EE 3407 Electromagnetics

Lab 8
Waveguide and transmission lines
Waveguides typically consist of either a single hollow conducting tube within which waves propagate, or
a dielectric filament which confines the wave. Waveguides differ from coax, two-wire line and other
multi-conductor transmission lines in several important aspects, such as:
- Propagation along waveguides is described in terms of modes, each of which is associated with a
lower cutoff frequency, whereas propagation along multi-conductor transmission lines is TEM.
- Waveguides cannot support DC current, i.e., such as for powering circuits.
- Wave propagation along a waveguide is dispersive, i.e., group delay varies as a function of
frequency, whereas ideal multi-conductor transmission lines provide constant group delay.


Typical metal waveguides Dielectric waveguide Waves propagating inside a
waveguide
Within a multi-conductor transmission line currents and voltages along the conductors sustain the
wave electric and magnetic field energy. On the other hand propagation along a waveguide can be
thought of in terms of interactions with (reflections from) the waveguide surface as the wave
propagates along the waveguide. However, propagation can only occur when the boundary (electric and
magnetic field) conditions are satisfied everywhere along the waveguide. Hence, the interaction with
the waveguide surface is not arbitrary but confined to certain specific behaviors referred to as modes.
In the case of fiber optics the wave is confined within the fiber as reflections occur at the critical angle,
or higher angles.

Structure and types of Optical Fibers
An optical fiber consists of three parts, the core, the cladding and the jacket. The basic structure of an
optical fiber is shown in the following figure. Most of the optical fibers are made of dielectic materials
such as glass SiO
2
. Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the core of
the fiber. The core is described as having a radius and an index of refraction n
1
. The core is surrounded
by a layer of material called the cladding which has a lower refractive index than that of the core. Even
though light propagates along the fiber core without the layer of cladding material, the cladding ensures
a consistent electrical environment for propagation, i.e., as compared to an exposed core. The jacket is
usually flexible plastic to add flexibility for the glass optical fiber otherwise the optical fibers can be
easily damaged.
Fibers are classified as either single mode fibers or multimode fibers. Multimode fibers generally
have a wider core diameter (45-50m) and are used for short distance communication and applications
requiring higher transmitted power. Single mode fibers are generally used for longer communication
links with a core diameter of 9.5m. Modern single mode optical fibers can carry internet signals for
hundreds of miles and still maintaining signal strength. In this lab we will work with single mode fibers.

Physical and electrical description (refractive index profile) of a step-index optical fiber.

Single Mode Fiber

In its simplest form, an optical fiber consists of a central glass core surrounded by a cladding layer
whose refractive index n
c
is slightly lower than the core index n
1
. Such fibers are generally referred to as
step-index fibers to distinguish them from graded-index fibers in which the refractive index of the core
decreases gradually from center to core boundary. Figure 1 shows schematically the cross section and
refractive-index profile of a step-index fiber. Two parameters that characterize an optical fiber are the
relative corecladding index difference:

and the so-called V parameter is defined as:

where k
0
=2/, a is the core radius, and is the wavelength of light. The V parameter determines the
number of modes supported by the fiber. A step-index fiber will only support a single mode if V < 2.405.
Optical fibers designed to satisfy this condition are called single-mode fibers. Single mode fibers are
used for long distance propagation of laser signals because there is only one mode from the transmitter
to receiver so the noises, signal interferences and distortion are minimized.
Fiber Losses
An important fiber parameter provides a measure of power loss during transmission of optical signals
inside the fiber. If P
0
is the power launched at the output of a fiber of length L, and the power
transmitted into the fiber, i.e., P
t,
is given by


where the attenuation constant is a measure of total fiber losses from all sources. It is customary to
express in unit of dB/km using the relation
] / 1 [ 343 . 4
] [
] [
] [
ln 343 . 4
] [
) 10 ln /
] [
] [
(ln 10
] [
] [
] [
log 10
] [
1
] [
log 10
1
] [
log 10
] [
] [ ] [
] / [
0 0 0
0
0
km
km L
W P
W P
km L
W P
W P
km L
W P
W P
km L
mW
W P
mW
W P
km L
dBm P dBm P
km dB
t t t
t
t

where, in linear unit is given by:
] [
] [
] [
ln
] / 1 [
0
km L
W P
W P
km
t


Optical fiber losses depend on the wavelength of light. The following figure shows the loss spectrum
of a silica fiber. This fiber exhibits a minimum loss of about 0.15 dB/km near the wavelength of 1.55 m.
Losses are considerably higher at shorter wavelengths, reaching a level of a few dB/km in the visible
region. Note, however, that even a 10 dB/km loss corresponds to an attenuation constant of only
210
5
cm
1
, an incredibly low value compared to that of most other materials. The long distance fiber
optical communication utilizes laser wavelength ranges around 1.55 m. Today, almost all telephone,
internet, cable television data go through undersea and underground optical fibers.

Loss spectrum of a silica fiber.

Fiber Connectors

An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables quicker connection and
disconnection than splicing. The connector mechanically couples and aligns the cores of fibers so laser
light can pass with very low loss. More than a dozen types of fiber optic connectors have been
developed by various manufacturers since the 1980s. Here we introduce the three most commonly used
connectors:
ST connector: This is the most popular connector for multimode fiber optic LAN
applications. It has a long 2.5mm diameter ferrule made of ceramic (zirconia),
stainless alloy or plastic. It mates with an interconnection adapter and is latched
into place by twisting to engage a spring-loaded bayonet socket.


FC connector: The FC connector also has a 2.5mm ferrule made of
ceramic (zirconia) or stainless alloy. It is specifically designed for
telecommunication applications, and is designed with a threaded
coupling for durable connections. It has been the most popular
single mode connectors for many years. However it is now
gradually being replaced by SC and LC connectors.
SC connector: The SC connector was developed by NTT of Japan. It
is widely used in single mode applications due to its excellent
performance. It features a snap-in (push-pull) connection design
for quick patching of cables into rack or wall mounts. Two simplex
SC connectors can be clipped together by a reusable duplex
holding clip to create a duplex SC connector.

Once the optical fiber is terminated with a particular connector, the connector endface preparation
will determine what the connector return loss, also known as back reflection, will be. The back reflection
is the ratio between the light propagating through the connector in the forward direction and the light
reflected back into the light source by the connector surface. Minimizing back reflection is of great
importance in high-speed and analog fiber optic links, utilizing narrow linewidth sources such as DFB
lasers, which are prone to mode hopping and fluctuations in their output. The following figure indicates
different types of surface preparation.


Flat PolishA flat polish of the connector surface will result in a back reflection of about -16 dB
(4%).
PC PolishThe Physical Contact (PC or UPC) polish results in a slightly curved connector surface,
forcing the fiber ends of mating connector pairs into physical contact with each other. This
eliminates the fiber-to-air interface, there by resulting in back reflections of -30 to -40 dB. The
/PC polish is the most popular connector endface preparation, used in most applications.
SPC PolishIn the Super PC (SPC) polish, an extended polishing cycle enhances the surface
quality of the connector, resulting in back reflections of -40 to -55 dB. This polish is used in high-
speed, digital fiber optic transmission systems.
APC PolishThe Angled PC (APC) polish, adds an 8 degree angle to the connector endface. Back
reflections of <-60 dB can routinely be accomplished with this polish.

It is very important to know what is the polish type for the connectors used in systems and
equipment. It you connect a PC type to an APC type, the connect surface will be damaged. The
internal connectors in some equipments will cost a lot of money to repair. In systems, it means
longer downtime of networks and will cost a lot of money for the service providers. Thus, it is
very important to check the connector types before connection.

Fiber Coupler

A fiber coupler is a four-port device consisting of two fibers that have been fused together, etched, or
polished over a small interaction region. The mechanism through which light is exchanged between the
two fibers is dependent upon the fabrication method. When the fibers are etched or polished and
positioned in close proximity, the otherwise insensitive and well confined core modes interact by
exchanging power between each fiber core due to the overlap of the modes in the common cladding.
The strength of the coupling between the two modes is described by an overlap integral of the fields
associated with each of the individual guides. Fused couplers are obtained by fusing together and
stretching two parallel uncoated fibers.

Functional sketch and photo of a 4-port (2x2) fiber coupler.

The coupling ratio or splitting ratio parameter is used to describe operation of the fiber coupler. It is
defined as the ratio of the optical power from one output port of the coupler to the sum of the total
power from all output ports. Consider the 2x2 coupler shown schematically in Figure 4, whose coupling
ration is a for port 1, 3 and 1-a for port 2, 4. If the input power for port 1 is P
1
and P
2
for port 2, then
output power for port 3 and 4

,
Note:
1. The following experiments make use of lasers operating in the NIR (near infrared)
region, hence they cannot be seen. It is important that you use the laser source
carefully as direct exposure to the laser can be harmful to the eyes. Do not point the
laser into your eyes or into anyone elses eyes.
2. Power source can only be connected to PC connector, while power meter can be
connected to either PC or APC connector. Check connectors before connection.
3. Make sure connector is sealed with proper cap once you finish using. Or the
dust/dirt/grease will damage the surfaces.
Question 1:
1.1 Directly connect power source and power meter by a UPC-UPC (PC-PC) cable and measure power
in dBm. Describe why power is decreased when switching the mode of laser from the CW mode
to the 1000-Hz mode. Tips: The laser output becomes a sinusoidal wave when it operates in the
1000-Hz mode.
1.2 Repeat the measurement for wavelength of 1310 nm and 1550 nm.

Question 2:
2.1 Connect power source and meter by two fiber cables and adapter, measure the power at 1310nm
wavelength.
2.2 Repeat for the wavelength of 1550nm and CW, 1000 Hz modes. Compare the results in a table.
2.3 Explain why there is a greater loss if PC or/and APC connectors are connected by the adapter.
Using the following connector combinations:
Fiber cable 1 Fiber cable 2
node1 node2 node3 node4
PC PC PC PC
PC PC APC PC
PC APC APC PC
PC APC APC APC







Question 3:
Insertion loss of an optical fiber is defined as
] [
] [ ] [
] / [
0
km L
dBm P dBm P
km dB
t

where P
0
[dBm] is the power measured at the output of a fiber of length L and P
t
[dBm] is the input
power transmitted into the fiber.
3.1 Build connection according to the following figure. All fiber cables are PC-PC type. A 2-km long
fiber is used. Measure the loss of one 2 km long fiber using two different wavelength sources at
1310 nm and 1550 nm.
3.2 Calculate the loss in unit of dB/km and loss factor . How do your results compare with the loss
spectrum? Explain any differences observed.





Adapter
Power source
source
Power meter
Fiber cable1
Fiber cable2
1 2 3 4
Question 4:
Connect the fibers according to the following figure. All fiber cables should be PC-PC type. Measure
the power outputs of a 2x2 coupler at 1550 nm.

4.1 Only connect couplers port#1 to power source and measure the output of port#3 and port#4. Find
P1 and the coupling ratio P3/P1 and P4/P1.
4.2 Disconnect couplers port#1 from power source. Connect only couplers port#2 to power source.
Measure the output of port#3 and port#4. Find P2 and coupling ratio P3/P2 and P4/P2.
4.3 Connect couplers port#1 and port#2 to two power sources simultaneously and measure the
outputs at port#3 and port#4.
4.4 Do the results match with the theoretical formula? Explain any differences observed.