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1. The document discusses several Indian sociologists and their views on topics like caste system, village system, family structure, and the relationship between tradition and modernity in India. It provides summaries of the works and perspectives of sociologists like MN Srinivas, AR Desai, GS Ghurye, and Dumont.
2. It also discusses the views of different thinkers on Indian nationalism and its development from the early 19th century movements to Gandhi's era. Figures mentioned include Bankim Chandra, Vivekananda, Ram Mohan Roy, and Gandhi.
3. The relationship between tradition and modernity is a major theme. It examines how Indian modernity was a selective
1. The document discusses several Indian sociologists and their views on topics like caste system, village system, family structure, and the relationship between tradition and modernity in India. It provides summaries of the works and perspectives of sociologists like MN Srinivas, AR Desai, GS Ghurye, and Dumont.
2. It also discusses the views of different thinkers on Indian nationalism and its development from the early 19th century movements to Gandhi's era. Figures mentioned include Bankim Chandra, Vivekananda, Ram Mohan Roy, and Gandhi.
3. The relationship between tradition and modernity is a major theme. It examines how Indian modernity was a selective
1. The document discusses several Indian sociologists and their views on topics like caste system, village system, family structure, and the relationship between tradition and modernity in India. It provides summaries of the works and perspectives of sociologists like MN Srinivas, AR Desai, GS Ghurye, and Dumont.
2. It also discusses the views of different thinkers on Indian nationalism and its development from the early 19th century movements to Gandhi's era. Figures mentioned include Bankim Chandra, Vivekananda, Ram Mohan Roy, and Gandhi.
3. The relationship between tradition and modernity is a major theme. It examines how Indian modernity was a selective
AR Desai- Marxist- Stdent o! "hrye- Social #ackgrond o! Indian Nationalis$- historical as %ell as dialectical approach& 're colonial( )edal Syste$ di!!erent !ro$ *ropean- Cooperative !edalis$- state %as taking tax %ithot any $easres !or the develop$ent o! it& Colonial( +a$indari syste$- trade $onopoly- destrction o! SSI and artisans& 'ost Colonial( "reen Revoltion-'RIs-landlessness and Naxalite $ove$ent-'olicies in interests o! the rich indstrial hoses-12 !a$ilies and ,-. o! the indstries& Criticis$- MN Srinivas Naxalis$ started dring co$$nist govern$ent o! /engal- Stdied only $odes o! prodction0 ignoring edcation0 cltre0 ideology etc- MS "ore 'ost colonial periods Cooperatives have redced poverty- SC D#ey on co$$nity progra$$es- 1 Singh said Desai directly didnt se Marxis$ ideas0 gave a plat!or$ !or stdy o! Indian society& MN Srinivas- Strctral )nctionalist #y his teacher AR /ro%n- Stdent o! "hrye- !ield %ork strongly against #ook vie%- !onder o! strctral approach in India- got to !ield0 do e$pirical stdy& Caste syste$-s# caste and s# s# caste syste$-re2ected 3arna vie% o! caste syste$ #y D$ont-Rital criteria 4!ood0 langage0 speech etc5 and Seclar Criteria 4edcation0 %ealth0 po%er5- *arlier rital %as i$portant0 advent o! !oreigners Seclar #eca$e i$portant- D$ont %as telling village %as a $yth and caste is the reality0 #t Srinivas gave i$portant to #oth caste and village- Rital $o#ility via Sanskritisation- Sanskritisation #eco$es easier %hen they i$prove their position in the seclar sphere- Rise o! Do$inant Caste- 6and Re!or$s 'RIs- "reen revoltion- A"7R 4Ahir0 "22ar0 7ats0 Ra2pts5& 3illage syste$- Critical a#ot Marx vie% o! sel! s!!icient little rep#lic- Critical a#ot D$ont vie% o! village is a geographical territory- Srinivas talked a#ot village exoga$y-niting dring !estivals-niting against external aggression- going across villages !or needs and co$$erce- village as identity- caste divides0 village nites& Strctre o! 2oint !a$ily- Srinivas distingishes #et%een 2oint hosehold and 2oint !a$ily- AR Desai vie%ed rise o! nclear !a$ily in r#an centres as rise o! capitalis$- Srinivas told that in so called nclear !a$ily 2ointness is still present- dring child #irth elders are invited either !ro$ hs#ands side or !ro$ %i!es side- decisions are taken in nclear !a$ily a!ter consltation !ro$ the 2oint !a$ily-2oint hosehold is #reaking do%n #t not the spirit o! 2ointness& Social Changes- 8esternisation-19- years o! /ritish rle- rail%ays0 press0 radio0 television0 $odern technologies- Ne%s paper glori!ying caste syste$ via $atri$onial col$ns- Te$ples are collective gathering !or %here politics and econo$ics are discssed-#alance #et%een *ropean $odernity and tradition& "S "hrye- Indology- Stdy o! Indian society sing religios texts0 Indian art0 architectre0 !olklores0 legends0 $yths :se o! Sanskrit text Stdent o! 'ro! Rivers- Method o! di!!sion& Caste Syste$- Caste and Race in India Method o! di!!sion he doesnt glori!y caste or conde$n caste- he told caste is prodct o! Indian cltre- Caste co$es throgh advent o! Aryans- In Aryans ti$e it %as #ased on Do6- #t no concept o! Sperior or In!erior- 'riests and travellers glori!ied caste and it spreaded to soth India-; characteristics o! caste syste$- seg$entation-hierarchy- civil and religios disa#ilities and privileges restricted occpation- restriction on !ood4o!!ering cooked !ood0 ra% ite$s etc5- endoga$y- <nce caste %as #inding0 no% it is polarising society- /rah$inic do$ination- Caste is not static- D$onts vie%s also sa$e as "hrye /rah$inical spre$acy- Srinivas criticised the /rah$inical vie%& Tri#es- tri#al deities sa$e as =ind deities- Ani$is$0 tote$is$ and natralis$ present in Indian society- tri#es are #ack%ard =inds as they are slo%ly adopting =ind cltre- "hrye criticised *lvins approach o! isolationis$& 'ro! 3engopal The content o! sociology is changing %o$ens isses0 environ$ental isses0 social protests0 glo#alisation etc- %hich is a%ay !ro$ the traditional Indian sociology approach- stdy o! caste0 !a$ily0 $arriage etc& D$ont- 8estern sociological concepts cant #e directly applied to stdy Indian sociology& Indian society is di!!erent> an ethno centric approach is needed to specially stdy a#ot Indian society in great detail& 2-Social #ackgrond o! Indian nationalis$ *arly 1?th senctry-cltral a%akening-re!or$ $ove$ents against orthodoxy-!ondation o! nationalis$& 1,,9 to 1?-9-INC !or$ation-progress o! nationalis$& 1?-9 to 1?1,-extre$ist phase-lal #al pal era- violent revoltion- spirited nationalis$ 1?1, to 1?@A- era o! "andhi- #orgeois and $iddle class-peasant class cha$paran0 kheda0 #ardoli & A!ter 1?@A-All sections inclded- nationalis$ at its peak- independence Internal colonialis$ replaced external colonialis$ 'artha Chatter2ee- no link #et%een people and nationalis$- people %ere sed !or the interest o! the elites& Theosophical society- Not only Sanskrit is $other o! all langages- Indian cltre is $other o! all cltres& 3ivekananda- Indian cltre has soltions !or all the pro#le$s o! the %orld& Ra2ara$ Mohan Roy- Indian cltre-degradation #y dog$as and !alse #elieves- %elco$e /ritish- to $odernsise it& Rightist- Sanskritik cltre- ni!ication across diversities& "andhi2i-%anted a ni!ied nationalis$-not a hind $sli$ nationalis$- love #rotherhood a$ong people o! all sections& "rassroot develop$ent is the need- decentralised $ove$ents !or their needs and de$ands- to acco$odate Indian nationalis$& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------- Modernisation o! Indian tradition *ropean $odernity- ideal !or the %orld-renaissance-art o! Bestioning and enBiry- seclaris$ in *rope& *dcation- seclar- li#erated !ro$ chrch do$ination& 3ale trans!or$ation- political sovereignty- eBality-!raternity-de$ocracy Nehr-glori!ied Indian $odernity- rral r#an devide in indian $odernity India-selective $odernity-*rope-a#solte $odernity "andhi2i- not a sy$#ol o! $odernity- varna syste$ #t not #ased on #irth- #elieved in hindis$ #t #elieved in eBality& 'eter /erger- $odernity-cancer-thro%s people ot o! contry-alien in other places- con!sion a$ong $asses-social hopelessness a$ong the ne% generations& Anthony "iddens- $odernity has glori!ied #orgeois capitalist interest& Nehrvian era to 6'" era-$odernity in India& /ritish era $odernity- /engal intelletcal capital- Delhi political capital-/o$#ay econo$ic capital& Tradition and $odernity in dialectical relationship- can $odernity e!!ect is sa$e across traditions-can $odernity and tradition share sa$e set o! attri#tes& Modernity is not endoga$os to India-a *ropean concept& 'eter 8orsley- $odernity and sociology relationships- sociology ot o! $odernity- sociology also Bestions $odernity- dyna$ic and dialectical relationships& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------- Modernity in *rope Cele#ration phase-Bestioning phase-re2ection phase Si$on0Co$te0Spencer0Marx08e#er0'arson- cele#rated $odernity !or di!! reasons& I$$anel Cant- $odernity spirit o! h$an reason-a%ay !ro$ dog$as0sperstitions0$yths& Co$te and Spenser- $odernity-indstrialistion-e$otions0ritalis$ and orthodoxy are replaced #y la%0rationality0gro%th0technological develop$ent and rise o! inclsive society& Modernity-cant #e said as good or #ad- $odernity gives rise to indstrialisation- controlled #y capitalist class-alienation o! %orking class- state shold take control o! it !or eBity and happiness o! the $asses& 8e#er-$odernity-rise o! rational legal athorit& 'arson and Drkhi$e- $odernity-technocratic division o! la#or-social integration- chances o! $o#ility& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- A!ter !irst 88- $odernity %as Bestioned- ar$ed race& 'eter 8orsley and Anthoney "iddens- $odernity do#le edged %eapons- econo$ic develop$ent vs ho$elessness0 disillsion$ent and dependency- in recent ti$es re#ellion against $odernity is starting as ne% social $ove$ents& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------ Modernity and tradition in India /ritish 2sti!ied colonial rle saying- they can li#erate people !ro$ ncivilised society to advance$ent and $orality- =ence early re!or$ leaders accepted %estern thoghts to $odernise India& 1ogendra Singh- /rah$o Sa$a2- !irst step to%ards $odernity-Arya Sa$a2 took #lend o! $odernity and tradition& A#hi2it 'athak- Indian intelligentia accepted $odernity %ith scepticis$-!ro$ Dayanand Saras%ati to "andhi and Nehr Anglo Sanksritik edcation& 3ivekananda and Aro#inda "hosh- Connectivity #et%een Indian and %estern vales& /anki$ Chndra and Ra$ Mohan- glori!ied teachngs o! :panishads& Tilak sed rital !estivals !or political ni!ication& "andhi also sed religios nity not political nity& MN Srinivas in his analysis o! %esternisation and social change in India& =e considers $odernisation is a vale loaded concept #ecase it is generally perceived as anything $odern is necessarily good& =e pre!ers to se %esternisation as against $odernisation to nderstand social change in India advocating 19- years o! /ritish rle has reslted into technological changes0 instittional changes and vale trans!or$ation in Indian society& =o%ever these changes are selective0 optional than #eing co$pletely %holeso$e& =e gave the exa$ple o! $odern technologies like printing press0 telephopnes0 ne%spapers and other agencies o! $ass $edia to i$ply ho% they glori!ied traditional vales %ithot co$pro$ising their $odern desira#le roles& There!ore tradition and $odernity are $tally coexistant and India and one canDt replace otrightly the other& The Indian $odernity selective0 pre!erential and partial $odernity& 1ogendra Singh- highly !orce!l to dis$antle tradition- #ook E$odernisation o! Indian traditionE- la%s like a#olition o! child $arriage act0 a#olition o! Sati0 =ind $arriage act0 =ind adoption and $aintenance act enor$osly in!lenced the stats o! %o$en in India& 8o$en in traditional Indian society didnDt have right over their !a$ily0 children0property0 right to divorce that has no% #een granted to the$& =ence sel!-assrance to %o$en0 respect to their dignity and eBality can #e considered as i$pact o! $odernity in India& Modernity-technology-indstry-agrictre-$assive e$ploy$ent opprtnity-occpational $o#ility& /t the #ene!its hav not #een reached to all section o! society& 1ogendra Singh- $odernity- co$petitive character a$ong all the stake holders& 'olitical $odernity- de$ocracy- political parties- constittional rles- citiFenship-acceleration o! p#lic participation in de$ocratic process- traditional do$ination o! selective #odies has gone- peasants0 !actory %orkers0vrral people are de$and $o#ility and political po%er&Traditional vales are verge o! extinction- MS "ore and SC D#ey spported Singhs vie%& TN Madan %rites that people %ho accepted $odernity have closed $ind as co$pared to those %ho donDt go !or $odernity and have open $ind as they Bestion $odernity& State and religion- Indian constittion prea$#le says seclar- /t social li!e in!lenced #y religion- e&g !ood also has cltral i$plication- veg or non veg& =il!erding Rdol!- selective $odernity- "R as a sy$o#l o! $odernity- #t #ene!iciaries o! $odernity are going !or political do$ination %ithot !orgetting tradition and caste- There!ore Indian $odernity is Indian in character %herein Andre /eteille tells that Ecaste old is replaced #y caste ne%& /R A$#edkar indicated that $odernity shold #e niversalistic in character& Its #ene!it shold not #e pocketed #y !e% people there!ore reservation is essential !or nprotected people !or a long period o! ti$e& To $ake $odernity in!lential in India one shold #e allo%ed to choose his o%n caste& =e %as allergic to =indis$ and Christianity #t he too %anted religion "andhi2i %anted =indis$ and A$#edkar %anted /ddhis$& They #oth %anted tradition and $odernity 2xtaposition #t ho%0 it di!!ered& Dr A$#edkar #elieved that since the #ene!its o! $odernity is not reaching the $arginalised section they have the right to re#el& )e$inist vie% on $odernity points ot that %o$en are t%isted #et%een o!!icial and do$estic de$ands& Sexal harass$ent and exploitation at place o! %ork0 neBal pay !or eBal %ork etc& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------- 'rotests and Social re!or$ $ove$ents in colonial period 'rotest-peoples desire to change- $ay not #ring change-gives a sense o! satis!action- not accidental- driven #y ideology and interest- %hen it is driven #y ideology0 #eco$es sstaina#le- o!!ers !ondation to social $ove$ents& 6i#eral sociologist- protest can #e $lti di$ensional- political 0 cltral0 econo$ic and social& Ra$chandra "ha considers protest is $ani!ested in di!!erent !or$s like 'radarshan0Rasta Roko007al Sa$adhi0 )ast nto Death4 recent Anna =aFares protest50 "herao etc& Sociologist say a#ot protest- $ani!estation o! 'eopleDs 'o%er %ho are dissatis!ied %ith the policies0 progra$$es and sy$#olic !or$ o! cltral do$ination introdced either #y do$inant class or #y the state& =ind re!or$ progra$$e-2 ai$s- hind nity- to prove that eBality and inclsiveness in the hind cltre-Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent- Theosophical $ove$ent or Sddhi $ove$ent- /rah$o sa$a2 $ove$ent taken p #y Ra$akrishna $ission& Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent- 3edas shold #e considered sacred-nity o! !aith a$ong all =inds-a#andon caste syste$0 pilgri$s visit0 ntocha#ility and glori!y idea o! prity o! sol and pro$ote !raternity- eli$inate attri#tes o! polytheis$0 ritalis$0 /rah$inic spre$acy0 sectarian division& once 3arna %as greatly #ased pon its Balities and capa#ilities than on the #asis o! #irth& This $ove$ent !ascinated a large #ody o! Shdras in case o! North India to go !or Sanskritisation and challenge /rah$inic $onopoly& rise o! 7ats in North India can #e attri#ted to the i$pact o! Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent& spported #y 6ala 6a2pat Rai& Arya Sa$a2ists accelerated Sddhi $ove$ent- encoraged the converts to revert #ack into the !old o! =ind co$$nity& glori!ication o! =ind cltre-!ondation o! nationalist $ove$ent in India& Theosophical society driven #y ideology o! Max Mller perceived that =ind cltral tradition is #oth niBe and ancient& glori!ied the teachings o! /hag%at "ita0 3edas0 :panishads and indicated =ind theological doctrine are analytical and logical and there!ore it cold o!!er a soltion to all the pro#le$s o! the %orld& /rah$o Sa$a2 Move$ent- 6i#eral cltral $ove$ent- $ore dyna$ic and inclsive than arya sa$a2 $ove$ent- e$phasised on %o$en e$po%er$ent0 li#eral edcation0 seclar vales and challenged the caste syste$ 0/rah$inic orthodoxy and =ind religion in totality- #orro%ed ideas !ro$ :panishads & Strong link #et%een /rah$o Sa$a2 and Ra$krishna $ission-as they talk a#ot seclar vales0 nity o! "od0 :niversality o! trth0 !raternity a$ong people #elonging to di!!erent religios !aith& No political agenda like !ighting %ar against /ritish& It e$phasised on creation o! $issionaries and provided a plat!or$ !or glori!ication o! religios tolerance0 $issionaries activities& It opened pschools and colleges- salvation only throgh kno%ledge& All the three- Arya Sa$a2-/rah$o Sa$a2-Ra$krishna Mission- initiated #y pper-class0 pper caste Indians to #ring re!or$s in =ind society preaching thet there sholdnDt #e hierarchical social order and that society can #e trans!or$ed into egalitarian syste$&Critics- all these started #y pper caste and class people-no in!lence on the $asses- their ideas %ere not nderstood #y $asses& "hanashya$ Saha- distinction #et%een cltre and class $ove$ent- re!or$ $ove$ents %anted changes in the syste$- peasant $ove$ent %anted change o! the syste$& 1ogendra Singh- Re!or$s $ove$ents indications !or Best !or $odernity-they %ere driven #y high caste and class people-so $odernity in india pri$arily enter throgh pper caste and pper class& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --- S#altern Re!or$ $ove$ents Satya Sodhak Sa$a2- 7yoti#a 'hle-M=- glori!ied the ideology that indigenos rlers o! India #elong to Shdra co$$nity- %ith the advent o! Aryans into North India and s#seBently their conBest over the other parts o! the contry in2ected caste syste$s into traditional egalitarian society- Caste identity0 variation in occpations #ased pon caste divided the Shdras %ho %ere historically eBal-The Shdras in their o%n soil0 !orgetting their o%n cltre started !ighting %ar %ith each other-people started evalating their stats %ith re!erence to /rah$inic ideas0 practices and the concept o! 'aap 'nya - 7yoti#a 'hle %anted all the non-/rah$ins o! 8est India to develop a ne%!ond identity o! /ah2an and stand ni!ied together against =ind cltre0 /rah$inic orthodoxy- =e gave a ne% identity to all the non-/rah$ins o! Maharashtra as Marathas- There!ore the rise o! Maratha consciosness as against /rah$inic consciosness is a $ani!estation o! s#altern cltral protest& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------- Sel!-Respect $ove$ent- * 3 Ra$asa$y Naicker- Ta$il Nad- encorage nity a$ong all the non-/rah$ins o! Soth India indicating that Soth Indian cltre is ancient0 niBe and endogenos-Caste is pathological ele$ent introdced into egalitarian sort Indian society- encorage the non-/rah$ins to go !or edcation-s$all !a$ily na$es-stay a%ay !ro$ spirital activities-co$$it onesel! to intensive econo$ic activities-=e asked people to glori!y their sel!-identity- rather than to #e te$pted #y Sanskritisation and added reservation in provincial asse$#lies on the #asis o! caste& 8ith the e!!ect o! SRM- !ro$ 1?2-- people !orgetting intercaste di!!erences- took the state po%er- nder Dravidian $ove$ent- Dring this $ove$ent anti-/rah$inic0 anti Sanskritic0 anti =ind and anti-North Indian senti$ents got $o$ent$& This $ove$ent cannot #e considered as secessionist $ove$ent #ecase it %as a 'rotest against an alien cltre en!orced pon the indigenos co$$nity& 8hen "S "hrye considers this $ove$ent as secessionist MS Rao call this $ove$ent as reactionary re!lexive $ove$ent& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----- SND' Move$ent- Sri Narayan Dhar$a 'aripalana- Narayan "r- Cerala- protest against the /rah$in in Cerala- asking the non /rah$ins and non Nair caste to stand ni!ied- parallel schools and te$ples !or lo%er caste in %hich priests and teachers %ere #elonging to lo%er caste origin- indicated that /rah$inic spre$acy is a prodct o! the access to edcation- I! non-/rah$ins !ollo% this seclar standard then they %ill #e never s#ded to /rah$ins& The s#altern $ove$ent o!!ered !ondation to Dr A$#edkar to search !or 2stice and eBality !orthe Dalits in India& A$#edkar re2ected Man S$riti- =e institted 7at-'at- Todak Mandal- #elieved that one cannot get 2stice and eBality staying %ithin the !ra$e%ork o! caste and =indis$- =ence he encoraged conversion into the !old o! /ddhis$- =e #elieved that historic discri$ination associated %ith the$ cannot #e addressed #y social re!or$s - =ence he sggested constittional garantee !or !reedo$0 li#erty and eBality !or the Dalit co$$nity in India& Social re!or$ $ove$ents- !irst started #y pper caste and class grops sch as- Arya sa$a2 $ove$ent- /rah$o Sa$a2 $ove$ent- Ra$akrishna $ission& Then started the s#altern $ove$ents sch as Satya sodhak sa$a20 Sel! respect $ove$ent- SND' $ove$ent& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- 'easant $ove$ents 1,9G to 1?2--series o! peasant $ove$ents- sense o! integration ctting across their religios caste and langage- Reasons( a#sentee landlordis$- nathorised Fa$indars- !orced eviction o! peasants !ro$ the land on non-pay$ent o! land revens- land tenr syste$ introdced #y /ritish- high interest rates !or seasonal peasant loans- no i$prove$ents in conditions o! agricltre- #rtality o! police and private ar$y o land lords- no e!!ective $easres to protect peasants !ro$ natral cala$ities& *ka $ove$ent-Moplah re#ellion- Cha$paran- Cheda Satyagraha- protest against the exploitative colonial polices& 'easant $ove$ent-!ondation o! Cisan Sa#ha& /y 1?@-s- All India Cisan Sa#ha- all India presence- #rning tax records-attacked police- engaged %ith %ar against private ar$y o! landlords- gives a plat!or$ !or the coalition !or di!!erent grops o! Indian poplation- Reslted coordination #et%een landlords-peasants- intelligentia-and indian $asses- gives plat!or$ !or Nationalist $ove$ent in India& 'easant $ove$ent %as not restricted in the heartlands- /irsa Mnda $ove$ent- Santhal re#ellion- Coel prising- got $o$ent$ in central part o! India& AR Desai 'easant $ove$ent #roke do%n the lingistic0regional0 tri#al-caste division a$ong the people o! India in2ecting into the$ a co$$on class consciosness& Colonial land revene policy o! capitalist interest a!!ected indian peasants $ore than proletrait class o! Capitalist /ritain&Class consciosness in India glori!ied natinalis$& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------- @-Idea o! Indian 3illage and village stdies G-. poplation in 9 6akhs villages dependent on Agricltre- cltral nit- conte$porary political nit Mghals- s$allest ad$inistrative nits /ritishers- +a$indari syste$ etc little rep#lics& "andhi2i India lives in villages one cant i$agine !reedo$ $ove$ent %ithot Indian villages taking part in it& Marx and "andhi- 're-developed econo$y #ecase pri$itive techniBes e$ployed& Andre /eteille- Siripra$ 3illage- near Tan2avr Ta$il Nad villages are not driven #y caste alone0 class and po%er has also to #e considered& =e criticised /ritish vie% that villages are closed society- he told h$an #y natre appreciate change- so people in villages are also responding to change #y at a slo%er rate& /ritishs ar#itrary policies0 still villages adopted the$ and colonialis$ sstained in India0 else it %old have #een thro%n ot& MN Srinivas- Ra$pra village- rise o! seclar do$ination over rital do$ination in village& MS Rao- 1adavpr- econo$ic a!!lence- sel! con!idence to 1adavs- po%er!l in politics& The little rep#lics theory %as discarded #y MN Srinivas and AM Shah in their !a$os article Myth o! sel! s!!iciency- village exoga$y- the incidence o! !oreign trade doc$ented in Indian history expose village into the oter %orld- specialised $arkets like cattle $arkets etc or haats- political net%ork via caste concils or local concils little rep#lic concept %as colonial #ias- 'RIs have exposed 3illages& Milton Singer and Mcki$ Marriott- re2ection o! sel! s!!iciency concept- graveyards /ar#ers and /rah$ins !ro$ near#y villages& SC D#ey- Against sel! s!!icient concept- Indian local cltres $ove into larger societies- Sniya started in a village #eca$e Rakshya /andhan all over India- dance0 dra$a0 langage $ove in a circlar !ashion& Mcki$ Mariott- Concept o! niversalisation-cltral co$$nication #et%een village and larger co$$nity- green revoltion peasant political party- village to national politics& 6and #inds the village- $yth o! Marx and other /ritish sociologists- 6and otside the 2risdiction o! the village& Agrarian Social strcctre evoltion o! land tenre syste$ Scarlett *pstein- i$apct o! irrigation pro2ect and green revoltion 2 soth indian villages- relation #et%een landholdings and caste& Cathleen "agh- C$#apetta village- Agrarian $odernity has consolidated class division #ig #orgeois0 rich !ar$ers0 petty #orgeois0 se$i proletraiat0 pre proletariat& Daniel Thorner- green revoltion and land re!or$s did not help the poor- linkage #et%een caste and class in agrarian India- capitalist agricltre- Malik4pper caste50 Cisan4$iddle caste50 $aFdoor4lo%er caste5& Colonial 6and tenre syste$- +a$indari-Ryot%ari-Mahal%ari- exploitation #y /ritish- ignorance a$ong people aggreavated the sitation-poverty& )orce!l cash crop cltivation-*cono$ic interest #y /ritish- destrction o! artisan indstry- srpls la#or !or agricltre- /ritish exploited& Moplah re#ellion-Cheda Satyagraha- Cha$paran satyagraha- /ardoli $ove$ent- Cisan sa#ha $ove$ent& I$apct o! tenre syste$ ( "andhian- relation #et%een land lords and peasants- they shold co$e together and give extra lands to the land less peasant& Nationalist- State shold take the responsi#ility to i$prove agricltre via cheap loans0 credit0 edcation etc& Marxian-State shold not take steps in re!or$ing the land& 'easants shold sel! $o#ilise the$selves and carry ar$s and they shold go !or naxalite $ove$ent& 8/ and Cerala land re!or$s %as sccess!l de to co$$nist govt& I$plication o! land re!or$s o! syste$( A!ter 2- years o! i$ple$entation o! land re!or$s- no change in landholdings o! the pper class- strong link #et%een caste and class- develop$ent o! capitalist agricltre& /ena$i trans!ers spported #y state ad$inistration- claste and class strong nexs- pri$ary sorce ineBality& "S /halla and "C Chadha- stdy on i$pact o! green revoltion in 2- villages o! 'n2a#- #oth 6R or "R have not helped land less and poor !ar$ers- the #ene!its o! "R and 6R pocketed #y rich !ar$ers %ho have control over seed cooperatives0 credit cooperatives and irrigation cooperatives& IneBalities $ass $ove$ents- $aoist $ove$ents and naxal $ove$ents- rral develop$ent progra$$es shold #e reoriented to address the isses o! poor& Social ConseBences o! 6R /ho$iars o! /ihar 7ats o! =aryana and 'n2a#- e$erged as do$inant class- $ore ineBality and $ore polarisation& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------- A-Caste Syste$ Special type o! social strati!ication !ond in India-Caste has its origin !ro$ a Spanish %ord Casta $eans #read0 race or a co$plex o! hereditary Balities& Anderson and 'arker- Caste is that extre$e !or$ o! class organisation in %hich the position o! individals in the stats hierarchy is deter$ined #y descent and #irth& "hrye- Despite all e!!orts #y stdents0 %e dont have a de!inition o! caste& 3arna theory - /rah$in0 Cshyatriya0 3aishya0 Shdras- <ccpation theory-Race theory etc& MN Srinivas- Caste and 3arna theory- A varnas and thosands o! castes& 3arna considers each 3arna as ni!ied grops0 #t there %ere s#divisions- 3arna provides an ideological !ra$e%ork and econo$ic perspectives& Caste Mo#ility "hrye and /ritishers gave an ideological vie% on caste0 Srinivas %anted to li#erate caste !ro$ an ideological point o! vie%- dyna$ic natre o! caste- #ook caste in $odern India and Social change in India- polltion %as the o#strction in caste $o#ility- polltion is contagios0 #t prity is non-trans!era#le& Caste $o#ility has passed @ di!!erent phases- Search !or rital $o#ility0 seclar $o#ility as a $edi$ !or rital $o#ility0 seclar $o#ility an end in itsel!& 1& Non-/rah$ins o! soth India $igrated to Tir$ala hills started operating as priests and #eca$e /rah$ins& 2& Nairs o! Cerala and Cayasthas o! /ihar #y the patronage o! Mghals got property and po%er0 and sed those !or their rital $o#ility& =e !ond ot that Cings grace and socio- cltral contact has raised the stats o! 7ats and 6ingayats- Atte$pt o! caste $o#ility has given rise to intra-caste con!licts& Caste $o#ility is not an easy pheno$enon like class $o#ility& Caste $o#ility is related to Sanskritisation& Do$inant Caste- Stdy o! Ra$pr 3illage- $ltiple !or$s o! do$inance- 7ats do$inate econo$ic sphere- Ra2pts in political sphere- /rha$ins in rital sphere- class $o#ility is giving rise to caste consciosness- social distance a$ong caste grops is #eco$ing !lid- intra caste and inter caste con!licts are on a rise- i$pact o! caste $o#ility is not ni!or$ across the contry& Srinivas contradicted %ith 1ogendra Singh and said class is not replacing caste& )tre o! Caste syste$ in India - =e explained this in his #ook Do$inant Caste and 2-th Centry- Ne% avatar o! caste& Caste consolidation a!ter 1?G-- green revoltion0 cooperatives0 'RIs0 +a$indari a#olition act- a large #ody o! non-/rah$ins and non- ntocha#les have evolved into do$inant caste-do$inant in econo$ic and political sphere- no longer interested in Sanskritisation and !ocsing their attention on seclarisation- 6ingayats and 3okalingayats o! Carnataka0 Reddys in A'0 1adavs in :'0 /h$iars in /ihar- $odern edcation0 r#an living0 rral develop$ent progra$$es0 in!lential in political spheres0 o%n political parties or part o! $a2or political parties-they are identi!ied as </Cs& "hanashya$ Shah extended the concept o! do$inant caste& Do$inant caste- po%er politics& Caste %as i$portant in past !or rital reasons- i$portant in present !or seclar reasons& Caste-India is not #eing replaced #y Class-India& 'eople se #oth class and caste identity depending on the sitation& Srinivas pointed ot that caste is taking di!!erent !or$s in all spheres o! society #e it political0 econo$ic or social0 So i$agining India %ithot caste $ay #e a constittional vision #t not an e$pirical reality& 6ois D$ont- =o$o =ierarchies Concept o! prity and polltion- !ollo%ed strctral theory- told %estern theories cant #e applied to stdy Indian society- Caste is a synthesis o! text and context- strctralists dont stdy the %hole reality0 they take speci!ic reality& =e took ideas !ro$ %ritings o! *$ile Drkhi$e and =egels& <ccpational Specialisation- *xclsivity o! /rah$inic position- Social di!!erence a$ong di!!erent castes& <ccpation depends on cltral prescription rather econo$ic consideration& *very caste is evolving keeping /rah$ins as re!erence caste& 'rity and 'olltion Things0 #eings and 'heno$ena- "anga %ater0 people and ani$al- Sanskrit kno%ledge& According to D$ont0 prity and polltion are the ideas %hich gide peoples actions& Caste is a syste$ o! ideas and vales This is !or$al0 co$prehensi#le and rational syste$& =e stdied caste !ro$ ideological perspective sing classical texts and historical exa$ples- *thno Sociological approach-Caste is not going to die- as it is #ased on consciosness& Criticis$s( No $ention a#ot politics a#ot caste0 over loaded %ith cltral aspect o! caste& /rah$inic exclsivity- Ne% Mans$riti- 'rity and polltion is a #ook vie% 7onathan 'erry talked a#ot non-/rah$in sadhs and saints- Andre /eteille pointed ot di!!erences a$ong /rah$ins and con!licts a$ong the$0 considering the$ as ni!ied and pre is a $yth& Dipankar "pta non-/rah$inic reactions is not driven #y respect- 7ats consider /rah$ins as inaspicios-contradiction to D$onts theory- Sanskritisation is not ot o! respect0 #t a !or$ o! protest& /eteilles criticis$ to D$ont- D$ont called *ropean society as =o$oeBalis0 despite presence o! 'ope do$ination- =o$ohierarchics in case o! India0 /rah$inic do$ination& =ierarchy %ill exist #t not on only caste rather property0 %ealth0 political po%er etc& D$ont %as concerned a#ot only one hierarchy- caste hierarchy& /eteille gives another vie% o! ineBality- reprodction o! occpation in conte$porary India like teachers children teacher0 doctors children doctor etc& Nationalist $ove$ents0 SND' $ove$ents tried to pli!t the stats o! i$pre classes-D$ont %as silent on this type o! social change& D$ont-*thno sociological $atter- ans%er to the Bestion %hy caste is persistent- a prodct o! consciosness #ondage o! =ind-cltral consciosness& Andre /eteille on Caste- India cant #e stdied !ro$ the stand point o! caste only- D' Mkher2ee0 "hrye0 Srinivas derived all ineBalities in society into caste- 6inked /hadralok in /engal0 /angerposhi in /ihar0 Ashra!ins in "2rat> not #ased on caste #t respected- $ltiple hierarchies in Indian society- so sociological stdies shold not #e restricted to caste #ased stdies- /ook vie% highly stereotypical0 !ield vie% highly $echanical0 there shold #e a #alance #et%een these t%o& Microscopic vie% on caste- Siripra$ village0 Ta$il Nad0 !ield vie%- #ook class0 caste and po%er- %e#erian theory o! $ltiple di$ensions o! strati!ication- each hierarchy is in!lencing other hierarchy- caste hierarchy and class hierarchy- di!!erential political po%er depends on the political net%ork extends !ro$ village to the capital& /rah$ins0 Non-/rah$ins and Adi-/rah$ins 4ntocha#les5-#ack%ard class $ove$ents- 8ithin castes0 s#-castes0 s# s# caste0 n$#er o! threads a /rah$in %ear- In case o! $arriage they search spose !ro$ that particlar s# grop- intra caste di!!erences along %ith inter caste di!!erences-& Modernisation0 $odern trade0 e$ploy$ent opportnity introdced class aspect into caste and s# caste- in case o! $arriage #oth caste and class is #eing considered- people search spose in s# s# caste0 i! not get search in s# caste0 i! not go !or caste alliance- caste is changing having #asic strctre intact- /eteille %as against Marxist D' Mkher2ee and 1ogendra Singhs point o! vie% that caste %ill lose its signi!icance& /ook Caste <ld and Ne% /eteille exa$ined changing natre o! caste- IneBality a$ong s# caste grops- each grop strive !or econo$ic and political do$ination- Since 1?2-s non-/rah$ins have consolidated the$selves- have !or$ed political parties like DMC- /rah$ins have #eco$e r#an #ond selling their land to Non-/rah$ins& A$ong /rah$ins class di!!erence0 econo$ic or political ter$s etc traditional caste syste$ %as closed- slo%ly evolving into dyna$ic caste syste$& /eteilles sociology %as a protest against caste !ocssed society& :ntocha#ility- Rig 3eda says a#ot achhts or chandals - Social discri$ination is legiti$ised in Mans$riti di!!erent Sanskrit texts talks a#ot ntocha#ility- "S "hryes Race and caste in India and 'N 'ra#hs =ind Social <rganisation- "hryes ; points on caste syste$& *arly social re!or$ists- Dayanand Saras%ati0 3ivekananda0 /anki$ Chnadra- di!!erentiate #et%een religion and caste- !or nationalis$ to raise0 ntocha#ility to go& "andhi2i- My heart #leeds0 Caste $st go0 :ntocha#ility- a cri$e against "od talked against caste syste$ and ntocha#ility- Caste is perversion o! 3arna- 3arna syste$ on Do6 and holistic and inclsive and egalitarian- Caste thogh derived !ro$ 3arna divides the society- =ari2ans- Caste syste$ historic $istake-=is distinction #et%een Caste syste$ and 3arna syste$ and !avoritis$ !or 3arna syste$- =ari2an sevak Sangh- 21 days !ast against closing o! te$ples !or ntocha#les& Di!!erent !or$s o! ntocha#ility-!ro$ note #ook& A$#edkar- ntocha#ility is a $atter o! sel! dignity- !or$ o! satis!ying $aterialistic need to the higher classes- ideological spport given #y Sa$akhya philosophy- %hich says people are #orn into t%o categories Sattvic and Ta$asic& Shdras are al%ays #orn into Ta$asic& A$#edkar advocated !or eBality& Constittion and !nda$ental right against ntocha#ility& 9-Tri#al co$$nities in India De!initional 'ro#le$s *!!orts #y acade$cians- have #een de!ined as grop o! indigenos people- langage- territory-co$$nity o%nership o! property- traditional ritals-di!!erent csto$s-s$all siFe-endoga$y-kinship #onds& Cenneth D /ailey- to de!ine tri#e yo have to consider caste-tri#es egalitarian and not $tally inter dependent- caste syste$ o! organic solidarity-tri#es have direct access to land0 no inter$ediaries& Sinha41?;95 concept o! civilisation- tri#es relatively s#sistence technology- hnting gathering shi!ting cltivation- egalitarian seg$entary social syste$- gided entirely #y non literate ethnic tradition& In India- tri#es are trans!or$ing the$selves into caste syste$- have #eco$e $sli$s and christians-2oin the rank o! peasantry- %age la#orers in plantation %orks> $ining etc- changing aspects o! tri#es& "onds0Santhals0/hils are large in siFe and spread over large territory- /irhors o! /ihar are in specialised !or$ %ork> #askets $aking etc- Tri#es are in govt 2o#s- so$e nontri#als are taking p hnting0 gathering activities& "eographical Spread ,. o! indian poplation- =i$alayan region 7HC0 hi$achal0 :C0 N*- #et%een Nar$ada and "odavari-<disha0 /ihar0 8/0 7harkhand& In karnataka0TN0CeralaIless poplation& N*-Arp0MiFoa$0Naga0MeghaI?-. tri#e- Assa$0Tripra0Manipr0Sikki$I2--@-. tri#e& 6argest partIcentral india& N*0 sikki$0=i$alayasI "aro0khasi02aintia06apcha0Naga0MiFo0/hotia0thar& 8esternI/hil0Seheria0Mina0 8orli0 "irisia0 Re#ari0 Dang& CentralIMnda0=o0Santhal0"ond0Condh0Chench0<raon0/h$i20'oro2a& SohthIToda0 Irla0 /adaga0 'aliyan0Cholanaicken&-pc#it Island co$$nitiesI 7ara%a0 "reat Anda$anese0 Nico#arese0 Sho$pen0 Sentinnclose& 6ingistic Classi!ication Astro AsiaticIChasi0Nico#ari0Santhali0=o0Mndari DriavidianIToda0 Cota0 Ci0 <raon0 Cor%a0 /adaga Ti#eto chineseI6epcha0Miri0Da!la0"aro0Naga06shai Indo *ropeanI/hil0 =a2ong Colonial 'olicies and Tri#es AR Desai- Colonial policy-syste$atic exploitation o! !orest and $ineral deposits- throght the se o! tri#al la#or-contractors and $oney lenders-protests %ere rthlessly spressed-la#eled tri#es as cri$inals e&g Mina Tri#e-De tri#alisation 6a#elling tri#es as cri$inals-killing innocents to crate !ear& "andhi-rising =ind !nda$entalis$ is against conversion o! tri#als #y $issionary activities& Another 3ie%- Missionary activities-enlight$ent !or tri#es-spreading edction-health etc& /ritish Act o! 1,?1- 'artially seclded area4tri#al poplation at least 9-.50 !lly seclded area 4tri#al poplation J,-.5-tri#als islands- no otsiders- per$ission needed !or any activities- lead to distinction #et%een caste society and tri#al society- tri#es considered caste as their ene$y as Diks4Dacoits5- Colonial rlers per$itted contractors and traders to exploit-hostility #et%een caste and tri#e& Tri#e-Caste divide lead to secessionist $ove$ent 0 is contining even today0 de to !alty colonial rle& A!ter independence Nehrs panchsheel policy( -tri#al develop$ent shold take place on their o%n genis -develop$ent sholdnt #e evalated on ho% $ch $oney spent rather ho% $any national characters developed& -not to #e kept in a state o! isolation -$any develop$ental pro2ects sholdnt #e in introdced in tri#al areas to accelerate the process o! develop$ent -tri#al develop$ent shold take place as per the need o! the tri#al people Isses o! integration and atono$y 3eerrier *l%in- isolation approach- tri#als $st kept a%ay !ro$ their progressive conter parts- die ot o! cltral shock& Critics called it Mse$ology& "S "hrye- Critics o! 3eerrier *l%in- tri#al develop$ent shold nt #ilding national parks- phase %ise develop$ent- Tri#e to caste and lti$ately to class throgh taking caste #ased occpations& 6' 3idyarthi- Tri#al develop$ent progra$$e- since Ath 9 year plan- Co$$nity develop$ent areas- edcation0 health0 irrigation etc- involving tri#als in $ainline econo$y- proper reha#ilitation plans in case o! pro2ects casing displac$ent- vocational training centres- integration %ith the larger econo$y and society- identi!y the tri#es at the verge o! extinction- protect the$& 8orst victi$s o! land alienation- develop$ent indced displace$ent- $ining activities- !orest acess restriction- encrach$ent into their cltral li!e- $igration !ro$ $ainlandto tri#al areas- A)S'A in tri#al areas-denial o! 2stice-killing incocents considering the$ as $aoists& Maoist $ove$ent-/odo land-naga re#ellion- nar$ada #achao andoloan- kalinga nagar 2a2pr 2--;- 2al satyagraha on nar$ada da$- =irakd-Tehri etc 8hy all the displace$ent pro2ects are only in tri#al areas K So$e calls its their $ani!estation o! cltral $yopia0 so$e consider the$ as their search !or a appropriate place in the social li!e0 %hich has #een historically denide to the$& ;-Social classes in India Class-Sociological Concept-"iven #y Marx- only *cono$ic strctre point o! vie%- Sociological and Cltral Di$ensions are also i$portant& In *rope class con!licts- Indstry and )edal- In india other strati!ications like caste0 po%er0 occpation etc Caste #ased stati!ication and class #ased strati!ication-dialectical relationship& Agrarian Class strctre Revene assess$ent o! land- +a$indari0 Ryot%ari0 Mahal%ari& +a$indari- +a$indar0 tenants and agricltral la#ors Ryot%ari- landlord and peasants Agrarian class-)edal character- +a$indars collected tax- non %orking o%ners o! the land- peasants %ere having no secrity o! tenre& Daniel Thorner Marxian approach- *ven a!ter land re!or$s $easres- peasants contine to s!!er $ore and the Maliks are en2oying the do$inant position- has social relationships- the lo%er caste %orks as land less la#orers- the lando%ning #elongs to higher caste& 'C 7oshi @ trends in agrarian class- declining !edalistics and csto$ary tenacy- rising o! co$$ercially oriented landlords- it increased the e!!iciency and prodctivity0 #t the con!lict #et%een the poor peasantry and the agricltre la#orers are in rise& TC <o$$en- 9 Categories o! classes in rral agrarian India- landlords- rich !ar$ers- $iddle peasants- poor peasants- landless %orkers& Andre #eteille- 6i#eral point o! vie%- <%nership- Control- :se o! land& <%nership( *ntreprenerial landlords- #ig o%ners- !ond in green revoltion #elt- pro!it $otive& Medi$ land lords- land is !a$ily property- !or na$esake they keep the$selves attached to the land- a#sentee landlords S$all o%ners- dont go !or sel! cltivation !or cltrl #ondage- Cltral landlords Controller- So$e one %ho sees the land in the a#sence o! the actl lando%ner-one can #e o%ner0 controller and ser at the sa$e ti$e& :sers- No o%nership- no controlling rights- %ork there !or earning livelihood& /eteille pointed ot ho% in #engal a!ter land re!or$s the n$#er o! s$all and $arginal !ar$ers expanded0 %ho %ere earler share croppers& Marxist 2 classes- conservative and radical- radical can #ring revoltion& A R Desai pper class- $iddle class- lo%er class& :tsa 'attnaik- stdied 'n2a# and =aryana- 9 types- #ig land lords0 rich !ar$ers0 $iddle peasants0 s$all peasants0 agricltral la#orers& /ig landlords- 9- acres or $ore0 pro!it $otive0 technology0 politically active0 se hired la#or& Rich !ar$ers- 2- to A- acres0 highly a$#itios0 hired la#ors0 at ti$es !a$ily la#ors& Middle 'easants- 1- to 2- acres0 !a$ily la#or0 little srpls& S$all !ar$ers- 9 to 1- acres0 $arginalised !ar$ers& Agricltral la#orers- land less la#orers& The !irst 2 types #ig land lords and the rich !ar$ers are controlling all the $eans o! prodction and conslidating the$&develop$ent o! capitalist agricltre& In the "R #elt polirisation #eco$ing $ore pro$inent& Neo Marxist vie%( Agrarian class strctre cant #e stdied in isolation %ith the non- agrarian class& Money lenders0 $erchants0 traders living in r#an areas-linkage %ith the village land lords- procre$ents in the harvesting season !ro$ the s$all and $edi$ peasants- they dont have voice to raise against the$- - *xploitation Migration- sicide& Anand Chakravarty- nder class- cant !ight against hege$onistic do$ination o! landlords0 police and legal corts- they accept ineBality and start re#ellion& 6i#eral sociologist- consider the ele$ents like !edalis$0 se$i !edalis$0 se$i capitalist0 capitalist and caste class nexs- Nexs #et%een agarian class and non-agarian class $akes the sitation co$plex- govern$ent progra$$es shold take the holistic vie% #e!ore co$ing p %ith any plan& Middle classes in India Carl Marx- Middle class %ill vanish4petty #orgeoisie0 s$all $erchants %ho o%n their $eans o! prodction5 Marx 8e#er and 6ock%ood- Middle class poplation %ill gro%- %ith indstrialisation and r#anisation- depends on skills- old $iddle class4petty #orgeoisise5- ne% $iddle class4 %hite colored %orkers0 salaried e$ployee5 Talcolt 'arson- Rise o! $iddle class in indstrialised society- analysis o! $eritocracy society& <rdinary vie%- $odern edcation- rational and co$petitive vale- seclarised in approach- cons$erist class- aspiring !or the $o#ility- capacity o! social change& A R Desai- talked a#ot Indian $ddle class and their role in indian nationalis$- evolved !ro$ caste strctre- $iddle classs role in #ringing re!or$s in cltre and religion- Social religios $ove$ents are $iddle class $ove$ents& /ritish introdced press0 rail%ays0 tv0 radio0 #reacracy0 2dicairy0 edcation- gave #irth to $iddle class- nationalis$ to !ight against /ritish& Middle class co$position across caste and region line- hence class nites and caste devides& D 6 Seth Article Middle class in Modern India A!ter independence the #ase o! MC is expanding- In %estern and soth india0 MC ca$e ot o! re!or$ $ove$nts like Saty Sodhak Sa$a2 o! M=0 Sel! Respect $ove$ent o! Ta$il Nad0 SND' $ove$ent o! Cerala- non-traditional and anti /rah$inic vie%- de$anding eBity and control over po%er strtre& Indian $iddle class gro%n ot o! soil- hold tight to the tradition and cltre and tries to get #ene!its !ro$ $odern instittions& Indian $iddle class is keeping one step on $odernity and one step on tradition and trying to extract #ene!it !ro$ #oth& Andre /eteille ( Bestions the genesis o! indian $iddle class- di!!erent sorces at di!!erent point o! ti$e- not ho$ogenos like %est $iddle class& =a#it o! reading ne%s paper- going !or !a$ily vacation- spending $oney on non cons$ption- are constantly increasing& /t interrelationship #et%een a !actory %orker0 a lo%er police $an and a s$all trader takes place in hierarchical $anner&Indian $iddle class has expanded #t still carry hierarchical ideas- This vie% is in contrast to 1ogendra Singhs vie% that %ith $odernity class %ill replace caste& 1?9--1?,-- indstrialisation- $odern edcation- $odern 2o#s- #reacracy- green revoltion- $odern trade- led to $assive e$ploye$nt- no %ish to consolidate their econo$ic position- gave a sond #ase to peasant $o#ilisaion naxal $ove$ents %as spported #y intellectals co$ing !ro$ di!!erent spheres o! li!e& Anti-e$ergency $ove$ent #y $iddle class stdents0 teachers etc&A!ter gl#alisation $iddle classes expanded- interests spheres #roadened- %o$en isses- civil rights isses- environ$ental pro#e- rise o! civil society $ove$ents in India& ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "rcharan Das- India n#ond A$artya Sen Arg$entative Indians A#dl kala$- India 2-2- 'ost 6i#eralisation Indian scientists0 indstrialsits0 researchers #rinnging glory to to India #y proving Indias h$an resorce potential- glo#al recognition& "rcharan Das- "lo#alisation- has given n#old li$it !or prosperity0 $o#ility and happiness and sel! expression& A$artya Sen- India s literacy ca$paign- trans!ering India into a kno%ledge #ased society- sstaina#le econo$ic gro%th& The Institte o! Applied *cono$ics and Resarch sho%s- 1?AG( 12. MC0 1?9G( 2-.0 2--1(9,.0 in 2-2- it %ill #e G-.&- $iddle class expanded- lo%er class is sBeeFed- pper class is not hege$onistic- $ore inclsive india0dyna$ic0 gro%th oriented& Skeptical vie%s on MC( gender ineBality0 hege$onistic do$ination in rral India0 hi2acking o! $odern #ene!its #t do$inant class0 distinction #et%een literacy and !nctional literacy0 %o$en exploitation and environ$ental degradation& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- Indstrial Class /ritish Rle- trading internal and external- export and I$port #siness- gro%th o! class o! $erchants- idstrial and co$$ercial $iddle class& Rail%ays-$odern indstries- $iddle class invested in diverse !ields- econo$icall and socially0 #eca$e strongest class in India& Independence- indstrialisation- govt policies ag$ented the prodction- $ore rise o! indstril classes& Acc$lated %ealth !ro$ colonial ti$e- investe$ent and reinvest$ent- #sinees carried on in !a$ily lines& *g& Tatas0 /irlas etc&- they spported !reedo$ $ove$ent #t not pto their capacity& Started %ith tetiles- inter$ediate capital goods- cons$er dra#les- possi#le #ecase o! patronage o! the state& Tax #ene!its-Credit !acility- export and i$port policies etc& Recent ti$e rise o! MSM*s to get tax #ene!its and other credit related and interest s#vention #ene!its& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- G-Syste$s o! Cinship in India 6ineage and Descent in India 6ineage- a #ody o! people %ho are arranged together on the #asis o! co$$on #lood linkage& 'atriarchal society-daghter not part o! !athers lineage grop& Classical antropologists- patrilineal-deter$ining descent throgh the $ale line&$atrilineal-deter$ining descent throgh the !e$ale line& 6ineage syste$ can #e divided into 2 parts- :nilineal- a syste$ o! deter$ining descent in %hich so$eone either #elongs to !athers lineage or $others lineage0 #oth patrilineal and $atrilineal are inclded nder nilineal lineage syste$- Non nilineal- a syste$ %here exists $ltiple !or$s o! relationships& Indologist- "hrye- role o! descent in de!ining $arriage0 !a$ily0 kinship and India& In northen India- so$e one cant $arry %ithin extended kinship grop- $arriage is driven #y rles o! kinship and descent&"hrye indicated- "otra and Charna are exoga$os grops- #rings dispersed people together& "ail <$vedt Caste is an expanded descent syste$& Andre /eteille- kinship in India so strong that- 3oting is driven #y kinship rather than on $erir- 'ri$ary sorce o! political recrit$ent (kinship grop- Ths De$ocratic political syste$ in India is engaged in social and cltral reprodction& Crishna C$ar- Cinship in India is so intensive that- #ehind every corrpt $an- there is an a$#itios !a$ily- Indstrial recrit$ent greatly takes place on the #asis o! kinship rather than on $erit& 8ith $odernity in India- kinship and descent have not changed a little also- so i$portant to stdy nder social trans!or$ation& Role o! descent and kinship not only decides private shperes o! li!e like $arriage0 !a$ily etc rather very %ell de!ines occpation0 political activities etc ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Types o! kinship syste$ Ira%ati Carve- A di!!erent kinship Fones- North0 soth0central and east& North Indian Cinship Syste$- Areas o! $ore aryan cltre in!lence and <disha0 /ihar and 8est /engal& 'atrikins and Matrikins are di!!erent& 8ithin patrilineal syste$ !athers #rother is distingished !ro$ !athers sister& )athers #rothers are also distingished in ter$s o! age0 so di!!erential respect is attri#ted to the$& Rle o! $arriage is highly exhastive- <ne is not spposed to receive a %o$an !ro$ a grop to %hich a %o$an is o!!ered %ithin 9 to G generations& <ne cant receive a %o$an !ro$ his $others grop0 $others $other grop0 !athers $other grop0 and his o%n village&Marriage not in intra !a$ily ties rather in inter village ties& Residentail syste$ is 3irilocal0 sa$e as patrilocal involves a series o! presentational o#ligations& 3eena Das- In north Indian kinship !ather son relationship precedes over hs#and %i!e relationship-on analysis o! 'n2a#i kinship syste$ she said- the natral sexal relationshp #et%een hs#and and %i!e is s#ded to socially esta#lished !ather son relationship glori!ying patriarchy& -------------------------------------------------- Soth Indian Cinship syste$( entire soth india0 so$e parts o! M= and <disha- No distinction #et%een patrilineal and $atrilineal- !athers #rother is eBivalent to $others sisters hs#and- #oth their children0 parallel cosins0 so $arriage a$ong the$& )athers sister grop L $others #rother grop IJ$others #rotherI !athers sisters hs#and& Speci!ic patrilineal kins are eBated %ith speci!ic $atrilineal kins& 6ove !or yonger and respect !or elders ctting across generational principles- !ather L elder #rother0 $other L elder sister and yonger #rother L son0 yonger sister L daghter& Cross cosins $arriage allo%a#le exoga$y not exhastive like north India& =s#and %i!e relationship is not s#ded to !ather son relationship nlike north India& =ostility o! relationship #et%een the la%s driven #y sspicion %eak in soth India& --------------------------------------------------- Central India Cinship syste$- "2rat0 Maharashtra0 M'- $ixtre o! ele$ents !ro$ NI and SI& Ra2pts- $arriage- on stats o! girlss !a$ily- no caste #ar- girl o! their choice& Marthas-@2 divisions- pri$ary0 secondary0tertiary divisions- $arriage accordingly& C$#i o! "2rat- cant $arry %ithin one generations !ro$ !athers side and %ithin @ generations in $others side& Ra2asthan- <n Akshya Tritiya- $assive $arriage takes place- all age grops-relaxed nor$s& ------------------------------------------------------ *astern India Cinship syste$- Mnda o! <disha0 Manipri o! Manipr0 Nagas0 Ckis and Chasi& Mnda- ; di!!erent class- associated %ith sy$#ols like- #a$#oo0liFards0 teak0 crocodiles etc- each class $any lineage grop- son gets patrilineal grand!athers na$e-daghter gets patrilineal grand$others na$e-divorce is co$$on a$ong the$& Chasi- yongest daghter inherits property !ro$ $other- stats o! $an L stats o! %o$an in north India& ---------------------- These variations o! kinship syste$ speaks a#ot di!!erential residential syste$0 property relations0 stats o! $en0%o$en and children 0 entitle$ents #ased on gender-plralistic society- nity is not a#ot destrction o! plrality rather respecting the plrality& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------- )a$ily and $arriage in India Stdy o! !a$ily I de#ate on 2oint !a$ily vs nclear !a$ily& Sir =enry Maine- legal advisor to colonial govt- Indian 2oint !a$ily vs Ro$an and "reek 2oint !a$ily- #ased on texal $aterial- #ased on 2 concepts- co$$on property holdings and A#solte athority o! Carta- corporate nit0 everyone contri#tes di!!erently #t takes as per need- Its sstenance #ecase o! $oral instittions and ritals !or co$$on dead ancestors& "S "hrye- 'odct o! Indian cltre0 that glori!ied classical vales- niversal presence o! 2oint !a$ily across caste0 religion and region& 'N 'ra#h-Individals association %ith 2oint !a$ily is #ased on $oralis$-%hen $oralis$ converts to individalis$4tradition to $odernity5- 2oint !a$ily converts to nclear !a$ily& Ira%ati karve- @-A generations people organically related to each other- co$$on kitchen- co$$on residence- co$$on ritals- co$$on o#ligations to kartas& 7oint !a$ilyI prodct o! cltre0 so econo$ic trans!or$ations cant change 2oint !a$ily syste$& 1ogendra Singh- Modernisation o! Indian tradition in r#an India- inter caste $arriage- love $arriage- nclear !a$ily- gilt !ree sexality in pre $arital and post $arital li!e& Indstry-occpational $o#ility- %o$en e$po%er$ent- strctral #reak do%n o! 2oint !a$ily syste$& MN Srinivas and SC D#ey- caste and 2oint !a$ily relation- higher caste go !or 2oint !a$ily- lo%er caste nclear !a$ily- 2oint !a$ily is driven #y econo$ics logic rather than cltral logic&Contrast to 1 Singh0 2oint !a$ily is not #reaking do%n nder in!lence o! r#an living& Alan Rose- a stdy in #angalore- G-. o! !a$ilies- either strctral 2ointness-!nctional 2ointness or #oth& MS "ore- stdy on Agar%als o! delhi- Mother son relationship precedes over hs#and %i!e relationship- !a$ily strong spport #ase !or its $e$#ers in selection o! occpation- !inancial assistance and selection o! $ates also& TN Madan- residential separation- no #reak do%n o! 2oint !a$ily- $oney order econo$y !a$ily 2ointness has al%ays #een endring in India& )a$ily trans!or$ation in India is di!!erent !ro$ %estern trans!or$ations& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----- =osehold di$ensions o! the !a$ily AM Shah- #ookhosehold di$ension o! indian !a$ily-!nda$ental Bestion- 2oint hosehold disintegrating or 2oint !a$ily- proportion o! 2oint hoseholds $ore today as co$pare to past- reason- rising poplation- constrction o! hoses costly- $igration !or e$ploy$ents etc- #igger hoseholds splitting into s$aller hoseholds- #t strong e$otional ties thogh not staying together- 2oint hosehold splitting not 2oint !a$ilies&hosehold stdy i$portant& 'aline Colenda- a!ter $odernity 2oint hoseholds and 2oint !a$ilies still exist- no conclsion nlike Marxist scholars& )e$inist vie%- %hether 2oint !a$ily or nclear !a$ily trans!or$ation is not a!!ecting stats o! %o$en- sexality0D<60 reprodction #ased on patriarchy& Classical sociologists-$odernity- =osehold residencial place- !a$ily social istittion& Rise o! socialis$ and $odernity- !a$ily !ntions are #eing taken #y play schools0 old age ho$es0 $arriage #reas0 child care centers- !a$ily i$portance do%n- hosehold i$portance p- scandinavian contries- hosehold stdy is i$portant& )ro$ hosehold stdy- can !ind ot changes in indian society& "lo#al $igration-'hillipines and India- $arried %o$en- 2o# otside- living in hoseholds %ith !riends or alone& In hosehold- $ore i$portance to !riendship to kinship- i$$ense individal li#erty- sexal !reedo$- li$ited or no lia#ility to%ards other $e$#ers- sita#le !or !ragile or $o#ile poplation- Scandinavian senss $ore i$portance to hoseholds than !a$ilies& =osehold stdy is taking place o! !a$ily stdy0 so as !riendship stdy taking place o! kinship stdy& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------- 'atriarchy0 entitle$ents and sexal division o! la#or *ntitle$ent- !or$ o! individal right- cltre- rles o! la%- #y society Modernist theory- varios !or$s o! entitle$ents- no% extended to every section gender not a criteria& )e$inists criticised this& Talcolt parson- Indstrialisation0 r#anisation0 $igration- occpational $o#ility- e$po%er$ent o! %o$en and gender gap redced& Modernist theory in case o! India- relationship #et%een hs#and and %i!e prceeding parent child relationship- con2gal relationship $ore i$po than o#ligation to%ards kinships- irrespective o! gender every child inherits property !ro$ parents- selection o! $ates no longer !a$ilys responsi#ility- child #irth is linked to econo$ics and $tal agree$ent #et%een spose- $odernity has #roken do%n traditional !or$ o! $arriage0hierarchical !or$ o! relationship& =indis$ e$phasis- sexal prity so child $arriage- sexal experi$entation otside $ariage and pre$arital sex is hell- $ale child $akes a %o$an co$plete- divorce is evil- %ido%hood is disaster- cltre de!ines sexality- reprodction- D<60sexality- Modernist contradicted- nclear !a$ily- child #irth #y choice- individal control over sexality& Indira 7ai Singh- All la%s o! entitle$ents #ased on patriarchy than gender eBality- =ind $arriage act- divorce can #e #ased on adltery- #t have to #e proved in cort- 4Ne% act pdate KK5 3icti$s o! rape has to recast the sa$e experience again and again in order to get 2stice- inheritance rights over parents property to %o$en recently $ade la%- 6egal la%s #ased on patriarchy& Tlsi 'atel- 8o$en consider it as sin to prohi#it their hs#ands !ro$ sexality- n%anted pregnancy- lose li!e dring child #irth- in #ad healths also they accept to patriarchal convention- !orgetting their entitle$ents- 8age pay$ent %o$en less than hal! co$pared to $en-despite doing t%ice %ork than $en in !actories& )a$ily is a paradise in a hopeless %orld- %here $arriage0 child #irth0 $otherhood $akes %o$ans li!e co$plete& )e$inist $ove$ents is not re#ellion against patriarchy rather asking !or eBality& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - ,-Religion and Society Religios co$$nities in India India #irth place o! =indis$0 /ddhis$0 7ianis$ and Sikhis$- Religios diversity and religios tolerance esta#lished #y la%& Diversity- religios assi$ilation- invaders- $erchants- conBerors-traders and travellers& Isla$0 Christian0 =ind0 Sikhis$0 /ddists0 7ains0 +oroastrians0 +e%is& 6ess inter religios $arriages- Co$$nal clashes& 'ro#le$s o! Religios $inorities 'lral Society trans!or$ing into a $odern state& Religios $inorities- 6ingistic $inorities and ethnic $inorities4tri#e5- !ear o! loss o! identity hence #lockade- e&g& Delhi 'n2a#i living in 'n2a#i /agh& "ndhi2i rise o! hind !nde$entalis$- reactionary to conversion o! hinds to christians #y $issionary activities- e&g the hierarchy syste$ is still there- Cerala @ types o! christians- Syrian Christian- 6atin Christians- Ne% Christians 4ntocha#les5- Christianity indianised& Northeast- $issionary activity- christianity- $odern edcation e&g MiFora$- ethnic identity- con!lict a$ong the$& Constittion- article 29 to 2, Threat to christian $inorities- right %ing !nda$entalis$- organised terror& 'ro#le$s o! Msli$s in India Arond 12. o! poplation- edcated highly placed $sli$s very less- $a2or edcated $igrate to %estern- $iddle class co$$nity is very less- poor section is large& Co$$nal distr#ances- ineBality and poverty and exploitation #y priestly co$$nity i&e Mllas- !oreign inter!erence& 7ohn start Mill the %orst o! the tyrannies is the tyranny o! the $a2ority- it doesnt $ean $a2ority deli#erately tries to h$iliate- i&e sensitive $inority co$plex is a natral pheno$ena& Role o! politicians- Anti-social ele$ents- #itter $e$ories o! past& 8hy north#elt hind revivalist grops are active there and #itter $e$ories o! partition- politics over co$$nal clashes- parties tend to handle the sitation a #alanced $anner- things goes ot o! control& Soth India and M=- Co$$nal clashes are less& Theoritically-Isla$ no caste syste$- since they are converts- hence caste syste$& Sachar Co$$ittee Report ad$in services less representation- A. $sli$ stdents co$plete class x- 2. class MII- 1&2. gradation- on an avg 2A? co$$nal clashed in each year-%o$en gradates are less than 1. a$ong $sli$ poplation- at co$$nal riots ,-. $sli$s lose their property and so$eti$es li!e& Deepak Mehta Minority psychosis- dharavi sl$ exa$ple-easy trigger& *dcational pro#le$s- school crricl$ in hindi or english-less a#ot isla$ic cltre or society-less interesting !or $sli$ stdents> isla$ic cltre no encorage$ent !or co- edction> no special school !or $sli$ girls in contry as %ell> Many state govts pro$oting Madrasa- no pro$otion o! seclar edcation- religios edcation-little attention to rational kno%ledge !or livelihood- hge gap #et%een hinds and $sli$s- vote #ank politics so $a2or re!or$s !or their edcation-policy o! appease$ent& +oya =asan- #ack%ard ness o! $sli$ %o$en- religios orthodox leaders and state- ni!or$ civil code %hich cold have e$po%ered $sli$ %o$en %as re2ected- on the grond that hind agenda en!orec$ent on $sli$ %o$en& Randhir singh isla$opho#ia- vertical division o! society- religios !nde$entalis$- Bestioning the seclar credentials o! India& "ovts steps 'Ms 19 point progra$$e- Anti-co$$nal violence #ill- Co$$ission !or Minorities- National $inorities develop$ent and !inance corporation4NMD)C5-Sachar co$$ittee- %ak! #oard property protection #ill& ?-3isions o! Social changes in India Idea o! develop$ent planning and $ixed eceono$y Non capitalist-as no technoloy-no $arket-agri #ased econo$y& Non socialist-as state %old control $arket0 prodction0distri#tion-$ight lead to atocratic rle& =ence $ixed econo$y- #oth state and private players- rail%ays 0 shipping etc only govt- edcation0health0aviation etc #oth private and govt& Sociologists analysis( MS "ore- #ook develop$ental policies o! India since independence-land re!or$ syste$ introdced in a haphaFard $anner-helped the landlords- do$inant classes got the o%nerships throgh #ena$i trans!er syste$ in the na$e o! cooperative !ar$ing& Daniel Thorner- Capitalist agricltre in socialist India& Cooperative $ove$ent- helped the do$inat classes-%as #ased on s#sidy and tax re#ate etc& 'C 7oshi- #ook develop$ental strategies o! India- gandhian vision o! planning- se o! appropriate technology- trsteeship and #alance #et%een natre and cltre e$phasiFing on h$an happiness-than 2st $aterialistic prosperity& 1??-s-6'"-not sstaina#le develop$ent $odel-pro!it centric %ithot social responsi#ility- despite gro%th ra$pant poverty *cono$ic li#eralisation- India #eca$e hnting grond !or cheap la#or- ne% capitalist agenda Anita Minocha- yong so!t%are pro!essionals-health haFards- cons$erist #ehavior A$artya Sen- "ro%th shold #e centred on health and edcation- $ental and physical health-capacity to gather skill and !ight discri$ination- de$and o! 2stice %hen it is not extended to hi$ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------- Constittion0 6a% and Social Change 'rea$#le- 8e the people o! India sole$nly resolve&&&-does it inclde interests o! all the people- constittion %as #rainchild o! !e% intellectals In the %est #lacks and %o$en got citiFenship later-In India one day everyone got it- %ithot kno%ing %hat is a#ot-%ith )Rs- so it is not #eing realised #y the citiFens *Bality0!raternity and li#erty- %as di!!erent !ro$ %est-in %est collective action-India so$e section %as co$!ta#le %ith the /ritish- 8e introdced *)6 %ith thinking a#ot r capacity to i$ple$ent it& D'S' and )RS-#asic direction in %hich a state shold go No i$prove$ents in edcation sector-#asic e$phasis is still on health and nitrition and health& Carl Marx- la#or is the co$$odity sold in the capitalist $arket- children are not getting adeBate attention- Calahandi child selling case Seclaris$- Can a state go !or strong seclar credentials %hen people are driven #y strong religios consciosness- contest #et%een %hat state %ants and %hat people actally are Andre /eteille- people are $ore driven #y Mans$riti than constittion& /onded la#or and child la#or- #anned- in reality practiced& 3i2ayalaksh$i- tells a#ot ho% #onded la#or is still prevalent even in Mteros like Delhi %here hose$aids co$ing /ihar-lack protection& Adlt !ranchsie and voting #ehavior& :pendra /akshi and Ra$achandra "ha- 6i#erty and !reedo$-!airy tale !or the tri#als- displace$ents-!orest la%s-$ining etc& Ra$achandra "ha-<n Nar$ada /achao andolan-ho% the poor tri#al people %ere %aiting !or A %eeks to $eet the head o! the govt& Constittional provisions o! !reedo$ is #ased on class identity0 ethnic identity and econo$ic stats& A$artya Sen- 'overty $akes an individal speechless0 $arginalised and there!ore !reedo$ as a constittional provision is not #eing really en2oyed or exercise #y a large $a2ority o! indian people& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- *dcation and social change )nctional paradig$ and con!lict paradig$-@rd 9 yr plan- Cothari co$$ission on edcation No thinkers stdy !ro$ note #ook ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1--Rral and Agrarian Trans!or$ation in India 'rogra$$es o! Rral Develop$ent 1&'M"S1- all %eather roads 2&S"S1- shg and activity clsters @&IA1- latrines and s$okeless chlahs A&M"NR*"A- eBal pay 9&NSA'- pension and annaprna sche$e ;&CA'ART- rral technology G&DRDA- to see anti-poverty progra$$es ,&':RA ?&'MRD) 1-&NR6M- A2eevika-sstaina#le livelihood progra$$e throgh !inance spport 11&6and re!or$s progra$$es --------------------------------------------------------- Rral develop$ent- econo$ic develop$ent as %ell as social trns!or$ation&- particpation o! local people and resorces- develop$ent !ro$ grassroot level rather develop$ent i$posing on the$& Collective !ar$ing- social !orestry- credit !inancing Scholars !ond i$pedi$ents in rral develop$ent progra$$es- strong caste conscioness- politisisation o! rral develop$ent progra$$es- contradictions a$ong villages dring 'RI elections& D6 7oshi- RD progra$$es started %ith a no#le ai$ #t !ailed to alter the hierarchical $indset o! people reslting into pre$atre collapse& Develop$ent progra$$e have intensi!ied caste consolidation and caste con!lict in village India& SC-ST-8o$en coldnt #ene!it lack o! a%areness- $ost o! the$ didnt have in!ra to take credit spport& In ,th 9 year plan- ;, di!!erent overlapping RD sche$es- Integrated rral develop$ent progra$$e4IRD'5-consolidation Sociologists concerns -cltral character o! people0 gender involve$ent %ith %ork are the non-econo$ic varia#les shold also #e cosidered& Drea$ o! rral develop$ent into reality& ----------------------------------------------------------------------- "reen revoltion A!ter 1?;9-=13-irrigation-!ertiliFers-sel! s!!icient in !ood grain prodction- social ethnic and political e!!ect& 2 stages-!irst stage 'n2a# =aryana %estern :'- 2nd stage Soth and %estern India Nor$an /orlag- M S S%a$inathan- %onder %heat Mexico-'n2a# and =aryana 2-- ti$es prodction Seed cooperatives-credit cooperatives-irrigation cooperatives- !ertiliser cooperatives- pper class rich got the #ene!it-poor !ar$ers old seed In Carnataka- nexs #et%een class caste po%er- li!t irrigation at the centre o! the !ield o! rich !ar$er-o#strction %alls- lands at higher height-no %ater-less prodction-disstress sale-do$inant caste #eca$e do$inant class& Credit cooperatives- nexs #et%een rich !ar$ers-#ri#e-capitalist agricltre ' 3ardhan- 'overty stdy is al%ays #ased on #asic needs and its !l!ill$ent- not on econo$ic sstaina#ility o! !a$ily- srpls inco$e to invest in edcation0health etc- is green revoltion creating e$ploy$ent or disgised ne$ploy$ent&*!!ect o! "R shold stdied in these lines& "R-prodctivity increased-#t rich poor devide %idened-not hep!l in rral develop$ent as it %as one o! its agenda& /halla and Chadda- In 'n2a# and =aryana- 2-- villages- the per acre di!!erence in prodctivity #et%een rich and poor is 2-- ti$es and the inco$e di!!erence is 1; ti$es& "R-distress $igration !ro$ /ihar and eastern :' to 'n2a# and =aryana-exploited& 6aksh$i Menon and :tsa pattnaik- gender i$pact on green revoltion- !a$ily inco$e goes #eyond cons$ption needs- it #eco$es stats sy$#ol- people #eco$e stats conscios- %o$en are %ithdr%an !ro$ la#or- econo$y do$inated #y $en- glori!ication o! gender role o! %o$en- i&e $en as prodcers and %o$en shold stay at ho$e- i$portance o! $ale child increased-people have $oney to take technological aid !or selective a#ortion o! !e$ale !oets- "R is one o! the adverse gender gap in case o! 'n2a# and =aryana& "R and po%er and politics- developed political aspiration-political parties-rich !ar$ers enter into politics- served interests o! rich !ar$ers throgh cooperatives& "R and ethnic distinction 'n2a#i !ar$ers and non pn2a#i !ar$ers- poor !ar$ers and rich !ar$ers con!lict& <$en- positive side o! "R- rral e$ploy$ent- addressed rral poverty- !ood de!icit contry to !ood srpls contry& Changes taking place in one sector leads to change in other sectors also- "R has in!lenced local politics-strati!cation-gender stats-ethnicity- inter caste relationship- regional identities- $igration& ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Changing $odes o! prodction in Indian Agricltre 8estern-shi!t !ro$ !edalis$ to capitalist agri-India- change is not ni!or$-speci!ic pockets o! capitalis$& Agrarian trans!or$ation in India-depends on- geographical diversity-historical di!!erences and conte$porary varia#ilities& Marxist Sociologists- no peasant $o#ilisation like China or Rssia-class di!!erence is the o#strction& "ail <$vedt- strong nexs #et%een caste and class- caste con!lict is also class con!lict& Andre /eteilles #ook- Agrarian Social strctre- no vertical $o#ility o! peasants& AR Desai- land re!or$s not sccess!l- #ena$i trans!ers in the na$e o! cooperative !ar$ing- landlords holding tenants in no!!icial contracts-so they cant take legal rote- they dont en2oy their rights& Colonial ti$e-prely !edalistic <rissa0Manipr0Assa$-traditional technology-caste land holdings nexs is %eak-se$i !edal in natre& M'0 /ihar0 :'0 /engal- so$e land reserved !or co$$ercial agri- contractal la#orers rather than hired la#orers- old land lord peasant syste$ is still there- land re!or$s has least i$pact-se$i capitalist $ode o! prodction& Sothern states- #ene!its o! agricltre pocketed #y rich !ar$ers-lo% level tehnology se- lo%er caste people as agri la#ors-lo% intensive capitalist region& 'na2# and =aryana-tenacy syste$ a#sent- hired la#or- prodction as per $arket de$ands- !ar$ers are highly nionised-caste and lando%nership relationship is a#sent- class consolidation high- intensive capitalist agricltre& Mltiple $odes o! prodction-;-. are still landless- $arginal !ar$ers co$e !ro$ Dalit and Tri#al origin- 1;. agricltrists are !ro$ do$inant castes- 7ats01adavs0/ho$iars06ingayats0Ra2pts and Reddys etc&Rest !ro$ artisan caste-s$all holdings& Agrarian trans!or$ation in India neither capitalist nor socialist-$ixed o! #oth-a co$plex pheno$enon& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---- Cooperatives Re$inder to the international co$$nity that econo$ic via#ility and social responsi#ility is possi#le at the sa$e ti$e& 1?-A-cooperative societies act- started No%-all over the contry Cooperative credit syste$-largest in the %orld-have given $ore credit than co$$ercial #anks 3illage cooperative societies- strategic inpt in agricltral sector- cons$er society $eets their cons$ption at concessional rates- coopratives help in #ilding store hoses- godo%ns and cold storages0irrigation and rral roads etc Sgra cooperatives-!ertiliser cooperatives-national diary develop$ent #oard- cooperative $ilk $arketing #oard- early 1?G-s <peration !lood-diary processing plants-collection stations-natinal $ilk transportation grid& A!ter the insrance act-cooperatives are in insrance sector as %ell& Indian !ar$ers !ertiliFers cooperatives-tea$ed p %ith 2apans cooperatives-internal in natre& the central govt enacted the Mlti State Cooperative Societies Act0 2--2 %hich provided !or de$ocratic and atono$os %orking o! the Cooperatives& 8hy coopeartives i$portant- !or the poor-nskilled-illiterate-instittion o! $tal help and sharing- so!tens the social con!lict and redces the social divisions- redces the #reacratics evils-overco$es the hddles o! agri develop$ent- craetes condcive environ$ent !or s$all scale indstries& 8hy gro%th is slo%( "ovts inter!erence Maniplations and $is$anage$ent-in elections !or the top posts 6ack o! a%areness Restricted coverage )nctional %eakness-lack o! trained personnel-e!!icient people dont 2oin the$& --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'overty Allieviation progra$$e Re!er notes-2 page-22 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Co$$nity develop$ent 'rogra$$e Re!er notes-2 page-1? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 'ro#le$s o! Rral la#or Agricltral la#or- tillage o! soil0 prodction0 cltivation0gro%ing0 harvesting& /onded la#or-take cashNkind loan !ro$ land lords0then %orks !or hi$ 6a#orer in !orestry- ti$#ering etc 'ara Agricltre-allied activities0post harvest processing0taking prodcts to $arket etc 'lantation la#or-cltivation and prodction o! plantations o! tea0co!!ee0sgarcane0cocont0grondnt etc Rral la#or in allied activities- raising livestock0 diary !ar$ing0 #ees and poltry graFing etc Rral la#or other %ork- $ilk$an0 #lacks$ith0 carpenter0#ar#er0%asher$an etc Sel! e$ployed person- sel! e$ployed in an occpation-s$all shop o%ner etc Agricltral is seasonal and di!!erent variations- so di!!iclt to dra% a line #et%een agricltral and non agricltral la#orers )i!ty per cent o! the agricltral la#or hoseholds- landless and have no asset #ase- The landless la#orers are s!!ering !ro$ a co$ponded pro#le$ o! ne$ploy$ent-lo% and ncertain inco$e-ntritional de!iciencies- inde#tedness-nder e$ploy$ent- illiteracy- ignorance-#ig siFe o! the !a$ily $ay pri$arily #e acconted !or the high degree o! poverty a$ong rral la#orers& ncertainty o! e$ploy$ent in lean seasons- e$ployed on day to day #asis %ihtot any contract- one-!i!th o! the total n$#er o! agricltral la#ors is e$ployed on annal ter$s they %ork as do$estic servants& %ide illiteracy existing a$ong the$ and their in!erior social conditions add to their %eak #argaining state& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ /onded la#or Read !ro$ note #ook-2 page no-2, :tsa pattnaik and Sashi k$ar -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Migration In search o! #etter li!e or so$eti$es throgh co$plsion&distance0 direction and dration o! $igration& Reasons-econo$ic0social and political& Internal $igration and international $igration& e&g The 7e%s $igrated !ro$ "er$any to other parts o! the %orld to avoid persection nder =itlers NaFist regi$e& 'artition o! /ritish India& 'sh !actors and pll !actors& Ashish /ose !or instance explains Migration in India !ro$ rral to :r#an !ro$ a de$ographic perspective& perspective& The psh !actors %hich operate in places o! origin0 in this case the rral areas0 is lack o! resorces0 ne$ploy$ent0 overpoplation0 droght or !loods or sch other natral cala$ities0 essentially all sch !actors %hich $akes a decent living standards i$possi#le& The pll !actors o! cities are $any- e$ploy$ent opportnities0 entertain$ent 0 edcation !acilities0 trade centres0 instittional set ps0 availa#ility o! opportnities 0 seclar environ$ent etc& Ashish /ose0 arges that the psh and pll !actors shold #e interpreted in overall de$ographic contexts& :nder conditions o! high natral increase in poplation0 not only in rral areas #t in the r#an areas as %ell 4as a reslt o! high r#an #irth rates and rapidly declining death rates50 the psh !actor operates =e calls it as psh #ack !actor& Meenakshi Thapan in her recent #ook Transnational Migration and 'olitics o! Identity0 arges that any theory on $igration!or a holitstic perspective$st accont !or it in ter$s o! race0 religion0 nationality and on gender0 %hich $ch o! early literatre on $igration is silent& She asserts that strctral ra$i!ications o! %o$ens $igration extend #eyond the lives o! $igrant %o$en the$selves0 inso!ar as the la#or o! sch %o$en is an i$portant !actor in shaping gender relations !ond in societies o! #oth 0 the i$$igrants and their hosts0 there#y sggesting ne% %ays o! looking at isses sch as gender eBality0 hosehold division o! la#or and at the state policies regarding %el!are positions& Cyclic or circlatory $igration- te$porary change o! place not $igration-toris$ and co$$nication& Internal and external- lots o! planning !or $igration sch as !or so!t%are enginners& 'ri$itive $igration-Rando$ nplanned $igration )orced $igration- natral disasters0exods o! A!ganisthanis to 'akistan& Seasonal and periodic- no$adic people living on the $argins o! deserts& 8&/& )isher noted that periodic $igrations are so$eti$es te$pted to settle per$anently in their place o! %ork& =o%ever0 initially their intentions %ere to re$ain there only te$porarily --------------- Rral-rral- #ased on agri or $arriage in north India Rral-r#an- In rral areas the #rgeoning poverty0 $eagre e$ploy$ent opportnities0 lo% and ncertainNirreglar %ages0 lack o! edcation and health !acilities are the $ain psh !actors& Sch ngided $igration to the city leads to the pro#le$s o! hosing in the to%nsNcities& )or sch $igrants0 ha#itat changes0 #t not the Bality o! li!e& Clearly0 this kind o! $igration is !raght %ith haFards especially !or %o$en0 %ho there#y expose the$selves to the possi#ility o! sexal exploitation and violence& As $igrants0 these %orkers then do not have access to any o! the p#lic !acilities !or health care0 since they are not resident in that area& They cannot #y their !ood reBire$ents !ro$ the ration shops since they do not have ration cards valid !or that place& I! they have co$e %ith s$all children0 they are na#le to place the$ in local govern$ent schools0 or even to access the local angan%adi !or their legally recognised reBire$ents& They are ignored #y p#lic sche$es and progra$$es0 inclding those related to sch p#lic health isses as i$$nisation drives& And then there are the other sins o! p#lic o$ission and co$$ission that directly a!!ect sch $igrants& There are no p#lic help centres0 no in!or$ation o!!ices0 no co$plaint cells %here they can go to redress any grievances0 %hether these relate to non-pay$ent o! %ages or terri#le conditions o! %ork or physical exploitation and violence& Rather0 local o!!icialdo$ in the destination typically vie%s $igrants as vagrants or nisances0 takes aggressive attitdes to%ards the$ and #eco$es another sorce o! tri#lation !or the $igrants& :r#an-rral- reverse !lo%-the pro#le$s o! hosing de to over-congestion o! cities and the resltant pro#le$s o! environ$ental polltion and poor health& This o!ten !orces the $igrants to retrn to their native villages& In India $any o! the retired persons tend to settle in their native villages or s$all to%ns %here they o%n property or acBire it later& :r#an-r#an- 'eople $ove ot !ro$ one r#an place to the other& The $otive is to !ind 2o#s to i$prove their econo$ic stats& It is a co$$on !eatre that large cities attract people !ro$ s$all to%ns in their neigh#orhood& This is especially tre in the case o! skilled %orkers& This practice is kno%n as step-%ise $igration& The !irst step is to $ove ot !ro$ a village to a s$all to%n> the second step is to $ove ot !ro$ a s$all to%n to a large city& :r#an to r#an $igration is de to $ltiple !actors0 econo$ic as %ell as socio- cltral& It is the $ain channel o! la#or spply to the !ast gro%ing city& --------------------------- )actors o! $igration 'ri$arily econo$ic0 sch as high inco$e0 #etter e$ploy$ent opportnities0 and 2o#s in the in!or$al sector0 and the hope !or a #etter Bality o! li!e& Marriages0 social insecrity0 civil stri!e and inter-ethnic con!licts are i$portant social !actors0 %hich in!lence the decision to $igrate& *xtra-ordinary episodes in history0 sch as %ar and terroris$ also lead to $igration& *cono$ic !actors- "R in 'n2a# and =aryana la#or de$and $igration !ro$ /ihar and eastern :' Social !actors- $arriage-#etter o!! people tend to $igrate& De$ographic !actor- age o! the $igrant is an i$portant de$ographic !actor& 1ong people have a !ar greater desire to ot-$igrate than the elderly people& A high rate o! natral increase o! poplation provides the #asis !or ot-$igration& 6arge-scale ot- $igration !ro$ the thickly poplated parts o! /ihar and east :ttar 'radesh is largely de to the di$inishing land resorces in the native villages& I$pact o! Migration Migration is not a si$ple pheno$enon& It #rings a#ot changes in the poplation co$position in the ho$e villages as %ell as in the regions o! destination& It helps the $igrants and their !a$ilies to achieve a certain level o! sel!-s!!iciency and a #etter Bality o! li!e in the regionsNcontries o! destination& The de$ographic scene changes drastically leading to the synthesis o! cltre0 langage0 Bality o! li!e0 and the in!lx o! kno%ledge& The i$$igrants adapt the$selves to the conditions prevailing in the contries o! destination& Migration #rings a#ot a cltral change and its ra$i!ications are too $any& *ven the place na$es are carried to the regions o! destination& *&g Ne% *ngland 4:SA5 =$an desire to preserve their $e$ories o! the places they have le!t #ehind& The Msli$s %ho $igrated to 'akistan a!ter the partition o! /ritish India gave the na$es o! their ho$eto%ns in India to the places o! their settle$ent in 'akistan particlarly0 the 'rovince o! Sind& It has #een sggested that the regions o! destination generally #ene!it0 %hile the regions o! origin s!!er& 8hen the edcationally Bali!ied personnel $ove ot their $igration is o!ten re!erred to as #rain drain& This kind o! $igration is likely to play a $a2or role in ter$s o! econo$ic develop$ent o! the contries o! destination& =o%ever0 the regions o! origin also #ene!it !ro$ the re$ittances o! $oney #y the $igrants& Inter-ethnic $arriages o!ten take place in the contries o! destination& A ne% class o! NRIs 4non-resident Indians5 has e$erged& They not only re$it $oney #ack ho$e #t also #ring ne% cltral in!lences %ith the$& The i$$igrants #eca$e a sorce o! tension leading to inter-ethnic clashes and civil stri!e& An interesting !eatre is that a#ot G9 per cent o! the total intrastate $igrants are !e$ales& This sho%s that the #lk o! the !e$ale $igration in India is related to $arriage& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- 11-Indstrialisation and :r#anisation in India "ro%th o! r#an settle$ensts in India In si$ple %ordsI:r#anisationIpoplation gro%th o! the cities and to%ns& SociologicallyIit $eans spreading r#an %ay o! li!e to the contry side& In the present ti$es spread o! indstrialisation has gave $o$ent$ to the r#anisation process0especially in the third %orld contries& Rapid gro%th o! r#an poplationI in social science a controversial ter$ called over r#anisation& :r#anisation co$$nity living li!e style tends to #eco$eI i$personal0 !or$al0 goal oriented0 contractal and transitory& Trans!or$ation o! ecocno$ic activities !ro$ agricltral to non agricltralI $ore e$ploy$ent in secondary and tertiary sectorIdivision o! la#or and specialisation o! %ork& 'rocess o! r#anisation I #reakdo%n in the !nctioning o! traditional instittions and patterns o! #ehavior and o! social control& So$eti$es the traditional !or$s contine to exist #t change and evolve at the !ace o! r#anisation& 1ogendra Singh- $any ne% roles0 o!ten rational and $odern in orientation0 are added on to the traditional instittional !or$s& In India0 the traditional instittions like caste0 2oint !a$ily and neigh#orhood0 etc&0 o!!er a$ple evidence o! sch continity and change in cities& :r#an gro%th copled %ith indstrialisation I rral r#an $igrationI tend to over!lo% %ith rral $igrants I sch $igrations accelerate the pace o! r#anisation&*xcessive poplation pressre on the p#lic tilities0 cities s!!er pro#le$s o! cri$e0 sl$s0 ne$ploy$ent0 r#an poverty0 polltion0 congestion0 ill health and other deviant social activities& :r#anisation has #een vie%ed as an i$portant !orce o! social change& In India0 this process has0 on the one hand0 $eant econo$ic gro%th0 political change0 ne% vales and ne% attitdes& It re!lects also the ele$ents o! continity #et%een rral and r#an social strctres& -------------------------------- Social Cltral Character o! :r#anisation Cities o! India have achieved heterogeneos character in ter$s o! ethnicity0 caste0 race0 class and cltre& Coexistence o! di!!erent cltres& Cltral plralis$& Stdies sho% that thogh varios ethnic andNor caste grops have ad2sted the$selves %ith each other in the city0 they have also tried to $aintain their traditional identity& N&C& /ose points ot that the $igrants tend to clster arond people %ith %ho$ they have lingistic0 local0 regional0 caste and ethnic ties& A stdy #y 7agannathan and =aldar on the pave$ent-d%ellers in Calctta sho%s that they retain close ties %ith kinship and caste grops !or socialiFing and trans$itting or receiving in!or$ation !ro$ the village& Social strati!ication has taken a ne% !or$ in the r#an society& It is ass$ed that %ith r#anisation caste trans!or$s itsel! into class in the r#an areas& /t caste syste$s do exist in the cities thogh %ith signi!icant organiFational di!!erences& Marriage and !a$ily- In the r#an areas caste nor$s have #een !lexi#le %ith regard to the selection o! $ates& There have #een increasing opportnities !or the !ree $ixing o! yong $en and %o$en& Again the volntary associations have encoraged inter-caste $arriages& As a reslt there have #een $ore inter-caste and inter-religios $arriage in the r#an areas than earlier& Thogh it has #een pointed ot that 2oint !a$ilies are #reaking do%n in the r#an areas& -------------------- 'ro#le$s o! :r#an Areas nplanned r#anisation-sl$s-hygiene-tansport-health-polltion-environ$ental degradation-antisocial ele$ents-$igration- ns!!icient %ater sppy- anadeBate hosing& :r#anisation along %ith %esternisation and $odernisationIrapid social change #oth in rral and r#an areas& MN Srinivas pointed ot that r#anisation in sothern India has a caste co$ponent and that0 it %as the /rah$in %ho !irst le!t the village !or the to%ns and took advantage o! %estern edcation and $odern pro!essions& At the sa$e ti$e as they retained their ancestral lands they contined to #e at the top o! the rral socio-econo$ic hierarchy& Again0 in the r#an areas they had a near $onopoly o! all non-$anal posts& As a reslt o! $igration there has #een a !lo% o! r#an $oney into the rral areas& *$igrants reglarly send $oney to their native villages& Sch $oney !acilitates the dependants to clear o!! loans0 #ild hoses and edcate children& Many cltral traits have e$erged in rral areas !ro$ r#an areas dress0!ood0ideas0vales0thoghts0ideologies etc-de to increase in co$$nication0 radio0 television0 ne%spaper0 co$pter etc& The di!!ering vie%points held #y varios sociologist %herein one expects r#anisation as a leading !orce pshing Indian society to%ards $odernisation there#y trans!or$ing caste into class0 %hile on the other hand sociologists like MN Srinivas points ot that it is trans!or$ing caste old into caste ne% rather than changing caste into class0 so it is #etter to #e called %esternisation than $odernisation& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------- Sl$s and deprivations in r#an areas Sl$ poplation acconts !or a s#stantial share o! r#an poplation in all types o! cities in India& *ven a planned city like Chandigarh has not escaped sl$s& Sl$s-s#standard hosing-over cro%ding-lack o! electri!ication-ventilation-sanitaion- roads-drinking %ater !acilities- #reeding grond !or diseases-anti social ele$ents- poverty-2venile delinBency-ga$#ling& The National Institte o! :r#an A!!airs0 Ne% Delhi0 has recorded that the e$ergence o! sl$s is essentially the prodct o! three !orces( 1& "reater potential !or e$ploy$ent0 %hich attracts rral people> 2& incapacity to $eet the rising de$and !or hosing @& The r#an policy doesnt allo% the poor to #y land& Characteristics o! Sl$s( -'oorly designed hosing on nathorised land& -<ver-cro%ding and congestion& -6ack o! p#lic tilities and !acilities0 sch as0 drainage0 sanitation0 %ater taps0 electric light0 health centres0 co$$on latrines and p#lic parks0 etc - high incidence o! deviant #ehavior sch as cri$e0 2venile delinBency0 prostittion0 drg se0 #eggary0 illegiti$acy0 illicit distilling o! liBor0 ga$#ling and other social evils are associated %ith sl$ areas& It does not $ean that all those residing in sl$s are necessarily associated %ith sch deviant #ehavior& The sl$ areas0 socially and physically provide greater opportnity !or sch kinds o! deviant #ehavior& - Thogh the sl$-d%ellers are !nctionally integrated to the city li!e& These areas are looked do%n pon and considered in!erior& Sch a reaction !ro$ the larger co$$nity renders sl$s into social isolation0 detached !ro$ the city as a %hole& - 'eople living in sl$s are not al%ays poor and $arginalised& 6ooking at the gro%ing cost o! r#an land0 so$e o! the traders and land $a!ias encroach over the land in sl$s and rent it ot& They %ait till the land gets athorised0 %hich sally happens 2st #e!ore the election& There!ore sl$ operates as a #ig sorce o! pro!it !or the$& - 'eople living in particlar sl$ largely co$e !ro$ one area there!ore they addresse to each other in pri$ary kinship ter$s and !ollo% traditional !or$ o! ritals& There!ore sl$s are evolving into $ini cltral Centre& MSA Rao advocate that sl$s are not the centres o! cltral poverty rather they are centres o! cltral prosperity& 'eople living in sl$s glori!y0 practice and pro$ote their cltre and considered otsiders as s!!ering !ro$ cltral poverty& MS "ore conceded that sl$s and r#an gro%th are co$ple$entary to each other #ecase !or the constrction o! roads0 #ildings $igrant %orkers co$e !ro$ di!!erent pockets o! the contry& They o!!er their service at a cheaper rate to the $ainstrea$ occpation& =e !rther said that sl$ provides e$otional co$!ort to people and there!ore sl$ is the li!eline o! r#anity0 itDs the s%eet spot on the #eati!l !ace o! r#an India& Marxist sociologist point ot that r#an centres develop ot o! the s%eat and #lood o! poor people !or %hich they do not get any #ene!it& They !rther consider that $ost o! the people living in sl$s are accsed o! cri$e0 drg paddling and other kinds o! cri$inal activities& Sl$s are sed as a sorce o! cheap la#or #y the r#an pper and $iddle class and there!ore gro%th o! sl$ is talking a#ot exploitation #et%een haves and have-nots in $odern society& "S "hrye- in his #ook Sociology o! sl$s sl$s are the other cltres that doesnt carry co$$onalities %ith Sanskritik =ind cltre& There!ore protest $ove$ents co$ing ot !ro$ the sl$ is Bestioning to the nity and integrity o! the Indian society& In conclsion it can #e said that sl$s is not a challenge to r#an planners0 rather it is an area o! sociological research that takes into consideration tha !actors like-1& Sl$s and social change 2& !nctions and dys!nctions o! sl$s @& sl$s and deviance In!or$al Sector In!or$al sectorIin!or$al econo$yI that part o! an econo$y that is not taxed0 $onitored #y any !or$ o! govern$ent0 or inclded in any gross national prodct 4"N'5& In India arond G-. o! the potential %orking poplation earn their living in the in!or$al sector& Agricltral %orkers constitte #y !ar the largest seg$ent o! %orkers in the norganiFed sector& The in!or$al Nnorganised sector in India contines to re$ain #igger than the organised sector in $any key respects in spite o! the large control over resorces and social econo$ic po%er en2oy it #y the organised sector& Despite its large0 s#stantial place in econo$y0 the norganised sector is a relatively neglected sector in the arena o! p#lic policy spport and acade$ic discorse& )eatres o! In!or$al sector(- 1& 6o% level o! organisation0 less than 1- e$ployess0 so$eti$es i$$ediate !a$ily $e$e#ers 2& =eterogeneity in activities @& *asy entry and exit than the !or$al sector A& :sally lo% capital invest$ent0 no di!!erence #et%een capital and la#or 9& 6a#or intensive 2o#0 lo% level skills0 %orkers learn on the 2o# ;& *$plyoee and e$ployer relationship is in!or$al and n%ritten %ith little and no rights G& De to their isolation and invisi#ility0 %orkers in the in!or$al sector are o!ten largely na%are o! their rights0 cant organise the$ and have little negotiating po%er Categories o! in!or$al sector(- /ased on occpation- S$all and $arginal !ar$ers0 landless agricltral la#orers0 share croppers0 !isher$en0 those engaged in ani$al hs#andry0 in #eedi rolling0 la#elling and packing0 #ilding and constrction0 collection o! ra% hides and skins0 handloo$s %eaving in rral areas0 #rick kilns and stone Barries0 sa% $ills0 oil $ills0 et cetera& /ased pon natre o! e$ploy$ent( attached agricltral la#orers0 #onded la#orers0 $igrant %orkers0 contract and casal la#orers et cetera& Speci!ically distressed categories( scavengers0 carriers o! head loads0 drivers o! ani$al driven vehicles0 loaders0 noaders et cetera& Service categories( $id%ives0 do$estic %orkers0 #ar#ers0 vegeta#le and !rit vendor is0 ne%spaper vendorDs et cetera& 'ro#le$s o! in!or$al sector(- 1& Rral agricltral la#or poor secrity o! tenre- lo% inco$e-inadeBate diversi!ication o! econo$ic activities in rral areas- they are dispersed0norganised and generally have poor #argaining po%er- seasonal %ork0so they $igarte to r#an centres !or constrction %orks in o!! seasons& 2& Circ$stances !orce the$ to #orro% either !or cons$ption prposes or to $eet social o#ligaions like $arriage et cetera0 !ro$ private sorces0 endp in #onded la#or in $any cases& @& The isses and pro#le$s o! ho$e #ased %orkers are very co$plex #ecase o! the a#sence o! any direct $aster-servant or e$ployer-e$ployee relationship #et%een the ho$e %orker and the person or organiFation !or %ho$ he %orks& The relationship #eing a$#igos and inde!inite0 the ho$e %orker is s#2ected to exploitation in varios !or$s& In India0 there is no athentic data on ho$e #ased %orkers& <!!icial data sorces sch as Censs o! India0 do not recogniFe these %orkers as an independent category #t have inclded the$ in the #road category o! those %orking in hose-hold Indstries& =o$e #ased %orkers are not visi#le in national statistics& =o%ever0 it has #een esti$ated that over @ crore %orkers in the contry are ho$e #ased %orkers& *&g #eedi rolling0 handloo$ %eaving0 rral artisans and cra!t persons0 agar#atti $akers0 Fari %orkers0 papad $akers0 co##lers0 lady tailors0 carpenters0 etc& <ne o! the $a2or !eatres o! constrction indstry is that it is prone to risks o! accidents& Ma2ority goes nreported& sexal exploitation o! %o$en $igrant %orkers> very less a$ont o! $oney paid in the !or$ o! %age> $ost o! the $igrant %orkers in the in!or$al sector live in sl$s %ith poor sanitation leading to health haFard& ------------------ Social secrity $easres taken #y govern$ent !or %orkers in norganised sector DS%avala$#an sche$e- National pension sche$e !or norganised sche$e 1¢rally !nded social assistance progra$s-S"S10 National social assistance sche$e0 e$ploy$ent assrance sche$e0 !a$ily #ene!its and $aternity #ene!its0 2&social insrance sche$e-Rashtriya S%asthya /i$a 1o2ana @&social assistance throgh %el!are !nds o! Central and State govern$ents A& p#lic initiatives Several p#lic instittions and agencies are also i$parting varios kinds o! social secrity #ene!its to the selected grop o! %orkers0 A$ong these Sel! *$ployed 8o$enDs Association 4S*8A5 has $ade signi!icant achieve$ent in pro$oting social secrity throgh the !or$ation o! cooperatives& ------------------------------ Child 6a#or in India %orst !or$s o! child la#or %hich incldes Child Slavery0 Child prostittion0 Child Tra!!icking0 Child Soldiers& <!!icial !igre o! child la#orers %orld %ide is 1@ $illion& /t the actal n$#er is $ch higher&Cenya0So$alia0Nigeria0/angladesh0'akistan0India& India has the d#ios distinction o! #eing the nation %ith the largest n$#er o! child la#orers in the %orld& They do not go to school> $ore than hal! o! the$ are na#le to learn the #arest skills o! literacy& 'overty is one o! the $ain reasons #ehind this pheno$enon& The nrelenting poverty !orces the parents to psh their yong children in all !or$s o! haFardos occpations& In India the e$ergence o! child la#or is also #ecase o! nsstaina#le syste$s o! landholding in agricltral areas and caste syste$ in the rral areas& The de#t that #inds the$ to their e$ployer is incrred not #y the children the$selves #t #y their parent& The arrange$ents #et%een the parents and contracting agents are sally in!or$al and n%ritten& The n$#er o! years reBired to pay o!! sch a loan is indeter$inate& The lo%er castes sch as Dalits and tri#al $ake the$ vlnera#le grops !or exploitation& Migration to cities- <n arrival in overcro%ded cities the disintegration o! !a$ily nits takes place throgh alcoholis$0 ne$ploy$ent or disillsion$ent o! #etter li!e etc& The girls are !orced to %ork as sex -%orkers or #eggars& A large n$#er o! girls end p %orking as do$estic %orkers on lo% %ages and nhealthy living conditions& So$eti$es children are a#andoned #y their parents or sold to !actory o%ners& 6o% %ages and lo% #argaining po%er& They se all $eans to lre the parents into giving their children on pretext o! providing edcation and good li!e& In the norganiFed sector child la#or is paid #y piece-#y-piece rates that reslt in even longer hors !or very lo% pay& The attitdes o! parents also contri#te to child la#or> so$e parents !eel that children shold %ork in order to develop skills se!l in the 2o# $arket0 instead o! taking advantage o! a !or$al edcation& A!ter RT*-2--?0 no child can %ork in %age #ased e$ploy$ent #elo% the age o! 1A& The /onded 6a#or Syste$ Act o! 1?G; !l!ills the Indian ConstittionDs directive o! ending !orced la#or& There are la%s governing the se o! $igrant la#or and contract la#or& The Child 6a#or 4'rohi#ition and Reglation la%5 o! 1?,; designates a child as a person %ho has co$pleted their 1Ath year o! age& In light o! the Right o! Children to )ree and Co$plsory *dcation Act0 2--?0 the /ill seeks to prohi#it e$ploy$ent o! children #elo% 1A years in all occpations except %here the child helps his !a$ily a!ter school hors& Child la#or 4prohi#ition and reglation a$end$ent /ill 5 2-12-ne% ter$ adolescent-1A to 1,- no haFardos indstry %ork&The 'rotection o! Children !ro$ Sexal <!!ences Act0 2-12------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----8orking Class0 Strctre0 "ro%th Class $o#ilisation The Bestion %ho and %hat is %orking class is not an easy one to ans%er& There is a pro#le$ o! %here to dra% the line& The di!!erence !rther extends in ter$s o! skill0 sex0 age0 inco$e and caste& In the Marxian sche$e0 the capitalist society is characterised #y t%o principal classes( #orgeoisie and proletariat& /orgeoisie o%ns the $eans o! prodction and proletariat sell their la#or !or %ages in order to live& India has a $lti-strctral econo$y %here a n$#er o! pre-capitalist relations o! prodction co-exist %ith capitalist relations o! prodction& "ro%th o! %orking class in India The $odern %orking class ca$e into #eing %ith the rise o! capitalist $ode o! prodction& This $ode o! prodction #roght %ith it the !actory type o! indstry& Conversely0 %ithot a !actory indstry there can #e no %orking class #t only %orking people& )or$ative periodI /ritish destroyed the artsan and handloo$ indstry %ithot replacing the$ %ith $odern !actory syste$& A!ter the introdction o! Rail%ays and sporadic gro%th o! so$e indstries0 the %orkers %ho had lost their livelihoods0 2oined as disstressed la#orers& *$ergence o! %orking classI8ith the gro%th o! $odern indstriesI si$ilar experience and shared interests I !or$ation o! %orking class in the later hal! o! the 1?th centry& =ence0 the consciosness o! #eing exploited #y the capitalistsN o%ners o! !actories %as evident as early as 1,,,0 %hen %orkers o! Shya$nagar 7te Mill assalted the $anager&That is0 the reactions against the exploitation in early phases %ere $arked #y riots0 a!!rays0 assalts and physical violence& Consolidation o! %orking classI end o! 1?th centry and #eginning o! 2-th centryI organised national $ove$ents and consolidation o! the %orking class& This political develop$ent %orked as a !avora#le condition !or the Indian %orking class too !or $oving ahead %ith its econo$ic strggles and raising the$ to a higher pitch& These strggles led to the laying o! the !ondation o! the !irst trade nions o! the contry& Natre and strctre o! %orking class today( $lti-strctral econo$y and e!!ects o! pri$ordial a!!iliations0 a variety o! !or$s o! the %orking class exists in India& )irst0 those %orkers %ho are per$anent e$ployees o! the large !actory sector and get !a$ily %age & 4/y !a$ily %age it is $eant that the %age o! the %orker shold #e s!!icient to $aintain not only the individal #t also the %orkers !a$ily5& Second0 there is a large and preponderant section o! the %orking class that does not get a !a$ily %age&This incldes %orkers in the older indstries like cotton and 2te textiles0 sgar and paper& Third0 there is a section o! the %orking class at the #otto$ o! the %age scale the $ass o! contract and so$eti$es casal la#orers in indstry0 inclding constrction0 #rick $aking and other casal %orkers& )orth0 #elo% all these lie a reserve ar$y o! la#or0 %ho %ork in petty co$$odities prodction in petty trading0 ranging !ro$ ha%king to rag-picking& They are generally engaged in the in!or$al sector and carry on !or the %ant o! s!!icient srvival %age& /etter paid la#or has also $ch greater 2o# secrity& =o%ever the %orkers on the lo%er end o! the %age scale have not only 2o# secrity #t also considera#le extra-econo$ic coercion and personal #ondage %hich leads to lack o! civil rights& Si$ilarly0 %orking conditions !or the lo% paid %orkers are ni!or$ly %orse than !or high paid %orkers& So0 in the sa$e plant or site there is a clear di!!erence in the sa!ety $easres !or the t%o grops o! %orkers& The sitation %orsens !rther %ith regard to %o$en %orkers& Social #ack grond o! Indian %orking class This stdy points ot that in higher inco$e 2o#s pper castes do$inate %hereas DalitsNadivasis have preponderance in lo% %age 2o#s& The $iddle castes are concentrated in $iddle to #otto$ ranges& *ven in p#lic sector0 the representation o! #ack%ard castes0 schedle castes and tri#es is not p to their proportion in the poplation& Moreover0 it see$s that caste #ased division o! la#or is !ollo%ed in the class III and I3 2o#s in govern$ent and p#lic sector enterprises& So the 2o#s o! s%eepers are reserved !or dalits and adivasis& In coal $ines0 hard physical la#or o! loading and pshing the coal t#s is done #y dalits and advasis& In steel plants the prodction %ork in the intense heat o! coke oven and #last !rnace is $ainly done #y advasis and dalits& This is #ecase o! pre la#or $arket characteristic sch as edcation and land holding& The depressed conditions o! adivasis and dalits helps in ensring a spply o! la#or0 %ho can #e $ade to %ork at the $ere s#sistence level & =ence0 caste on one hand plays a role in keeping the lo%er sections o! the society in the lo%er strata o! the %orking class0 on the other hand0 the pper caste get a privilege in the la#or $arket& )rther0 caste is not only a $atter o! $arriage and to an extent residence0 #t $ore so a contining pool o! social relation !or the spply o! varios kinds o! la#or !or the capitalist $ode o! prodction& 8orking classis a co$plex0 contradictory and constantly changing entity& The concept o! classconsciosness0 is very slippery %ith regard to the %orking class& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- 12-'olitics and Society Nation A nation a grop o! people %ho share-co$$on-langage-cltre-ethnicity-history etc& /t in this de!inition a nations physical #orders is not considered& It can also #e seen as people o! co$$on territory and govern$ent irrespective o! their ethnicity& In case o! international relation any sovereign nation is considered as a nation& Nationalis$-a political ideology-Modernist vie%0 it is the nationalis$ %ho creates national identity& Nationalis$-a collective identity- people $st #e atono$os0 nited to express a single national cltre& Nationalis$-So$eti$es reactionary- calling !or a retrn to the national past-so$eti$es !or the explsion o! !oreigners& Nationalis$-so$eti$es revoltionary- calling !or an esta#lish$ent o! an independent state as a ho$eland !or an ethnic nderclass& The concept o! nation developed in the 8est&Nationalis$ got $o$ent$ as an ideology dring the !reedo$ strggle& Nationalis$ is needed !or political discorse-seclar credentials& 8hy seclaris$-%hen politicians take oath on the na$e o! god-presence o! god every%here in p#lic li!e& Rise o! cltral consciosness is contesting %ith seclar ideology& 8hy religion and cltre is sed in the na$e o! natinalis$&)reedo$ strggle-nationalis$ ot o! religion and cltre& /anki$ Chandra said that nationalis$ is not a political agenda #t the $oral dty o! the people #orn in this particlar territory to protect their $otherland& A!ter !reedo$ strggle %e changed attention !ro$ nationalist state to inclsive0 de$ocratic0 socialist and plralistic nation& A$#edkar %as critical o! "andhis philosophy o! cltral nationalis$& Dring 1?@-s secessionist $ove$ent %as started in Soth India as a !ear that a!ter Independence Aryan cltre %ill #e i$posed on the$ there#y Bestioning their identity& They considered =indis$ as an aggressive ideology& A$artya Sen tells that nationalis$ is a !or$ o! religios revivalis$ that is attacking to individal !reedo$0 seclar character o! the contry0 accelerating co$$nal tension and ptting the develop$ent progra$$es and %el!are $easres at the #ackseat& TN Madan considered at cltral revivalis$ and glori!ication o! co$$nal politics is a natral pheno$enon in a society like India& In India people are so co$$itted to cltre in ter$s o! langage0 speech0 !ood0 $arriage and ritals that #ringing religion #ack to p#lic sphere is never di!!iclt& Andre /eteille considered that search !or nationalis$ is not relevant to conte$porary ti$es %hen illiteracy0 deprivation0 poverty0 gender isse are so greatly a!!ecting to the rise o! India as a plralistic seclar state& D6 7oshi consider that nationalis$0 its evoltion0 gro%th and decline $st #e stdied in the context o! ti$e& =e indicates that glori!ication o! nationalis$ in conte$porary ti$es can #e attri#ted to the !ollo%ing !actors( cltral nationalis$ perceived as a $echanis$ to ni!y people in past-political parties are trying to evoke cltral consciosness to get $axi$$ political spport& 'ro#le$s like cross-#order terroris$ $ani!est hostility #et%een India and 'akistan is #eing sed as a pretext !or the glori!ication o! =ind revivalis$ that e$phasises on the rise o! strong state that can pt a stop on the nisance o! hostile neigh#ors& India %as never a ni!ied nation #ecase di!!erent co$$nities and cltre located at di!!erent regions %ere speaking di!!erent langages0 practising di!!erent cltre0 exhi#iting the character o! diversity& There!ore nationalis$ %as constred agenda dring !reedo$ strggle in India& /ringing #ack the spirit o! nationalis$ today can only develop sspicion0 hatred and con!lict a$ong varios sections o! society to split Indian to di!!erent pieces& Ra$chandra "ha indicates that people o! India go !or di!!erential nationalis$ re2ecting otrightly cltral nationalis$ and !e% o! these di!!erential nationalis$ are cricket nationalis$0 Cargil nationalis$0 Nationalis$ to sy$pathise %ith tsna$i victi$s etc %hich needs to #e appreciated& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------- De$ocracy De$ocracy is a !or$ o! govern$ent in %hich all people have an eBal say in the decisions that a!!ect their lives& It can also enco$pass social0 econo$ic and cltral conditions that ena#le the !ree and eBal practice o! political sel!-deter$ination& De$ocracy is not only a political syste$ #t an ideal0 an aspiration to lead a digni!ied li!e& *Bality and !reedo$ have #oth #een identi!ied as i$portant characteristics o! de$ocracy since ancient ti$es& All citiFens #eing eBal #e!ore the la% and having eBal access to legislative processes&e&g in a representative de$ocracy0 every vote has eBal %eight& )air co$petitive elections- !reedo$ o! expression and press- capacity o! individals to participate !reely and !lly in the li!e o! their society& India-largest de$ocracy-eBality-li#erty-!raternity-2stice-'rea$#le-!nda$ental right and D'S's-spirit o! de$ocracy& De$ocracy in theory not in practice- There is ineBality in every sphere- social0 econo$ic and political& Illiteracy is the $ain case o! ineBality-vote #ank politics-po%er a#se-nepotis$-corrption-poor gets poorer-cri$inal politicians etc 'rogressed in $any aspects- "reen revoltion-!ood grains s!!icient-!ood secrity #ill- polio eradication etc-Nota-ev$-vi#rant press-pressre grops-civil soicety activis$- 2diciary activis$& De$ocracy de$ands !ro$ the co$$on $an- rational condct- intelligent nderstanding o! p#lic a!!air- nsel!ish devotion to p#lic interest and political a%areness& In a de$ocracy %here civil society is stronger0 people are en2oying their citiFenship right to the !llest& 8hen %e talk a#ot state and citiFenship %e cannot ignore the role o! civil society& The %hole concept o! civil society evolved !ro$ 8estern speci!ically co!!ee- hose in /ritain0 Salons in )rance and Ta#le "rops in "er$any %hich are considered as the roots o! civil society& At these places di!!erent isses %ere discssed leading to a particlar p#lic opinion %hich %as then p#lished in ne%spapers0 $agaFines etc& A!ter 1??-s civil society has #eco$e very strong in India and have taken pon itsel! varios isses concerning people like corrption0 environ$ent0 %o$en isses0 edcation0 child la#or etc& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------- CitiFenship A citiFen is one %ho participates in the process o! govern$ent& In a de$ocratic society0 there $st #e a t%o-%ay tra!!ic #et%een the citiFens and the govern$ent& 'erson %ho is rled #y la%s #t %ho has no political rights is not a citiFen& A citiFen $st have econo$ic rights0 political rights and social rights& Social citiFenship( it gives an individal right to eBality on the #asis o! gender0 caste0 religion0 langage& 'olitical citiFenship ( it is right to people to register protest0 !reedo$ o! speech and expression0 right to vote& India is a de$ocratic contry #t people are not en2oying de$ocratic rights #ecase o! ineBalities e&g& rral poplation& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------ 'olitical 'arties A political organisation %hich in!lences policy $aking0 people o! a political party share sa$e ideas0as to ho% the contry %ill #e governed& They hold political o!!ice to enact ne% la%s and to alter old la%s& In case o! India even i! political parties are going !or coalition they are not sharing co$$on ideology and so they re$ain divided and hence lack sta#ility& )irst political party %hich evolved ot o! $ass $ove$ent i&e& Indian !reedo$ strggle %as Congress& 'eople !ro$ every %alk o! li!e %ere party to !reedo$ strggle and there!ore Congress had the advantage o! incorporating the$ all %ithin its a$#it and en2oy a#solte po%er !or al$ost @ decades& Dring 1?G-s green revoltion reslted into sccess and prosperity %hich led to increasing political aspiration a$ong people there#y %e cold see the e$ergence o! ne% political parties& 1?,9 on%ards %e see a seachange in party syste$ in India& )or the !irst ti$e Congress took spport !ro$ regional parties to constitte govern$ent nder '3 Narasi$ha Rao& =ence regional party got $o$ent$& This led to the e$ergence o! politics o! coalition& Coalition politics has reslted into horse trading and a!!ecting political ideology redcing Indianpolitics into skeletal de$ocracy& Ra2ni Cothari contradicting to the a#ove state$ent indicates that %ith centralised party syste$0 regional interest and local interests %ere not glori!ied& As a reslt political aspiration o! $any %ere getting sidelined& The gro%th o! s$all political parties and their gro%ing signi!icance in conte$porary politics in India is $aking Indian politics )ederal in character leading to inclsive governance& Mlti-party syste$ has $ade Indian politics inclsive and people centric& It is evident !ro$ the !act that !orgetting their ideology0 coalition partners are introdcing policies like National Rral *$ploy$ent "arantee Sche$e0 hosing sche$es0 road%ays progra$$e to prove that govern$ent is not only servicing #t %orking as !nctional govern$ent to !l!ill the needs and aspirations o! the people& There!ore neither regional party nor coalition govern$ent can #e considered as !ailre o! de$ocracy #ecase they are $aking Indian society a plralistic de$ocracy& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------- 'ressre grops 'ressre gropIinterest gropIlo##y gropIprotest gropIdoes not pt p candidates !or electionI #t seeks to in!lence govern$ent policy or legislation& i! necessary0 in their interest0 they $ay spport one political party or the other0 and try to in!lence legislation and exective decisions #y sing varios $ethods o! exercising pressre on the govern$ent o! the day& 8hen a grop carries on its !nction o! pressrising $e$#ers o! the legislatre #y contacting the$ in the parlia$entary galleries0 the practice is kno%n as lo##ying& 8est lo##ying vs indian lo##ying& 8ithot seeking govern$ent 2o#s or entering the legislatres0 the interest and pressre grops do play a vital role in conte$porary de$ocracies in the decision-$aking process& Types o! pressre grops- Instittional Interest "rops- !or$ally organised %hich consist o!pro!essional e$ployed persons #reacrats-ar$y personnel etc& Associational Interest "rops-organised0 specialist grops-trade nions-#siness grops- )ICCI-CII-Indian cha$#ers o! co$$erce& Ano$ic interest grop-grops have individal sel!-representation- These grops are !or$ed in the shape o! $ove$ent0 de$onstrations 0proceedings0 signatre ca$paigns0 street corner $eetings etc& Non-Associational Interest "rops( These are the kinship and lineage grops having ethnic0 regional0 stats and caste grops& Natre o! pressre grops in India- /siness grops- )ICCI0 CII-!ro$ the ti$e #e!ore independence-dring pre #dget period- govt takes inpts !ro$ theses grops Trade nions- !ro$ pre independence ti$e- %ork throgh %eapons o! strike etc& 'easant organisations- a#olition o! Fa$indari syste$- i$ple$enation o! panchayati ra2 syste$- land re!or$ s $easres-green revoltion& All india kisan sa#ha 1?@;& All india kisan congress& Akhila #haratiya kisan sangh& /haratiya kisan party etc& Stdent organisations- all #engal stdent associaltion 1?2,- all india stdent !ederation 1?@;- national stdents nion o! India NS:I Stdent !ederation o! India S)I- Akhil /haratiya 3idyarthhy 'arishsd A/3'-sdent grops associated %ith political parties& Co$$nity associations- #ased on religion0 class and region etc& 3ish%a =ind 'arishad0 Northern and Sothern India christian con!erence& Caste pressre grops- caste panchayats-caste #ased politics-SC !ederation0#ack%ard caste !ederation etc& Mass Media- print $edia0 electronic $edia and social $edia exterting pressre on govern$ent& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------ Social and 'olitical elites An elite is a grop o! relatively s$all siFe0 that is do$inant %ithin a large society0 having a privileged stats& 'olitical elite concept developed in the :nited States0 a!ter the Second 8orld 8ar& 'areto and Mosca are the chie! exponents o! this concepts& 'olitical elites in India- 'olitical elites in India #e!ore independence ca$e !ro$ pper-$iddle class& These leaders %ere sally !oreign edcated and at high and good contacts& They %ere intellectals #t did not like to $ix %ith the co$$on $an %ho$ they considered as lo% person %ith no po%er o! nderstanding-r#an #ase- no $ass contact& A!ter constittion- eBality and eBal access !or all !or political po%er- So$e o! the elites no% have #egn to e$erge !ro$ the rral areas and even !ro$ $iddle and lo%er $iddle classes- $ass appeal a$ong their caste and region people& /y and large Indian political elite still co$es !ro$ pper-$iddle class& "reen revoltion has prodced ne% elite grop& In India no% the people #elonging to schedled castes and schedled Tri#es and other #ack%ard classes %ho cold never think o! #eco$ing political elite0 have 2oined the high rank o! political elite& So$e o! the$ hold great po%er and position and also high prestige0 there!ore no% in India political po%er #elong to all sections o! society %hich has dilted the role and n$#er o! political elites giving Indian de$ocracy %ide coverage& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- Regionalis$ Region re!ers to a geographic territory %here one lives& It is not 2st the love !or region #t the senti$ents attached %ith the territory0 love !or cltral aspects o! that particlar region0 love !or csto$ and vales o! that region& Classical theory- regionalis$ and nationalis$ are engaged in dialectics %ith each other- Regional consciosness is !ast entering into s#national consciosness %hich is leading to separatist tendencies paving the %ay !or the division o! India& The isses like poverty0 ne$ploy$ent etc have taken a #ack seat and regionalis$ is glori!ied %hich !rther encorages ineBality& In order to nderstand regionalis$ today %e have to nderstand its roots& In India %e have ;--- dialects0 9-- di!!erent langages ot o! %hich only !e% langages are recognised i&e& en2oy o!!icial stats& Dring 1?9-s reconstrction o! Indian State on the #asis o! langage so%ed the seeds !or regional aspirations %hich is prevalent even today& In a region %e !ind people speaking di!!erent dialects and %hen people !ind ot that langage is the $ain criteria !or recognition o! state 4organisation o! state on lingistic #asis5 people trans!or$ their dialects into langage& people having regional consciosness !ind no pro#le$ !or de$anding state&The conte$porary regional $ove$ent is the reslt o! t%o reasons i&e& overdevelop$ent in so$e areas and nderdevelop$ent in other areas& In North *ast India there is no single criteria on the #asis o! %hich one can create a state #ecase every tri#e is di!!erent !ro$ the other %hich creates #ig pro#le$ !or govern$ent and so the concept o! nion territories co$e into play& /t there is a contrasting vie%point %hich has #een pt !or%ard #y varios sociologist %ho do not consider regionalis$ as divisive !orce& Ra2ni Cothari #elieves that regional $ove$ent is a search !or political aspirations that is $aking Indian de$ocracy co$petent and strong& 'artho Chatter2ee indicates that regionalis$ is a challenge to nationalis$& Dring the early phase o! Indian nationalis$ regionalis$ #eca$e an i$portant instr$ent !or national aspirations #t in conte$porary context 0 Bestions like develop$ent0 nderdevelop$ent0 e$po%er$ent and po%erlessness0 relative deprivation are the giding !orce #ehind regionalis$& S$all is not al%ays #eati!l is evident !ro$ gro%ing poverty in case o! Chhattisgarh as co$pared to $ini$$ poverty in 'n2a#& A s$all state cannot garantee happiness& It is evident !ro$ or crrent position %here !ailre o! the state to address the deprivation o! the people has given %ay to acceleration o! naxalite $ove$ent& In the %hole o! North *ast India people are !ighting on the #asis o! ethnic identity0 s# ethnic identity and s# s# ethnic identity %hich #rings !or%ard the conclsion that s$all states are not al%ays #etter governed and there is no end to peoples aspirations !or po%er& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- Decentralisation o! 'o%er It is not 2st an instittion #orro%ed !ro$ 8est #t an experience %hich every section o! society in their everyday li!e goes throgh& "andhi2i !ocsed pon governance !ro$ #elo% i&e setting p o! instittion o! 'anchayati Ra2 to address e!!ectively the pro#le$s o! the people at the grassroot level& 8hen /ritish ca$e to India- introdce +a$indari syste$ -atocratic and coercive po%er reslting into the collapse o! traditional strctre& /al%ant Rai Mehta co$$ittee- constitted in 1?92- gave its report in 1?9?- !irst 'anchayati Ra2 instittions in Ra2asthan- three tier syste$ i&e& village level0 #lock level0 district level& Its o#2ective %as to go !or sel!-governance %herein $e$#er o! village panchayat sitting together %old take p isses related to everyday li!e like health0 rral develop$ent0 sanitation etc India is kno%n in the %orld !or political decentralisation& /t there is a point to it India has political decentralisation #t not ad$inistrative decentralisation& All o!!icial proceedings o! the 'RIDs can #e alteredNrevie%ed #y the state to its convenience& State #ehaves like a #ig #rother0 their policies and !inances and other processes are continosly scrtinise the state& State is also e$po%ered to sspend any 'RI instittion0 o!!icer any ti$e on the #asis o! ine!!iciency and so the $e$#ers o! 'anchayati Ra2 donDt have any !nctional atono$y& Sarpanchati-rral lo%er caste %o$en-illsion o! %o$en e$po%er$ent& Introdction o! ne% 'RI has led to contest #et%een old traditional po%erholders and ne% aspirants o! po%er& There have #een instances in Soth India %hen Dalit %ere not per$itted to cast vote in 'RI election& Their votes %ere cast #y other people& /ooth captring and $scle po%er is pro$inent and hence traditional hierarchy still persist there!ore ne% 'RI is like old %ine in a ne% #ottle& 3ellpra$ village incident- The 'RI election %as %on #y a Dalit %o$an& She pro$ised her electorates that once she ca$e to po%er she %ill ensre drinking %ater !or the $asses& As per her pro$ise she took all necessary steps to ensre %ater spply #t do$inant caste in order to prse their do$inance raped and $rdered her in #road daylight& This incident le!t a Bestion $ark on the !nctioning o! this $odern instittion in traditional society& Ra$pra village incident -In this village in Ra2asthan %hen a Dalit %o$en ca$e to hoist the national !lag dring 19 Agst she %as #eaten #rtally as to ho% can she play the role $eant !or do$inant caste& 8alter )ernandes indicates that 'RIs are !acing serios pro#le$ as it is trying to #ring in the Bestion o! civil rights0 de$ocratic rights into society %hich is driven #y cltre o! caste0 patriarchy since ancient ti$es& In case o! Ra2asthan there are instances %hen Dalit Sarpanch is $ade to sit on the !loor %hile other $e$#ers o! the 'anchayati Ra2 sit on the chair& 'RIDs $eetings are initiated #y $e$#ers #elonging to higher classNcaste than #y Sarpanch #elonging to lo%er caste& This dichoto$y indicates ho% 'RIDs have not really e$po%ered the s#altern grops like Dalits0 tri#es and %o$en& "ail o$vedt considers this kind o! con!lict as a !ailre o! 'anchayati Ra2 instittions %hich has not #roken any grond to #ring change in the po%er strctre in village India& Re2ecting to the concept o! Sarpanchpati Calpana Shah indicate that e$po%er$ent o! %o$en in a hierarchical society can only co$e in a phased $anner& The %o$en Sarpanch %ho are not proxy leaders are going throgh a period o! pro#ation& She points ot that po%er is in#ilt in %o$en and that they %ill #e exercising it in the $ost appropriate ti$e& She considers that 'RIDs have really e$po%ered %o$en or at least it has given a #oost !or their sel!-assertion& 'RIDs have %orked %ell in states like Cerala0 Carnataka and 8est /engal& In case o! Carnataka it has given $o$ent$ to %o$en e$po%er$ent& Mtal sel!-help grops have evolved nder the patronage o! 'RIDs in Carnataka& In case o! 8est /engal it has $ade people political sensitive %ho are no $ore %illing to accept any nisance !ro$ di!!erent political leaders any longer& 'RIDs have introdced a political revoltion in the $icroscopic strctre o! Indian society& =o%ever a $a2or threat to 'RIDs is co$ing !ro$ non-govern$ent organisation 4N"<5& The isses taken p #y N"<s are delivering i$$ediate reslts there!ore people are #acking the intervention o! N"<s in rral develop$ent progra$$e than si$ply %anting 'RIDs& 'RIDs thogh #ringing revoltion in $icro-politics o! India0 its spport #ase is Bite !ragile& %hen social trans!or$ation takes place in traditional society driven #y hierarchical principles there is a#sence o! strctral condciveness !or change and so con!licts #eco$e inevita#le& Sociologically speaking these contradictions are $ani!estations o! strctral ad2st$ent !or %hich one cannot otrightly conceptalised that the experience o! 'RIDs is an a#solte !ailre& Ths IndiaDs experience %ith 'RI is not a story o! co$plete strctral #reakdo%n #t the story o! continity and change& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- SeclariFation Seclaris$ is a %estern ideology initiated dring the Renaissance %hen people started Bestioning the <rthodox Chrch& 8hen the in!lence o! the Chrch do$inated the decision-$aking o! the state0 only spirital needs o! individals %ere !l!illed and other needs like gender eBality0 poverty0 ne$ploy$ent %ere not addressed& In :S religion keeps a%ay !ro$ p#lic #t on the contrary in India people $ix-p their p#lic position %ith seclar position& It %as realised that $an and religion in India are so greatly e$#edded that India cannot go !or nonreligios society like Co$$nist contries there!ore it has #een speci!ically $entioned in the Constittion that every religion has !reedo$ to preach0 practice and propagate its o%n religios vales and no citiFen o! the contry %ill #e discri$inated on the gronds o! religion& Indian seclaris$ stands on the pre$ise o! plralis$& TN Madan and Ashish Nandy consider that seclaris$ %ill a niBe experience in Indian context #ecase love !or religion is so intensive and reglar in case o! India that %e have never seen a single sphere %ithot co$$nal con!lict since IndiaDs independence& They #elieve that religion is in the #lood o! people o! India that strongly in!lenced to their choice o! $arriage0 !ood #ehavior0 pattern o! thinking0 interpersonal elations and there!ore to separate $an in India !ro$ religion is a#soltely i$possi#le& Ths %hen constittion tries to separate religion !ro$ p#lic sphere0 it slo%ly enters into p#lic do$ain in one !or$ or the other& Ashish Nandy indicates that $ore India $oves in the direction o! $odernity0 higher is the acceleration o! co$$nal con!lict& In!or$ation technology0 television and teleco$$nications acts as an accelerating $edi$ to spread co$$nally charged $essages in a #ig %ay in conte$porary India& There!ore seclar edcation0 seclar e$ploy$ent in no %ay has sppressed the co$$nal passion and co$$nalis$ in India is a %ay o! li!e and thinking o! seclaris$ is a di!!iclt proposition& These arg$ents o! anti-seclarist natre is re2ected #y varios sociologists %ho $akes se o! certain speci!ic scales to stdy the degree o! seclaris$ possi#le in any given society- Oto %hat extent the religion is prepared to go !or internal re!or$s- to %hat extent one religion is prepared to coexist %ith other religion-to %hat extent one religion is prepared to #orro% attri#tes !ro$ other religion and pass it on-and !inally to %hat extent a state can o!!er eBalitarian space to every religion $aintaining a sa!e distance !ro$ every religion %hile discharging seclar responsi#ilities& Ceeping in vie% the a#ove scale to $easre any society it can #e advocated that no society is prely seclar and no society is prely anti-seclar or sacred& A$artya Sen considers hi$sel! as non-re!or$ist sociologist along %ith Andre /eteille and :pendra /akshi and indicate that Indian state is dty #ond to protect its seclar credentials #y paying eBal respect to all religions& I! any religios co$$nity #y virte o! its siFe tries to seiFe the govern$ent throgh poplar $andate0 Constittional provisions shold #e deterring the$ to cherish their distinctive religios goals& There!ore Indian seclaris$ is not positioned at a %eak space #ecase the cort o! la%0 the Constittion o! India stand as an o#stacle to challenges co$ing to it& The seclaris$ in India is a niBe experience& It has #een challenged #y di!!erent !orces at di!!erent points o! ti$e #t has never cr$#led do%n co$pro$ising %ith the principles o! plralis$ and eBality !or %hich one can conclde that Indian seclaris$ is Indian seclaris$> itDs neither %eak nor strong and not a replica o! seclaris$ in the 8est& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------- 1@-Social $ove$ents in $odern India 8ith the gro%ing consciosness 0 people are co$ing !or%ard in large n$#ers and it has #eco$e di!!iclt !or the state to ignore the de$and o! the people and introdce its o%n %ishes& There is a dialectical relationship #et%een state and people& Dring di!!erent points o! ti$e in Indian history identity $ove$ent have also taken place so that everyone has a space in society0 every individal is !ree and that they do not to hide their actal identity in !ront o! others e&g& ho$osexals0 transgenders& 8herever $arginaliFation0 exploitation is cased in extre$e !or$ it leads to protest %hich s#seBently trans!or$s itsel! into a $ove$ent throgh ideological in2ection e&g& civil rights $ove$ent in A$erica nder the leadership o! A#raha$ 6incoln %here #lacks %ere nited to !ight against hnger and discri$ination #y the state and people alike& Dring the colonial rle0 the tri#al areas %ere least inter!ered %ith as it %as thoght that it is di!!iclt0 costly and c$#erso$e to ad$inister these areas& =ence it %as $issionaries %ho landed in those places to %ork& /t so$e tri#al areas %ere highly resorce!l and so they %ere highly exploited& 'rotestant $ove$ents in case o! India can #e divided into three distinctive stages i&e&( Social religios $ove$ent %hich got $o$ent$ #e!ore !reedo$ strggle& *cono$ic and political $ove$ent dring the !reedo$ strggle& Identity and isse-#ased $ove$ent in conte$porary India& 'rotest is not overreaction o! a grop o! people to the action o! others& <ne goes !or protest #ecase the action o! others are not accepta#le #y the$& 'rotest is al%ays a registration against the voice o! do$inance& 'rotest is re$inder to the state that it has li$ited po%er& 'rotest $ove$ent %ill #e $axi$$ in a de$ocratic setp& Collective action can #e the !ondation to social $ove$ent #t it is not necessary that al%ays collective action %ill #e leading to social $ove$ent& )or instance ne% social $ove$ents are $ostly isse-#ased like environ$ental $ove$ents0 anti-%ar $ove$ents0 civil rights $ove$ent etc that involve people !ro$ di!!erent sections o! society asking the$ to !or$ di!!erent kinds o! $o#ilisation& Collective action is not 2st the !ondation to social $ove$ent0 it $ay #e having a larger appeal as %ell& A$artya Sen( Collective action shold #e engineered !or collective %ell-#eing& 'articipation in $any edcational progra$s0 a%areness ca$paigns0 electoral policies are exa$ples o! collective action !or collective %ell-#eing %hich is instr$ental !or the rise o! an inclsive society& Sstaina#le develop$ent approach !or%arded #y 3andana Shiva indicate that 2oint !orest $anage$ent sche$e0 %asteland $anage$ent0 %atershed $anage$ent involve the contesting co$$nities accelerating collective action !or co$$on %ell-#eing& In $acroscopic plane one !inds ot collective action is initiated #y all contries o! the %orld in areas o! environ$ental protection0 a#se o! nclear po%er0 h$anitarian aids0 and political peace& Ths collective action shold not only #e stdied !ro$ a single standpoint %hich consider it as a tool !or class con!lict0 revoltion and social change& 'reviosly social $ove$ents %ere highly organised0 ideologically charged& /t social $ove$ents today are $ore re!lexive0 reactionary0 isse-#ased and te$poral& Social $ove$ents can #e distingished !ro$ protest and collective action on the grond that social $ove$ent is progra$$ed #t 'rotest and collective action are not necessarily progra$$ed& The social $ove$ent !or its sccess has to !l!il a n$#er o! preconditions like( Isses Identi!ication& Identi!ication and expansion o! spport #ase& Creation o! strctral condciveness& Crystallisation o! ideology& *voltion o! leadership& "ro%th o! organisational characteristics& Allocation o! responsi#ility& Social $ove$ent passes throgh di!!erent stages %hich incldes excite$ent stage 4identi!ication o! isses50 consolidation stage 4propaganda and search !or $ass spport50 crystallisation stage 4rise o! leadership0 p#lication o! literatre50 $atrity stage 4in2ection o! ideology and allocation o! responsi#ility50 resoltion stage 4acco$plish$ent o! goals and decline o! social $ove$ent5& 8hen a social $ove$ent dies ot0 it $ay give rise to a political party or the resides o! social $ove$ent %ill operate as a re$inder o! past& Social $ove$ents can #e classi!ied into di!!erent types on the #asis o! their appeal and capa#ilities to introdce change like( Trans!or$ative Move$ent that $akes so$e atte$pt to prodce a#solte change& Radical $ove$ent that $akes so$e atte$pt to se violent $easres to $ake so$e changes& Restorative $ove$ent %hich gives i$portance to the restoration o! so$e vales and ideals !or the co$$on %ell-#eing o! people& Re!or$ative $ove$ent %hich $akes an atte$pt to eli$inate non-progressive stereotype ideas and vales !ro$ the li!e o! people and searches !or progress and happiness& Rede$ptive $ove$ent %hich $akes people to change their opinion a#ot the existential condition instead o! changing the condition& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- 'easants and !ar$ers $ove$ent 'easant re!ers to s$all prodcers %ho are controlling a s$all piece o! !a$ily land0 sing si$ple technologies0 !a$ily la#or to grati!y their cons$ption needs& /et%een $an and land there is e$otional relationship in peasants society& To its contrast !ar$ers prodce !or $arket and so they vie% their land also !ro$ econo$ic perspective and so land is a sorce o! pro!it !or the$& I! land !ails to $ake pro!it !ar$ers go !or other !or$s o! occpation a#andoning agricltre %hich is not so in case o! peasant& There!ore conceptalising agrarian $ove$ent as peasant $ove$ents or !ar$ers $ove$ent is a great sociological challenge&4!ar$er vs peasant5 In India there is present $ltiple $odes o! prodction& In so$e pockets o! the contry there are peasants0 $edi$ !ar$ers0 s$all and $arginalised !ar$ers %ho do not $ake a hge $argin o! pro!it !ro$ land and landless peasants& In so$e areas o! the contry capitalist agricltre has developed %hich has led to $igration o! agricltral %orkers !ro$ the poor regions to these !lorishing regions in search o! e$ploy$ent0 there!ore the con!lict #et%een land and agricltre class and landless la#orers is potentially a#sent in green revoltion #elt& In so$e other areas $iddle !ar$ers have #een organised0 they have received spport !ro$ state and organised cooperatives to i$prove their econo$ic conditions and so in this case also the con!lict #et%een the$ and agricltral la#orers is $ostly n!ond& In certain pockets o! the contry traditional !or$ o! landlordis$ is present& Con!lict is !ond here&Ar$ed re#ellion& "ail <$vedt %rites that in case o! India the participants o! agrarian $ove$ent are tri#es0 lo%er caste0 ethnic $inority %ho is $ore or less %ere landless since historic ti$es there!ore peasant !ar$er $ove$ent cannot #e disassociated !ro$ Dalit $ove$ent and tri#al $ove$ents& )edal $ode o! agricltre is still in practice in case o! /ihar0 M'0 *astern :ttar 'radesh and certain pockets o! <rissa& There is also se$i!edal $ode o! agricltre practised in Ra2asthan0 Andhra 'radesh& Se$i-capitalist $ode o! agricltre prodction can #e !ond in Maharashtra0 Ta$il Nad0 Carnataka and pockets o! Andhra 'radesh& And lastly capitalist agricltre $ode o! prodction can #e !ond in 'n2a#0 =aryana and 8estern :ttar 'radesh& So$e sociologists consider that $ove$ents initiated dring IndiaDs !reedo$ strggle shold #e considered as peasant $ove$ent %hereas a!ter IndiaDs independence the agrarian $ove$ent shold #e considered as !ar$ers $ove$ent& *ven A R Desai $akes a distinction #et%een t%o ti$e!ra$es i&e& protest dring colonial period and protest dring postcolonial period& so$e sociologist #elieve that it is conceptally di!!iclt to distingish not only peasant $ove$ents !ro$ !ar$ers #t also agrarian $ove$ent !or$ social and religios $ove$ents& In India peasants and !ar$ers $ove$ents %ere initiated as econo$ic organisation highlighting the Bestions like landlessness0 inde#tedness0 tenancy rights #t s#seBently people got nionised !orging their class identity on the #asis o! cltre and religion& Moplah $ove$ent0 *ka $ove$ent and 'easant Re#ellion in case o! /engal vertically divided the people on the #asis o! cltre and religion& This is contradictory to MarxDs nderstanding o! class-action %hen he says that classes is a sorce peoples ni!ication #ecase in case o! India peasants #elonging to =ind co$$nity spported =ind landlords in /engal rather than 2oining hands %ith Msli$ peasants& JJ'easant $ove$ent dring /ritish 'eriod /ritish introdced the exploitative 6and Tenre Syste$ %ith Ryot%ari syste$ in %estern and sothern India and +a$indari syste$ in eastern and northern India& These t%o distinctive Syste$s o! 6and Tenre Syste$ gave %ay to the rise o! !edal 6ords0 s# !edal 6ords0 s# s# !edal 6ords there #y giving rise to the evoltion o! large #ody o! leisre class living on the exploitation o! peasants in India& *xploitative taxation and introdction o! cash crops co$pletely paralysed s#sistence prodction& 'easants %ere exploited #y #oth 6andlords and exploitative $arket o! /ritish& =ence $ove$ent in di!! parts o! contry Sanyasi 3idroh0 Indigo Move$ent0 Cha$paran Move$ent0 /ardoli Move$ent0 *ka Move$ent0 Moplah Re#ellion0 /irsa Mnda Move$ent& The a#ove-$entioned $ove$ents had t%o $a2or conseBences(- -!orgetting the lingistic and regional di!!erences 0driven #y co$$on interest the entire contry got ni!ied together and started protesting against the /ritish& -peasant $ove$ent o!!ered plat!or$ !or the rise o! localised leadership in varios parts o! the contry %hich #eca$e the precrsor to the national $ove$ent in India& AR Desai considers that peasant $ove$ent in India is the $other o! IndiaDs nationalist $ove$ent& JJCisan Sa#ha Move$ent 1?2G-Cisan sa#ha %as !or$ed to sa!e gard peasants interests and to protect the$ exportation o! landlords0 $oney lenders and exploitative colonial regi$e& All the leaders o! early peasant $ove$ent got associated %ith Cisan Sa#ha $ove$ent& This $ove$ent introdced Cisan Sa#ha in every village0 sti$lating the peasant to control village land and go !or cooperative !ar$ing0 evict a#sentee landlord !ro$ the land and on $any occasions also pro$oted $ilitaristic $ethod to eli$inate the inter$ediaries control over the land& Many landlords0 s# landlords and s# s# landlords took p leadership o! Cisan Sa#ha $ove$ent exhi#iting consensal attitde to%ards peasants and agricltre !ar$ers& It %as spelt ot all over the contry that the real exploiters o! Indian peasantry are not local Fa$indars rather it is exploitative /ritish land tenre syste$& AR Desai considers that this $ove$ent is originally initiated #y $iddle peasants and s#seBently received ideological spport !ro$ $iddle-class yoth and !inally %hen this $ove$ent acBired a nationalistic appeal several peasants 2oined the $ove$ent as a reslt o! %hich class $ove$ent got converted into $ass $ove$ent& The leaders o! Cisan Sa#ha s#seBently #eca$e leaders o! Congress and pro$ised indigenos !ar$ersNpeasants =eaven on *arth a!ter IndiaDs independence& JJNaxalite $ove$ent This $ove$ent %as started !ro$ Siligri district o! 8est /engal #y Char MaF$dar %ho #elonged to pper class a!!lent !a$ily& Dring that period the state %as rled #y Co$$nist 'arty and its associate0 ho%ever the govern$ent had not taken serios steps to i$ple$ent land re!or$ syste$s in tre spirit& Char MaF$dar alleged that land distri#tion a$ongst landless peasants are n!avora#le and non-prodctive there!ore state as a $atter o! !or$ality is engaged in land distri#tion& State is li$iting !ar$ers !ro$ encroaching the !ertile land o%ned #y the a#sentee landlord deploying police and sing legal cort& =e $o#ilised 2-0--- peasants0 gave the$ training in $odern techniBes o! %ar!are and asked the$ to loot police stations to procre %eapons and to attack Fa$indars0 !orci#ly occpying the land& In every village gorilla %ar!are techniBes %ere taght to the yoth and village ar$y %as trained to !ight against police and private ar$y o! the landlords& This !orced the state govern$ent to expedite land re!or$ in several state& 3arios sociologists consider that naxalite $ove$ent shold #e stdied !ro$ peopleDs perspective rather than !ro$ State perspective& Masses have appreciated naxalite $ove$ent #ecase they have introdced %el!are sche$es0 edcational ca$paign0 cooperative !ar$ing& To $ake naxalites npoplar state police have de$olished $any schools0 #ridges constrcted #y naxalites there!ore naxalite $ove$ent today is a strggle #et%een peoples po%er state po%er& JJConte$porary Agrarian $ove$ent A!ter IndiaDs independence peasant $ove$ent has gone to the state o! o#livion& The !actors responsi#le !or that can #e attri#ted to rral develop$ent progra$$e introdced #y the state& More signi!icantly cooperative $ove$ent0 green revoltion in North0 8estern and Soth India have %eakened peasant $ove$ent& Reglar e$ploy$ent-access to $arket-dependency a$ong the$ increases-co$pati#le %orking relationship& Dipankar "pta indicates that land tenre syste$ has gone throgh a series o! trans!or$ation since IndiaDs independence& Division o! land as contri#ted !or seg$entation o! agricltral land0 as a reslt i! the !ather is #ig !ar$er o! the and his children are redced into $iddle !ar$ers& Relationship #et%een agricltre %orkers and the $iddle and s$all peasants has #eco$e an inclsive relationship driven #y dependency& Agricltral la#orers today are spported #y the p#lic policy o! the State hence they are $te and accepting exploitation& Ths the intervention and develop$ental policies have s!!iciently contri#ted !or decline o! nrest in India& /y cooperative $ove$ents s$all and $arginal !ar$ers in India li#erated the$selves !ro$ historical exploitation0 gather sel! con!idence and i$proved their Bality o! li!e& This vie% %as contradicted #y $arxist scholar :tsa 'attnaik& She said all the #ig !ar$ers are hi2acking all the instittionalised #ene!its in their o%n !avor& There is consolidation o! capitalis$ in 'n2a# and =aryana& Stdies have !ond ot the paradox in develop$ent in the green revoltion #elt o! the contry %here poor !ar$ers are co$$itting sicide and rich !ar$ers are consolidating their econo$ic #ase& /haratiya Cisan :nion operating in North India is consolidating its #ase0 $o#ilising all the cash crop prodces and #argaining %ith the govern$ent to #ene!it the capitalist agricltralists& 'easant Move$ent in India is !ractred and articlates di!!erent concerns in ti$e and space& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --- /ack%ard Classes and Dalit $ove$ent Dalit $ove$ent is a conte$porary pheno$ena started dring !reedo$ strggle has #eco$e!orce!l today& It got its ideological spport !ro$ #ack%ard class $ove$ent- Satya Sodhak Sa$a2 $ove$ent and Sel! Respect $ove$ent etc& /ack%ard classes is a very loose concept& Sociologically these classes consist o! a large n$#er o! #ack%ard castes %hich re$ain a#ove schedle caste and #elo% the pper caste& These casts consist o! inter$ediate caste the cltivating caste0 artisans and service castes& Satyashodak Sa$a2 %hich consolidated the $asses along the castelines& *&3 Ra$as%a$y started Sel!-Respect $ove$ent against the /rah$ins in Soth India& The SND' $ove$ent in Cerala %as $ore o! a re!or$ist $ove$ent& In 1?9-s there %as a %idespread desire a$ong the non-/rah$in castes to #e categoriFed as /ack%ard &S#seBently /ack%ard Class co$$ission %as set p to look into the conditions and reBire$ents o! these classes& Mandal Co$$ission s#$itted its report in 1?,- reco$$ending reservations !or #ack%ard castes in edcational instittions and govern$ent o!!ices& JJDalit Move$ents Dalit0 also called <tcaste& Dalits are a $ixed poplation o! n$eros caste grops all over India& Dalits %ork as $anal la#orers cleaning streets0 latrines0 and se%ers&*ngaging in these activities %as considered to #e pollting to the individal0 and this polltion %as considered contagios& As a reslt0 Dalits %ere co$$only segregated0 and #anned !ro$ !ll participation in =ind social li!e& Dalit $ove$ent receives $o$ent$ and con!idence !ro$ "andhi& =e %as recognised as $ass leader and %hen he dined %ith Dalits it gave a $ass $essage to eradicate this discri$ination& =e gave the concept o! =ari2an& Most o! the people %ho cold not go !or Sanskritisation %ent !or conversion as a protest against /rah$inic do$ination& "andhi2i said that Eone is high or lo% on the #asis o! deeds and not on the #asis o! #irthE& "ail o$vedt considers that Dalit $ove$ent is not an ideological $ove$ent #t rather it is a class $ove$ent& Dalit identity and poverty as an experience are interconnected to each other& Since the #eginning o! Indian civilisation till conte$porary ti$es Dalits are oppressed class& Ths their condition is no di!!erent !ro$ #lacks in case o! 8est& Dalit panthers 'arty-JRep#lican 'arty o! India-J/ah2an Sa$a2 'artyIindication o! politicisation o! Dalit case rather than !ocsing pon a$eliorating the conditions o! Dalits& So$e sociologists are also concerned a#ot the rise o! Dalits %ithin Dalit& Their concern is that Dalit $ove$ent in India has given %ay to the gro%th o! elitis$ and that di!!erent Dalit leaders does not only engage in contesting di!!erent ideologies #t they also keep changing their ideology according to their o%n convenience& There!ore Dalit party today is not a prodct o! Dalit $ove$ent rather it is a politics o! opportnis$ and politics o! convenience si$ilarl to other political parties& The ti$e %ill co$e0 they %old take pride and conviction in glori!ying the idea o! yes %e are dalits& Dalit $ove$ent is a $ove$ent o! protest0 a protest against /rah$anis$0 ineBality0 cltral s#ordination& It %ants to de$olish the distinction #et%een $an and $an& It %as to create a society driven #y sel!-respect0 inclsiveness and eBity& Ths Dalit $ove$ent is an ideologically charged 0ho$ogenised class $ove$ent intended to #ring change o! strctre rather than change in strctre& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- )e$inist Move$ent Isses sch as reprodctive rights0 do$estic violence0 $aternity leave0 eBal pay0 %o$enDs s!!rage0 sexal harass$ent and sexal violence& A 6inga$ advocate the !e$inist $ove$ent in India is slo%ly leading to%ards N"<isation& She !inds ot that thosands o! N"<s %orking arond the contry are taking p %o$en isses di!!erently in di!!erent space& She #elieves that %o$en $ove$ent in India shold #e integrated in order to #eco$e $ore !ocsed in approach and appeal& 3eena MaF$dar-r#an and rral india %o$en $ove$ent-In r#an $ostly accsed to #eing $iddleclass0 edcated %o$enDs $ove$ent %ho are Bestioning to %o$enDs rights #oth in p#lic and private sphere&In rral areas pro#le$s are related to %o$enDs livelihood0 their protection and their rights& "ail <$vedt divided IndiaDs !e$inist $ove$ent into t%o types sch as %o$en eBality $ove$ent and %o$en li#eration $ove$ent& JJ)irst 'hase 1,9--1?19 social re!or$ $ove$ents related to caste and gender relations& proot the social evils o! sati 4%ido% i$$olation50 to allo% %ido% re$arriage0 to !or#id child $arriage0 and to redce illiteracy0 as %ell as to reglate the age o! consent and to ensre property rights throgh legal intervention& The %o$en involved %ere those related to $ale activists0 elite0 %estern edcated0 pper caste =inds& JJSecond 'hase 1?19-1?AG "andhi2i-CDM %o$ens participation-role o! %o$en %ent #eyond caring0 sacri!ice and tolerance- 8o$en-only organiFations like All India 8o$enDs Con!erence 4AI8C5 and the National )ederation o! Indian 8o$en 4N)I85 e$erged& 8o$en %ere grappling %ith the isses relating to the scope o! %o$ens political participation0 %o$ens !ranchise0 co$$nal a%ards0 and leadership roles in political parties& There %as provision !or %o$ens pli!t$ent throgh a!!ir$ative action0 $aternal health and child care provision 4crches50 eBal pay !or eBal %ork etc& The state adopted a patroniFing role to%ards %o$en& 8o$en in India did not have to strggle !or #asic rights as did %o$en in the 8est& Calpana Shah- divides Indian !e$inist $ove$ent into three types( Moderate it talks o! gender eBality0 sensitisation o! state to%ards the needs o! %o$en& Socialist it is largely in!lenced #y Marxist ideology and speaks a#ot class $o#ilisation and class action& 6i#eral it is concerned a#ot integrative approach to %o$en isses involving state0 %o$en organisation0 %o$en research centres and !e$inist grops& 8o$en $ove$ent in India is $ore Indian addressing to isses associated %ith everyday li!e o! %o$en co$ing !ro$ di!!erent strata o! social li!e& *nviron$ent Move$ent Natre nrtres individal and is the !ondation to or religion& 6ove !or natre is not conte$porary pheno$ena& Since historic ti$es they are never considered as li!eless& Atharva 3eda gives description a#ot di!!erent kinds o! plants %hich have $edicinal vale hence natre is the sorce o! $anDs li!e& Dring /ritish are colonial rlers !ond hge deposits o! $inerals present in the !orest& They tried to persade the tri#al people and trap $ineral %ealth& )orest #eca$e the land o! the state and the !orest prodce #eca$e !irst right o! the state& The se o! land !or co$$ercial prposes displaced the tri#als leading to distress!l relationships& JJChipko Move$ent In the early 1?G-s in the "arh%al =i$alayas o! :ttarakhand-The land$ark event in this strggle took place in 1?GA0 %hen a grop o! peasant %o$en acted to prevent the ctting o! trees and reclai$ their traditional !orest rights that %ere threatened #y the contractor syste$ o! the state )orest Depart$ent& 3illage co$$nities took responsi#ility to protect !orest !ro$ police and co$$ercial !orest sers& They initiated 2A-hor srveillance %hich persisted !or G to , years&Spreaded across India& 8orld i$$ediately took notice o! this non-violent Tree hgging $ove$ent & A#ove all0 it stirred p the existing civil society in India0 %hich #egan to address the isses o! tri#al and $arginaliFed people& Ra$achandra "ha %rites that da$s are sy$#ols o! civilisation0 develop$ent0 econo$y0 $odernity& It talks a#ot sociology o! da$s and raise $any Bestions EDa$s )or 8ho$EK =e %rites that de to da$s0 !ro$ 1?9- to 2--- arond 19 $illion people are #eing displaced& 'easants0 tri#al co$$nities0 illiterate people have no exposre to $odern edcation0 they donDt have the skills and hence they are directly dependent on natral resorces& The state has not provided adeBate reha#ilitation to the a!!ected people& 7a%ahar 6al Nehr said that !or the larger case o! develop$ent o! nation people shold $ake so$e sacri!ice& =e considered indstries as te$ples o! $odernity and to Achieve econo$ic develop$ent they need to #e set p& /t in reality the actal cost o! develop$ent is paid #y the indigenos people %ho in the na$e o! develop$ent lost everything& Nehr considered the indstrial develop$ent as #ilder o! $odern India #t it has created $ore disparity leading to poverty and ineBality %herein there is gro%th #t no develop$ent& Sardar sarovar 'ro2ect-Nar$ada /achao Andolan-Medha 'atker-'I6& ChIlka /achao Andolan- Co$$ercial !ishing- livelihood o! local !isher$en a!!ected & 'eople %ent !or #oth violent and nonviolent $ethods !ollo%ed #y $assive protest reslting into a #an on tra%lers& This also reslted the retrn o! $igratory #irds and preserved the #eaty o! natre and also its ecology& /hopal gas tragedy-<pen cast $ining in 7harkhand-a!!ecting health and livelihood o! $illions& The /hagidari $ove$ent o! Delhi is a good exa$ple o! this kind o! environ$ental $ove$ent& A #alance $st #e esta#lished #et%een econo$ic gro%th and environ$ental protection& 8e need to go !or syste$atic planning and scienti!ic application throgh the se o! $odern technology to $ini$ise environ$ental i$pact as $ch as possi#le and $ake it a develop$ent led gro%th rather than gro%th %ithot develop$ent& ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *thincity and Identity $ove$ent Strggle #et%een tri#es and non-tri#es are historic #t $ore speci!ic dring colonial ti$es& Tri#al protest %as not anti-i$perialis$ as they %ere na%are o! this ter$& They 2st $eant to control their o%n land& The tri#al $ove$ents in central India %as against exploitation& Tri#al never $akes a di!!erence #et%een indigenos exploitation and colonial exploitation& *very co$$nity %hile searching !or identity %ent !or territorial de$arcation& 6angage cannot #ring nity a$ong people #ecase di!!erent tri#es speak di!!erent langages there!ore %hat #rings nity is the territory& I! Asa$ese !or Aho$0 Maharashtra !or Marathis then %hat is !or tri#al people& Territory is essential !or political assertion and this $ove$ent #eca$e intensi!ied %hen the tri#als %ere dislocated and %anted their land #ack& )rag$ented tri#al $ove$ents %ent !or ni!ication0 proclai$ing their identity0 territory0 state etc to revive their past cltre e&g& 7harkhand and Chhattisgarh identity are exa$ples o! sch $ove$ent& 7harkhand $ove$ent revolves arond !actors like cltre0 econo$ic and socio - polity& It is ananti-colonial and anti-i$perial $ove$ent> anti-govern$ent $ove$ent %hich is reacting to develop$ent displace$ent and !inally anti-exploitation $ove$ent nited against traders and $oneylenders& Identity is the !ondation to tri#al $ove$ent in general and 7harkhand $ove$ent in particlar& Identity is !ondation to social $ove$ent has #een an essence o! ethno-politics in India& In case o! tri#al society geographical isolation0 land alienation0 indstrialisation0 in!lo% o! nontri#al poplation into tri#al areas pt the tri#al poplation into a disadvantaged position %hich led to glori!ication o! tri#al identity %hich !rther reslted into a $ove$ent in search o! separate state& Identity !ocsed $ove$ent has gone throgh stages o! revoltion starting !ro$ the colonial period& /irsa Mnda $ove$ent0"ond re#ellion0 Santhal re#ellion are o!ten considered as peasant $ove$ent #y sociologistDs #t Dr&3&Maxa considers these $ove$ents as identity !ocsed $ove$ents& =e says that %hen =ind peasants si$ply re#elled against exploitative land tenre syste$0 the tri#al people re#elled against the lost o! identity than 2st loss o! livelihood& =e criticised the nationalist sociologists like "hrye0 MN Srinivas0 NC /ose %ho #elieved that tri#es volntarily accepted =ind cltre and that they are #ack%ard =inds& Tri#als %ent !or non-tri#al identity !or social recognition0 !or srvival #ecase non-tri#als %ere predo$inant in every area& There!ore it is a !or$ o! en!orced identity& Adivasi Mahasa#ha %as constitted and atte$pts %ere $ade to ni!y all dispersed tri#e located in central Indian state to stand together and go !or ho$eland !or tri#es$en0 kno%n as greater 7harkhand as sovereign state& The nationalist aspiration o! tri#es o! central India is considered as an atte$pt !or tri#al de$and to control the #ene!its o! progress and $odernity& Srinivas considers a as o#stacle in the process o! nation-#ilding and "hrye tells this as secessionist and antinational $ove$ent& *ven in tri#al states non-tri#als have a signi!icant econo$ic and n$erical presence as a reslt the tri#al states evolved p#lic policies that do not !l!il the aspiration o! tri#al co$$nity& There!ore the tri#es are not divided on class lines %hich is glori!ying naxalite $ove$ent and Maoist insrgency in tri#al states& The $arginalisation0 displace$ent and alienation o! tri#als in their o%n soil is providing !ondation to co$$on ideology and co$$on class identity accelerating class con!licts in tri#al India& There!ore central Indian tri#es are shi!ting !ro$ identity-#ased $ove$ent to isse-#ased $ove$ent& In case o! North *ast India0 the states o! Assa$0 Manipr0 Meghalaya0 Nagaland and Tripraare experiencing identity $ove$ents& In Manipr t%o grops exist i&e& Nagas and Ckkis& Tripra is !ll %ith non-tri#al poplation %hich is the reslt o! escalation o! con!licts a$ong the people& The /odo people in Assa$ %ho consider the$selves to #e the original inha#itants are otn$#ered slo%ly #y the /engali poplation %ho have control over indstries %hich leads to reglar con!lict #et%een the$& Tri#al identity is glori!ied de to this in!iltration o! non tri#al people into tri#al areas& In 1?G- separate State o! Nagaland ca$e into existence ths giving right to the people to have their o%n govern$ent %hich !rther glori!ied political aspirations #y varios tri#es o! other states& The sa$e thing happened in case o! MiFora$ %herein the MiFos %ho considered the$selves as =ighlanders and indigenos peopleNoriginal inha#itant protested !or a separate State stats %hich %as granted to the$& <ther $ove$ents can die ot #t identity $ove$ent %ill srvive in one %ay or the other e&g& in conte$porary ti$es-Maharashtra Navnir$an Sena& Ths it can #e conclded that identity and tri#al con!licts in India is a con!lict #et%een( state verss people> %ithin a state insider verss otsider> %ithin tri#e one !action verss other !action& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- 1A-'oplation Dyna$ics 'oplation explosionI rapid poplation gro%th& Not al%ays #ad& 8hen econo$y is not capa#le o! $aintaining the poplation0 then its a pro#le$& )or India and China it $ight #e arole$0 %here as !or Israel0 Rssia and 7apan0 their govern$ents pro$ote poplation gro%th& 're-indstrial phaseIhigh /R and and DRIagararian econo$yIlo% technologyIin!ant $ortality rate highIso insecrity regading the srvival o! ne% #ornsI$otivation !or !reBent child #irthsIhigh !ertility& *arly indstrialisation phaseI kno%ledge a#ot hygieneIsanitationIhealthIdevelop$ent o! science and technologyI vaccinations !or epide$ics and ende$ic diseasesIlo% in!ant $ortality rateIlo% $ortality rate& =igh /R de to lo% stats o! %o$enIreligion glori!ying child #irthI dea$and nskilled large $anpo%erI traditional otlook0 not open to adopt !a$ily planning techniBes etcI high /RIpoplation explosion& Advanced indstrial societyI lo% /R and lo% DRI i$proved $edicines and other social and natral environ$entsIparticipation in the econo$y reBires highly specialised skills- so prolonged training and edcation is neededIso proper p#ringing o! children #eco$e i$portant %ith in li$ited resorcesIchild #irth controlledI people #eca$e rational and not so $ch religion and $yth driven&I$proved stats o! %o$enI%orking %o$enIconcerned a#ot health o! $othersIeasy availa#ility o! #irth control $easres de to innovation in the #irth control technologyIchild #irth sta#ilisedIsta#le poplation siFe& India is in pre-indstrial phaseIas in last @- years poplation has do#ledIas per 2-11 senss provisional dataI1&21 #illionI a $atter o! concern !or all o! s& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------- Death and Mortality 8o$en died in the ti$e child #irth0 no proper diagnosis o! diseases& <ther !actors- %estern $edicines %ere inadeBate !or r#an areas0not reaching rral areas-poverty no adeBate !ood-prone !or diseases-not health conscios-%ere not in!or$ed a#ot healthy practices- $arried cople %ere not a%are that health deteriorates a!ter each child #irth- child and in!ant death %ere high- $edical !acility %as costly not a!!orda#le #y all& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------- SiFe and "ro%th o! poplation o! India 2-11I2&1 #illion0 1, crore added a!ter 2--1& 1?91 censs @;- $illion& Change in siFe o! poplation $eansI added #y #irth0 s#stracted #y death0 net n$#er #y i$$igration or e$igration& 'er capita prodction o! !ood grain has increased #t only $arginally0 #ecase o! high poplation gro%th& =osing shortage& =ealth and Medical services have not #een $et yet& The sitation related to ne$ploy$ent and ndere$poy$ent re!lects the ina#ility o! the e$ploy$ent $arket to a#sor# the pressre o! increasingly large la#or !orce& ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- )ertility Reprodctive per!or$ance o! individal or gropI in the crde #irth rate considering the children #orn alive is an i$portant $easre$ent o! !ertlity& 1& Religion and Social instittions spporting high !ertility& 2& Marriage is sacra$ent in =ind religion& @& Csto$ in India0 girl child to #e $arried #e!ore she attains p#erty& *ven today despite legislation o! age #ar at 1,& Traditionally0 they start child#earing at an early age0 contine to do so till she reaches the age at %hich they are no longer #iologically capa#le o! #earing children& A& 8o$en %ho do not #ear child looked doen pon #y society& The ne% daghter-in-la% attains a right!l stats in the !a$ily only a!ter she prodces a child0pre!era#ly a son& 9& 8hy son is i$ortant historically-lighting the !neral pyre o! !ather e!!ecting the salvation o! his !athers sol- extending !a$ily line-taking care o! parents at their old age- it is so i$portant that child #earing goes on in the hope o! having atleast one son& ;& Children are considered to #e gi!ts o! god& No control o! child #earing& G& =igh IMR and child $ortality rate- in the hope o! so$e children %ill reach their childhood-they $ay have $ore children & ,& 6o% stats o! %o$en-nBestiona#ly accept excessive child #earing-%ithot any alternative avenes o! child #earing& ?& 'oor !a$ilies consider the$ as sorce o! inco$e& I$plications o! high !ertility rate- 1& 8o$en are tied do%n to child#earing and childrearing !or the #est years o! their prodctive lives- denied the opportnity to explore other avenes !or sel!-expression and sel!-develop$ent& 2& *xcessive child#earing a!!ects their o%n health and that o! their children& 6ooking a!ter a large n$#er o! children pts !rther strain on the physical and e$otional resorces o! sch %o$en& @& /rden on the #read %inner o! the !a$ily&To escape !ro$ the pro#le$s o! everyday li!e& =e takes p to drinking- !rther deterioration o! the econo$ic and e$otional %ell #eing o! the !a$ily& A& The children are so$eti$es n%anted0 nloved and neglected& Childla#or at an early age& No edcation0 %hole li!e spoiled& "irls case $ore %orse& =elp her $other at an early age& Do$estic chores& And looking a!ter si#lings0 %hen $other is at %ork& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- Mortality In IMR0 girls $ortality is $ore than #oys& /iologically the chances srvival o! the girl child is $ore than the #oy 0 in reality the opposite happens&$ortality rate a$ong "irl children is $ore co$pared to /oys& Crde Death Rate ( It is the ratio o! total registered deaths occrring in a speci!ied calendar year to the total $idyear poplation $ltiplied #y 1---& *xpectation o! li!e at #irth( The average expectation o! li!e at #irth& In!ant $ortality rate ( In!ants are de!ined as those children %ho are in the !irst year o! their li!e& As an indicator !or deter$ining the social econo$ic stats o! the contry and the Bality o! li!e in it& Decline in $ortality rate in India de to p#lic health and disease control $easres& These inclde vaccines against $any co$$nica#le diseases0 eradication o! killer diseases like plage and s$allpox and extension o! health and $edical services& The e!!ect o! severe !a$ines have also #een considera#ly redced #y preventive and relie! $easres& 8hen strong spports are not provided #y the 2oint !a$ily0 the #rden !alls on society& <ld-age ho$es or !oster care ho$es !or the aged have to #e provided !ro$ the state !nds& 3arios sche$es to provide pension to the old& The high levels o! in!ant and child $ortality0 a cople $ay go in !or a large n$#er o! children in the hope that at least a !e% %old srvive to reach adlthood& Ths0 apart !ro$ e$otional tra$a cased to parents0 high in!ant and child $ortality rates reslt in high !ertility rates leading to in!lation and poplation& 8hile in traditional societies0 age de$ands respect0 $odern societies $ay #e $ore yoth oriented& --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Age strctre o! India More in!ants and children srvive leading to an increase in the proportion o! the yong persons in the poplation as in the case o! India& Ageing o! the poplation& Sch a sitation prevails in developed contries like S%eden0 the :nited States0 the :nited Cingdo$0 Canada0 7apan0 )rance and Astralia& The data sho%s that Indias %orking age poplation 419-;A years5 is no% ;@&A. o! the total0 as against 2st short o! ;-. in 2--1& The n$#ers also sho% that the dependency ratio the ratio o! children 4--1A5 and the elderly 4;9-1--5 to those in the %orking age has shrnk !rther to -&99& *ven as the %estern %orld is ageing0 these ne% n$#ers sho% that Indias poplation is still very yong0 As !ertility !alls !aster in r#an areas0 rral India is yonger than r#an India& India0 as expected0 is not getting any yonger& Indias $edian age has risen !ro$ arond 22 years in 2--1 to over 2A years in 2-11& The proportion o! the poplation nder the age o! 2A has dropped #y !or percentage points0 #t de$ographers cation that this shold not #e interpreted as a sign that the yoth #lge is shrinking& 8ith !alling !ertility0 the n$#er o! in!ants and children is %hat redces !irst and this is %hat %e are seeing %ith the n$#er o! nder-29s !alling0 )a2dar Ra$0 director o! the M$#ai-#ased International Institte !or 'oplation Sciences said& The key isse in ter$s o! a de$ographic dividend is %hether this gro%ing yoth #lge has the right skills !or the %ork!orce& --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sex Ratio N$#er o! !e$ales per 1--- $ales& 2-11 censsI?A- Thogh #iologically stronger than $ale0 the !e$ale in India is in a socially and cltrally disadvantaged position and has #een accorded a in!erior stats since centries& The death rates !or the !e$ales in $ost age grops are higher than those !or the $ales& A sex ratio that is adverse to the !e$ales is a pecliarity o! the Indian de$ographic pictre not seen any%here else& )a$ily 'lanning and 8el!are The li$ited sccess in adoption o! !a$ily planning in India can #e explained in ter$s o! varios socio-cltral and econo$ic !actors& :r#an poplation is $ore responsive to !a$ily planning $easres than rral poplation& )rther0 edcated grops accept #irth control practices $ch $ore easily& Age o! $arriage- The traditional practices o! early $arriage in rral India and a$ong the poorer sections o! r#an poplation contri#tes to high !ertility& 6o% stats o! %o$en( The lo% stats o! %o$en0 lack o! a%areness regarding the conseBences o! $others health de to !reBent pregnancy and the vale syste$ in India according to %hich respect is accorded to %o$en on the #asis o! n$#er o! children0 especially sons they have given #irth to0 are responsi#le !or high #irth rate& *ven the 2oint !a$ily syste$ in %hich %o$en as %i!e is accorded a lo% stats is responsi#le !or high #irth rate& 8o$en the$selves decide to give #irth to a n$#er o! sons and seek e$otional secrity in their relationship %ith the sons& This is $ainly de to the !act that in a patrilineal 2oint !a$ily hs#and%i!e relations are not characterised #y high e$otional inti$acy& Religios /elie!s( Indian society contines to #e predo$inantly rral and even in r#an areas di!!sion o! seclar scienti!ic edcation is con!ined only to the pper and $iddle classes& All religions extol child#irth and are against any intervention in the process o! reprodction& The preoccpation %ith the #irth o! a son is to #e !ond even a$ong edcated people in the r#an areas and ths the religios #elie! discorages the$ to adopt !a$ily planning progra$$es& *ven a Isla$ discorages its #elievers !ro$ adopting #irth control $easres& The $inority consciosness a$ong the Msli$s is another !actor %hich $otivates the$ in giving #irth to $any children& =igh in!ant $ortality and lack o! provisions !or old age Secrity( =igh in!ant $ortality and the ina#ility o! the state to provide any provision !or the old-age creates a sense o! insecrity and $akes the rral people rely on their $ale children0 to provide spport in the old age And hence #irth o! $any children is considered desira#le& *cono$ic reasons( Another $ost i$portant !actor %hich creates a pre!erence !or a larger !a$ily is the high incidence o! poverty in #oth rral and r#an areas& A$ong the poor sections o! the poplation 0 children are vie%ed as an asset& The p#ringing o! the children does not reBire any extra e!!ort0 neither do they provide !or the edcation o! the children& At a very early age #oth #oys and girls in the poorer !a$ilies start %orking and #egin contri#ting to the !a$ily inco$e& Si$ilarly0 in the !ar$ing sector a$ong the $iddle and s$all !ar$ers0 the agricltral practices are #ased on la#or-intensive technology& Ths large siFed !a$ilies are considered desira#le #ecase they spply the $anpo%er needed !or agricltral activities& Ths poverty and #ack%ardness and lack o! $odern scienti!ic edcation are also responsi#le to a great extent in discoraging people !ro$ the adoption o! !a$ily planning $easres& Another !actor %hich has contri#ted to the poor per!or$ance o! !a$ily planning progra$s is that- the !ocs has #een pri$arily on #irth control 0 rather than $aking a $ltipronged attack on varios aspects %hich are responsi#le !or high #irth rate& <nly in the sixth and seventh !ive year plans0 a #roader perspective %as adopted in the !or$ o! !a$ily %el!are progra$$e& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------ 19-Challenges o! Social trans!or$ation Crisis o! develop$et (Displace$ent Develop$ent indced displace$ent- eBal to !orced $igration- violation o! h$an rights- e!!ects spill over generations- loss o! traditional $eans o! e$ploy$ent- change o! environ$ent- disrpted co$$nity li!e and relationships- $arginalisation- psychological tra$a& Singr 8/ Tata Nano Shi!ted to "2- 'osco <disha- developing S*+s- Sardar Sarovar Da$ Nar$ada and ca$cellation o! the da$ #y %orld #ank de to protests- Tehri da$ oter hi$alays etc& Devlop$ent indced displace$ent- ecological- social-e$otive- cltral connotations& 6and given !or co$pensation- in!ertile- non prodctive& No co$pensation !or co$$on property resorces like !orest land0 pastre land0 river #ed %hich are not co$pensated- Traditional skill lose its signi!icace0 no inco$e0 poverty- so$eti$es they are asked to pay di!!erential price0 di!!iclt !or the$ to arrange- distress $igration-%o$en and children are $ost a!!ected- sociological cost-h$an cost-ecological cost-cltral cst %hich is $ore than the econo$ic cost& Steps to #e taken- #e!ore introdction o! any pro2ect0 alternate site !or reha#ilitation0 shold nt #e !ar a%ay !ro$ the original place-co$$on property resorces re-enacted- edcation and training so that they can #e e$ployed- sanitation0 edcation0 health care0 co$$nity in!rastrctre spport- $ini$$ ecological da$aga- consent #ased approach not consltation& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Ra$achandra "ha- *nviron$ental $ove$ents are not gronded on skepticis$-it is addressing to the !nda$ental Bestions like civil rights0 political rights0 econo$ic rights0 %hich is taken a%ay !ro$ the$ #y the protector o! these rights& --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *nviron$ental $ove$ent- peoples perception o! state stands dialectical to the strategy !or develop$ent adopted #y state govern$ent& 6and aBision resettle$ent and reha#ilitation #ill ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------ *nviron$ental pro#le$s *cono$ic develop$ent- poplation gro%th @-- $illion in 1?AG to 1&2 #illion no%- strain on contrys natral resorces& Indstrial polltion- soil erosion- %ater #odies polltion- land degradation- de!orestation- nplanned r#anisation- rapid indstrialisation- heavy reliance on coal !o po%er generation- $ore than ,-. o! energy !ro$ coal& 6and degradation- %ind erosion-%ater logging- #ad land se practices& 6oss o! #iodiversity- Air polltion- Conta$ination o! %ater #odies along %ith grond %ater aBi!ers- )ly ash !ro$ coal plants0 %hich have traces o! al$ina and traces o! carcinogenic $aterial- Da$s and large area s#$erged in %ater- <pen cast $ining0 grond %ater and sr!ace %ater conta$intation0 eye sight isse and lngs isse0%hen a#andoned0 no re-gro%th o! ecology0per$anent da$age to environ$ent& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------- Addressing Sstaina#ility Meeting present needs keeping an eye on !tre generations- Re$oval o! poverty- Technology and in!rastrctre decisions shold #e taken on the #asis o! sstaina#iity- evalation o! pro2ects in ecological perspective- incding local people to kno% their stakes- /io$ass is the !el !or rral poor0 startegy to help the$ !or sstaina#le sage- Sacred groves and ponds #y co$$nity participation-8o$en e$po%er$ent- 'RIs- *!!ect o! "lo#alisation-S="s& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------- 3iolence against 8o$en Marraige <ccpations- nor$s o! every day #ehavior- there is a cltral lag- even a #acklash %hen %o$en de$and their ne%ly availa#le rights& Cri$inal violence- Rape0 Mrder0 A#dction0 Molestation0prostittion0 tra!!icing0 Acid attack& Do$estic violence- Do%ry death0%i!e #attering0 sexal a#se #y kins0 $altreat$ent o! %ido%s and elderly %o$en0tortre o! daghter-in-la%s& Social and cltral violence- )e$ale !oeticide0in!anticide0eve-teasing0%ido% i$$olation4sati50 re!sing to give share to %o$en in property& Do$estic violence-yong $arried %o$en- in their a!!inal ho$es- #eating0 trtring0ver#al a#se0 starving0locking p0 i$posing excess %ork #rden0sexal a#se0 $arital rape0 even $rder or %o$an co$$its sicide- $rder ca$o!laged as sicide- Reasons- sspicion a#ot %i!es !iedility0 her childlessness- not #earing a son- disptes a#ot hosehold $atter- %i!es protests a#ot hs#ands alcoholis$- hs#ands in!actation %ith another %o$an etc- co$plaints in these areas are rarely registered- i! registered rarely apprehended- i! apprehended rarely #roght cort- i! #roght to cort rarely convicted& So$eti$es Media and %o$ens grop pt pressre& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------- Tlsi 'atel age o! $arriage0 !reBency o! pregnancy0 %o$ens health0 their rights over !ood are decided #y traditional csto$s and conventions not #y her choice& 8o$en are ass$ed to take the role o! preparing !ood and prodce children& Nivedita Menon- The gender gap in edcation is related to the pro#le$ o! do%ry-#irth o! child is considered as a !tre lia#ility- In "R #elts they dont see the light o! the day- !e$ale !oeticide& MN Srinivas- Do%ry as $odern day Sati& Malavika Carlekar- Do$estic violence- $ore in r#an pper $iddle class !a$ilies- 8o$en are s#2ected to Devi-Dasi dichoto$y $ore saci!ice %ill cosidered Devi- asking !or her rights Dasi and s#2ected to physical and $ental agony& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- Rape-grossly nreported de to the stig$a attached to the victi$- yong girls in sBatter settle$ents- lo% caste and tri#al %o$en- %o$en dring co$$nal riots- A)S'A ar$y and para$ilitary in sensitive areas- disaster hit regions& Child $arriage- physical in2ry to girl de to early cons$$ation o! $arriage- early pregnancies can #e !atal- e$otional strain o! do$estic responsi#ilities-Child Marriage Restraint Act 'rostittion- 'revention o! I$$oral Tra!!ic in 8o$en Act- poverty0 sexal a#se and rape in childhood $akes the$ easy victi$s o! the prostittion racket- %o$en resced !ro$ #rothels !ace re2ection !ro$ their !a$ilies- !ate in resce ho$e is also #ad& *ve-teasing- harass$ent o! %o$en in p#lic places-#oth rral and r#an-3er$a co$$ittee report inclded eveteasing-SCs order to govt to treat the eveteaser %ith an iron !ist& Acid attack- SCs order0 reglation on sale o! acid etc& ------------------------------------------------------------------------- =o% to adress- Creating a%areness a$ong %o$en a#ot their rights- strcit la%s- $orally sensitive o!!icers- strong spport syste$ !or %o$en in distress- $oral spport-legal aid- giving the$ 2o#s- rnning training progra$$es- legal literacy- school crricl$ shold pro$ote eBality a$ong genders and respect !or %o$en- SensitiFation o! the police- govern$ent o!!icial- 2diciary etc& :22a%ala- S%adhar- ST*'-<ne stop crisis centreI govt pg$s --------------------------------------------------------------------------- *thnic Con!licts *thnic grop- co$$on langage- co$$on cltre- so$eti$es shared religion- co$$on ancestry-endoga$y-co$$on religios !aith& ---------------------------------------------------- "hanashya$ Saha- Dring Indias !reedo$ strggle0 there %as glori!ication o! north soth divide- apprehension north indias #rah$inic sanskritic cltre %ill #e i$posed on indigenos non-sanskritic dravidian peasant cltre& So Ta$il /rah$ins !irst %ent !or $odern edcation0 trade and co$$erce %ithot re2ecting sanskritik vales- non #rah$ins %ent !or $odernisation and seclarisation re2ecting sanskritic vales-hence caste %as %eak in soth india0 co$$nal disparity %as $ini$$ and political a%areness %as $ore& ------------------------------------------------------- Assa$-de to in!lx o! /engalis Meghalaya- #et%een "aro and Chasi tri#es- not !or cltre rather access !or po%er0 edcation etc& Manipr- Con!lict #et%een Naga and Cki-<n control over p#lic instittions-Tri#al advisory concil-District atono$os concil-looks !or land 0 !orest and other resorces- son o! the soils is getting glori!ied& Maharashtra- M$#aikars-non $arathis- access to edcation and e$ploy$ent- 1?;-s it %as #et%een Soth indians vs $arathis- no% it is north indians vs $arathis& =indi as national langage isse- to pro$ote nity in diversity- riot in Ta$il Nad& *thnic con!licts- $ani!est case-langage0 region0 religion& 6atent case-con!licting econo$ic and political interests& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------- Co$$nalis$ Indian context- con!lict #et%een religios co$$nities /ipin Chandra- $arxist historian- anti h$an $o#ilisation- lose lose sitation- $inority co$$nalis$ and $a2ority co$$nalis$- %ith $odernity and literacy co$$nalis$ %oldnt disappear- historically glori!ication o! co$$nalis$- Mao in china nedcated- =itler in "er$any highly edcated $asses Chs%ant singh Co$$nalis$ has nothing to do %ith ideology- !irst phase politics then econo$cs and then di!!erential psychosis- in all cases th religios $inorities s!!er a lot& A$artya Sen0 :pendra /akshi0 Andre /eteille0 Ra2eev /hargav historic roots o! co$nal tensions- india pak division #ad $e$ories- /ritishs divide and rle policy& Repeated co$$nal tension- concentration o! $inorities in speci!ic localities& State spport to co$$nal tension- 3ote #ank politics #ehind co$$nal tensions& T N Madan- think co$$nl- eat co$$nal- eat co$$nal- $arry co$$nal-speak co$$nal- glori!ication o! co$$nal identities- Seclaris$ is i$possi#le- co$$nalis$ is #ond to appear in one !or$ or the other& Sdhir Cakkar- Co$$nalis$ a state o! $ind- $odernity #rings ni!or$ity and people love diversity- $ost o! the co$$nal tensions in $odern India- $ore $odernity $ore co$$nal tensions& Sociologits- Cerala $odel vs Dharavi sl$ or Aligarh co$$nalis$ It shold not #e stdied only !ro$ political and econo$ic stand point #t also !ro$ develop$ent disparity& --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Illiteracy and disparities in edcation Traditional- Sanskritic edcation and Madrasa edcation /ritish- non vocational and christian $issionaries /ritish edcation syste$- ne% $iddle class- glori!ication o! class edcation Cothari co$$ission41?;,5- To accelerate $ass edcation- co$$nity $ade $d school #ilding- 9 years0 pkka hose0 grants in aid- ? years !ll grant- $any schools ca$e p0 #t %ithot adeBate teachers& 1??-s- niversalisation o! edcation- vocatinalisation o! secondary edcaion- delinking o! 2o#s !ro$ certi!icate& 3eena MaF$dar- entry o! a girl to the %orld o! %ork at a tender age- the co$plsion o! do%ry- patriarchal character o! society %hich e$phasiFes on sexal prity- lack o! schools !or girls- lack o! %o$en teachers- responsi#le !or gender gap in edcation& Recent Spre$e corts order to constct sanitation !acilities in schools0 #ecase o! lack o! sanitaion !acilities0 girls are the $a2ority a$on dropots& A$ong STs- crricl$ is not revised- texts not availa#le in thier tri#a langage- hge gap #et%een tri#al thinking and corses in schools- large scale dropots& Sachar Co$$ittee report on $sli$ edcation- A. 1-th- 2. 12th- 1&2. gradation- 1. gradation a$ong %o$en- state sponsored $adrasa edction- i$portance to religios edcation0 prodcing yoths n!it !or $odern e$ploy$ent- orthodox isla$ic %orld vie% prohi#ited co-edcation- so less literacy a$ong $sli$ %o$en& Modernity- Rich people pvt schools-poor stdents govt schools- RT* is a $yth- SCs order 29. reservation in private schools-in!lence o! social #ackgrond on edcation- Cycles #y state govts to girl stdents and SC ST stdents- 6aptops to $eritoris stdents #t stae govts& Andre /eteille- In the sphere o! edcation there is present social and cltral reprodction rather than edcation pro$oting eBality in Indian society& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------- 'overty0 Deprivation and IneBalities *cono$ist- Calorie and Inco$e Sociologist- Access to edcation0 =ealth care !acilities0 sorce o! entertain$ent0 Bality o! li!e0 political participation& A$artya Sen- 'overty is a li!e experience0 cant #e explained in $echanical econo$ics ter$s& Andre /eteille- 'overty is $ore contagios than polltion& 'overty #reeds poverty& I! the !ather is poor0he cant #y ntritios !ood0good edcation !or his children0 children %ill endp in lo% paying 2o#s0 hence poverty contines& SC D#ey- 'overty and prosperity are sel! perpetating in character& In case o! India0 $ost o! the poor are #orn as poor0 !e% o! the poors stay as non-poors and none o! the rich ever #eco$e poor& Dada /hai Naro2i- !irst nationalist %ho relate poverty to colonial rle- drain o! %ealth theory& AR Desai- None o! the poverty alliviation progra$$es o! state is sccess!l in eradicating poverty& 'overty linked to ecology& Rral poors co$ing to r#an environ$ent and a!ter a long period o! ti$e spoiling their health and going #ack to rral environ$ent& =ence poverty is trans!erred and trans$itted rather getting cred& 'lanning co$$issions recent poverty line !igres-#ased on Tendlkar co$$ittee report- 2A-- calories in rral areas and 21-- calories in r#an areas- accordingly $oney to prchase these ite$s& International poverty line 1 dollar in ''' ter$s& @2Rs in r#an and 2G Rs in rral areas& Recent reports on poverty !igres have to #e inclded- Civil society criticised the poverty line !igres& 'overty is not 2st an econo$ic handicap- 'olicy $akers not took h$anistic !igres like happiness0 Bality o! li!e0 !reedo$0 gender eBality into considertaion- so holistic approach is needed to solve the pro#le$ o! ineBality0health0edcation0 land allocation0 e$ploy$ent opportnities etc- $echanistic approach to poverty is responsi#le !or its perpetation& 1ogendra Singh- poverty perpetates #ecase o! lack o! activities #y civil society organisations- Ra$pant a$ong SCs0 STs 0elderly persons0 physically handicapped0 victi$s o! disstress $igration and single parent !a$ily& Anand C$ar /ook'olitics o! poverty Most o! the poverty eradication progra$$es are not to eli$inate poverty #t to $ani!est the visi#ility o! govern$ent to people& Anti poverty progra$$es are #eco$ing hot#eds o! politics in rral India0 dividing people on the #asis o! caste0 creed0 religion0 political a!!iliation> there!ore politics o! poverty ensres poverty stays in India to $ake India a de$ocracy& ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------- Caste con!licts stdy !ro$ Note-@ 'age No-21 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------- Religios revivalis$- not done %ell- stdy !ro$ Note-@ 'age No- @2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------- (-Santosh C$ar /ehera
Joshi C M, Vyas Y - Extensions of Certain Classical Integrals of Erdélyi For Gauss Hypergeometric Functions - J. Comput. and Appl. Mat. 160 (2003) 125-138