perception

The process of receiving information about and making

sense of the world around us.

selective attention
The process of attending to some information received by
our senses and ignoring other information

categorical thinking
Organizing people and objects into preconceived categories
that are stored in our long term memory.

mental models
Visual or relational images in our mind that represent the
external world.

stereotyping
The process of assigning traits to people on the basis of their
membership in a social category

attribution process
The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed
behavior or event is caused largely by internal or external
factors.

fundamental attribution error
The tendency to see the person rather than the situation as
the main cause of that persons behavior.

self-serving bias
The tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to internal
factors and our failures to external factors

self-fulfilling prophecy
The perceptual process in which our expectations about
another person cause that person to act in a way that is
consistent with those expectations

positive organizational
behavior
A perspective of organizational behavior that focuses on
building positive qualities and traits within individuals or
institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with
them.

halo effect
A perceptual error whereby our general impression of a
person, usually based on one prominent characteristic,
colors our perception of other characteristics of that person.

primacy effect
A perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of
people on the basis of the first information we receive about
them.

recency effect
A perceptual error in which the most recent information
dominates our perception of others

false-consensus effect
A perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to
which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our
own.

Johari Window
A model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure
and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the
blind, hidden, andunknown areas


contact hypothesis
A theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the
less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that
person

empathy
A persons understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings,
thoughts, and situations of others.

learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral
tendency) that occurs as a result of a persons interaction
with the environment.

tacit knowledge
Knowledge that is embedded in our actions and ways of
thinking and is transmitted only through observation and
experience.

behavior modification
A theory that explains learning in terms of the antecedents
and consequences of behavior.

social learning theory
A theory stating that much learning occurs by observing
others and then modeling the behaviors that lead to
favorable outcomes and avoiding behaviors that lead to
punishing consequences.

self-reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control
over a reinforce but doesnt take it until completing a self-
set goal.

learning orientation
An individual attitude and organizational culture in which
people welcome new learning opportunities, actively
experiment with new ideas and practices, view reasonable
mistakes as a natural part of the learning process, and
continuously question past practices.
Chapter 3 summary

Perception involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting
information to make sense of the world around us.
Perceptual organization engages categorical thinkingthe
mostly nonconscious process of organizing people and
objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our
long-term memory. Mental modelsinternal
representations
of the external worldalso help us to make sense of
incoming stimuli.
Social identity theory explains how we perceive people
through categorization, homogenization, and
differentiation.
Stereotyping is a derivative of social identity theory, in
which people assign traits to others based on their
membership
in a social category. Stereotyping economizes mental
effort, fills in missing information, and enhances our
selfperception
and social identity. However, it also lays the
foundation for prejudice and systemic discrimination.
The attribution process involves deciding whether
an observed behavior or event is caused mainly by the
person (internal factors) or the environment (external
factors). Attributions are decided by perceptions of the
consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the behavior.
This process helps us to link together the various
pieces of our world in cause-effect relationships, but it is
also subject to attribution errors, including fundamental
attribution error and self-serving bias.
Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations
about another person cause that person to act in a way that
is consistent with those expectations. Essentially, our
expectations
affect our behavior toward the target person, which
then affects that employees opportunities and attitudes,
which then influences his or her behavior. Self- fulfilling
prophecies tend to be stronger when the relationship begins
(such as when employees first join the department), when
several people hold the expectations toward the employee,
and when the employee has a history of low achievement.
Four other perceptual errors commonly noted in
organizations
are the halo effect, primacy effect, recency effect,
and false-consensus effect. We can minimize these
and other perceptual problems through awareness of
perceptual
bias, self-awareness, and meaningful interaction.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
(or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a persons
interaction with the environment. Much of what
we learn is tacit knowledge, which is embedded in our
actions without conscious awareness.
The behavior modification perspective of learning states
that behavior change occurs by altering its antecedents and
consequences. Antecedents are environmental stimuli that
provoke (not necessarily cause) behavior. Consequences
are events following behavior that influence its future
occurrence. Consequences include positive reinforcement,
punishment, negative reinforcement, and extinction. The
schedules of reinforcement also influence behavior.
Social learning theory states that much learning occurs
by observing others and then modeling the behaviors
that seem to lead to favorable outcomes and avoiding
behaviors that lead to punishing consequences. It also
recognizes that we often engage in self-reinforcement.
Behavior modeling is effective because it transfers tacit
knowledge and enhances the observers confidence in
performing the task.
Many companies now use experiential learning because
employees do not acquire tacit knowledge through
formal classroom instruction. Experiential learning begins
with concrete experience, followed by reflection on
that experience, formation of a theory from that experience,
and then testing of that theory in the environment.
Organizational learning is any structured activity that
improves an organizations capacity to acquire, share,
and use knowledge in ways that improve its survival and
success. Organizations acquire knowledge through
individual
learning and experimentation. Knowledge sharing
occurs mainly through various forms of communication
and training. Knowledge use occurs when employees
realize
that the knowledge is available and that they have
enough freedom to apply it.







































emotions
Physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of
readiness.

attitudes
The cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object).

cognitive dissonance
Condition that occurs when we perceive an inconsistency between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior.

emotional labor
The effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

emotional dissonance
The conflict between required and true emotions.

emotional
intelligence (EI)
A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate
emotion in oneself and others.


job satisfaction
A persons evaluation of his or her job and work context.

exit-voice-loyaltyneglect
(EVLN) model
The four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction.


organizational (affective)
commitment
The employees emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in a particular organization.

continuance
commitment
An employees calculative attachment to the organization, whereby the employee is motivated to stay only because leaving would
be costly.

trust
Positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk.

stress
An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a persons well-being.

general adaptation
syndrome
A model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
job burnout
The process of emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced personal accomplishment that results from prolonged exposure to
stressors.


stressors
Any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on a person.

psychological
harassment
Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions, or gestures that affect an employees dignity or psychological
or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee.

sexual harassment
Unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that detrimentally affects the work environment or leads to adverse job related
consequences for its victims

resilience
The capability of individuals to cope successfully in the face of significant change, adversity, or risk.

workaholic
A person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work.

Chapter 4 Summary

Emotions are physiological, behavioral, and psychological
episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event
that create a state of readiness. Emotions differ from
attitudes,
which represent a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and
behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event.
Beliefs are a persons established perceptions about the
attitude object. Feelings are positive or negative evaluations
of the attitude object. Behavioral intentions represent
a motivation to engage in a particular behavior with
respect to the target.
Attitudes have traditionally been described as a purely
rational process in which beliefs predict feelings, which
predict behavioral intentions, which predict behavior. We
now know that emotions have an influence on behavior
that is equal to or greater than that of cognitions. This dual
process is apparent when we internally experience a
conflict
between what logically seems good or bad and what
we emotionally feel is good or bad in a situation. Emotions
also affect behavior directly. Behavior sometimes
influences
our subsequent attitudes through cognitive dissonance.
Emotional labor consists of the effort, planning, and
control needed to express organizationally desired emotions
during interpersonal transactions. It is more common
in jobs requiring a variety of emotions and more intense
emotions, as well as in jobs where interaction with clients
is frequent and has a long duration. Cultures also differ
on the norms of displaying or concealing a persons true
emotions. Emotional dissonance occurs when required
and true emotions are incompatible with each other.
Deep acting can minimize this dissonance, as can the
practice of hiring people with a natural tendency to display
desired emotions.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and express
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand
and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself
and others. This concept includes four components
arranged in a hierarchy: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationship management. Emotional
intelligence can be learned to some extent, particularly
through personal coaching.
Job satisfaction represents a persons evaluation of his
or her job and work context. The exit-voice-loyalty-neglect
model outlines four possible consequences of job
dissatisfaction.
Job satisfaction has a moderate relationship with
job performance and with customer satisfaction. Affective
organizational commitment (loyalty) is the employees
emotional attachment to, identification with, and
involvement
in a particular organization. This contrasts with continuance
commitment, which is a calculative bond with
the organization. Companies build loyalty through justice
and support, shared values, trust, organizational
comprehension,
and employee involvement.
Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is
perceived
as challenging or threatening to a persons wellbeing.
The stress experience, called the general adaptation
syndrome, involves moving through three stages: alarm,
resistance, and exhaustion. Stressors are the causes of
stress and include any environmental conditions that
place a physical or emotional demand on a person.
Three stressors that have received considerable attention
are harassment and incivility, work overload, and low
task control.
Two people exposed to the same stressor may experience
different stress levels. Many interventions are available
to manage work-related stress, including removing
the stressor, withdrawing from the stressor, changing
stress perceptions, controlling stress consequences, and
receiving social support.