Hydrogen vehicle

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The 2015 Toyota FCV, one of the first hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to be sold commercially
[1]

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power.
Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other
transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert thechemical energy of
hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or
by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of
hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.
[2]

Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus is not an energy source; rather it is an
energy carrier. It is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels, but it can be
produced using sources (such as wind, solar, or nuclear) that are intermittent, however the
conversion loss to chemical energy makes the approach uneconomical on a large
scale.
[3]
Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are
exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with
traditional energy sources.
[4]
There are various ways to produce hydrogen fuel such as: natural
gas, coal, nuclear power, and renewable resources. By use of thermochemical processes one
can produce hydrogen from biomass, coal, natural gas and petroleum. Production of hydrogen
electrolytically can also be demonstrated experimentally for power generated by use of sunlight,
wind and nuclear sources. In addition to this, sunlight alone can drive photolytic production of
hydrogen from water by use of advanced photocatalytic water splitting and photo biological
processes however none of these approaches can compete with the low cost and abundance of
natural gas produced by the hydraulic fracturing of shales.
[5]

Many companies are working to develop technologies that might efficiently exploit the potential of
hydrogen energy for use in motor vehicles. As of November 2013 there are demonstration fleets
of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles undergoing field testing including the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel
Cell, Honda FCX Clarity, Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell and Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-Cell.
[6]
The hope
that was widely promoted for hydrogen as an energy currency was that, hydrogen prepared
without using fossil fuel inputs, vehicle propulsion would not contribute to carbon
dioxide emissions, however this has proven to be uneconomical in light of the developments of
fracking. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high carbon emissions intensity when produced
from natural gas of over 14 kg CO
2
per kg of hydrogen, capital cost burden, low energy content
per unit volume, low performance of fuel cell vehicles compared with gasoline vehicles,
production and compression of hydrogen, and the large investment in infrastructure that would
be required to fuel vehicles.
[6][7][8]

Contents
[hide]
1 Vehicles
o 1.1 Automobiles
o 1.2 Buses
o 1.3 Bicycles
o 1.4 Motorcycles and scooters
o 1.5 Quads and tractors
o 1.6 Airplanes
o 1.7 Fork trucks
o 1.8 Rockets
2 Internal combustion vehicle
3 Fuel cell
o 3.1 Fuel cell cost
o 3.2 Freezing conditions
o 3.3 Service life
4 Hydrogen
o 4.1 Production
o 4.2 Storage
o 4.3 Infrastructure
o 4.4 Codes and standards
5 Official support
6 Criticism
7 Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle
o 7.1 Plug-in hybrids
o 7.2 Natural gas
o 7.3 All-electric vehicles
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Vehicles[edit]

Honda FCX Clarity, a hydrogen fuel cell demonstration vehicle introduced in 2008
Further information: Fuel cell vehicle
Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf
carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, and rockets can already run on
hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. A
working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the
form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the
solar energy.
[9]
Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing the key concern for environmentalists
with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is consumer and public policy confusion that could result
adoption of natural gas powered hydrogen vehicles with heavy hidden emissions to the detriment
of environmentally friendly transportation.
[8]

The current land speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle is 286.476 miles per hour
(461.038 km/h) set by Ohio State University'sBuckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile"
speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008. For
production-style vehicles, the current record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle is 207.297 miles per
hour (333.612 km/h) set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car
at Bonneville Salt Flats in Wendover, Utah in August 2007. It was accompanied by a large
compressed oxygen tank to increase power.
[10]

Automobiles[edit]
Main articles: List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles
Many automobile companies are currently researching the feasibility of commercially producing
hydrogen cars, and some have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see list of
fuel cell vehicles).
[11]
At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Daimler AG, Honda,
Hyundai and Toyota all confirmed plans to produce hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for sale by
2015.
[12]
General Motors said it had not abandoned fuel-cell technology and still plans to
introduce hydrogen vehicles like the GM HydroGen4 to retail customers by 2015. Charles Freese,
GMs executive director of global powertrain engineering, stated that the company believes that
both fuel-cell vehicles and battery electric vehicles are needed for reduction of greenhouse gases
and reliance on oil.
[13]

In December 2012 Toyota announced its plans to limit its all-electric car development and
instead concentrate on the development and launch of a fuel cell vehicle by 2015.
[14]
In October
2013 Toyota announced it had reduced the cost of the fuel cell system in its next hydrogen-
powered car by almost US$1 million and expects to introduce a hydrogen mid-size sedan at a
price of less than US$100,000 by 2015.
[15]
Toyota plans to launch its first production fuel cell
vehicle, the Toyota FCV, in 2015. The car is expected to have a range of over 300 mi (480 km)
and to take about three minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. It is expected to be available first in
Japan, and then in California, mainly the Los Angeles area, due to the availability there of
hydrogen fueling stations. The expected cost in Japan is about 7 million yen ($69,000).
[16]


The Chevrolet Sequel is a purpose-built hydrogen fuel cell-powered concept SUV vehicle developed byGeneral
Motors
In 2009, Nissan started testing a new FC vehicle in Japan.
[17]
Daimler has introduced its B-class
demonstration FC vehicle.
[12]
In 2011,Hyundai introduced its Blue
2
("Blue Square") fuel cell
electric vehicle (FCEV), and stated that it plans to have FCEVs available for sale by
2014.
[18]
Honda stated in 2009 that it could start mass-producing vehicles based on its FCX
Clarity concept car by the year 2020
[19]
and in 2009 stated that it saw hydrogen fuel cells as "a
better long term bet than batteries and plug-in vehicles".
[20]
In December 2010, however, it
introduced the Honda Fit EV, an all-electric car version of the gasoline-powered Fit, using
elements of its hydrogen engine design, stating that the "industry trend seems to be focused on
the battery electric vehicle".
[21]

In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: "The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is
no nearer." It concluded that "Capital cost, not hydrogen supply, will limit adoption to a mere 5.9
GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche
applications". Lux's analysis concluded that by 2030, the PEM stationary market will reach $1
billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.
[22]


Buses[edit]
Main article: fuel cell bus

Toyota FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.
Fuel cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several
manufacturers in different locations. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing
collaboration.
Hydrogen was first stored in roof mounted tanks, although models are now incorporating onboard
tanks. Some double deck models use between floor tanks.
Tata Motors and ISRO have already developed hydrogen bus and is being tested in India. The
bus is expected to get on road in 2015.
Bicycles[edit]
Main article: PHB (bicycle)

Hydrogen bicycle
Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the 9th
China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment and Applications in 2007.
Motorcycles and scooters[edit]
ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including
the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen
scooters.
[23]
Finally, hydrogen fuel cell-electric hybrid scooters are being made such as
the Suzuki Burgman Fuel cell scooter.
[24]
and the FHybrid.
[25]
The Burgman received "whole
vehicle type" approval in the EU.
[26]
The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test
with 80 fuel cell scooters for Taiwans Bureau of Energy.
[27]

Quads and tractors[edit]
Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due
[28]
is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers.
A concept for a hydrogen powered tractor has been proposed.
[29]

Airplanes[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen planes.

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell
Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center pursue
hydrogen as fuel for manned and unmanned airplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a
manned flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes
have also been tested.
[30]
For large passenger airplanes however, The Times reported that
"Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet
airplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."
[31]

In July 2010 Boeing unveiled its hydrogen powered Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford
internal combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.
[32]

In Britain, the Reaction Engines A2 has been proposed to use the thermodynamic properties
of liquid hydrogen to achieve very high speed, long distance (antipodal) flight by burning it in
a precooled jet engine.
Fork trucks[edit]
A HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine-powered
industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift
truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27,
2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use
hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection.
[33][34]

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a fuel cell forklift) is a fuel cell powered
industrial forklift truck. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in
the US.
[35]
Only 500 of these received funding from DOE in 2012.
[36][37]
As of 2013, fuel cell fleets
are being operated by several number of companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight,
GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.
[38]
A
total of 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift were demonstrated in Europe and extended it with HyLIFT-
EUROPE to 200 units.
[39]
With other projects in France
[40][41]
and Austria.
[42]
Pike Research stated
in 2011 that fuel-cell-powered forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by
2020.
[43]

PEM fuel-cell-powered forklifts provide significant benefits over both petroleum forklifts as they
produce no local emissions, and as compared with electric vehicles, the forklifts can work for a
full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can be refueled in 3 minutes and have a lifetime of
810 years. Fuel-cell-powered forklifts are often used in refrigerated warehouses as their
performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.
[44]
Most fuel cells used for material handling
purposes are powered by PEM fuel cells, although someDMFC forklifts are coming onto the
market. In design the FC units are often made as drop-in replacements.
[45][46]

Rockets[edit]
Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer. An advantage
of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared
tokerosene/LOX or UDMH/NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket
with higher exhaust velocity needs less propellant mass to achieve a given change of speed.
Before combustion, the hydrogen runs through cooling pipes around the exhaust nozzle to
protect the nozzle from damage by the hot exhaust gases.
[47]

A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines are the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen,
which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed. This increases the
rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta-v significantly. Another disadvantage is the poor
storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket can
only be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and
other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.
Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense
fuelled stage, however, the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly
effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense
fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower
air drag.
[48]

Liquid hydrogen and oxygen were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power
the electrical systems.
[49]
The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and
other applications that require water in space.
Internal combustion vehicle[edit]
Main articles: Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle and List of hydrogen internal
combustion engine vehicles
Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars.
The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional
gasolineinternal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner
that gasoline engines do.
Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1807 the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion
engine.
[50]
Paul Dieges patented in 1970 a modification to internal combustion engines which
allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen US 3844262.
Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE (internal
combustion engine) like Wankel and piston engines is the cost of retooling for production is much
lower. Existing-technology ICE can still be applied for solving those problems where fuel cells are
not a viable solution insofar, for example in cold-weather applications.
HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated
[51]
based on converted diesel internal combustion
engines with direct injection.
[34]

Fuel cell[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Fuel cell.
Fuel cell cost[edit]
Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances
such as platinum as a catalyst.
[52]
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated in 2002 that
the cost of a fuel cell for an automobile (assuming high-volume manufacturing) was
approximately $275/kW, which translated into each vehicle costing an estimated 100,000
dollars.
[53]
However, by 2010, DOE estimated the cost had fallen 80% and that automobile fuel
cells might be manufactured for $51/kW, assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.
[54]

The projected cost, assuming a manufacturing volume of 500,000 units/year, using 2012
technology, was estimated by the DOE to be $47/kW for an 80 kW PEM fuel cell. Assuming a
manufacturing volume of 10,000 units/year, however, the cost was projected to be $84/kW using
2012 technlogy.
[55]
The Department of Energy wrote: "Hydrogen fuel cells for cars have never
been manufactured at large scale, in part because of the prohibitive price tag. But the DOE
estimates that the cost of producing fuel cells is falling fast".
[56]

In 2014, Toyota said it would sell its Toyota FCV in Japan for less than $70,000 by April
2015
[16]
and that it has brought the cost of the fuel cell system down to 5 percent of the fuel cell
prototypes of the last decade.
[57]

Freezing conditions[edit]
Temperatures below freezing are a concern with fuel cells operations. Operational fuel cells have
an internal vaporous water environment that could solidify if the fuel cell and contents are not
kept above 0 Celsius (32 F). Most fuel cell designs are not as yet robust enough to survive in
below-freezing environments. Frozen solid, especially before start up, they would not be able to
begin working. Once running though, heat is a byproduct of the fuel cell process, which would
keep the fuel cell at an adequate operational temperature to function correctly. This makes
startup of the fuel cell a concern in cold weather operation. Places such as Alaska where
temperatures can reach 40 C (40 F) at startup would not be able to use early model fuel
cells. Ballard announced in 2006 that it had hit the U.S. DoE's 2010 target for cold weather
starting which was 50% power achieved in 30 seconds at -20 C.
[58]
Fuel cells have startup and
long term reliability problems.
[59]

Service life[edit]
The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles.
[60]
PEM service life is 7,300
hours under cycling conditions.
[61]
Research is ongoing to extend service life further.
Hydrogen[edit]
Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but is first produced
and then stored as a carrier, much like a battery. A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment
of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and
ozone precursors.
[62]

According to the United States Department of Energy, "compared to ICE vehicles using
gasoline ... fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by 60%."
[63]
While methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be
more sustainable,
[64]
currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy
generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in electric vehicles and for
non-vehicle applications.
[65]

The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include production, storage, transport and
distribution. The well-to-wheel efficiency for hydrogen is less than 25%.
[8][66][67][68]
A study
sposored by the U.S. Department of Energy said in 2004 that the well-to-wheel efficiency of
gasoline or diesel powered vehicles is even less.
[69]

Production[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.
The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained
through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal
gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process
called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen
production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas,
[70]
and 85% of hydrogen produced is
used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced
from water by electrolysis or by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or
aluminum.
[71]
Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms,
totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to
produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.
[72]

Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include
the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also result from the on-board
reforming of methanol into hydrogen.
[66]
Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of
hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in
conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and
greenhouse gases would result.
[8][62]
Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources
would not create such emissions or, in the case of biomass, would create near-zero net
emissions assuming new biomass is grown in place of that converted to hydrogen. However the
same land could be used to create Biodiesel, usable with (at most) minor alterations to existing
well developed and relatively efficient diesel engines. In either case, the scale of renewable
energy production today is small and would need to be greatly expanded to be used in producing
hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.
[73]
As of December 2008, less than 3
percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources, not including dams.
[74]
In a few
countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For
example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,
[75]
and Denmark is using
wind.
[76]

Storage[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen storage.

Compressed hydrogen storage mark
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about one-
third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored asliquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or in
a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is
small relative to that of gasoline.
[52]
Hydrogen has a three times higher specific
energy by mass compared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg). Some research has been
done into using special crystalline materials to store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower
pressures. A recent study by Dutch researcher Robin Gremaud has shown that metal hydride
hydrogen tanks are actually 40 to 60-percent lighter than an equivalent energy battery pack on
an electric vehicle permitting greater range for H2 cars.
[77]
In 2011, scientists at Los Alamos
National Laboratory and University of Alabama, working with the U.S. Department of Energy,
found a new single-stage method for recharging ammonia borane, a hydrogen storage
compound.
[78][79]

Hydrogen storage is a key area for the advancement of hydrogen and fuel cell power. An article
discussing the issue of storage states, Alternatives to large storage tanks may be found in
hydrides, materials that can absorb, store, and release large quantities of hydrogen gas. More
work and development needs to be performed with hydrides before they are of practical use.
Some other options available for hydrogen fuel cells storage include: High pressure tanks and
cryogenic tanks. Both of which strive to improve volumetric capacity, conformability, and cost of
storage. The DOEs efforts on this matter have focused on on-board vehicular hydrogen storage
systems that will allow for a driving range of 300+ miles while meeting all requirements in order
to stay competitive with current means of transportation.
[80][81]

Infrastructure[edit]

Hydrogen car fueling

Hydrogen fueling
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen infrastructure.
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen highway.
The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and
hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on ahydrogen highway. Hydrogen
stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen
tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite
production.
Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and transport on a scale never seen before
in history. For example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a hydrogen-
generating facility but has little access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commercial
use.
[82]
The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. would require new
hydrogen stations that would cost, by some estimates approximately 20 billion dollars
[83]
and 4.6
billion in the EU.
[84]
Other estimates place the cost as high as half trillion dollars in the United
States alone.
[8][85]

The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative to build a series of hydrogen refueling
stations along California state highways. As of 2013, 10 publicly accessible hydrogen filling
stations were in operation in the U.S., eight of which were in Southern California, one in the San
Francisco bay area, and one in South Carolina.
[6]

Codes and standards[edit]
Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen
safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been identified as an institutional barrier to
deploying hydrogen technologies and developing a hydrogen economy. To enable the
commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be
developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.
[86]

Official support[edit]
In January 2003, George W. Bush announced an initiative to promote hydrogen powered
vehicles.
[87]

President Obama has shown much support for the progression of fuel cell energy. In January
2014 the Obama administration announced they want to speed up production and development
of hydrogen powered vehicles. The press release states that, by partnering with a private sector,
the Obama administration thinks that it can create success stories and help speed up the
process. The Department of Energy is spreading a $7.2 million investment to the states of
Georgia, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee to support projects that fuel vehicles and
support power systems. Big companies like The Center for Transportation and The Environment,
Fed Ex Express, Air Products and Chemicals, and Sprint are invested in the development of
these fuel cells. Fuel cells could also be used in handling equipment such as forklifts as well as
telecommunications infrastructure.
[88]

Senator Byron L. Dorgan spoke out about The Energy and Water Appropriations bill earlier this
year. He stated, The Energy and Water Appropriations bill makes investments in our nations
efforts to develop safe, homegrown energy sources that will reduce our reliance on foreign oil.
And, because ongoing research and development is necessary to develop game-changing
technologies, this bill also restores funding for Hydrogen energy research. Much work has been
done in developing these fuel cell cars. The U.S. Department of Energy supports next generation
fuel cell systems and they are the nations lead innovative clean energy technologies. In June
2013 the DOE gave 9 million dollars in grants to speed up the technology and another 4.5 million
for advanced fuel cell membranes. Minnesota based 3M will receive 3 million and the Colorado
School of Mines will receive 1.5 million as well. Minnesota and Colorado are working toward
these developments. Minnesota is focusing on innovative membranes with improved durability
and performance. Colorado is focusing on fuel cell membranes, making them simpler and more
affordable. Last year $54 million was given by the government to the SECA Program as
congress recognized and embraced the role hydrogen fuel cells and their fuels play in the
portfolio of energy technologies for the 21st centuries. The Energy and Security program was
passed to boost hydrogen environmental cleanup programs and fossil fuel programs. The overall
goals of these efforts are to improve efficiency and lower costs of fuel cells.
[89][90]

Criticism[edit]
Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to
implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen cars is likely to last for at least several decades, and
hydrogen vehicles may never become broadly available.
[65][91]
They claim that the focus on the
use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing
the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.
[92]
In May 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be
40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global
warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources
from more immediate solutions."
[93]

K. G. Duleep commented that "a strong case exists for continuing fuel-efficiency improvements
from conventional technology at relatively low cost."
[94]
Critiques of hydrogen vehicles are
presented in the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?. According to former U.S.
Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most
expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases." Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly
available, Romm replied: "Not in our lifetime, and very possibly never."
[94]
The Los Angeles
Times wrote, in February 2009, "Hydrogen fuel-cell technology won't work in cars. ... Any way
you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."
[95]

The Wall Street Journal reported in 2008 that "Top executives from General Motors Corp. and
Toyota Motor Corp. Tuesday expressed doubts about the viability of hydrogen fuel cells for
mass-market production in the near term and suggested their companies are now betting that
electric cars will prove to be a better way to reduce fuel consumption and cut tailpipe emissions
on a large scale."
[96]
The Economist magazine, in September 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the
author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle
fuel'".
[97]
The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In March [2008]
the California Air Resources Board, an agency of California's state government and a bellwether
for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of zero-emission
vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate
allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery-electric cars instead of
fuel-cell vehicles."
[97]
The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam
reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's
gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it
would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in
hybrid vehicles."
[97]

The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "But why would you want to store energy in the
form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical
energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto
batteries"?.
[70]
A December 2009 study at UC Davis, published in the Journal of Power Sources,
found that, over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline
vehicles.
[98]
This agrees with a 2014 analysis.
[8]
The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are
still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most
importantly, production."
[99]

Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars
themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert
energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use
green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you
lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it
under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the
hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the
end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."
[100]
In
2013, Volkswagen signed a $60 million to $100 million engineering services deal with Ballard for
the development of fuel cells to move ahead faster with new power transportation
technologies.
[101]
The Business Insider commented:
Pure hydrogen can be industrially derived, but it takes energy. If that energy does not come from
renewable sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Another challenge is the
lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before
FCEVs become practical, and it's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on
the road today. ... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel
cells are "still very, very expensive".
[102]

In 2014, Joseph Romm devoted two articles to updating his critiques of hydrogen vehicles. He
states that FCVs still have not overcome the following issues: high cost of the vehicles, high
fueling cost, and a lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure. "It would take several miracles to overcome
all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."
[103]
Most importantly, he says,
"FCVs aren't green" because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when
hydrogen is produced, as 95% of it is, using the steam reforming process. He concludes that
renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now
or in the future."
[104]
GreenTech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.
[105]

Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle[edit]
Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel powered
vehicle infrastructure.
[52]

Plug-in hybrids[edit]

This section is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or
newly available information.
Last update: No content is presented about series production PHEVs launched starting with the BYD
F3DM and the Chevrolet Volt. Figures presented do not reflect current technology available. (November
2013)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into the
electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an internal combustion engine. The PHEV
concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicles with the ability to recharge their batteries
from an external source, enabling increased use of the vehicle's electric motors while reducing
their reliance on internal combustion engines. The infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is
already in place,
[106]
and transmission of power from grid to car is about 93% efficient.
[107]
This,
however, is not the only energy loss in transferring power from grid to wheels. AC/DC conversion
must take place from the grids AC supply to the PHEV's DC. This is roughly 98%
efficient.
[108]
The battery then must be charged. As of 2007, the Lithium iron phosphate
battery was between 80-90% efficient in charging/discharging.
[109]
The battery needs to be
cooled; the GM Volt's battery has 4 coolers and two radiators.
[110]
As of 2009, "the total well-to-
wheels efficiency with which a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is
roughly 20% (although that number could rise to 25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple
technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen economy). The well-to-wheels
efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor in a
PHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could be higher in the future)four times more efficient than
current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways."
[68]
A 2006 article in Scientific American argued that
PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard in the automobile
industry.
[111][112]
A December 2009 study at UC Davis found that, over their lifetimes, PHEVs will
emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will emit more carbon than gasoline
vehicles.
[98]

Natural gas[edit]
Main article: Natural gas vehicle
ICE-based CNG, HCNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use methane (Natural
gas or Biogas) directly as a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen
gas. NGVs using biogas are nearly carbon neutral.
[113]
Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicles
have been available for many years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide both
commercial and home refueling stations. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles
by the end of 2011.
[114]

All-electric vehicles[edit]
Main article: electric car
A 2008 Technology Review article stated, "Electric carsand plug-in hybrid carshave an
enormous advantage over hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon electricity. That is
because of the inherent inefficiency of the entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating the
hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas long distances, getting the hydrogen
in the car, and then running it through a fuel cellall for the purpose of converting the hydrogen
back into electricity to drive the same exact electric motor you'll find in an electric
car."
[115]
Thermodynamically, each additional step in the conversion process decreases the
overall efficiency of the process.
[116][117]

A 2013 comparison of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles agreed with the 25% figure from Ulf
Bossel in 2006 and stated that the cost of an electric vehicle battery "is rapidly coming down, and
the gap will widen further", while there is little "existing infrastructure to transport, store and
deliver hydrogen to vehicles and would cost billions of dollars to put into place, everyone's
household power sockets are "electric vehicle refueling" station and the "cost of electricity
(depending on the source) is at least 75% cheaper than hydrogen."
[118]
In 2013 the National
Academy of Sciences
[119]
and DOE stated that even under optimistic conditions by 2030 the price
for the battery is not expected to go below $17,000 ($200$250/kWh) on 300 miles of
range.
[120]
In 2013 Matthew Mench, from the University of Tennessee stated ""If we are sitting
around waiting for a battery breakthrough that will give us four times the range than we have now,
we are going to be waiting for a long time".
[121]
Navigant Research, (formerly Pike research), on
the other hand, forecasts that lithium-ion costs, which are tipping the scales at about $500 per
kilowatt hour now, could fall to $300 by 2015 and to $180 by 2020.
[122]
In 2013 Takeshi
Uchiyamada, a designer of the Toyota Prius stated: "Because of its shortcomings driving range,
cost and recharging time the electric vehicle is not a viable replacement for most conventional
cars".
[123]

Many electric car designs offer limited driving range causing range anxiety. For example, the
2013 Nissan Leaf has a range of 75 mi (121 km),
[124]
the 2014 Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric
Drive has an estimated range of 115 mi (185 km)
[125]
and the Tesla Model S has a range of up to
265 mi (426 km).
[126]
However, most commutes are 3040 miles (4864 km) miles per day round
trip.
[citation needed]

In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen filling
stations in the U.S., eight of which are in Southern California, and that BEVs' cost-per-mile
expense in 2013 is one-third as much as hydrogen cars, when comparing electricity from the grid
and hydrogen at a filling station. The Times commented: "By the time Toyota sells its first fuel-
cell sedan, there will be about a half-million plug-in vehicles on the road in the United States
and tens of thousands of E.V. charging stations."
[6]
In 2013 John Swanton of the California Air
Resources Board, who sees them as complementary technologies, stated that EVs have the
jump on fuel-cell autos, which "are like electric vehicles were 10 years ago. EVs are for real
consumers, no strings attached. With EVs you have a lot of infrastructure in place.
[127]
The
Business Insider, in 2013 commented that if the energy to produce hydrogen "does not come
from renewable sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Gas stations need
to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical, and it's unlikely
many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today. ... Compounding the lack
of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive", even
compared to battery-powered EVs.
[102]

See also[edit]
Alternative fuel car
Bivalent engine
Electric vehicle
Hell and High Water

Sustainable development portal
Hydrogen economy
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
The Hype about Hydrogen
Tribrid vehicle
World Green Car
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External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Hydrogen
vehicles.
California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage
Fuel Cell Today - Market-based intelligence on the fuel cell
industry
Clean Energy Partnership
C-Net Hydrogen: More Polluting than Petroleum? Cnet news
2007
U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages
Toronto Star article on hydrogen trains dated October 21, 2007
NOVA Video on Fuel Cell Cars (aired on PBS, July 26, 2005)
Sandia Corporation Hydrogen internal combustion engine
description
Inside world's first hydrogen-powered production car BBC News,
14 September 2010
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Hydrogen production
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hydrogen production is the family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen. Currently the
dominant technology for direct production is steam reforming from hydrocarbons. Many other
methods are known including electrolysis and thermolysis.
In 2006, the United States was estimated to have a production capacity of 11 million tonnes of
hydrogen. 5 million tonnes of hydrogen were consumed on-site in oil refining, and in the
production of ammonia (Haber process) and methanol (reduction of carbon monoxide). 0.4
million tonnes were an incidental by-product of the chlor-alkali process.
[1]
Hydrogen production is
an estimated $100 billion industry.
[2]

Contents
[hide]
1 Steam reforming
o 1.1 CO
2
sequestration
2 Other production methods from fossil fuels
o 2.1 Partial oxidation
o 2.2 Plasma reforming
o 2.3 Coal
3 From water
o 3.1 Electrolysis
o 3.2 Thermolysis
o 3.3 Thermochemical cycle
o 3.4 Ferrosilicon method
o 3.5 Photobiological water splitting
o 3.6 Photocatalytic water splitting
o 3.7 Biohydrogen routes
3.7.1 Fermentative hydrogen production
3.7.2 Enzymatic hydrogen generation
3.7.3 Biocatalysed electrolysis
o 3.8 Xylose
4 Renewable hydrogen
5 Use of hydrogen
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Steam reforming[edit]
Main article: Steam reforming
Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen.
[3]
Hydrogen can be generated
from natural gas with approximately 80% efficiency,
[citation needed]
or from otherhydrocarbons to a
varying degree of efficiency. Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam
reforming of methane or natural gas.
[4]
At high temperatures (7001100 C), steam (H
2
O) reacts
with methane (CH
4
) in an endothermic reaction to yield syngas.
[5]


Gasification
CH
4
+ H
2
O CO + 3 H
2

In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the
lower-temperature, exothermic, water gas shift reaction,
performed at about 360 C:
CO + H
2
O CO
2
+ H
2

Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the
additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO
2
. This
oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction.
Additional heat required to drive the process is generally
supplied by burning some portion of the methane.
CO
2
sequestration[edit]
Steam reforming generates carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Since the
production is concentrated in one facility, it is possible to
separate the CO
2
and dispose of it without atmospheric
release, for example by injecting it in an oil or gas reservoir
(see carbon capture), although this is not currently done in
most cases. A carbon dioxide injection project has been
started by a Norwegian company StatoilHydro in the North
Sea, at the Sleipner field.
Integrated steam reforming / co-generation - It is possible to
combine steam reforming and co-
generation of steam and power into a single plant. This can
deliver benefits for an oil refinery because it is more efficient
than separate hydrogen, steam and power plants. Air
Products recently built an integrated steam reforming / co-
generation plant in Port Arthur, Texas.
[6]

Other production methods from fossil
fuels[edit]
Partial oxidation[edit]
The partial oxidation reaction occurs when
a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture is partially combusted in
a reformer, creating a hydrogen-rich syngas. A distinction is
made betweenthermal partial oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic
partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction takes the
general form:
C
n
H
m
+
n
/
2
O
2
n CO +
m
/
2
H
2

Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming
compositions C
12
H
24
and C
24
H
12
respectively, are as
follows:
C
12
H
24
+ 6 O
2
12 CO + 12 H
2

C
24
H
12
+ 12 O
2
24 CO + 6 H
2

Plasma reforming[edit]
The Kvrner-process or Kvaerner carbon
black & hydrogen process (CB&H)
[7]
is a
plasma reforming method, developed in the
1980s by a Norwegian company of the same
name, for the production of hydrogen
and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons
(C
n
H
m
). Of the available energy of the feed,
approximately 48% is contained in the
hydrogen, 40% is contained in activated
carbon and 10% in superheated
steam.
[8]
CO
2
is not produced in the process.
A variation of this process is presented in 2009
using plasma arc waste disposal technology for
the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon
from methane and natural gas in a plasma
converter
[9]

Coal[edit]
Coal can be converted
into syngas and methane, also known as town
gas, via coal gasification. Syngas consists of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
[10]
Another
method for conversion is low temperature and
high temperature coal carbonization.
[11]

From water[edit]
Main article: Water splitting
Many technologies have been explored but it
should be noted that as of 2007 "Thermal,
thermochemical, biochemical and
photochemical processes have so far not found
industrial applications."
[3]
High temperature
electrolysis of alkaline solutions has been used
for the industrial scale production of hydrogen
(see Sable Chemicals) and there are now a
number of small scale polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) electrolysis units available
commercially.
[12][13][14]

Electrolysis[edit]
Currently, the majority of hydrogen (95%) is
produced from fossil fuels by steam reforming
or partial oxidation of methane and coal
gasification with only a small quantity by other
routes such as biomass gasification or
electrolysis of water.
[15]
There are three main
types of cells, solid oxide electrolysis
cells (SOEC's), polymer electrolyte membrane
cells (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells
(AEC's). SOEC's operate at high temperatures,
typically around 800 C. At these high
temperatures a significant amount of the energy
required can be provided as thermal energy
(heat), and as such is termed High temperature
electrolysis. The heat energy can be provided
from a number of different sources, including
waste industrial heat, nuclear power stations or
concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the
potential to reduce the overall cost of the
hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of
electrical energy required for
electrolysis.
[15][16][17][18]
PEM electrolysis cells
typically operate below 100 C and are
becoming increasingly available
commercially.
[15]
These cells have the
advantage of being comparatively simple and
can be designed to accept widely varying
voltage inputs which makes them ideal for use
with renewable sources of energy such as solar
PV.
[19]
AEC's optimally operate at high
concentrations electrolyte (KOH or potassium
carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near
200 C.
Thermolysis[edit]
Water spontaneously dissociates at around
2500 C, but this thermolysis occurs at
temperatures too high for usual process piping
and equipment. Catalysts are required to
reduce the dissociation temperature.
Thermochemical cycle[edit]
Main article: thermochemical cycle
Thermochemical cycles combine solely heat
sources (thermo) with chemical reactions to
split water into
its hydrogen and oxygen components.
[20]
The
term cycle is used because aside of water,
hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds
used in these processes are continuously
recycled. If electricity is partially used as an
input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is
defined as a hybrid one.
The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a
thermochemical cycle processes which
generates hydrogen from water with an
efficiency of approximately 50%. The sulfur and
iodine used in the process are recovered and
reused, and not consumed by the process. The
cycle can be preformed with any source of very
high temperatures, approximately 950 C, such
as byConcentrating solar power systems (CSP)
and is regarded as being well suited to the
production of hydrogen by high-temperature
nuclear reactors,
[21]
and as such, is being
studied in the High Temperature Test
Reactor in Japan.
[22][23][24][25]
There are other
hybrid cycles that use both high temperatures
and some electricity, such as the Copper
chlorine cycle, it is classified as a
hybrid thermochemical cycle because it uses
an electrochemical reaction in one of the
reaction steps, it operates at 530 C and has an
efficiency of 43 percent.
[26]

Ferrosilicon method[edit]
Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly
produce hydrogen for balloons. The chemical
reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon,
and water. The generator is small enough to fit
a truck and requires only a small amount of
electric power, the materials are stable and not
combustible, and they do not generate
hydrogen until mixed.
[27]
The method has been
in use since World War I. A heavy
steel pressure vessel is filled with sodium
hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a
controlled amount of water is added; the
dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to
about 200 F and starts the reaction; sodium
silicate, hydrogen and steam are produced.
[28]

Photobiological water splitting[edit]

An algae bioreactor for hydrogen production.
Main article: Biological hydrogen production
(Algae)
Biological hydrogen can be produced in
an algae bioreactor.
[29]
In the late 1990s it was
discovered that if the algae are deprived
of sulfur it will switch from the production
of oxygen, i.e. normal photosynthesis, to the
production of hydrogen. It seems that the
production is now economically feasible by
surpassing the 710 percent energy efficiency
(the conversion of sunlight into hydrogen)
barrier.
[30]
with a hydrogen production rate of
10-12 ml per liter culture per hour.
[31]

Photocatalytic water splitting[edit]
Main article: Photocatalytic water splitting
The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by
means of water splitting process is one of the
most interesting ways to achieve clean and
renewable energy systems. However if this
process is assisted by photocatalysts
suspended directly in water instead of using
photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the
reaction is in just one step, it can be made more
efficient.
[32][33]

Biohydrogen routes[edit]
[3]
Biomass and waste streams can in principle
be converted into biohydrogen with
biomass gasification, steam reforming, or
biological conversion like biocatalysed
electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen
production.
Fermentative hydrogen production[edit]
Main articles: fermentative hydrogen
production and dark fermentation
Fermentative hydrogen production is the
fermentative conversion of organic substrate
to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group
of bacteria using multi enzyme systems
involving three steps similar to anaerobic
conversion. Dark fermentation reactions do not
require light energy, so they are capable of
constantly producing hydrogen from organic
compounds throughout the day and
night. Photofermentation differs from dark
fermentation because it only proceeds in the
presence of light. For example photo-
fermentation withRhodobacter
sphaeroides SH2C can be employed to convert
small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen.
[34]

Fermentative hydrogen production can be done
using direct biophotolysis by green algae,
indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-
fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic
bacteria and dark fermentation by anaerobic
fermentative bacteria. For example studies on
hydrogen production using H. salinarium, an
anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a
hydrogenase donor like E. coli, are reported in
literature.
[35]

Biohydrogen can be produced in bioreactors
that utilize feedstocks, the most common
feedstock being waste streams. The process
involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and
exhaling hydrogen and CO
2
. The CO
2
can be
sequestered successfully by several methods,
leaving hydrogen gas. A prototype hydrogen
bioreactor using waste as a feedstock is in
operation at Welch's grape juice factory in North
East, Pennsylvania (U.S.).
[citation needed]

Enzymatic hydrogen generation[edit]
Due to the Thauer limit (four H
2
/glucose) for
dark fermentation, a non-natural enzymatic
pathway was designed that can generate 12
moles of hydrogen per mole of glucose units of
polysaccharides and water in 2007.
[36]
The
stoichiometric reaction is:
C
6
H
10
O
5
+ 7 H
2
O 12 H
2
+ 6 CO
2

The key technology is cell-free synthetic
enzymatic pathway biotransformation
(SyPaB).
[37][38]
A biochemist can understand
it as "glucose oxidation by using water as
oxidant". A chemist can describe it as
"water splitting by energy in carbohydrate".
A thermodynamics scientist can describe it
as the first entropy-driving chemical
reaction that can produce hydrogen by
absorbing waste heat. In 2009, cellulosic
materials were first used to generate high-
yield hydrogen.
[39]
Furthermore, the use of
carbohydrate as a high-density hydrogen
carrier was proposed so to solve the largest
obstacle to the hydrogen economy and
propose the concept of sugar fuel cell
vehicles.
[40]

Synthetic biology
[41][42][43]

Biocatalysed electrolysis[edit]

A microbial electrolysis cell
Main
articles: electrohydrogenesis and microbial
fuel cell
Besides dark
fermentation, electrohydrogenesis (electroly
sis using microbes) is another possibility.
Using microbial fuel cells, wastewater or
plants can be used to generate power.
Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be
confused with biological hydrogen
production, as the latter only uses algae
and with the latter, the algae itself
generates the hydrogen instantly, where
with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens
after running through the microbial fuel cell
and a variety of aquatic plants
[44]
can be
used. These include reed sweetgrass,
cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines and
algae.
[45]

Xylose[edit]
In 2014 a low-temperature 50 C (122 F),
atmospheric-pressure enzyme-driven
process to convert xylose into hydrogen
with nearly 100% of the theoretical yield
was announced. The process employs 13
enzymes, including a
novel polyphosphatexylulokinase (XK).
[46][47]

Renewable hydrogen[edit]
Currently there are two practical ways of
producing hydrogen in a renewable
industrial process. One is to use power to
gas where renewable power is used to
produce hydrogen from electrolysis and the
other is landfill gas to produce hydrogen in
a steam reformer. Hydrogen fuel, when
produced by renewable sources of energy
like wind or solar power, is arenewable
fuel.
[48]

Use of hydrogen[edit]
Hydrogen is mainly used for the conversion
of heavy petroleum fractions into lighter
ones via the process of hydrocracking and
other petroleum fractions
(dehydrocyclization and thearomatization
process). It is also required for cleaning
fossil fuels via hydrodesulfurization.
Hydrogen is mainly used for the production
of ammonia via Haber process. In this case,
the hydrogen is produced in situ. Ammonia
is the major component of most fertilizers.
Earlier it was common to vent the
surplus hydrogen off, nowadays the
process systems are balanced
with hydrogen pinch to collect hydrogen for
further use.
Hydrogen may be used in fuel cells for local
electricity generation, making it possible for
hydrogen to be used as a transportation
fuel for an electric vehicle.
Hydrogen is also produced as a by-
product of industrial chlorine production by
electrolysis. Although requiring expensive
technologies, hydrogen can be cooled,
compressed and purified for use in other
processes on site or sold to a customer via
pipeline, cylinders or trucks. The discovery
and development of less expensive
methods of production of bulk hydrogen is
relevant to the establishment of a hydrogen
economy.
[3]

See also[edit]

Sustainable development portal
Ammonia production
Biological hydrogen production (Algae)
Hydrogen
Hydrogen analyzer
Hydrogen compressor
Hydrogen economy
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen leak testing
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen piping
Hydrogen purifier
Hydrogen purity
Hydrogen safety
Hydrogen sensor
Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen station
Hydrogen tank
Hydrogen tanker
Hydrogen technologies
Hydrogen valve
Industrial gas
Liquid Hydrogen
Next Generation Nuclear Plant (partly
for hydrogen production)
The Phoenix Project: Shifting from Oil
To Hydrogen (book)
Renewable energy
The Hype about Hydrogen
Lane hydrogen producer
Linde-Frank-Caro process
Liquid nitrogen production
Underground hydrogen storage
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External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Hydrogen
production.
U.S. DOE 2012-Technical progress in
hydrogen production
U.S. NREL article on hydrogen
production
Komatsu, Teruyuki; Wang, Rong-Min;
Zunszain, Patricia A.; Curry, Stephen;
Tsuchida, Eishun (2006).
"Photosensitized Reduction of Water to
Hydrogen Using Human Serum
Albumin Complexed with
ZincProtoporphyrin IX". Journal of the
American Chemical Society 128 (50):
16297
301.doi:10.1021/ja0656806. PMID 171
65784. Lay summary Imperial
College London (December 1, 2006).
Categories:
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