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1

Vehicle Dynamics and Simulation


Terminology
- CG
- wheelbase
- track
- Ride height
- static weight distribution
- weight transfer
- sprung/unsprung mass
- axis/coordinate system
- forces on a vehicle
- slip angle
- tyre characteristics
- friction circle (Excel model)
- steer characteristics
- Ackermann (Excel model)
Steady State Handling
- understeer/oversteer
- yaw gain (Excel model - benchmarking vehicle DNA)
- understeer gradient, K and stability margin
Lateral load transfer
- CG migration effect
- Tyre friction vs FZ
- (Excel model)
- (analysis using ADAMS/View model)
Longitudinal load transfer
- weight split and CG height (trade-off long and lat performance)
- traction/power limited accel vs. Weight split and CG height
- (Excel model and ADAMS/View model)
Note: Excel and ADAMS models will be used for understanding/outlining the role of the relevant variables for each case and analyse possible trade-offs.
All Excel models are made in class, directly based on the theory and formulas given in class. All ADAMS/ViewModels are passed on to students already made.
Marks: Exam 50% - Assignent 50%. About the exam: All questions taken directly from VD notes, Formulae handed out in the exam.
Vehicle design mass/inertia relationship:
- packaging and wheelbase
- Dynamic Index (Excel model)
Tyre characteristics
- tyre friction coeff. vs. Lateral acceleration
Tyre modelling pacejka
Slip angle
Slip ratio
Friction circle
FZ vs. tyre deflection
Stiffness
Camber effect
(Excel model)
Feeding back road test data to determine tyre grip
Suspension : introduction
requirements
design considerations
terminology
kinematics/geometry
steering axis
kingpin inclination
castor/castor trail
camber
scrub radius
toe-in
bump steer
bump-camber
motion ratio
2
Suspension: Anti-pitch geometry
anti-dive
anti-squat
(Excel model)
Suspension: Lateral weight transfer anti-roll geometry
roll centre
lateral weight transfer model
(Excel model and ADAMS/View model)
Suspension: design
- The Understeer Budget concept
- Equating all suspension characteristics.
- Tyres (how to use the model optimize to weight split)
- Requirements (Wheel travel, Wheel rate, roll rate, anti-pitch, anti-roll, deg/G)
- springs (suspension stiffness split (for neutral steering), ARB, etc.
- (Excel model)
Damping
Initial setup ( damping ratio vs. wheel vertical speed), low and high
speed damping, motion ratio.
Suspension components
- packaging considerations
- uprights (packaging)
- rockers (kinematics considerations)
- wishbones
- Load cases (worst case scenario and fatigue loads Excel model and
ADAMS/View model)
- applying load cases results to FEA boundary conditions.
- S-N curve
- Steering kinematics (ADAMS/View model)
Gear selection calculations
defining and optimizing calculations
referred inertias
tractive effort/ road loads
constant torque curves
analysis of force-velocity graph
fuel consumption
(Excel model)
Brake proportioning and adhesion utilisation
(Excel model)
Brake system design
(Excel model)
Chassis
- stiffness requirements
- Packaging
- Fabrication type of chassis
- torsional stiffness
- FEA boundary conditions (considerations and effects on results)
- Development method identifying weak areas with FEA
Aerodynamics
Drag and downforce: effect on vehicle balance, cornering
and braking/traction (Excel model)
Determining Cd, Cr and engine torque curve from road tests
(Excel model)
Laptime simulator
(excel model) simple model for analysis of trade-offs and
initial setup
Sensitivity analysis
1
01 - Terminology
2
Static Weight Distribution
Forces on a vehicle
Terminology:
Wheelbase
Track
Ride Height
Centre of Gravity Height
Weight Transfer
Axis/Coordinate Systems
Slip Angle
Sprung/Unsprung Mass
Steer characteristics
Friction Circle
Tyre Characteristics
Ackermann steering
3
Centre of Gravity Height:
The CG Height is the vertical distance between the ground
and the Centre of Gravity of the vehicle
CG Height, h
CG
The Centre of Gravity (CG) is the theoretical point in the X, Y, Z
planes where all the mass could be located and the weight
distribution of the vehicle would remain unchanged
4
Wheelbase:
The longitudinal distance between front and rear axes
Wheelbase, L
5
Track:
The distance between the rotational planes of the wheels of the same
axle
Track, t
Racing and production vehicles may use equal or different dimensions for
front and rear track.
6
Ride Height:
The vertical distance between the ground and the vehicle underside
Ride Height
ride height may be different at the front and rear axes of the vehicle
7
Static Weight Distribution:
The distribution of the vehicle weight over the front and rear axes
a b
CG
W
W
f
W
r
L
8
Note that mg W = , m= vehicle mass [Kg]
L
b
W W
f
=
Where the weight at both the front and rear axes are respectively,
L
a
W W
r
=
100 % =
L
b
W
f
They can also be calculated as a percentage of total weight,
100 % =
L
a
W
r
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
9
Weight Transfer:
) )( (
L
h
g
a
W Wt
x
long
=
) )( (
t
h
g
a
W Wt
y
lat
=
Originated by longitudinal and lateral accelerations, a
x
and a
y
respectively.
Weight transfer (Wt) affected by Wheelbase, Track and CG height.
(5)
(6)
10
Design Considerations:
i) Track:
Wheel track, with CG height, affects weight transfer during
cornering and influences the roll-over potential
=
h
t
g
a
y
2
1st approximation to rollover
ii) Wheelbase:
Wheelbase, with CG height, affects weight transfer during
acceleration and braking
(7)
11
iii) Static Weight Distribution:
Tractive forces during acceleration are a function of % weight on the drive
wheels during acceleration (including weight transfer)
Tractive forces required at each axle set during braking are affected by
static weight and weight transfer.
Brake design choices may be in part affected by brake requirements of
each axle.
12
Sprung/Unsprung mass:
Unsprung mass:
mass of the components linking the suspension to the ground
(wheels, tyres, brakes, uprights, etc). Unsprung mass moves directly
with the road surface.
typical natural frequency >11Hz
Sprung mass:
mass of the components suported by the suspension such as body,
chassis, engine, etc.
typical natural frequency 1 2Hz
13
Axis/Coordinate System (SAE):
Definition of axis direction and rotation about respective axis
14
Axis/Coordinate System (SAE):
(SAE)
Direction Rotation
Axis Vehicle (+ve) Axis (+ve) Vehicle (+ve)
X-Axis Longitudinal Rear-Front CCW Roll right
(cornering
left)
Y-Axis Lateral Left-Right CCW Pitch (nose
up)
Z-Axis Vertical Downwards CCW Yaw (turn
right)
15
Axis/Coordinate System (Alternative):
Direction Rotation
Axis Vehicle (+ve) Axis (+ve) Vehicle (+ve)
X-Axis Longitudinal Front-Rear CCW Roll left
(cornering right)
Y-Axis Lateral Left-Right CCW Pitch (nose up)
Z-Axis Vertical Upwards CCW Yaw (turn left)
often used for modelling and simulation
SAE system rotated 180 about Y-Axis
origin (0,0,0) usually lies at the centre of the front axle of the vehicle
16
Forces on a vehicle:
Tractive forces
The forces acting at the tyre footprint to either maintain velocity or
change velocity. Limited by engine power and tyre friction limit.
Aerodynamic forces
The forces acting at a given velocity that oppose vehicle tractive
forces.
Rolling resistance Forces
Forces acting at the tyre footprint originated by tyre friction by
rolling
Road Load Forces
The forces acting at a given velocity that oppose vehicle tractive
forces. Road load forces usually are simply rolling plus
aerodynamic forces.
A C V F
d aero
2
2
1
=
, W C F
r rolling
=
mg W =
(9)
(10)
17
Slip Angle, :
Slip angle is defined as the angle between the rotational
plane of the tyre and the tyre heading direction
Lateral loads on the tyre induce slip angle
Slip angle, , is given by

=
X
Y
V
V
arctan
Contact patch
Lateral speed, V
Y
(-ve)
Forward speed, V
X
Slip angle,
(-ve)
Resultant direction of
motion
Resulting
Lateral Force
(+ve)
(11)
18
Tyre characteristics:
Traction Limits:
Production tyres on a typical paved surface can generate a
coefficient of friction of up to about 1.0.
Usually 0.8 to 1.0 in very good conditions
Race tires can easily generate friction coefficients greater
than 1.5
Traction is temperature dependent, as well as influenced by
many factors.
19
Tyre Friction Characteristics:
Slip angle,
6
1.0
Tyre force, F
Linear
region
transitional frictional
In the linear region,
Cornering Stiffness, C is:
(12)

d
dF
C
y
=
Cornering stiffness is the change in lateral force per unit slip
angle change at a specified normal load in the linear range of
the tyre.
20
Accel traction
Braking traction
Cornering
traction
Cornering
traction

Cos()
Sin()

Assuming that friction between the tyre


and road is independent of the direction
of the force.
Tractive force and lateral load can be
combined in vector form to determine
cornering and or braking/acceleration
capacity at any point.
Lateral loads decrease
braking/acceleration limits
Friction Circle:
21
Steer characteristics:
Understeer (
f
>
r
)
The tendency for a vehicle to increase the radius of the
turn, as vehicle speed increases, with a fixed steering
input.
CG

f

r
ma
y
Instantaneous Turn Centre
22
Neutral Steer (
f
=
r
)
The tendency for a vehicle to turn on the same
radius, as speed increases, with a fixed steering
input.
CG

f

r
Instantaneous Turn Centre
23
Oversteer (
f
<
r
)
The tendency for a vehicle to increase the radius of the
turn, as vehicle speed increases, with a fixed steering
input.
Instantaneous Turn Centre
CG

f

r
ma
y
24
Characteristic speed:
The speed at which the driver induced steer angle is twice the
actual heading angle of the vehicle while maintaining a constant
radius turn.
Defined for understeering only.
Critical speed:
The speed at which the driver induced steer angle must go to zero
to maintain a constant radius turn.
Defined for oversteering only.
25
Ackermann Steering

I
t
R
L
R
O
R
I
1
02 Steady State Behaviour
2
Steady State Handling :
Ackermann Steering
As a result of track width the tyres on the inside and outside of a
vehicle in a turn roll on different radii.
A vehicle with Ackermann steering will produce differing steer
angles. The inside tyre is steered at a greater angle than the outside
tyre of the steered axle if Ackermann steer is achieved.
Track and Wheelbase, from a design point, are the fundamental
vehicle variables in determining Ackermann.
Front steer vehicles (steering in front of the axle) tend to have greater
tyre restriction on the availability for Ackermann correction.
Varying amounts of Ackermann are achieved and are presented as a
% of true (100%) Ackermann.
3

I
t
R
L
R
O
R
I
Ackermann Steering
4
Bicycle model :
Pure rolling condition (tyres are
considered rigid)
Since L<<R , the relationship
approximates to:
R
L
f
= tan
R
L
f

In this specific case:
mann Ac f ker
=
(1)
(2)
(3)
5
Steer/Radius relationship with Slip angles:
Note that s are normally
negative in RH turn (SAE
convention)
) (
ker R F man ac
+ + =
or
) (
R F
R
L
+ + =
(5)
(4)
6
Basic Handling Model:
Using the approximation for small angles:
tan
a
b
x
U
U
v+ar
v
r
V-br

R
f F F f
U
ar v
U
ar v

+
=
+
= +
(6)
at the front axle:
at the rear axle:
U
br v
R

=
(7)
7
The tyre forces are:
F F F
C Fy =
R R R
C Fy =
(8)
(9)
And the equations of motion are:
R F
Fy Fy Ur v m + = + ) (
(10)
R F
bFy aFy r I + =
(11)
8
Substituting (6),(7),(8) and (9) into (10) and (11) we get:
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

+
= +
U
br v
C
U
ar v
C Ur v m
R f F
) (
(12)
(13)
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
U
br v
bC
U
ar v
aC r I
R f F

Rearranging:
f F
R F R F
C r
U
bC aC
v
U
C C
Ur v m +
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+
= + ) ( (14)
(15)
f F
R F R F
aC r
U
C b C a
v
U
bC aC
r I +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|

=
2 2

9
Rearranging to leave only input terms on the RH side, and using
matrix notation, gives:
| |
f
F
F
R F R F
R F R F
aC
C
r
v
U
C b C a
U
bC aC
U
bC aC
mu
U
C C
r
v
I
m

=
(

(
(
(
(

+
+
+
(

2
2
0
0

(16)
At steady-state and are zero and using Cramers Rule then gives:
v

( ) )
2 2
F R R F
R F
f
ss
aC bC mU C C L
C ULC r
+
=

(17)
Where is the path curvature (1/R) and the subscript ss is used to denote
steady state response.
10
Rearranging equation (17) we can simplify:
2
1
KU L
f
ss
+
=

(18)
Where K is the Understeer Gradient :
( )
R F
F R
C LC
aC bC m
K

=
(19)
11
The expression bC
R
-aC
F
, within K, is called the Stability Margin and it
determines the sign of K which is central to the description of the
handling behaviour in terms of understeer or oversteer.
There are 3 conditions of interest:
1. K=0, Neutral Steer here
ss
/
f
= 1/L corresponding to a pure rolling vehicle
for which
f
=L/R
2. K>0, Understeer Response is always stable and decreases with increasing
vehicle speed. Practically the vehicle feels like it runs wide at corners, more
steering input than anticipated is required.
3. K<0, Oversteer Response increases with increasing speed and there is a
critical speed at which the response becomes infinite. Practically the vehicle
feels as if it is turning more than anticipated and the driver may have to
reduce steering input to keep the desired path
12
Relationship between steady state path curvature and speed for
different values of K
13
There are many other ways of representing steady state behaviour for
example, the steady state path curvature, yaw rate or lateral
acceleration (1/R, U/R, U
2
/R) could be plotted against
f
for a constant
forward speed.
Equation (18) can be arranged to give:
R
U
K
R
L
f
2
+ =
Comparing equation (21) with equation (5) we see that the slip angles
(-
f
+
r
) can be substituted by the Understeer Gradient (K) multiplied by
the lateral acceleration (U
2
/R).
(21)
Yaw Velocity Gain:
2
KU L
U r
f
+
=

(20)
14
Relationship between Understeer parameter [deg/g] and vehicle weight
for a selection of American and European cars (from SAE paper 840561)
15
Characteristic Speed (Defined for understeer)
Defined as the speed at which the steering input is twice
the Ackermann Steer angle (Understeering)
R
U
K
R
L
2
=
(22)
From equation (21):
K
L
U
char
=
Rearranging in order of the forward velocity, U:
(23)
16
Critical Speed (Defined for Oversteer)
Defined as the speed at which the steering input is zero
and the vehicle maintains the turn (Oversteering).
The gain and vehicle becomes unstable
) ( 0
2
= = + K
R
U
K
R
L
(24)
From equation (21):
K
L
U
crit

=
Rearranging in order of the forward velocity, U:
(25)

f
ss

17
Vel (m/s)
Yaw/steer input
(1/s)
Neutral (K=0)
Understeer
(K>0)
Oversteer
(K<0)
Yaw Rate response (Yaw velocity Gain):
Critical/Characteristic
speed
18
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0 40 80 120
Y
a
w
/
S
t
e
e
r
i
n
g
_
a
n
g
l
e
Veh Vel (Km/h)
Yaw_rate response
RESULTS DAH1
RESULTS PC1
RESULTS PC2
RESULTS BO1
RESULTS BO2
FITTED K
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
Example of graph with
typical test data used to
determine theoretical
Understeer Gradient, K
K can be used to
benchmark and
quantify the vehicles
understeer , one of the
vehicles main response
characteristic
19
Measured Data:
- Steering angle
- Lateral acceleration
- Longitudinal velocity
- Yaw
Note: a biaxial accelerometer, giving a
x
and a
y
, can be used to determine lateral
acceleration, longitudinal velocity and Yaw
Yaw can also be derived from two accelerometers giving a
y
, placed in different
coordinates along the longitudinal axis of the car.
Alternative test to obtain data for steady state response,
getting measurements across a velocity range on a single run.
1
03 Lateral load transfer
2
Weight Transfer:
The forces that enable road vehicles to change direction or velocity all act at
the tyre contact patch.
The forces resulting from lateral and longitudinal accelerations act at the CG
generating a moment which transfers weight.
The weight transfer generates asymmetric weight at the wheels affecting
traction limits therefore the vehicle handling is affected by the dynamic weight
distribution
3
Lateral weight transfer - Considerations:
1. Weight transfer is inevitable
2. Weight transfer is a function of:
Lateral acceleration
Weight
CG height
Track width
4
The total amount of weight transfer from the inside to the outside wheels of a
vehicle when cornering, is independent of the location of roll centres, spring
rates, and roll stiffness.
For most road vehicles the CG migration due to roll has negligible effect on
weight transfer.
For a rigid vehicle on a flat road the lateral weight transfer becomes:
t
h
ma
mg
F
CG
y z
o
+ =
2
t
h
ma
mg
F
CG
y z
i
=
2
o
z
F
i
z
F
mg
y
ma
2 / t 2 / t
CG
h
(1)
(2)
5
Where in both cases the vertical load on the tyre has two components,
Static -
Dynamic -
2
mg
t
h
ma
CG
y
The dynamic component is the Load Transfer, F
Z(1)
.
..(3)
..(4)
6
CG migration effect:
If we calculate the dynamic weight at, say, the outer wheel accounting for a
repositioning of the centre of gravity due to vehicle roll when cornering, we get:
( ) | | ( )
(

+ + + = sin
2
cos
RA CG RA CG RA
y
z
h h
t
t
mg
h h h
t
ma
F
o
..(5)
o
z
F
i
z
F
mg
y
ma
2 / t 2 / t
CG
h

RA
h
7
If we subtract to F
Zo
the static weight (equation 3), we get the weight transfer, F
Z(2)
.
( )
( ) | | ( ) sin cos
2 RA CG RA CG RA
y
Z
h h
t
mg
h h h
t
ma
F + + =
We can determine the percentage of change in weight transfer, that comes from GC
migration, with the following equation:
( )
( )
100 1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|

Z
Z
F
F
% Change in weight transfer =
( ) 100 1 sin cos sin cos 1
(


CG
RA
h
h
considering cornering at 1G, roll angle, becomes roll rate, in (deg/G)
% Change in weight transfer is
..(6)
..(7)
..(8)
8
As an illustrative example, for a road vehicle with the following characteristics :
h
CG
=0.5m, h
RA
=0.1m and =5 /G
The % increase in weight transfer from CG migration is less than 7%
For a Formula car, with the following typical characteristics :
h
CG
=0.3m, h
RA
=0.1m and =1 /G
The % increase in weight transfer from CG migration is 1%
9
Weight transfers between the CG and the road surface through a variety of paths:
1. Chassis/suspension structure (through roll centres)
2. Suspension springs and anti-roll bars
3. Dampers (during transient moments)
The balance between these 3 factors influences how well the vehicle will handle
10
Weight Transfer Considerations:
Increasing weight transfer at a given axle reduces its capability to generate lateral
force
Total weight transfer depends solely on lateral acceleration, weight, CG height and
track. Part of the total weight transfer occurs through the front axle, and the other
part, from through the rear axle.
Springs, Roll centre location and Anti-roll bars affect the percentage of total
weight transfer occurring at each axle.
11
The Friction coefficient () of tyres reduces as vertical load increases
Friction coefficient,
Vertical load (FZ)

Constant

Real
12
Knowing that the maximum lateral force that the tyres can generate, F
Y
=F
Z
Vertical load, F
Z
F
Y
for
Constant
Lateral Force, F
Y
F
Z(static)
+F
Z
-F
Z
F
Y
for
Real
Outer tyre
Inner tyre
F
Y_static
F
Yo
F
Yi
F
Y_dynamic
13
Effect of increasing weight transfer :
Vertical load, F
Z
Lateral Force, F
Y
F
Z(static)
+F
Z_1
-F
Z_1
Outer tyre
Inner tyre
+F
Z_2
-F
Z_2
Reduction in
average F
Y
1
04 Longitudinal load transfer
2
Longitudinal Load Transfer:
During longitudinal acceleration (braking or accelerating), weight transfers
between the CG and road surface through different paths:
1. Chassis/Suspension components (determined by anti-pitch geometry)
2. Suspension Springs
3. Suspension Dampers (during transient conditions)
3
Note that during transient conditions the weight transfer acting through the
chassis/suspension components happens much quicker than the weight
transferred through the springs. This happens due to the fact that the
chassis/suspension components are much stiffer than the springs and hence
have a much higher natural frequency.
The combination of the 3 paths for weight transfer affects how quick the
vertical load changes on the tyres during transient conditions hence
influencing the traction.
4
Simplified weight transfer model:
h
CG
F
Zf
F
Zr
mg
ma
x
a
b
L
h
ma
L
b
mg F
x Z
f
=
L
h
ma
L
a
mg F
x Z
r
+ =
and
.. (1)
.. (2)
L
5
Pitch angle:
For a vehicle were the forces are not reacted by the suspension arms (with 0%
anti-pitch geometry) the pitch angle is a function of the weight transfer (F
Z
)
and the spring rate.
If the total front spring rate at the wheels is K
f
and the rear K
r
, the vertical
displacement at the wheel locations are as shown.
Pitch angle (in radians) becomes:
f
Z
f
K
F
f

=
r
Z
r
K
F
r

=
.. (3) .. (4)
and
L
r f
+
=
.. (5)
6
Traction limited acceleration:
For a FWD vehicle, the weight transfer generated by forward acceleration
removes weight from the drive wheels and hence reduces tractive force and
acceleration. The derivation is as follows:
f
X x
F ma =
.. (6)
.. (7)
f f
Z X
F F =
and

=
L
h
ma
L
b
mg ma
x x

.. (8)
Substituting (7) into (6), we get:
7
Rearranging (8) in order to get limiting acceleration in Gs:

+
=
h L
b
g
a
FWD
x

.. (9)
This case applies to FWD (front wheel drive). Using the same analysis
for RWD, we get:
.. (10)

=
h L
a
g
a
RWD
x

8
The following graph shows the effect of static weight, CG height and the
drive wheels on traction limited acceleration
Limiting longitudinal Acceleration vs. weight split
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
1,20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Front weight percent (%)
l
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

a
c
c
e
l

(
g
)
ax_rwd (L=2.6,h=0.5)
ax_fwd (L=2.6,h=0.5)
ax_rwd (L=2.6,h=0.6)
ax_fwd (L=2.6,h=0.6)
1
05 Vehicle Layout and Packaging: Mass Inertia
Relationship
2
Defining the concept Establishing layout and packaging
Performance Positioning
Structural requirements
Suspension
Chassis
Implementation (FEA)
Suspensions
Establishing goals
Implementation (MBS)
CAD
Design
Fabrication
Test
Datalogging
Validation
Engineering process on vehicle
design:
3
Vehicle Layout and Packaging: Mass Inertia Relationship:
- This parameter has great effect on the vehicle response in transient
moments, as in turn-in, i.e. between the steering input and the build up force
at the rear tyres.
- Poor mass inertia relationship can be compensated up to certain extent by
tyre and suspension modifications which in turn will impose other design
compromises. If this it is taken into account when designing vehicle layout
and packaging, more freedom is available on the engineering process to meet
other chassis and suspension targets.
4
Yaw Inertia: reluctance exhibited by a car to change the speed at which it
rotates about its vertical axis.
Inertial Conjugate: For any given body, the inertial conjugate of an applied
force is that point which exhibits no resulting linear acceleration.
Effect of mass-inertia relationship on the vehicles transient moments:
For a vehicle, at the initial moment of turn in, a force is generated by the
steer wheels. Steer input can be resolved to a force and a moment at the
centre of gravity.
F
F
M
5
Hence the lateral force, direction and magnitude at the rear wheels is thus
determined by:
-The distance of both the front and rear wheels from the vehicle CG (centre
of gravity).
- Mass
-Moment of inertia
-During turn-in, the vehicle motion from the drivers point of view can be
divided into lateral translation plus rotation over its vertical axis.
Inertial
Conjugate
6
If the car has:
-A large moment of inertia relative to its mass, the back wheels will tend to
be pushed sideways towards the centre of the turn.
-A small moment of inertia relative to its mass, the rear wheels will be
pushed sideways away from the centre of the turn.
These two situations have a pronounced effect on the initial phase
relationship between the lateral acceleration and yaw rate.
7
Dynamic Index (DI): Its a convenient way to quantify the combined effects of
mass, moments of inertia, wheelbase and weight distribution on vehicle
response.
The DI defines the position of the inertial conjugate (d) as a proportion of the
distance between the CG and the rear axle (b).
Example:
- DI = 0.5 , the inertial conjugate lies halfway between the CG
and the rear axle.
- DI = 1 , the inertial conjugate lies on the rear axle. It feels like
the vehicle initial turn in occurs about the rear axle.
Inertial
Conjugate
a
b
d
8
-The higher the value of the DI, the less agile the vehicle. However, the lower
the value, the more likely is for the vehicle to be unmanageable.
-The DI has a huge influence on the subjective feeling of the confidence a
driver gets from the car. The value where most drivers coincide on the best
response is for a DI of around or just above 0.9 .
Typical values of DI:
- Open wheel formula cars typically range between 0.5 to 0.6
- Mid-engine sportscars and front engine open wheel cars (super 7 type)
typically range between 0.6 and 0.7
- Front engine production vehicles often range between 0.7 and 1.0
9
Design Considerations:
If all other factors are kept equal, the DI is reduced if:
-The wheelbase is increased
- The moment of inertia is reduced (centralising masses)
- The mass is increased
- The weight distribution is made more even front to rear
0 = d X

(1) Where
DI proof: At the Inertial Conjugate lateral acceleration and turn-in cancel out,
thus:
= lateral acceleration
= Yaw acceleration
= distance from CG to
inertial conjugate
X


d
10
m
F
X =
(2)
Knowing that:
Where = force generated by the steered wheels
= vehicle mass
F
m
And that:
I
M
=
(3)
Where = Moment generated by the steered wheels
= vehicles yaw inertia
M
I
Also:
a F M . = (4) Where = distance between CG and front axis a
And:
2
.k m I =
(5) Where = radius of gyration k
11
Sub (4) and (5) into (3) and we get:
2
.
.
k m
a F
=
(6)
Then sub (2) and (6) into (1) and we get:
a
k
d
2
=
(7)
For a more convenient way we can represent d as a ratio of b (distance between CG
and rear axle) hence accounting for wheelbase as well
b a
k
b
d
DI
.
2
= =
(8)
12
Components list with mass and inertia estimation:
- A list with the vehicle components is
made. All components of relevant
volume and weight have their mass
properties estimated
13
Building a spreadsheet to determine mass properties from layout and packaging:
Front axle Rear Axle
Engine and
Gearbox
Fuel Tank
X
Centre of Gravity of
The vehicle
Driver
Radiator/s
Reference axis
- From an initial sketch of
the vehicle, the
components are
positioned and their
distances relative to a
reference axis is
measured
14
- This spreadsheet
determines initial
layout, wheelbase,
packaging and is the
first step to control
the fundamental mass
properties of the
vehicle
Building a spreadsheet to determine mass properties from layout and packaging:
wheelbase
Dinamic Index
Weight split
Components position
along longitudinal axis
of the vehicle
Mass properties of the
components
1
06 Tyre Characteristics
2
Introduction:
Vehicle handling and directional response are greatly influenced by the
mechanical force and moments generated by the tyres.
Tyre models can be classified into two fundamental types
1. Physically based models which attempt to model the force generation
process itself
2. Empirical models which predict forces from interpolating tables obtained
from experimental tests. Alternatively mathematical functions are used to fit
equations to the measured test data
This latter type of model is the most commonly used in computer simulations
in industry or racing. The test data is obtained using a tyre test machine to
measure the resulting forces and moment components for various camber
angles, slip angles and values of vertical force.
3
Tyre model and its interaction with the vehicle model:
Slip angle,
Camber angle,
Wheelslip, K
Vertical Load, F
Z
Lateral force
Longitudinal force
Self-aligning torque
Tyre Model
Vehicle
Model
Tyre data:
Size
Inflation
pressure
Ground friction
4
Tyre axis system (SAE):
The slip angle, a, is positive when the wheel is
slipping to the right; this is negative steer i.e.
wheel steer to the left
5
Slip Angle, :
Slip angle is defined as the angle between the rotational
plane of the tyre and the tyre heading direction
Lateral loads on the tyre induce slip angle
Slip angle, , is given by

=
X
Y
V
V
arctan
Contact patch
Lateral speed, V
Y
(-ve)
Forward speed, V
X
Slip angle,
(-ve)
Resultant direction of
motion
Resulting
Lateral Force
(+ve)
(1)
6
Tyre characteristics:
Traction Limits:
Production tyres on a typical paved surface can generate a
coefficient of friction of up to about 1.0.
Usually 0.8 to 1.0 in very good conditions
Race tires can easily generate friction coefficients greater
than 1.5
Traction is temperature dependent, as well as influenced by
many factors.
7
Tyre Friction Characteristics:
Slip angle,
6
1.0
Friction coeff,
Linear
region
transitional frictional
In the linear region,
Cornering Stiffness, C is:
(2)

d
dF
C
y
=
Cornering stiffness is the
change in lateral force per unit
slip angle change at a specified
normal load in the linear range
of the tyre.
8
Friction Coefficient and Lateral Acceleration relationship:
Tyre friction coefficient can be used as a first approximation to the potential
lateral acceleration of a vehicle. Looking at lateral weight transfer during
cornering, we get:
Z
static Z
Zo
F
F
F + =
2
_
Z
static Z
Zi
F
F
F =
2
_
F
Zo
F
Zi
F
Z_static
F
Y
F
Yo
F
Yi
And
(3)
(4)
(5)
Yi Yo Y
F F F + =
9
Lets assume, for simplicity, that friction is independent of vertical load. Then we
can say that:
(6)
( )
Zi Zo Y
F F F + =
Substituting (3) and (4)
into (6):
static Z Y
F F
_
=
(7)
Knowing that:
y Y
ma F =
mg F
static Z
=
_
and
(8)
(9)
Substituting (8) and (9) into (7) and rearranging in terms of , we get:
g
a
y
=
(10)
10
Slip Ratio:
Slip Velocity, S the difference between the angular velocity of the
driven/braked wheel and the angular velocity of the free rolling wheel
Slip Ratio, K the slip velocity as a percentage of the free rolling velocity
0
= s
1
0 0
0
=


k
Knowing that , r = tyre rolling radius
1 =
U
r
k

r
U
=
0

then
0 @ =
(11)
(12)
(13)
11
When k=1, r/U=2. This implies that at this
point the wheel is actually spinning at twice
the speed of that which is travelling.
The onset of spinning is usually at k=0.10 to
0.15
The tyre usually generates maximum
tractive force when the wheel is spinning 10
to 15% faster than its forward velocity, U.
12
A more comprehensive definition (Pacejkas) of k accounts for slip angle, .
1
cos
=

U
r
k
x

Tyre rotation plane


Tyre heading
direction
Lateral Force
(14)
13
Accel traction
Braking traction
Cornering
traction
Cornering
traction

Cos()
Sin()

Assuming that friction between the tyre


and road is independent of the direction
of the force.
Tractive force and lateral load can be
combined in vector form to determine
cornering and or braking/acceleration
capacity at any point.
Lateral loads decrease
braking/acceleration limits
The friction circle establishes the
following relationship:
Friction Circle:
2 2
tan Y X t resul
F F F + = (15)
14
There are more accurate but
complex methods of combining
lateral and longitudinal grip that
also model the characteristic of the
tyres to generate their maximum
longitudinal force when a slight
lateral load is induced. This can be
seen on the following diagram of
friction circle obtained from test
data.
15
Vertical Force and Tyre deflection
Tyres can be modelled as a linear spring-damper system fro ride, transient
vertical load and tyre deflection (loaded tyre radius)
Tyre radial stiffness is about ten times higher than wheel rate from spring
stiffness (k
z
typically >200N/mm)
Typical values for tyre damping ratio (=0.05 to 0.10)
16
Tyre Stiffness:
Reduces as tyre deformation increases.
Maximum when tyre deformation is 0.
17
Tyre Camber effect:
Camber angle () offsets vertically the F
Y
curve vs.
slip angle ()
Increasing reduces tyre stiffness
18
Tyre Carpet Plot:
Tyre Carpet Plot - Interpolation table establishing a relationship between different tyre
characteristics. The following figure relates F
Z
and to F
Y
19
Tyre self-aligning torque, M
Z
:
20
Force Distribution over the tyre contact region:
F
y
lateral force generated by the tyre
t
p
pneumatic trail
The lateral force, F
y
acts rearwards of
the wheel centre at the distance t
p
leading to the self-aligning moment M
z
with the magnitude F
y
.t
p
Self aligning torque reduces at higher
slip angles mainly due to reduction in
pneumatic trail.
Responsible for the steering feeling
lighter as the front axle approaches
limits of adhesion
1
07 Tyre Modelling
2
The Pacejkas Magic Formula Tyre Model:
Most widely used tyre model in Industry.
Not a predictive tyre model. Used to represent tyre force and
moment curves using established techniques based on
polynomials or a Fourier series.
Undergoing continual development.
Versions:
Monte Carlo Version early version ( Bakker et al, 1989)
Version 3 (Pacejka & Bakker, 1993)
BNPS model particular version of the Magic Formula that
automates the development of coefficients working from measured test
data (Schuring et al, 1993). Implemented in ADAMS 8.0 where it was
referred to as the Smithers model
Delft tyre 97 not restricted to small angles of slip and the tyre can run
backwards (Pacejka & Besselink, 1997)
3
Disadvantages:
coefficients used have no engineering significance in terms of tyre properties
(e.g. radial stiffness, cornering stiffness, etc.).
Does not lend itself to design activities with interpolation methods.
Coefficients difficult and expensive to obtain from manufacturers
The Tyre model uses mathematical functions that relate:
1. The lateral force F
y
as a function of Slip angle, .
2. The aligning moment M
z
as a function of Slip angle, and camber angle, .
3. The longitudinal Force F
x
as a function of longitudinal slip .
4
When the force curves obtained from steady state testing are plotted, the
general shape of the curve is similar to the following figure.
Slip Angle
Slip Ratio
F
x
M
z
F
y
M
z
and F
y
measured during pure cornering
F
x
measured during pure braking or acceleration
5
Tyre force and moment curves obtained under pure slip conditions look like sine
functions modified by introducing an arctangent function to stretch the slip
values on the x-axis.
Pacejkas Magic Formula:
( ) ( ) { } [ ] Bx Bx E Bx C D x y arctan arctan sin ) ( =
where
( ) ( )
V
S x y X Y + =
h
S X x + =
S
h
= horizontal shift
S
V
= vertical shift
6
Y can either be side force F
y
, longitudinal force F
x
or aligning moment M
z
X can either be slip angle or slip ratio
y
s
D
Arctan(BCD)
x
m
X
Y
y
S
h
S
V
x
S
V
and S
h
arise due to adding camber or physical features in the tyre such as
conicity and ply steer. For the longitudinal force, is due to rolling resistance
7
Working from the offset xy axis system the main coefficients are:
D peak value.
C Shape factor that controls the stretching in the x direction. The value is
determined by whether the curve represents lateral force, aligning moment, or
longitudinal braking force.
1.30 lateral force curve.
1.65 longitudinal braking force curve.
2.40 aligning moment curve.
B Referred to as a stiffness factor. BCD is the slope at the origin i.e. the
cornering stiffness when plotting lateral force. Obtaining values for D and C leads
to a value for B.
8
E is a curvature factor that effects the transition in the curve and the position
X
m
at which the peak value if present occurs.
( )
( )
Xm Xm
Xm
B B
C B
E
arctan
2 / tan

=

y
s
is the asymptotic value at large slip values
( ) 2 / sin C D y
s
=
The curvature factor E can be made dependent on the slip value plotted on the x-
axis.
) sgn(
0
x E E E + =
This will introduce asymmetry between tractive and braking forces or effect of
camber angle . (possible values C=1.6, E
0
=0.5 and E=0.5)
9
At zero camber the cornering stiffness BCD
y
reaches the maximum value defined
by the coefficient a
3
at a given value of vertical load F
z
which equates to a
4
.
arctan (2a
3
/a
4
)
a
3
a
4
BCD
y
(N/rad)
F
z
(N)
Cornering stiffness as a function of vertical load at zero camber angle
10
Methodology:
In (Sharp, 1992) a suggested approach is to fix C based on the values suggested for
lateral force, longitudinal force and aligning moment.
For each set of load data is possible to obtain peak value D and position at which it
occurs x
m
.
Using the slope at the origin and the values for C and D it is possible to determine
the stiffness factor B and hence obtain a value for E.
Having obtained these terms at each load the various coefficients are determined
using curve fitting techniques to express B,C,D and E as functions of load.
11
Pure slip equations for the Magic Formula tyre model (Monte Carlo Version)
12
Pure slip equations for the Magic Formula tyre model (Version 3)
1
08 Suspension
2
Good ride and handling performance (isolation from road inputs, low
levels of vertical tyre load variation)
Steering control (positioning of road wheels for stability)
Body attitude control
Vehicle response to control forces (braking, accelerating, cornering)
Isolation from high frequency vibration, e.g. from tyres
Structural strength
Suspension Requirements:
3
Body motion
Roll, yaw, pitch, heave, dive, squat
Suspension terminology
bump, rebound
General Angles/Relationships
Steering Axis
King Pin Inclination or Steering Axis Inclination (KPI or SAI)
Castor/Castor trail
Camber
Scrub radius
Toe
4
Steering axis
When the wheels of a vehicle are steered, they pivot about an axis that is
defined by an imaginary line drawn through the wheel pivots (ball joint or
king pin). This pivot axis is referred to as the steer axis.
Steering Axis
5
King Pin or Steer Axis inclination
The steer axis, when viewed from the front is inclined from the true
vertical. The inclination is toward the vehicle centreline at the top to
bring the PSA closer to the centre of the tyre contact patch.
In design the PSA should lie inside the tire contact patch.
The KPI is the angle between the wheel spindle centreline and the
Steering axis minus 90.
Spindle Centreline
Steering Axis
KPI or SAI
PSA
6
Design Variables affecting KPI:
Height of the individual wheel pivots
Desired distance between the PSA and the center of the tire
contact patch.
Desired camber
Wheel offset (Required/Desired)
Spindle height relative to wheel pivot heights
KPI usually involves compromise due to returnability, camber
change, spindle height change, wheel offset, feedback.
7
Effects of KPI:
Tyre wear induced camber changes can create wear
particularly at high lock angles
Returnability improved with increased values of KPI due to
work done in lifting the vehicle from the straight ahead to the
turned positions
Torque steer related to drive shaft angles (for FWD vehicles)
Lift-off/ traction steer on corner increase in KPI may result in
increased vehicle reaction to mid-corner traction changes.
Steering effort KPI causes lift of the vehicle while turning which
increases the steering effort.
Tyre clearance changes in KPI affect the wheel swept envelope
and hence tyre clearance
8
Castor
The inclination of the steering axis, relative to a vertical line from the road
surface, as viewed from the side of the vehicle.
Castor adds to straight line stability, steering returnability and affects the
wheel camber as the wheels are steered.
Camber moves negative on the outside wheel, positive on the inside
wheel while steering with positive caster.
Castor Trail
The projected steering axis intersects with the road surface fore or aft of the
center of the tire contact patch when viewed from the side of the vehicle.
If the caster is positive and the wheel spindle lies on the steering axis the
projected steering axis meets the road surface in front of the center of the
tire contact patch.
The linear dimension, at the road surface, between the PSA and the center of
the tire contact patch, as viewed from the side is called the caster trail.
9
Castor/Castor Trail and Castor offset:
Steer Axis
Centre of tyre contact patch
PSA
Castor Trail
(+ve)
Castor angle
Spindle centreline
Forward
Castor offset
10
Design Variables affecting Castor/Castor Trail
Longitudinal (Fore-Aft) locations of the individual wheel pivots (upper, lower
pivots)
Angle of the Steer Axis
Height of the individual wheel pivots
Spindle height (tire rolling radius)
Spindle location relative to the steer axis
Castor offset:
Used to change castor trail independently of Castor angle
11
Camber
The inclination of the rotational plane of the tire, relative to a vertical line from
the road surface, as viewed from the front of the vehicle.
Positive camber-The top of the tire rotational plane is outside of the
normal to the road surface, negative inside.
Camber moves the center of the
contact patch closer to the PSA (front view).
Camber produces a lateral thrust vector
when the tyre is rolled leading to directional
properties.
Steering Axis
Camber angle,
12
Design Variables affecting Camber
Lateral (In-out) locations of the individual wheel pivots (upper,
lower pivots)
Inclination of the Steer Axis (Front view)
Height of the individual wheel pivots
Wheel offset
Spindle height relative to wheel pivot heights
13
Effects of camber change:
tyre wear
straight-line running
steer response
braking stability
torque steer
lift-off / traction steer
Camber values are dictated by:
tyre wear
camber compensation (defined later)
driveshaft angles
14
Scrub Radius
The steer axis (front view) is inclined from the true vertical. The inclination
is toward the vehicle centreline at the top bringing the PSA closer to the
centre of the tyre contact patch.
The linear dimension between the PSA and the centre of the tyre contact
patch (front view) is called the scrub radius.
The scrub radius can be positive (PSA inside), zero, or negative (PSA outside
TCP ctr).
Scrub radius can be changed by changing tyre width or wheel offset
Increasing scrub radius improves returnability, but longitudinal forces at tyre
contact patch are transmitted to the steering wheel
15
Design Variables affecting Scrub radius
KPI
Desired camber
Wheel offset (Required/Desired)
Tolerance for feedback
Tolerable steering system loads
Necessary steering ease while vehicle is stationary (parking).
16
Toe angle:
The angle measured between the centerline of the vehicle and the rotational
plane of the tyre as viewed from the top.
The angle between the two tyres of an axle set as viewed from the top.
The linear dimension difference between the front and rear measurements
taken at the forward most point in the tire rotation planes.
Toe (out) angle
Toe (out) angle
17
Design considerations
Toe setting affects dynamic stability especially during braking.
Toe other than zero produces opposing thrust vectors
increasing rolling resistance.
Production vehicles attempt to have a dynamic toe setting =
0. Toe with rolling forces acting.
Toe out may be used as an Ackermann error correction in race
vehicles.
Braking and rolling resistance tend to produce toe-out
Tractive forces produce the opposite effect
Front wheels set to toe-in for undriven and driven front axles
Toe changes with body roll (roll steer) - independent suspension
18
Bump steer
Road wheel steering angle (toe angle) change arising from suspension
articulation
Caused by different relative lateral movements of the suspension links and
track rods. Expressed in deg / mm of suspension travel
Bump camber
Camber change arising from suspension articulation
Expressed in deg / mm of suspension travel
1
09 Anti-pitch geometry
2
Anti-dive outboard brakes
For a car during braking the free body diagram using a dAlembert approach is shown
below. Braking forces B
f
and B
r
, are applied at the front and rear wheel and the
relationship between them is defined by the fixed braking ratio, k.
Anti-Pitch Geometry
Kinematic properties of a suspension that counteract the tendency of the
vehicle body to dive (nose down attitude) under braking and squat (nose up
attitude) during acceleration.
Although this is an aspect of the kinematic design of the suspension, its analysis
requires an understanding of the forces involved.
h
CG
B
f
B
r
Fz
r
Fz
f
mg
ma
x
a b
L
r f
f
B B
B
k
+
=
.. (1)
3
Under this conditions, the vertical load, Fz
f
is:
L
h ma
L
mgb
F
x
z
f
+ =
Similarly for the rear axle, the vertical load, Fz
r
is:
L
h ma
L
mga
F
x
z
r
=
This load transfer will cause an increased deflection at the front and reduced
deflection at the rear and hence pitching of the vehicle.
Looking at the diagram of the front suspension:
S
f ,
Spring force
Fz
f
d
B
f
e
O
f

.. (2)
.. (3)
4
The spring force may be expressed as static load plus a perturbation due to
braking,
f f f
S S S +

=
Under static conditions (a
x
=0) the static spring load is
L
mgb
S
f
=

For the braking condition, taking moments about O


f
gives:
0 = e B d S d F
f f z
f
( ) 0 = +

+ e B S S d
L
h ma
L
mgb
d
f f f
x

.. (4)
.. (5)
.. (6)
.. (7)
or
5
Removing the static load and setting S
f
equal to zero to represent the case
in which the suspension load does not change gives:
0 = e B
L
hd ma
f
x
Substituting for the braking force
.. (8)
k ma B
x f
= .. (9)
Results in
tan = =
kL
h
d
e
.. (10)
6
Hence, if the instantaneous centre of the suspension, O
f
, lies anywhere along the
line defined by equation (10) then the condition for no front suspension
deflection is satisfied. If the instantaneous centre is designed to lie below this line
at an angle of say, then the percentage anti-dive is defined as:
% 100
tan
tan

A similar analysis can be applied at the rear:


S
r ,
Spring force
Fz
r
d
B
r
e
O
r

( ) k L
h
d
e

= =
1
tan
.. (11)
.. (12)
7
Again, if the instantaneous centre lies along the line defined by equations (10)
and (12), then no change in lift force and hence no lift will occur. Therefore, the
condition for 100% anti-dive is that the front and rear instantaneous centres lie
along the two lines shown below
h
CG
kL
(1-k)L

8
Anti-squat independent rear suspension driveshaft
r x
T ma =
Taking moments about O
r
gives
r r r r
M d Fz d S e T +
.. (13)
.. (14)
S
r
Fz
r
d
e
O
r
T
r
r
M
r
9
The front suspension must also deflect under these conditions due to the load
transfer term ma
x
h/L reacted there. Note that it is not possible to design the front
suspension to directly accomodate this. The spring force change at the front is:
L
h ma
f kf S
x
f

= =
.. (16)
Substituting for all the forces and eliminating the static spring force gives
r r x r
k
d
r e
L
h
ma S =


=
Where:
d
r
=rear suspension deflection
k
r
=rear spring rate
.. (15)
10
The pitch angle of the vehicle is:
f
x
r
x
k
h ma
d
r e
L
h
k
ma
+


=
L
h
k
k
d
r e f
r

+
=

1
.. (17)
.. (18)
Hence the condition for zero pitch is:


=
L
f r

.. (19)
11
And the relationship to the angle is:
.. (20)
% 100
tan
tan

Similarly as for anti-dive, de definition of percent of anti-squat is:

tan
d
r e
.. (21)
1
10 Lateral weight transfer Anti-roll geometry
2
Roll centre and roll axis concepts are very useful in vehicle handling
calculations
The roll centres/instant centres transfer the NON-ROLLING forces to the
road surface. The height of the roll centres and the instant centre
placement determines how much of the weight transfer at either end (F &
R) goes through the springs/dampers (rolling) and how much through the
geometry (non-rolling).
With low roll centers the springs and dampers transfer the majority of the
weight.
Care is needed in their use
refers to the non-rolled condition
assumes no change in track during roll
as roll takes place, suspension geometry changes and the centre moves
should be treated as instantaneous centres for small angles of roll
Anti-Roll Geometry Roll Centre:
3
Static roll centre for double wishbone suspension:
4
Static roll centre for McPherson strut:
5
Static roll centre for a live axle:
6
Lateral weight transfer:
During lateral acceleration weight transfers via 3 paths:
1. Rolling weight transfer weight from sprung mass that is transferred through
the springs, anti-roll bars and dampers (the later one only during transient
moments).
2. Non-rolling weight transfer weight from sprung mass that is transferred
through the roll axis of the vehicle, which is the line generated by the front
and rear roll centres.
3. Unsprung mass weight transfer weight from the unsprung mass transferred
through its centre of gravity (wheels, uprights, part of the suspension arms
and driveshafts, etc.)
7
a
b
h
RCr
h
RCf
CG
USr
CG
USf
CG
RC
f
RC
r
L
RM
F
y
F
yf
F
yr
W
r
W
f
W
W
USf
W
USr
h
CG
a
y
m
USf
a
y
m
USr
Fig.1- Lateral Weight Transfer Model:
8
Roll Moment Arm:
The roll moment arm (L
RM
) can be calculated with the following equation:
( )
)
`

+
|
.
|

\
|
=
f f r
RC RC RC CG RM
h
L
a
h h h L
.. (1)
y s
a m Fy = .. (2)
Force due to lateral acceleration:
The force acting at the centre of gravity (CG) is:
9
y RM
F L RM = .. (3)
Rolling Moment:
The sprung mass rolling moment is:
( )
y s RC RC RC CG
a m h
L
a
h h h RM
f f r
)
`

+
|
.
|

\
|
=
.. (4)
Substituting (1) and (2) into (3), we get:
10
Roll Stiffness:
Converting spring stiffness (K
s
) into roll stiffness (K
s
) in terms of roll angle (),
where F
s
is the force at the contact patch of a vehicle with track t:
Equating moments, we get:

F
s
F
s
t/2 t/2
M
s
d
z
d
z
2 2
t
F
t
F M
s s s
+ =
.. (5)
where
z s s
d K F = .. (6)
11
And, using small angle theory

2
t
d
z
= .. (7)
Substituting (6) and (7) into (5) and solving in terms of K
s
, we get:
2
2
t
K K
s s
=

.. (8)
Motion ratio:
The displacement relationship between the spring and the wheel determines
the actual rate the wheel works against for any spring rate. This displacement
relationship may be defined as a motion ratio. The rate at the wheel is defined
as the wheel rate (Kw). The rate of the spring itself is called the spring rate (Ks).
The displacement relationship is a function of both spring position on the load
carrying member and the angular orientation of the spring to that member.
12
Motion Ratio:
From the simple lever system a number of relationships can be drawn.
|
.
|

\
|
b
a
F
=
F
A B
|
.
|

\
|
a
b

d
=
d
A B
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
a
k
a
b
d
b
a
F
k =
d
F
A
A
A
B
B
B
.. (9)
.. (10)
.. (11)
MR
b
a
=
.. (12)
And motion ratio is:
13
Applying to the roll stiffness of the front suspension the same principles leading to
equations (8) and (11), we get:
( ) ( ) | |
2
2
2
_ _
2
_ _ _
f
f S f S f ARB f ARB
t
MR K MR K K
f susp
+ =

.. (13)
K
ARB_f
= front anti-roll bar stiffness (N/m)
K
S_f
= front spring stiffness (N/m)
t
f
= front track (m)
K
susp__f
= torsional stiffness of the front suspension (Nm/rad)
Then the rotational stiffness of the front axle due to the tyres radial stiffness (K
T
) is:
2
2
_
f
T
t
K K
f ax
=

.. (14)
14
Combining the chassis roll rate with the tyre contribution as a series
system of springs, we get for the front axle torsional stiffness (K
f
):
f ax f susp
f ax f susp
f
K K
K K
K
_ _
_ _

+
=
Also the total torsional stiffness (K
t
) is
r f T
K K K

+ =
Where K
r
is the rear torsional stiffness
.. (15)
.. (16)
15
Roll couple and roll couple distribution:
The Roll Couple handled by each suspension and the Roll Couple Distribution is
determined using the roll moment (RM) and the Roll Stiffness (K

) for each
suspension.
Roll couple front (sprung)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
f
K
K
RM RC
f

Rolling Weight Transfer:


f
f
T
t
RC
W
f s
=
_
.. (17)
.. (18)
16
Non-rolling Weight Transfer:
f
y f s RC
T
t
a m h
W
f
f NR
_
_
=
.. (19)
Unsprung mass weight Transfer:
f
y US US
T
t
a m h
W
f f
f US
_ _
_
=
.. (20)
Front Weight Transfer:
f NR f US f S f
T T T T
W W W W
_ _ _
+ + = .. (21)
17
A similar analysis can be made for the rear axle and the roll angle () is easily
determined by dividing the Roll moment by the Roll stiffness.
T
K
RM

=
.. (22)
If there is no ARB, or for ride rate analysis, tyre stiffness and spring stiffness
can be combined as a series system of springs to determine an equivalent ride
rate.
2
2
s s tyre
s s tyre
ride
MR K K
MR K K
K
+
=
.. (23)
Ride rate:
1
11 Suspension Design: Understeer Budget
2
Context:
Vehicle attitude can be quantified by the amount of understeer or oversteer it
has in every situation.
Problem:
There are too many situations to assess
How do we relate goals (vehicle attitude) with characteristics (kinematics,
chassis, etc)
Solution:
Look for an indicator, if we know the vehicle behaviour in certain situations,
we can predict it for many others.
We can relate steady-state (easy to predict) with transient behaviour such as
stability (response to external forces)
3
Understeer budget:
Its a convenient way to relate suspension and chassis characteristics to
vehicle behaviour.
Its a very important design tool as it allows to set goals for suspension
kinematics (and compliance if necessary).
Indicates how much every variable contributes to vehicle
understeer/oversteer.
4
Process:
a
x
a
y
a
y
dz
NOTE:

n
= Kinematics
+
Compliance
+
Slip Angle

1

2

3

4
V

5
Understeer budget:
Most important!! Wheel attitude on the floor, i.e. what happens at the
contact patch
How the suspension and chassis affects wheel attitude
Equate all kinematics in terms of roll, (dZ/), and roll in terms of lateral
acceleration, (/a
x
). kinematics becomes then a function of lat acceleration
(dZ/a
x
)
Also wheel vertical motion can be converted in equivalent in roll, this allow us
to have traction and cornering forces in the same equation.
6
Chassis:
Diagram of Understeer Budget Model
Lat Accel
(cornering)
Tyre
Model
Weight split
Stiffness
Suspension stiffness ratio
Kinematics:
roll
pitch
Wheel attitude relative
to vehicle:
(Toe-in, Camber, Fz)
Compliance:
Fx, Fy, Mz
Long Accel
(braking/traction)
Body slip angle,

F
-
R
7
Understeer budget
We have a budget of total understeer (
F
-
R
) to spend on all chassis and
suspension variables. We can then adjust every variable and thus its
contribution to meet the target understeer budget.
We can also see how the vehicle changes its attitude across a range of lateral
acceleration and/or braking/traction
We can quickly cover a broad range of conditions in the analysis.
1
12 Damping and spring stiffness
2
Calculating spring stiffness:
For road vehicles: Spring stiffness is determined by desired natural frequency.
Rear axle usually has a frequency of 10% to 30% higher than the font, this is to
achieve the following effect:
When a vehicle passes over a bump, first with the front axle, then with the rear,
both start a bounce mode. If both have the same frequency, the car will pitch
several times. If the rear has a higher natural frequency, the rear will catch up
with the front and the car pitch will become bounce or heave which is not as
uncomfortable for the driver as pitch. Also this type of motion helps the vehicle
to settle down quicker.
time
Z
front
rear
3
Calculating spring stiffness:
Typical natural frequencies:
- Family saloon car (1.0Hz to 1.3Hz)
- Sports Car (1.5Hz to 1.9Hz)
Note: Racecars have much higher natural stiffness due to requirements of the
suspension (short travel and high load variation due to downforce). Some natural
frequencies should, however, be avoided as they match the ones of some human
organs and hence passengers/drivers are sensitive to it.
The range to be avoided is usually between 4Hz and 8Hz depending also on the
direction of the motion.
4
The suspension can be simplified to a quarter vehicle model where each vehicle corner
is treated separately. This is usually not entirely true as the motion of one axle can
affect the other, but it is usually a good approximation and relies on less variables
easier to obtain.
Suspension
Stiffness
coefficient, k
s
Suspension
Damping
coefficient, c
s
Sprung
Mass, m
s
x
s
Unsprung
Mass, m
us
x
us
Tyre Stiffness
coefficient, k
t
Tyre Damping
coefficient, c
t
5
s
st
n
m
k

2
1
=
2
. 2 MR m k
c
s st
=
2
1 =
n d
Natural frequency,
Damping ratio,
Damped natural frequency,
Sprung Mass (Rebound)
Unsprung Mass (Bump)
t s
t s
st
k k
k k
k
+
=
.
Note:
Also MR is the motion ratio
introduced to translate do damper
speed and K is accounted at the
wheel
uns
s
n
m
k

2
1
=
2
. 2 MR m k
c
uns s
=
Natural frequency,
Damping ratio,
As k
t
is typically
10k
s
:
s st
k k
11
10
=
6
Note: Anti-roll bars (ARBs) are often used to decouple bounce from roll, however
when determining damping a compromise has to be achieved because the suspension
has different rigidity in roll than it has in bump.
When deciding on damping, usually low damper speeds are associated to handling. For
a road/sports car, the rolling motion equates to around 200mm/sec. Usually below this
value damping is set higher (typically 0.7 to 1.0) and above this value, closer to 0.4-0.6.
Saloon cars are set to comfort rather than roadholding at around 0.25 . From this we
can get the damper graphs.
Vel (m/s)
Damping
Ratio
0.5
1.0
0.2
Low damper speed
(handling)
High damper speed
(ride)
bump
rebound
F (N)
7
Note: Damper travel obtained from motion ratio and suspension travel. To determine
suspension travel from target roll/G and maximum G will give a maximum roll and
suspension travel from roll. Also bumps under maximum roll have to be accounted for.
For example: a suspension with 100mm can have 35mm roll rebound, plus 35 for roll
bump plus an extra 30mm pure bump when rolling.
The preload is set so the vehicle in static will have 35mm of the suspension
compressed at the wheel.
Also, if the motion ratio is 0.8, then the damper will have to have a minimum travel of
80mm, this means that the last bit of damper travel, the bump rubbers will be working
as well.
When deciding on the spring length, we must account for the compression for
preload plus the suspension travel. The sum must be less than the effective spring
compression length (a 180mm spring will have around 120mm of compression length).
1
13 Suspension components: Force Analysis
2
Suspension Force analysis:
A thorough analysis of suspension forces requires the use of computer packages
Need to consider static and dynamic loading
Worst case conditions
Possible to carry out some simple (first stage) design calculations to estimate
loads at the contact patch
Based partially on experience and test data, the specific worst case scenarios are
a quick way to estimate the loads passing through the suspension components.
The suspension force analysis can be divided in three main stages:
3
Stage 1: forces at the contact patch are estimated based on worst case scenarios that can be
divided in 2 categories:
- extreme load case (only to happen once, suspension is required either
to resist or to deformwithout break)
- overturning (stress levels should be below yield point)
- kerb strike (stress levels should be below breaking point)
- fatigue load case (suspension is required to endure several cycles without fatigue,
typically number of cycles>>1.0E+4. The number of cycles in the S-N curve will determine the
proportion of yield stress)
- 1.2G cornering (outer wheel, 60000 cycles)
- 1.5G braking (100000 cycles)
- 3.5G bump (150000 cycles)
- combined cases of braking with bump and cornering with bump
4
Stage 2: loads at the contact patch are introduced in a multi-body systems
software (e.g. ADAMS) to obtain reaction forces at each suspension
component.
Stage 3: results from MDS package used in the FEA (finite element analysis)
to obtain stress results.
Boundary conditions must be carefully defined to closely mimic working
condition of the components.
For the fatigue analysis the stress results are plotted in a S-N curve to account
for the number of cycles and all worst case scenarios must be below the
curve.
5
Worst case scenarios:
assumption: self weight of the suspension elements is negligible compared to the
wheel load, static load added to dynamic loads.
For this specific example only axle sprung mass is accounted for but sometimes
the unsprung mass is accounted at higher acceleration rates and added to the
sprung mass.
Load cases depend on vehicle application and capabilities, for example a vehicle
with high downforce will exhibit much higher accelerations and vertical loads.
- overturning
lateral acceleration required to overturn the vehicle
(roll-over threshold) ay/g = t/2h
Fz = static load + dynamic load,
Fy = axle weight x roll-over threshold
- kerb strike (stress levels should be below breaking point)
Fz = static load,
Fy = 4G x axle weight
6
- 1.2G cornering
Fz = static load + dynamic load,
Fy = 1.2 x Fz
- 1.5G braking
Fz = static load + dynamic load,
(front) Fx = 1.5 x Total sprung mass/2 x front braking ratio
(rear) Fx = 1.5 x Total sprung mass/2 x rear braking ratio
- 3.5G bump
F = static load (1G)+ dynamic load (3.5G)
where the load is the axle sprung mass/2 x the vertical accel.
Often bump forces are considered to have a longitudinal component at 30 i.e.
Fz = F x cos 30
Fx = F x sin 30
- 1.5G braking + 3.5G bump
added values of considered cases
- 1.2G cornering + 3.5G bump
added values of considered cases
7
UTS

Cycles, N
1
1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6
S-N curve
1
14 Gear Selection Calculation
2
Gear selection calculation:
The speed and torque supplied by the engine to the drive axle has to change to
meet the varying demands. This is achieved with the gearbox which is the ratioing
component of the driveline. For road vehicles the gear ratios are generally selected
on the following basis:
1
st
gear - To start on a 1:3 gradient, fully laden, with a minimum clutch slip
Longest (5
th
/6
th
) gear Set for economy at motorway speeds on touring cars or for
maximum speed for sport vehicles like motorcycles.
Intermediate gears Set to maximize acceleration between 1
st
and the longest gear.
An initial estimate based on geometric progression
3
Setting Intermediate gears initial estimate based on geometric progression, R
4
:
Gear 1 2 3 4 5
Ratio N
1
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
5
Having set 1
st
and 5
th
gears:
n k n
N R N
1 1 +
=
1
1
1

= k
k
k
N
N
R
and
Where k is the number of gears and N is the gear ratio. For this case:
1 4 2
N R N =
and
4
1
5
4
N
N
R =
4
Vehicle equation of motion:
F
x
D
R
CP CG
a
x
( ) ( ) R D F m m a
x eq x
+ = +
where
a
x
= vehicle acceleration [ms
-2
]
m= vehicle mass [kg]
r
5
2
2 2 2
) (
r
I n n I n I
m
e g a d a w
eq
+ +
=
m
eq
= mass equivalent to inertia referred to rotating components [kg]
(see referred inertias)
where
n
a
= axle ratio
n
g
= gear ratio
I
e
= engine Inertia [kgm
2
]
I
d
= driveshaft inertia [kgm
2
]
r = wheel radius [m]
I
w
= inertia of all wheels [kgm
2
]
6
r
n n T
F
g a e
x

=
F
x
= Force at the wheel [N]
= driveline efficiency
where
D = Aerodynamic drag [N]
A C V D
d
2
2
1
=
where
= air density (approximately 1.25 kg/m
3
, depending on air temperature and humidity)
V = vehicle velocity [m/s]
A = frontal area [m
2
]
C
d
= drag coefficient
7
R = Rolling resistance [N]
mg C R
r
=
C
r
= Rolling coefficient (typically 0.015 to 0.02)
Also vehicle and engine speed are related by:
g a
n n
r
V

=
where
= engine angular velocity [rad/s] at which engine torque (T
e
) occurs
30
N
=
N = engine speed in RPM
8
Constant torque curve:
For an engine with constant power, knowing that F=P/V looking at how force
changes with speed, we get:
Constant power curves
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 10 20 30 40
speed (m/s)
F

(
k
N
)
100 kW
150 kW
200 kW
9
Maximum speed:
Maximum attainable speed of a vehicle occurs when the engine power curve equals
the tractive effort.
Constant power vs. Tractive Effort
0,0
500,0
1000,0
1500,0
2000,0
2500,0
3000,0
3500,0
4000,0
4500,0
5000,0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
D
R
Tractive Effort (D+R)
100kW
Max speed
10
Analysis of the Force velocity graph:
Tractive Effort
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Vehicle Velocity (Km/h)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
Max force @ wheels
Traction limit
Usable Force @ wheels
Constant (max) Power
Tractive resistance
Loss through
gear step
Force to accelerate,
(F
x
-D-R)
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
5
th
6
th
11
Gradient effect on tractive effort:
Constant power vs. Tractive Effort
0,0
500,0
1000,0
1500,0
2000,0
2500,0
3000,0
3500,0
4000,0
4500,0
5000,0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
D+R
100kW
D+R+G
where
G = gradient force
sin mg G =
= gradient angle
1
15 Referred Inertias
2
When a shaft is accelerated rotationally it will exhibit a torque resisting the
acceleration - this is the rotational inertial torque which is proportional to the shaft
acceleration.
If the shaft is accelerated through a speed reduction from a massless shaft the
torque experienced on massless shaft will be different because of the ratio and
because the acceleration is different.
An equivalent system may be represented as a shaft accelerating at the lower rate
with an inertia that gives the same inertial torque as the massless shaft - this new
inertia is termed the Referred Inertia
Referred Inertias:
3
T
e
and
e
Inertia, I
e
Engine
Driveline
Inertia, I
e
T
d
and
d
Equivalent inertia
referred to driveline, I
eff
4
The speeds and hence accelerations are related by the gear ratio (n):
d
e
d
e
n

= =
And Torque are related by the gear ratio (n):
e d
nT T =
. (1)
. (2)
5
The driveline equation of motion is:
d eff d
I T

=
And rearranging gives:
Substituting for T
d
and
d
gives:
d
d
eff
T
I

=
e
e
eff
T
n I

2
=
. (3)
. (4)
. (5)
6
As the equation of motion for the engine is:
Substituting for T
e
in equation for I
eff
:
Thus the equivalent inertia on the driven side of a speed reducing gearbox is
n
2
xinertia of the driver side.
e e e
I T

=
e eff
I n I
2
=
. (6)
. (7)
7
Performance calculations:
The engine torque necessary to accelerate the individual rotational component parts may now
be determined and added to the torque necessary to accelerate the total mass of the vehicle
linearly.
Driveline
Inertia, I
d
Engine Torque,
T
e

e
Gear ratio, n
g
Axle gear ratio,
n
a
Drive axle

a
Tractive Effort,
F
x
Wheel Inertia,
I
W
Engine Inertia,
I
e
x m R D F
x
=
D = Aerodynamic
drag
R = rolling resistance
m= vehicle mass
Knowing that:
where
. (8)
8
Analysis:
Torque available at the drive axle T
a
is given as:

a g e a
n n T T =
Where:
is the overall driveline efficiency between engine and axle
n
g
is the gear ratio
n
a
is the axle ratio
The driveline inertia referred to the rear axle is:
e d a d a w eq
I n n I n I I ) (
2 2 2
+ + =
I
w
referring to all the rotating wheels on the vehicle
. (9)
. (10)
9
The equation of motion of the driveline is:
r F I T
x a eq a
+ =

This being presented as follows:


r, rolling radius
total tractive
effort
T
a
F
x
I
eq
= effect of all the driveline inertias referred to the axle.
T
a
= torque at the axle due to engine torque acting
through the appropriate gears.
It is assumed there is no wheel slip thus.
a
r x =

. (11)
. (12)
10
Substituting for F
x
and
a
from (8) and (12) into (11) and rearranging gives:
But from I = m k
2
then m
eq
= I
eq
/k
2
where k = r then:
Divide by r
( )
r
x
I R D x m r T
eq a

= + +
x
r
I
R D x m
r
T
eq
a

=
2
( )x m m R D
r
T
eq
a
+ =
Where m
eq
= equivalent mass of rotating parts = I
eq
/r
2
. (13)
. (14)
. (15)
11
That is:
2
2 2 2
) (
r
I n n I n I
m
e d a d a w
eq
+ +
=
. (16)
Substituting (9) into (15) gives:
( )x m m R D
r
n n T
eq
g a e
+ =

. (17)
Also vehicle and engine speed are related by:
g a
n n
r
x

=
. (18)
1
16 Brake proportioning
2
Objective: to determine the maximum rate of deceleration of a vehicle as it
brakes on a road with a known friction coefficient.
Brake Proportioning:
To efficiently use the available adhesion the braking effort must be split between
the front and rear axle. If not one of the three possible situations can occur:
1. The vehicle is unable to generate the desired deceleration for a given pedal
pressure
2. The front axle locks which results in a loss of steering control
3. The rear axle locks which results in the vehicle becoming unstable and going
in to a spin
3
If the front and rear axles are to be on the point of locking, then the braking
forces T
f
and T
r
, acting at each axle must be in proportion to the vertical loads
being carried, R
f
and R
r
. The magnitude of the braking force generated by each
axle, up to the point at which it locks, is a function of the design of the braking
system.
During braking the longitudinal load transfer depends on deceleration which in
turn depends on available adhesion. This means that ideally the braking ratio
should change with deceleration rate to make full use of the available friction.
This situation is reality complicated by the following:
Change in vehicle weight
Change in weight distribution
The effect of gradients
Cornering, in which some proportion of the total tyre force is used to generate
lateral forces
Varying road surfaces and weather conditions
Split friction surfaces where the coefficient of adhesion changes from left to
right-hand sides of the vehicle
4
To determine an appropriate braking ratio we need to be able to identify the
factors that affect the front to rear wheel (axle) loads and understand their
influence on the deceleration behaviour of the vehicle
Assumptions:
The centre of gravity of the vehicle lies on the longitudinal
centre line of the vehicle
The vehicle is moving along a flat, level road with no camber
The loads on wheels mounted on the same axle are equal, so
well look at axle loads rather than individual wheel loads
5
a b
Mg
R
f
R
r
L
T
fr
T
f
T
rr
T
r
D
x
y

Free body diagram of the decelerating vehicle:


Rolling resistance forces, T
fr
and T
rr
Braking forces, T
f
and T
r
Vertical loads, R
f
and R
r
Aerodynamic drag force, D
6
Solving longitudinally:
rr fr r f
T T T T D x M = .. (0)
Say, deceleration rate, , we get:
x d =
.. (2)
rr fr r f
T T T T D Md + + + + = .. (1)
Aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance forces are negligible, hence equation (1)
becomes:
r f
T T Md + =
Defining z as vehicle deceleration as a proportion of g:
.. (3)
g
d
z =
7
Pz T T Mgz
r f
= + =
Then equation (2) becomes:
.. (4)
Mg R R
f r
= +
In the vertical direction:
.. (5)
h T h T b R a R I
r f r f
=

Also taking moments about the CG:
.. (6)
( )
r f f
T T
L
h
L
Mgb
R + + =
Manipulating (5) and (6), and knowing that = 0, we get:
.. (7)
.. (8)
( )
r f r
T T
L
h
L
Mga
R + =
8
L
Pzh
L
Mgb
R
f
+ =
Which can be combined with (4) to get:
.. (9)
L
Pzh
F R
r r
=
.. (10)
During braking the change in axle load favours the front axle. Considering a fixed
brake ratio:

+ = =
L
Pzh
F R T
f f f

.. (11)
r
f
r
f
T
T
x
x
R = =
.. (12)
And considering the vehicle brake ratio:
9
L
Pzh
L
Mgb
R
f
+ =
Thus:
.. (13)
.. (14)
Sub (13) and (11) into (4) and solving in order to z we get a maximum deceleration of:
( ) h Lx P
F L
z
f
f

=
where z is the deceleration at which the front axle locks.
Using the same analysis for the rear axle locking condition we get:
.. (15)
( ) h Lx P
F L
z
r
r

+
=
where z is the deceleration at which the rear axle locks.
10
The braking force demanded to the tyres depends on the fixed ratio so the demand at
the front axle is:
.. (16) Pz x T x T
f f f
= =
Normalising to the vehicle weight, P, we get:
.. (17)
z x
P
T
f
f
=
Similarly for the rear axle:
.. (18) z x
P
T
r
r
=
11
Sub (11) into (16) we get the maximum available braking force which we can
normalise to the vehicle weight:
.. (19)

+ =
L
Pzh
F
P P
Tx
f
f

Similarly for the rear axle:
.. (20)

=
L
Pzh
F
P P
Tx
r
r

12
The maximum deceleration for the front axle to lock (14) occurs when the available
braking force (19) curve meets the demanded braking force (17).
The same applies to the rear axle. The one that locks at a lower deceleration dictates
the limiting deceleration rate.
Normalised brake force against deceleration
0,00
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
0,50
0,60
0,70
0,80
0,90
1,00
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
deceleration (g)
B
r
a
k
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e
/
v
e
h
i
c
l
e

w
e
i
g
h
t

k
N
/
P
demanded (front)
available (front)
demanded (rear)
available (rear)
z (front)
z (rear)
vehicle weight P 9810 (N)
adhesion coeff mu 0,9
front braking ratio Xf 0,73
rear braking ratio Xr 0,27
CG height h 0,5 (m)
Wheelbase L 2,6 (m)
front axle to CG a 1,3 (m)
CG to rear axle b 1,3 (m)
Vehicle Data:
1
17 Brake system design
2
In conventional hydraulic brake systems the applied force at the brake pedal is
converted to hydraulic pressure in the master cylinder.
The force applied by the driver is multiplied through a mechanical advantage
between the brake pedal and the master cylinder to increase the force on the
master cylinder.
Hydraulic pressure is a typical force transfer mechanism to the wheel brake as
the fluid can be routed through flexible lines to the wheels while they undergo
complex wheel motions.
Brake system design:
Master Cylinder Pressure (without power assist), P
mc
:
2
4
mc
pedal pedal
mc
d
MA F
P

=
3
Master Cylinder Pressure (with power assist), P
mc
:
( )
2
4
mc
booster pedal pedal
mc
mc
mc
d
F MA F
A
F
P

+
= =
In road cars the pressure from the master cylinder is usually modified by a series
of regulating valves before reaching the wheel cylinders. The valves modify the
pressure as a function of weight transfer, vehicle static load and load location, and
the wheel brake characteristics. Valves may also be placed within these lines to
provide for anti-lock braking, traction control and/or yaw stability control.
The modified master cylinder pressure is delivered to a hydraulic wheel cylinder
which uses the hydraulic pressure to create a mechanical force.
4
Wheel Cylinder Force, F
wc
:
( ) | |
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
2
2
2
4
mc
wc
booster pedal pedal
mc
wc
mc wc mc wc mc wc
d
d
F MA F
A
A
F d P A P F

The wheel cylinder mechanical force is applied to the metal backing of the
friction material which is then forced into contact with the rotating brake surface
creating the friction forces required to decelerate the vehicle.
The friction force from the brake friction material acts at the mean radius of the
braking surface. For an internal or external expanding brake the mean radius of
the braking surface is the radius of the braking surface.
For a disk brake the mean radius (r
m
) of the braking surface is:
Disk brake mean radius, r
m
:
2
2 2
o i
m
r r
r
+
=
5
The wheel torque the brake system creates during braking (T
w
) is a function of
the wheel cylinder force (F
wc
), the coefficient of friction between the friction pad
and the brake surface (), the mean radius of the braking surface (r
m
), the number
of braking surfaces (N), and the multiplication factor (effectiveness factor) of the
brake (E).
Wheel Torque, T
w
:
m pad wc w
r E N F T =
wheel N
disk
/ 2 =
wheel N
drum
/ 1 =
and
where
6
Brake type Energizing factor
Disk 0.7 0.8
Leading-trailing drum 2.5
Dual servo 3.5
7
Brake linings all have edge codes for friction, compound and vendor
identification. An example might be FF-20-AB. FF identifies the friction coefficient
and the 20-AB identify the compound and vendor respectively.
The following table identifies the coefficient of friction values. The first letter in
the code provides information as to the moderate (normal) temperature
characteristics, the second letter provides information as to the high temperature
characteristics of the lining.
Edge Letter Code Friction coefficient
C <0.15
D 0.15<<0.25
E 0.25<<0.35
F 0.15<<0.25
G 0.15<<0.25
H >0.55
Z unclassified
8
The braking force available at the tyre to road interface is the wheel torque
divided by the rolling radius of the tyre.
Wheel Brake Force:
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t
m
pad wc
t
w
b
r
r
E N F
r
T
F
Expanding:
( ) | | | |
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
t
m
pad
mc
wc
booster pedal pedal b
r
r
E N
d
d
F MA F F
2
2
1
18 Chassis: Stiffness requirements
2
Concept:
In terms of Handling, one major chassis requirement it to have minimal effect
on the suspension allowing to tune the handling balance properly by
adjusting the front/rear suspension stiffness.
On the other hand, rigidity comes at a cost in weight, material and chassis
development time.
The idea is to determine the minimum torsional stiffness required so to have
a negligible effect on the suspension balance
3
Knowing that the load transfer that can be affected by suspension balance is the
one passing across the springs and dampers (i.e. the rolling weight transfer) is
given by:

=
T
f
K
K
RM RC
f

For the front axle (see eq.17 from Understeer Budget) and:

=
T
r
K
K
RM RC
r

For the rear axle respectively.


.(1)
.(2)
4
We get a suspension balance of:
c f
c r
c f
c r
r
f
RC
FC
K K
K K
R
K K
K K
K
K
K
K



+
+
=
+
+
= . .
r
K
K
N
c

=
If we divide both terms of the fraction by and express chassis stiffness in terms
of rear suspension stiffness, say:
c
K

We get:
N R
N
R
K
K
RC
FC
+
+
=
1
.

.(6)
.(7)
..(8)
5
We can then determine the percentage in difference generated by a non-stiff
chassis as:
( ) % 100 %

=
c
f
RC
FC
c
f
K
K
K
K
K
K
Error

Sub (3) and (8) into (9), we get:


( ) % 100
1
.
%
+
+

=
R
N R
N
R R
Error
.(9)
.(10)
6
( ) % 100
1
1 %

+
+
=
N R
N
Error
.(11)
Solving, the error percentage can be expressed as:
Plotting the
equation for a
range of N and
R, we get:
Effect of chassis flexibility on F/R susp balance
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
N, chassis stiffness/rear susp stiffness
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

E
r
r
o
r

(
%
)
R=0,50
R=0,75
R=1,00
R=1,33
R=2,00
7
We can conclude that:
For N>10:
- effects on suspension can be negligible
- major increase in chassis stiffness will have minimal impact on
how it affects the suspension balance
The further away from 50/50 stiffness distribution (for R=1) is, the more
critical the chassis stiffness is in order to allow for good handling balance
8
To determine minimum chassis stiffness:
1) Determine torsional stiffness for both front and rear axes
2) Chassis stiffness should be a minimum of 10 times the suspension stiffness.
Also, if we know the chassis stiffness, we can assess the effect it has on
suspension balance and compensate for it when establishing suspension
targets.
9
Using FEA for chassis development:
Finite element analysis
techniques can be used
to pinpoint the most
flexible areas to focus on
and to further improve
chassis stiffness
Torsion/length
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
distance to rear axle (m)
(
d
e
g
/
m
)
Std
iteration 9
iteration 10
iteration 11
10
This an effective tool for chassis development. It looks for a static solution and is
valid for steady state. However there are other considerations:
Stress vs. rigidity:
Often stiffening up a chassis may create higher stress areas, both analysis
(stress and elastic deformation) should be made in parallel.
Modal Analysis:
Vehicles are subjected to dynamic inputs such as potholes, etc. The chassis can be
accounted as a series of masses connected as torsional springs.
Modal analysis can be used to assess any dynamic improvements made on a
chassis. Also torsional flexibility is usually the weakest mode on a chassis and
hence the one with the lowest natural frequency. It can be used as an indicator of
chassis improvement, in parallel with the static solution. If we have different
reinforcement alternatives that give the same torsional stiffness, the most
effective one is the one with higher natural frequency.

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