wooden
mallet. Underground mortars were of modest size, with a diameter of 0.30m or 0.40m,
and a similar depth (Fig. 3.13).
Post holes. This type of feature enables wooden houses to be identified. It consists of a
cylinder of small diameter with a depth several times greater than its diameter. It
could also be used as the foundation of a palisade or for other features such as
bridges, haystack posts, etc. (Fig. 2.9)

Deep features that are rectangular or oval in plan
There are few negative features that are rectangular in plan. Wells, silos (of all types),
pit houses and even some semi-underground granaries can be rectangular. When we
find a pit that is rectangular in plan in the excavation of a feature from prehistoric
times, we should assume, in principle, that it is a storage cellar.
Storage cellars. Prehistoric storage cellars are pits that are rectangular or oval in plan,
although storage cellars are also known to be in the shape of a passageway with stone
walls. Storage cellars were used to preserve all types of food. The food could be placed
in storage cellars in pottery, barrels, boxes, sacks, or it could be stored hanging, etc.
The preservation of food in storage cellars was based on the greater stability of below
ground temperatures, especially with the coolness underground during the summer
months (Fig. 5.5).
On some sites, storage cellars are known to have had a wooden box to prevent the
food coming into contact with the walls of the pit.

8

Deep features that are elongated in plan
Pits that are elongated in plan can be classified in many ways. Here I have outlined the
types of pit related to settlements first, followed by the agrarian and natural features.
Storage cellars. As described above, storage cellars exist that are in the shape of a
walled passageway (Fig. 5.5, 3).
Foundation trenches. These trenches are the foundation of dry stone walls or walls
made from supporting logs. If connected to post holes, these foundation trenches
enable us to identify wooden houses.
Fences and palisades. Fences and palisades are detected by the alignment of small
post holes or foundation trenches narrower than those of a wall. Fences could be for
livestock or to define a settlement. Palisades could be for defence purposes when they
are connected to ditches.
Ditches. These usually define settlements. They are connected to palisades and their
purpose is usually attributed to defence. Neolithic ditches are often discontinuous and
arranged one after the other (Fig. 2.16).
Ard marks or plough lines. These are the marks left by the plough in the substrate of a
crop field. They are small parallel trenches arranged along the fields, and often cross-
sectioned by other orthogonal marks. Modern ploughs usually erase the markings left
by older ploughs. As a result, many plough markings that have been preserved are
under prehistoric mounds that seal older crop fields (Fig. 6.1).
Plot boundaries. These are trenches that define an old crop field. They are often found
as a result of aerial photography or laser altimetry, enabling the identification of land
that used to be divided into plots. Land divided into plots in prehistoric times, usually
known by the name of Celtic fields, has been found in several regions in temperate
Europe.
Drainage channels. These are trenches that collect water from a settlement or a
cultivated plot of land, and direct it towards a river or stream. They can be identified
by aerial photography or directly through excavation.
Paleochannels. These are channels along which rainwater used to pass, and which
have been covered by agricultural terraces. They are not anthropic features, but
natural elements. They are included in this work because they can be found in an
archaeological excavation (Fig. 11.2).

TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Underground silo for grain Cylindrical, truncated-cone
shaped, egg-shaped or bottle-
shaped
Charred grain
Coating of the walls with clay
Slight rubefaction of walls
Grain imprints
Presence of lids
Storage pit with intact pottery Cylindrical, truncated-cone
shaped, egg-shaped or bottle-
shaped
Intact storage pottery
Semi-underground silo for Cylindrical basin Charred cereal grains
9

grain
Root storage pit Cylindrical
Silage pit Cylindrical or elongated
Well Cylindrical Great depth, to the water table
Protective elements in the
lower section (logs, stone
walls)
Sandy bed pit Circular or square in plan Layer of sand or ash in the
bottom
Vat Cylindrical
Fermentation pit Cylindrical
Storage pit for nuts Cylindrical Charred nuts
Storage jar buried to the neck Cylindrical and concave in
plan
Relatively intact preserved
storage jar (more than half the
jar)
Underground mortar Cylindrical Small dimensions
Layer of clay on the walls
Post hole Cylindrical, narrow and deep Sediment with charcoal or
organic matter (dark
colouring)
Wedging stones
Storage cellar Rectangular, oval or
elongated in plan
The storage jars it contained
can be preserved
They can have a wooden box
Foundation trench Elongated Connected to a wall
Fence or palisade Elongated Line of post holes or
foundation trenches defining
an area
They can be connected to a
pit
Ditch Elongated They usually define a dwelling
area
They can be connected to a
palisade
Ard mark or plough line Elongated Small channels following the
direction of the long side of a
field or cross-sectioned
Plot boundary Elongated They are usually in a straight
line and define a rectangular
field
Drainage channel Elongated They can be in a dwelling
area or define crop fields
Paleochannel Elongated Former streambed created by
nature

Table 1.4: Deep, negative features, which are greater in depth than width


10

Shallow features
Continuing with negative features, this section outlines some regular features
characterised for their shallowness. They are ranked from largest to smallest.
Pools. These are large hollows, usually near settlements, in which rainwater
accumulated. Layers of clay and silt swept along by the water are detected at the
bottom of the pool. A sediment study can reveal diatom skeletons and other
organisms belonging in stagnant water. Pottery is sometimes found in the bottom of
pools. It is assumed that these were used to collect water and were lost.
Pit houses. This is a classical type of feature and is quite controversial. It is a house in
which the floor is a regular-shaped pit. In some cases, it can be an entire dwelling, but
European examples from prehistoric times are more likely to point to a specific
purpose: a workshop, livestock enclosure, storehouse, etc. Until the 1980s, a pit
house was the name given to any negative feature (Figs. 2.13-2.15).
Earth ovens. These are also called cooking pits. They are a special type of oven
consisting of a circular or elongated pit in which food was cooked by adding very hot
stones taken from a fire located nearby or in the same pit. Food was wrapped in leaves
and cooked slowly. Ethnographical studies indicate that earth ovens were used above
all for feasts and banquets, as they were ovens that enabled an entire animal to be
cooked, and, and were, therefore, not suitable for cooking the small quantities of food
required on a daily basis (Figs. 3.7-3.9).
Fire pits. Fires were sometimes constructed in basins, which served to concentrate the
heat of the fire on the container being used for cooking. Fire pits are identified when a
basin is found with rubefaction of the walls, and the interior is full of ash and charcoal
(Fig. 3.2 and 3.3).
Pot holders. This is a small hollow with a flat or concave base that was used to hold a
large earthenware jar. Sand or wedging stones were sometimes used to adjust the
base of the earthenware jar to the shape of the pit (Fig. 5.8, 2).
11


TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Pool These tend to be circular with
a large diameter
They can have a supply
channel bringing water
Silt in the bottom of the pool
Pit house Circular or rectangular Flat ground
They can have domestic
features such as fires, ovens,
grain compartments, etc.
Earth oven (cooking pit) Circular or elongated
rectangle
Heat-altered stones
They can have large pieces of
charcoal
Fire pit Circular Rubefaction of walls
Charcoal and ash
Pot holder Circular with a concave base Base of a storage jar in situ
Wedging stone

Table 1.5: Shallow negative features

Special-shaped features
These pits are identified by their different shapes, as they can be cylindrical, funnel-
shaped, elongated, etc. Many of these pits are industrial, meaning that they were used
to make a specific product. In some industrial features, the presence of the product
obtained, or its waste, can be detected. Fire was often used to obtain these products,
in which case we detect charcoal, ash and rubefaction.
Underground domestic ovens. This type of domestic oven is found when the chamber
of an oven is dug into the side wall of a pit house. The majority of examples known in
Europe are from the Middle Ages, but some older ones exist. They are usually circular
in plan and the walls form a dome (Fig. 3.4).
Clay pits. These pits appear irregular, but, when observed in detail, are a combination
of several oval pits. Each oval pit represents an operator who extracted the
surrounding earth (usually an arms length, typically with a maximum axis of 1.5-2 m),
which is vertical directly in front of the operator and less vertical behind, and through
which the sediment was removed. The pits intersect one another, and the ground
evokes the craters of the moon. Until the 1980s, the majority of these pits were
classified as pit houses (Figs. 10.1-10.4).
Pits to settle and knead clay. These are usually clay pits that were reused to settle or
knead the mud that was used in the construction of nearby features and buildings.
Underground pottery kilns. Pottery vessels could be fired in underground pottery
kilns. Ethnography and experimental archaeology show us numerous possible shapes
for these ovens, from cylindrical (basin-shaped) to those with an access shaft and a
cooking chamber dug into the ground (Fig. 10.7).
12

Pottery dumps. In a potters workshop, these are places where badly-fired or
deformed pottery was thrown away. It can be simply a pile or a pit. It is a former clay
pit. The name sensu lato is also given to a build-up of pottery (Fig. 10.9).
Buried storage jars. This is a very special type of feature, to the extent that I do not
know of any definite examples in prehistoric Europe. The definition is based on former
agronomy treatises, which stated that fruit and nuts could be preserved in
hermetically sealed storage jars that were buried in a dry place (Fig. 5.11).
Charcoal piles. This feature was where the charcoal required for metallurgical furnaces
was obtained. It is, therefore, believed that they were developed above all from the
Eneolithic period onwards, although the first charcoal piles identified for certain were
from the Iron Age. The ethnography and history of the techniques demonstrate
different ways of making charcoal, as it could be made in piles or in pits. A charcoal pile
is detected by the presence of charcoal from numerous species suitable for producing
charcoal, such as oak, holm oak, beech, pine, heather, etc. in the Mediterranean
region, or alder, linden, maple or elm in temperate Europe (Figs. 10.15 and 10.16).
Copper furnaces. There are many types. It is necessary to distinguish between
reducing furnaces, which obtained copper from the mineral and are located in mining
areas and smelting furnaces, found on the sites of bronzesmith workshops, and
located near centres of commerce. The most well known reducing furnaces consist of a
quadrangular pit in a sloping location, with stone walls. The inside is full of charcoal
and copper slag. Reducing furnaces consist of a crucible placed on a pit where charcoal
was burned with great intensity, with the help of the airflow provided by bellows
attached to a nozzle. The elements for the identification of a reducing furnace are the
crucible, the pit, the nozzle and the presence of metal slag (Figs. 10.10 and 10.11).
Furnaces. As with copper furnaces, it is necessary to differentiate, on one hand,
between those used to obtain iron from the mineral (reducing furnace) and smelting
furnaces or forges, which are found on the site of blacksmith workshops. In a reducing
furnace, an iron sponge is obtained. This is reheated in the oven and hammered
repeatedly to shape the iron object. An anvil usually appears near the forge, which is a
stone on which the blacksmith hammered the iron (Figs. 10.12-10.14).
Lime kilns. Poorly documented for prehistoric times, these are known above all as a
result of experiments, and, predominantly, due to ethnographic information and
information from ancient agronomists (Fig. 10.17).
Tar kilns. We do not know either of any tar kilns that have been identified and studied.
Nearly all the information available is based on experiments and more recent ovens
(Figs. 10.18-10.21).
Tannery pits. These long, narrow pits are problematic. They are called Schlitzgruben in
German. They used to be considered as pits for tanning skins, which were immersed in
liquid containing tannins. However, they now tend to be interpreted as pit traps.
13

Smudge pits. These are small pits in which matter was burnt to create a significant
amount of smoke that was used to smoke skins. Although this type of pit is well known
in North America, I know of no examples in Europe (Fig. 10.22).
Pit traps. This type of pit is controversial, as it includes the Schlitzgruben, a specific
type of pit found in many places in Europe, which is elongated, deep and very often
has a hollow base. Years ago, this type of pit was considered to be a tannery pit, but it
now tends to be considered a pit trap (Figs. 10.23 and 10.24).
Planting pits. These pits were made in the ground of old crop fields, which were used
to plant vines or other trees. Vines were planted in rows, maintaining a certain
distance between them, in order to facilitate use of the plough. The majority of
planting pits and trenches known are from Roman times, but some are from the Iron
Age and a few older ones exist on Mediterranean islands (Fig. 6.3).
Tree throws. These are irregular pits caused by a tree falling due to the force of the
wind. When the tree falls, the roots are stretched and a rather irregular section of
earth is created in the shape of a D. These pits were caused by nature, but were
occasionally used by people (Fig. 11.1).

TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Underground domestic oven Circular in plan with an access
shaft
Intense rubefaction
Clay pit Pit formed by the combination
of different oval pits that are
juxtaposed
The substrate must be made
of clay
Pit to settle and knead clay A clay pit is usually reused They usually contain clay
settled in the bottom of the pit
Underground pottery kiln Cylindrical Slight rubefaction
Pottery dump A pre-existing pit is usually
used
Build-up of badly-fired or
deformed pottery
Buried storage jar Formed by the combination of
different pits juxtaposed, of
more modest measurements
than clay pits

Charcoal pile Circular or quadrangular in
plan
Charcoal from species
suitable for producing
charcoal
They can be found on the site
of a blacksmiths workshop or
at a distance from settlements
Copper furnace Circular or quadrangular in
plan
Rubefaction of walls
Charcoal
Nozzles
Crucibles
Copper slag
Furnace Circular or quadrangular in
plan
Rubefaction of walls
Charcoal
Nozzles
14

Crucibles
Iron slag
Lime kiln Cylindrical Rubefaction of walls
Lime remains
Proximity to a pool in order to
slake the lime
Tar kiln Funnel-shaped (and other
shapes)
Rubefaction of walls
Charcoal
Tannery pit Long and narrow in a Y V or
W shape
The accumulation of organic
matter, phosphorus, nitrogen,
etc.
Smudge pit Cylindrical with a concave
base
The presence of charcoal that
produced a great deal of
smoke
A layer of smoke in the walls
Pit trap Long and narrow in a Y V or
W shape
Far from settlements
They appear in groups
Planting pit Pits located at regular
intervals
They are identified when
stripping away great layers
Tree throw D-shaped Irregular walls

Table 1.6: Special-shaped features


Non-specific shaped features
For these features, the shape of the pit is unimportant, as it is characterised by the
objects contained within. Advantage is sometimes taken of pits with other functions,
such as silos, post holes, clay pits, etc.
Cache pits. Cache pits are pits, or sometimes simply places (loci), in which a more or
less significant number of tools, utensils and goods are found. They are assumed to
have been hidden underground because they were not required at the time, or
perhaps due to a situation of insecurity, which made it advisable to hide valuable
goods. In a previous work, I classified cache pits into domestic cache pits (Figs. 8.1-8.3),
distribution cache pits (Figs. 7.4 and 7.5) and hoards (Figs. 7.6) (Table 1.7) (Miret 2010:
117-119).
Ritual pits. Ritual pits are pits containing elements attributed to magical-religious
rituals or identified as offerings to divinities. There are many types of ritual pit, and
they are, generally, quite controversial. To avoid excessive digression into a type of
feature that is subject to speculation, I have opted to use the little knowledge we have
from the classical era, for which we know some religious aspects, and to go back in
time to see whether what we find from prehistoric times can be adapted to the
archaeological records from the classical era. In this way, I have taken the following
types of ritual pit into consideration (Table 1.7): foundation depots (Figs. 8.1-8.3), ritual
pits with animal bones in anatomical connection (Fig. 8.4-8.5), ritual pits with
15

banqueting remains, ritual pits related to libation (Figs. 8.6-8.8), ritual pits with objects
of worship, and findings in swamps. These features are described in greater detail in
chapter 8.
Burial pits. The number of prehistoric features and constructions related to death is
very extensive: passage graves, cists, barrows, urnfields, hypogea, grave pits, etc. This
monograph studies only a few burial features: storage pits for grain reused as a burial
place, animal graves in tombs or cemeteries, etc. (Figs. 9.1-9.2).
Waste pits. Based on the ethno-archaeological works of Hayden and Cannon (1983), it
is necessary to distinguish between two types of waste pit. The authors mentioned
maintain that waste was sorted twice. Firstly, there was a provisional discard, in which
the remains of food or ash were thrown into a temporary dump (such as a manure
heap), broken pottery was stored in case it could be used to give water to animals or
to protect vegetable garden plants, etc. Sometimes, usually once a year, a final discard
was made. The content of the manure heap was poured onto crop fields, and objects
that could not be used were thrown into any type of pit that had lost its original use.
This could be a silo, clay pit, well, etc., or the bed of a stream.


TYPE SHAPE IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
Cache pit or domestic cache
pits
A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Many types of pottery, tools,
millstones, raw materials.
Found within settlements
Cache pit or distribution cache
pits
A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Repeated series of bronze,
stone axes or flint tools.
Smelter deposits with broken
objects.
Distanced from settlements
Hoard A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Necklaces, bronze tools, coins
Belonging to historical times
Foundation depot In a post hole, a trench or a pit
covered by the paving of a
house
They can contain intact
pottery, the skeleton of a
sacrificed animal or coins
Ritual pit with animal bones in
anatomical connection
A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Full or partial skeleton of a
sacrificed animal.
Found within a settlement or
place of worship
Ritual pit with banqueting
remains
A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Remains of exceptional types
of food (unusual species).
Found within places of
worship or burial areas
Ritual pit related to libation A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Series of cups for individual
use (glasses, dishes)
Ritual pit with objects of
worship
A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
Deposit of objects of worship
(pots, figurines, miniature
vessels, etc.)
Findings in swamps Objects of all types thrown
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into swamps or buried in
surrounding areas
Burial pit (in a settlement) A pre-existing pit is usually
reused, generally a silo
Graves in silos, under houses,
etc.
They can be primary or
secondary
Waste pit A pre-existing pit is usually
reused
All types of waste and rubbish

Table 1.7: Non-specific shaped features, characterised by their content



English translation: Victoria Pounce