Adaptive wave eld synthesis for active sound eld reproduction:

Experimental results
Philippe-Aubert Gauthier
a
and Alain Berry
Groupe dAcoustique de lUniversit de Sherbrooke, Universit de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de lUniversit,
Sherbrooke, Qubec J1K 2R1, Canada
Received 31 May 2007; revised 28 January 2008; accepted 28 January 2008
Sound eld reproduction has applications in music reproduction, spatial audio, sound environment
reproduction, and experimental acoustics. Sound eld reproduction can be used to articially
reproduce the spatial character of natural hearing. The objective is then to reproduce a sound eld
in a real reproduction environment. Wave eld synthesis WFS is a known open-loop technology
which assumes that the reproduction environment is anechoic. The room response thus reduces the
quality of the physical sound eld reproduction by WFS. In recent research papers, adaptive wave
eld synthesis AWFS was dened as a potential solution to compensate for these quality
reductions from which WFS objective performance suffers. In this paper, AWFS is experimentally
investigated as an active sound eld reproduction system with a limited number of reproduction
error sensors to compensate for the response of the listening environment. Two digital signal
processing algorithms for AWFS are used for comparison purposes, one of which is based on
independent radiation mode control. AWFS performed propagating sound eld reproduction better
than WFS in three tested reproduction spaces hemianechoic chamber, standard laboratory space,
and reverberation chamber. 2008 Acoustical Society of America. DOI: 10.1121/1.2875844
PACS numbers: 43.38.Md, 43.60.Tj, 43.50.Ki AJZ Pages: 19912002
I. INTRODUCTION
With the constantly evolving digital signal processing
and the relatively recent advent of multichannel audio, spa-
tial audio has gained more attention in the past decades from
researchers and practitioners for applications such as high-
delity sound reproduction, music reproduction, virtual real-
ity display, interactive multisensory environments, auraliza-
tion, and sound installations Camurri and Ferrentino, 1999;
Epain et al., 2004; AES Staff Writer, 2005; Woszczyk et al.,
2005; Keller et al., 2006; Blesser and Salter, 2007. The in-
terest in immersion and convincing multisensory environ-
ments is not new Grau, 2003 and various techniques for
spatial audio have been introduced in the past Kendall,
1995; Verheijen, 1997; Poletti, 2000; Rumsey, 2001; Davis,
2003.
Within spatial sound, sound eld reproduction methods
attempt to reproduce physical stimulus wave eld, thereby
avoiding any perceptual considerations in the implementa-
tion. Sound eld reproduction was investigated by research-
ers in the past decades Berkhout et al., 1993; Nelson et al.,
1997; Verheijen, 1997; Poletti, 2000; Choi and Kim, 2004;
Epain et al., 2004; Takane and Sone, 2004; Keller et al.,
2006. One of the most active and recent related matters is
room compensation Spors et al., 2003; Gauthier et al.,
2005a; Betlehem and Abhayapala, 2005; Spors et al., 2005;
Fuster et al., 2005; Gauthier and Berry, 2006, which is es-
sential for sound eld reproduction in a real reproduction
space on the basis of objective, physically measurable, per-
formances. This is especially true when acoustical treatment
of the reproduction space is not possible, like for sound eld
reproduction in vehicle mock-ups where the visual reproduc-
tion of the original space is important.
This paper deals with the problem of sound pressure
eld reproduction using adaptive digital signal processing
applied to adaptive wave eld synthesis AWFS originally
introduced by Gauthier et al. 2005b. More specically it
validates by experiments the AWFS concept.
The concepts and results shown in this paper are not
limited to audio applications. Indeed, sound eld reproduc-
tion may also be applied to experimental acoustics Veit and
Sander, 1987; Bravo and Elliott, 2004, psychoacoustics
Epain et al., 2004; Keller et al., 2006, and sound environ-
ment reproduction or even used as a vibroacoustics design
tool. These are promising applications of sound eld repro-
duction.
This paper is divided in four parts. In Sec. I, sound eld
reproduction, WFS, and AWFS are described. The complete
experimental procedures and setups are described in Sec. II.
Results of experiments with AWFS are then reported in Sec.
III for three different reproduction spaces. Section IV dis-
cusses the results and exposes our conclusions.
A. Sound eld reproduction
The main objective of sound eld reproduction can be
generally stated as the aim to recreate a given acoustical
property of the sound eld, such as sound pressure, sound
intensity Choi and Kim, 2004; Merimaa and Pulkki, 2005,
spatial diffuseness Merimaa and Pulkki, 2005, etc., over an
extended region of space. This can be achieved using a re-
production system including electroacoustical sources and
receivers, signal processing, and the desired physical target
a
Electronic mail: philippeaubertgauthier@hotmail.com
J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 123 4, April 2008 2008 Acoustical Society of America 1991 0001-4966/2008/1234/1991/12/$23.00
description. In several of these cases, use of adaptive ltering
implies the minimization of a cost function which is repre-
sentative of this reproduction objective Gauthier et al.,
2005a; Gauthier and Berry, 2006. Adaptive signal process-
ing for spatial sound reproduction has been considered in
various forms by researchers Asano and Swanson, 1995;
Takane et al., 1999; Radlovi et al., 2000; Santilla, 2001;
Epain et al., 2004; Choi and Kim, 2004; Gauthier et al.,
2005b; Spors et al., 2005; Gauthier and Berry, 2006.
B. Wave eld synthesis
WFS research started with the theoretical propositions
by Berkhout Berkhout et al., 1993; Verheijen, 1997; Start et
al., 1999. From the simple source formulation of the
KirchhoffHelmholtz integral theorem Williams, 1999,
WFS operators are designed to link a given simple virtual
source typically creating spherical or plane wave in an hori-
zontal plane, the listening plane, fed by a monophonic sig-
nal, to a loudspeaker array which reproduces the acoustic
eld of the virtual source that is the target, or virtual, sound
eld. A schematic and simplied representation of the prob-
lem is shown in Fig. 1. The problem is usually limited to
reproduction in the horizontal plane with a nite number of
discrete reproduction sources using appropriate simplica-
tions of the integral formulation Verheijen, 1997. WFS
studies have investigated: spatial aliasing de Vries et al.,
1994; Start et al., 1995; Spors and Rabenstein, 2006; Corteel,
2006a, objective performance, room effect, Klehs and
Sporer, 2003; Sporer and Klehs, 2004, acoustic room com-
pensation Spors et al., 2003, 2005; Fuster et al., 2005, WFS
equalization Corteel, 2006b, and more.
On one hand, the benet of current WFS prototypes is
their effectiveness in transmitting a spatial impression in
terms of sound localization over a broad area surrounded by
loudspeakers. On the other hand, WFS drawbacks are related
to the denition of the synthesis operators: The reproduction
room response or electroacoustical system limits Corteel,
2006b are not considered in the denition of WFS. The
typical WFS system is consequently based on an open-loop
architecture assuming a free eld as the reproduction space.
Active room compensation or system equalization for WFS
is an active research topic for objective sound eld reproduc-
tion in real room Elliott and Nelson, 1989; Asano and
Swanson, 1995; Bouchard and Quednau, 2000; Santilla
2001; Spors et al., 2003; Gauthier et al., 2005b; Spors et al.,
2005; Fuster et al., 2005; Corteel, 2006b.
To lighten the present paper, which focuses on experi-
mental results, the readers are referred to Verheijen 1997
for a more detailed review of WFS. A complete description
of WFS adapted to the specic problem of AWFS was pub-
lished by Gauthier and Berry 2006.
C. Adaptive wave eld synthesis and independent
radiation mode control
In a recent paper Gauthier and Berry, 2006, AWFS was
suggested as a practical compromise between WFS and ac-
tive room compensation that usually requires a large amount
of sensors. AWFS is based on a cost function to be mini-
mized. Although implemented here in a specic congura-
tion, the AWFS concept described by this cost function can
readily be applied to any conguration. The cost function is
a quadratic function of: 1 the reproduction errors and 2
the adaptive lters departure from the WFS solution ex-
pressed as a set of nite impulse response FIR lter coef-
cients. The penalization of the departure from the WFS
lters is what makes AWFS original in comparison with
other research done on sound eld reproduction using active
noise control techniques. The interest of such an approach
stems from a simple observation: The direct sound eld re-
produced by WFS approaches the virtual sound eld
Gauthier and Berry, 2007 and then allows for proper sound
localization on the basis of precedence effect Blauert,
1999. Accordingly, WFS can be taken as a starting point or
an a priori solution for the adaptive algorithm which will
minimize the reproduction errors caused by the room re-
sponse. Moreover, the weighted penalization of any depar-
ture from the WFS solution may prevent the degradation of
sound localization since it limits the contribution of the sec-
ondary sources which are normally not activated by the WFS
solution, given the fact that the WFS solution already con-
tains spatial information that cannot be completely measured
using a limited number of error microphones. For example,
when using more reproduction sources than error sensors, the
WFS solution contributes to the proper reconstruction of the
direct sound eld outside the control region dened by the
error sensor locations Gauthier and Berry, 2006. Finally,
this penalization, which is controlled by a set of penalization
parameters, can be used to control the balance between a
purely WFS solution and a closed-loop realization of Am-
bisonics sound eld reproduction Gauthier and Berry,
2006.
This specic denition of a cost function for a multi-
channel adaptive system leads to a simple modication of the
leaky ltered-reference least-mean-square FXLMS algo-
rithm Elliott, 2001. The modication is the inclusion of the
WFS solution in the adaptation rule. Here, we will refer to
modied FXLMS for AWFS when this algorithm is used.
Via the singular value decomposition SVD of the plant
matrix frequency response functions FRFs between repro-
FIG. 1. Term convention for WFS denition. The virtual source is located in
x
0
. L is the reproduction source line, the virtual source is on the left of the
source line and the reproduction space is on the right of the source line. All
sources and sensors are located in the x
1
x
2
plane.
1992 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis
duction sources and error sensors involved in AWFS, it was
shown that the underlying AWFS mechanism is the indepen-
dent control of radiation modes Gauthier and Berry, 2006
using plant decoupling. It is also related to the Principal-
Components LMS PC-LMS algorithm Cabell and Fuller,
1999. This suggested a practical implementation of AWFS
signal processing which had already been textually described
by Gauthier and Berry 2006. This reference on signal pro-
cessing for AWFS should sufce for the purpose of this pa-
per, see also Gauthier and Berry 2008. In the case of
AWFS based on independent radiation mode control, a set of
analysis lters is used to transform the sound pressure in the
SVD basis and a set of synthesis lters is used to create the
loudspeaker signals from the SVD basis. In this transformed
domain a set of single-channel independent adaptive lters
operate to control each radiation mode individually. This re-
duces the computational burden and allows for a ne tuning
of the convergence properties of the algorithm i.e., indepen-
dent ne tuning of the radiation modes convergence proper-
ties. Adaptive sound reproduction using plant decoupling
via SVD was already proposed by Bai and Elliott 2004 via
simulations for cross-talk cancellation. The main differences
between Bais work and the present paper are 1 the experi-
mental application to sound eld reproduction, 2 further
considerations for the proper construction of the synthesis
and analysis lters from a signal processing perspective, and
3 the inclusion of an a priori solution the WFS solution.
The inclusion of the WFS solution in the cost function
Gauthier and Berry, 2006 signicantly changes the algo-
rithm since the WFS solution must be projected on the SVD
basis radiation mode synthesis lters and nullspace synthe-
sis lters. The proper construction of the synthesis and
analysis lters is also what make this paper on AWFS origi-
nal. Moreover, this construction of the synthesis and analysis
lters had proven to be of critical importance for the efcient
projection of the WFS solution on the SVD basis. However,
such detailed considerations for signal processing are beyond
the scope of this paper.
In this paper, the performance of AWFS based on modi-
ed FXLMS and independent radiation mode control algo-
rithms is derived from experiments with a real AWFS system
in three different acoustical situations. This paper therefore
validates the AWFS concepts, previously investigated in
theory Gauthier and Berry, 2006. See Elliott 2001 for a
general review on adaptive ltering for active noise control
and sound eld reproduction.
II. EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL
A. Experimental setups
The tested system includes 24 reproduction sources and
4 reproduction error sensors. The complete system is shown
in Fig. 2. The reproduction sources create a 2-m-diam circu-
lar array in the horizontal plane. Sources are separated by
26 cm, thus giving an approximate minimal spatial aliasing
frequency of 634 Hz / 2=26 cm, where is the acoustical
wavelength Spors and Rabenstein, 2006. This minimal
spatial aliasing frequency gives the frequency range of focus
for the experiments. Above the spatial aliasing frequency, the
sound eld reconstruction is impossible over the reproduc-
tion region. The error microphones form a cross, in the same
horizontal plane as the reproduction sources, and their sepa-
ration distance along x
1
and x
2
axes is 17.5 cm. Sources and
sensors stand 1.22 m above the oor.
The loudspeakers are studio monitors amplied two-
way cabinets. The error sensors are 1/ 4 in. electret micro-
phones. For the off-line broadband AWFS implementation,
the loudspeakers and the microphones are connected to a
signal conditioner and a computer using a sound card 24
analog inputs and 24 analog outputs. In this setup, the
AWFS signal processing operates off-line. The setup is sche-
matically shown in Fig. 3a. For the second setup involving
harmonic target wave elds, the loudspeakers and micro-
phones are connected to reconstruction and antialiasing l-
ters 440 Hz low-pass, eighth order, Butterworth, respec-
tively, before being connected to a digital signal processing
station used for on-line harmonic AWFS. The station is built
around a Texas Instrument TMS320C40 oating point digital
12
11
13
10
14
9
15
8
16
... 8
7
17
x
2
6
18
5
19
1 ...
4
20
3
21
2
22
1
23
24
2
m
x
1
Sources
Error sensors
Monitoring sensors
Sources: 24
Sensors: 4
FIG. 2. Schematic AWFS setup made of 24 reproduction sources, 4 repro-
duction error sensors, and 8 monitoring sensors. Typical virtual source
position.
FIG. 3. Schematic representation of the AWFS instrumentations, a Broad-
band and b harmonic.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis 1993
signal processor. The setup is shown in Fig. 3b. The experi-
mental methods differ for these two setups. The system is
pictured in Fig. 4.
B. Methods of experiments
Two types of reproduction methods and experiments are
reported. As for the rst type, the AWFS algorithms operate
off-line. In this case, the experimental procedure is: 1 iden-
tication of the plant impulse responses from all reproduc-
tion sources to all error sensors. Sweep-sine identication
was used to cover from 0 to 600 Hz. The number of coef-
cients varies according to the reproduction environment. 2
Off-line running, by simulation, of the AWFS algorithms tex-
tually described by Gauthier and Berry 2006. 3 Render-
ing, with the real electroacoustical system, of the AWFS so-
lution after convergence of the control lters. 4
Measurement of the reproduced sound elds. The reproduced
sound eld measurements are based on reproduced impulse
responses from the reference signal to the eight monitor
microphones see Fig. 2. Broadband AWFS results shown
in Sec. III include measurements of the reproduced sound
elds using swept sines.
As for the second type of reproduction methods and ex-
periments, the objective is to evaluate the performance of
AWFS with an on-line adaptation system. To reach this goal,
several practical trade-offs are included to reduce the com-
putational burden so that on-line adaptation can be per-
formed using the available hardware. In the case of harmonic
sound eld reproduction, all the AWFS lters including
adaptive lters, target operators, synthesis, and analysis l-
ters are implemented using two-coefcient FIR lters. The
algorithm then approaches the PC-LMS algorithm Cabell
and Fuller, 1999 with a supplementary penalization term
and an a priori solution. In this very specic situation, the
computational load is drastically reduced and on-line adap-
tation is possible using the algorithms as textually described
by Gauthier and Berry 2006.
For both types of AWFS realization, the convergence
coefcients used in the adaptive algorithms are set near the
maximum values, which guaranteed stability and conver-
gence of the adaptation.
III. AWFS EXPERIMENTS
A. Acoustical characteristics of the reproduction
rooms
The three reproduction environments were selected to
cover a large spectrum of reverberation properties. These en-
vironments are: 1 a hemianechoic chamber, 2 a standard
laboratory space, and 3 a reverberation chamber.
The hemianechoic chamber Fig. 4 has a volume of
125 m
3
6.556.253.05 m with a oor surface of 41 m
2
.
A typical frequency response function FRF transfer func-
tion between a reproduction source and an error microphone
is shown in Fig. 5. In this situation, the FRFs are smooth and
the dip around 310 Hz is created by the destructive interfer-
ence with the oor reection at this frequency. In the hemi-
anechoic chamber, the error sensor signals are mostly domi-
nated by the direct sound eld of the reproduction sources.
The volume of the standard laboratory space is 469 m
3
8.2314.024.06 m with a oor surface of 115 m
2
. The
typical FRF shown in Fig. 5 is more complex and shows
various dips. The reverberation radius the distance from the
source at which the sound pressure level of the direct sound
eld is equal to the sound pressure level of the diffuse sound
eld was estimated to be more than 1.4 m with broadband
noise audio bandwidth. The approximation of the rever-
beration radius is derived from the spatial sound pressure
level decay curve from an omnidirectional loudspeaker array.
The mean curve was estimated from four measurement lines
in the horizontal plane 1.22 m above the oor randomly
selected in the room. From the mean curve, the sound source
power level is computed from the measured direct sound
eld using a curve tting with a theoretical free-eld decay
curve. The homogeneous reverberation level is evaluated
from the last part of the decay curve. The approximation of
the reverberation radius is then derived from the crossing of
this homogeneous level and the theoretical free-eld decay
curve for the approximated sound source power level. Given
a reverberation radius of more than 1.4 m in this laboratory
space, the error sensors at 1 m of the reproduction sources
are exposed to the direct sound eld of the reproduction
source and the eld reected by the room walls with a well-
balanced proportion in comparison with the hemianechoic
space.
FIG. 4. Experimental AWFS setup in the hemianechoic chamber.
0 50 95 160 220 310 400 440 500
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
Freq. [Hz]
G
a
i
n
(
d
B
r
e
f
.
1
)
Hemi-anechoic chamber
Reverberant chamber
Arbitrary laboratory space
FIG. 5. Typical identied FRFs from a reproduction source to an error
microphone in the hemianechoic chamber, standard laboratory space, and
reverberation chamber.
1994 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis
The volume of the reverberation chamber is 142 m
3
with a oor surface of 46.5 m
2
7.56.23.05 m. Several
sheets of damping material were placed in corners of the
room to reduce the excessively long reverberation time. The
typical FRF shown in Fig. 5 has gains that vary strongly with
frequency and the transitions from frequency to frequency
are very sharp. The reverberation radius was estimated to be
between 0.45 and 0.51 m for broadband signal. Therefore, in
this highly reverberant space, the error sensors are mostly
exposed to the diffuse sound eld of the reproduction
sources. This is an hostile environment both for WFS and
AWFS.
B. Hemianechoic space
1. Broadband AWFS
The broadband off-line demonstration of AWFS is inter-
esting because it validates the complete AWFS concept, as
described in previous papers Gauthier and Berry, 2006. The
broadband nature of the off-line system places a general
point of view on the results.
In a preliminary stage, the system FRFs are identied
using swept sines with an average over 200 realizations. The
resulting impulse responses include 256 coefcients. The
sampling rate is 1200 Hz for all the broadband experiments.
Using the identied plant, the modied FXLMS algorithm
can readily be applied Elliott, 2001; Gauthier and Berry,
2006.
The independent radiation mode control implementation
requires an additional initialization step. Singular value de-
composition of the system plant in the frequency domain is
achieved as textually described by Gauthier and Berry
2006 for each frequency. This gives the radiation modes
source modes, singular values, and pressure modes at each
frequency. Radiation mode reordering and phase optimiza-
tion algorithms are then applied in the frequency domain to
smooth the source and pressure mode phase responses. This
creates a novelty in comparison with Bais work with broad-
band plant decoupling Bai and Elliott, 2004. Inverse
discrete-time Fourier transform is then applied to obtain the
synthesis lters and analysis lters to move to and from the
SVD basis in the time domain for AWFS based on indepen-
dent radiation mode control. Note that using such synthesis
and analysis lters, the plant is uncoupled but not whitened.
The synthesis lters Gauthier and Berry, 2006 for the rst
four source modes are shown in Fig. 6. Each group of syn-
thesis lters there are 4 groups of 24 lters produces one of
the source modes at the reproduction source array. The
analysis lters for the four pressure modes are shown in Fig.
7. Each group of analysis lters there are 4 groups of 4
lters transforms the physical acoustical pressures in the
pressure mode basis SVD basis. Interestingly, the synthesis
and analysis lters show a sharp concentrated time response:
Time leakage is reduced in comparison with SVD lters pre-
sented by Bai and Elliott 2004, thanks to the radiation
modes reordering and to the phase optimization algorithms.
Figure 8 shows the reproduced impulse responses from
the virtual source to the monitoring sensor array shown in
Fig. 2 for WFS. The transfer function units are 1/ m sound
pressure Pa divided by virtual monopole amplitude
Pa m. The virtual source is a spherical source located at
x
o
=0, 4, 0 m. Clearly, the direct eld of the reproduced
impulse responses approaches the target impulse responses.
After the direct wave front passage, the reection from the
oor appears and instants later the low frequency echo of the
50 100 150 200 250
-0.2
-0.1
0
A
m
p
.
Source mode #1
50 100 150 200 250
-0.1
0
0.1
A
m
p
.
Source mode #2
50 100 150 200 250
-0.1
0
0.1
A
m
p
.
Source mode #3
1 64 128 192 256
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
A
m
p
.
Source mode #4
Samples
FIG. 6. First synthesis lters Gauthier and Berry, 2006 in the time domain
for source modes 14 in the hemianechoic chamber. Each plot includes 24
synthesis lters to create the given source mode with 24 reproduction
sources. Each lter includes 256 coefcients.
50 100 150 200 250
-0.2
0
0.2
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #1
50 100 150 200 250
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #2
50 100 150 200 250
-0.2
0
0.2
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #3
1 64 128 192 256
-0.2
0
0.2
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #4
Samples
FIG. 7. Analysis lters Gauthier and Berry, 2006 in the time domain for
pressure modes 14 in the hemianechoic chamber. Each plot includes 4
analysis lters to catch the pressure mode with 4 pressure sensors. Each
lter includes 256 coefcients.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis 1995
hemianechoic chamber impinges the monitoring array. This
echo is caused by the chamber which is hemianechoic only
above 150 Hz. Moreover, another physical imperfection of
the WFS reproduced sound eld appears: The direct wave
front has an undesirable coloration the impulse is spread
over two or three samples, passing from positive to negative
values, possibly caused by the loudspeaker response or the
WFS approximations.
The convergence coefcient was set to 0.00001 for the
modied FXLMS algorithm. The convergence coefcient

m
, for the independent radiation mode control algorithm,
were set to
1
=0.0001,
2
=
3
=0.0004, and
4
=0.002 for
the four radiation modes, where the subscript indicates the
radiation mode number. The penalization parameter for the
FXLMS algorithm was set to =20 Gauthier and Berry,
2006. The penalization parameters for the AWFS based on
independent radiation mode control were
1
=2,
2
=
3
=0.2
and
4
=0.1.
The impulse responses reproduced by AWFS are shown
in Fig. 9a by FXLMS and Fig. 9b by independent radia-
tion mode control. Clearly, the imperfections of WFS shown
in Fig. 8 are partly corrected by AWFS even outside the error
sensor array note that the two central monitors see Fig. 2
correspond to two of the error sensors. Both the modied
FXLMS and independent radiation mode control algorithms
reduce these imperfections. The oor reection is attenuated
and the low frequency echo disappears from the sound eld
reproduced by AWFS. Moreover, the direct sound eld re-
produced by AWFS is closer to the target wave eld than the
sound eld reproduced by WFS. Therefore, AWFS compen-
sates for the room effects, for the loudspeaker colorations,
and for some classical WFS approximations which introduce
supplementary physical errors in the reproduced sound eld.
According to Fig. 9, the independent radiation mode
control algorithm Fig. 9b achieves a better sound eld
reproduction than the FXLMS algorithm Fig. 9a at the
farther monitoring sensors. This is visible for the direct
sound eld reproduced by independent radiation mode con-
trol, in which case the negative sign excursion of the impulse
responses one or two samples after the direct wave front
passage is drastically reduced for nearly all monitoring sen-
sors. This is due to the ability to ne tune each of the radia-
tion modes with the independent radiation mode controller
realization of AWFS. In the FXLMS case, the higher-order
radiation modes are often far too penalized and their possible
benecial contribution in the sound eld reproduction pro-
cess is greatly diminished. Further explanations are pre-
sented in Sec. III D.
A different representation of the results allows for a gen-
eral comparison between WFS and the two AWFS algo-
rithms in terms of the reproduction error reduction as a func-
tion of space. Figure 10 shows the normalized energies of the
reproduction errors at each of the monitoring microphones.
They are computed from the differences between the virtual
and reproduced impulse responses IRs shown in Figs. 8
and 9 and from others IRs measured for different virtual
source positions. The normalized energies are computed as
the sums of the quadratic error signals differences between
virtual IRs and reproduced IRs in the time domain over the
length of the IRs normalized by the total quadratic sum of
the virtual IR, divided by the number of monitoring micro-
phones. The normalization is thus achieved through division
by the mean virtual IR energy at the monitoring micro-
phones. According to the results shown in Fig. 10, the AWFS
algorithms reduce on average the reproduction errors in com-
parison with WFS by controlling the reproduction errors at
the four error sensors two of which are monitors 4 and 5.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
Time [s]
Direct and target
wave fronts
Floor
reflection
Low frequency
reflection
Monitor no
FIG. 8. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for WFS with the
system in the hemianechoic chamber.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.3
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
(a)
(b)
FIG. 9. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for AWFS a
FXLMS algorithm with a penalization parameter set to 20 and b indepen-
dent radiation mode control with the system in the hemianechoic chamber.
1996 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis
AWFS based on independent radiation mode control effec-
tively provides a larger reproduction region since the higher-
order modes are included in the controller in that case. Note
that the size of the effective control region is also blurred by
this type of representation which includes all the frequencies.
AWFS by modied FXLMS provides a signicant reproduc-
tion error reduction at the two central monitoring micro-
phones, but the reproduction errors are not more important
for the other monitoring microphones. AWFS performs better
than WFS for all the reported virtual source positions.
2. Harmonic AWFS and radiation modes at 220 Hz
Harmonic AWFS results in the hemianechoic space, not
reported in this paper for the sake of brevity, were in agree-
ment with the broadband results described in Sec. III B.2. To
support previous propositions Gauthier and Berry, 2006
concerning the shapes of the radiation modes, Fig. 11 pre-
sents the four pressure modes at the error sensor array.
Clearly, these pressure modes correspond to nite approxi-
mations of pressure, pressure gradients, and crossed second-
order spatial derivative. Accordingly, the interpretation of
AWFS based on independent radiation mode control or in-
dependent control of pressure, pressure gradients, and
crossed second-order spatial derivative originally presented
by Gauthier and Berry 2006 is supported by this experi-
ment. This also explains why, in the broadband experiments,
the size of the control region is larger for the AWFS algo-
rithm based on independent radiation mode control which
allows the higher-order radiation modes to converge. More
detailed harmonic AWFS experiments are reported in Sec.
III C.
C. Laboratory space and reverberation chamber
The following summarizes the results obtained for the
laboratory space and the reverberation chamber. As these two
reproduction environments enhance the room effect on WFS,
only parts of the results are shown to support the effective-
ness of AWFS to compensate for the room effect.
1. Broadband AWFS
Since the rooms IRs were longer than for the hemi-
anechoic space, the identied IRs and control lters were
selected to have 512 coefcients for the laboratory space and
1024 for the reverberation chamber with an average over 200
realizations. The resulting synthesis and analysis lters are
shown in Figs. 12 and 13 for the laboratory space. Once
again, a phase optimization algorithm is applied in the fre-
quency domain to smooth the source and pressure modes
phase responses before inverse discrete-time Fourier trans-
form. Moreover, a bandpass lter fourth-order Butterworth,
60540 Hz is applied to all synthesis and analysis lters to
reduce DC components that tend to appear in long SVD
lters. Clearly the responses of the synthesis and analysis
lters are longer than for the hemianechoic room. These l-
ters are again concentrated impulses and show a reduced
time leakage, thanks to the phase optimization and radiation
modes reordering algorithms which avoid any abrupt phase
or gain transitions in the frequency domain before inverse
discrete-time Fourier transform.
Measured impulse responses reproduced by classical
WFS are shown in Fig. 14 for the laboratory space and in
Fig. 15 for the reverberation chamber. The difference be-
-0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
Normalized energies of the errors
-0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
-0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
-0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
x
1
[m]
Position #1
Position #2
Position #3
Position #4
FIG. 10. Normalized energies of the error signals at each monitoring micro-
phone for four virtual source positions in the hemianechoic chamber. Posi-
tion 1: x
o
=0, 4, 0 m, position 2: x
o
=4, 0, 0 m, position 3: x
0
=0, 1.5, 0 m, and position 4: x
0
=1.19, 0.91, 0 m. WFS errors;
errors of AWFS by FXLMS; and errors of AWFS by independent
radiation mode control.
Pressure mode 1 Pressure mode 2
Pressure mode 3 Pressure mode 4
FIG. 11. Measured pressure modes at 220 Hz in the hemianechoic chamber.
Sensor position; positive real part; negative real part;
positive imaginary part; and negative imaginary part. Symbol diameter
illustrates the magnitude of the corresponding value. ---: Corresponding
computed free-eld directivity.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis 1997
tween the WFS reproduced sound eld and the virtual sound
eld at the monitor sensor array is increased when compared
with WFS in the hemianechoic room.
AWFS was tested to reduce the reproduction errors at
the four error microphones. The convergence coefcient was
set to 0.000002, and the penalization parameter was set to 30
for AWFS by FXLMS in laboratory space. The individual
convergence coefcients were set to
1
=0.0000075,
2
=
3
=0.00003, and
4
=0.00015, and the penalization parameters
were set to
1
=2,
2
=
3
=0.2, and
4
=0.1 for AWFS by
independent radiation mode control in the laboratory. The
convergence coefcient was set to 0.0000005, and the penal-
ization parameter was set to 0 for AWFS by FXLMS in the
reverberation chamber. The individual convergence coef-
cients were
1
=0.0000125,
2
=
3
=0.00005, and
4
=0.00025, and the penalization parameters were set to
m
=0 for AWFS by independent radiation mode control in the
reverberation chamber. Although the penalization parameters
are set to zero in the reverberation chamber, the WFS solu-
tion still contributes to the AWFS solution because the adap-
tive lters are initialized with the WFS solution. The conver-
gence coefcients are smaller than for the hemianechoic case
because the size of the control lters is increased.
The reproduced impulse responses by AWFS are shown
in Figs. 16 and 17 Figs. 16a and 17a for AWFS by FX-
LMS and Figs. 16b and 17b for AWFS by independent
radiation mode control. The imperfections of WFS shown in
Figs. 14 and 15 are partly corrected by AWFS even outside
the error sensor array. Both the modied FXLMS and inde-
pendent radiation mode control algorithms reduce these im-
perfections for the two reproduction spaces. Remarkably, the
100 200 300 400 500
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
A
m
p
.
Source mode #1
100 200 300 400 500
-0.05
0
0.05
A
m
p
.
Source mode #2
100 200 300 400 500
-0.04
0
0.04
A
m
p
.
Source mode #3
1 128 256 384 512
-0.1
0
0.1
A
m
p
.
Source mode #4
Samples
FIG. 12. First synthesis lters Gauthier and Berry, 2006 in the time do-
main for source modes 14 in the laboratory space. Each plot includes 24
synthesis lters to create the given source mode with 24 reproduction
sources. Each lter includes 512 coefcients.
100 200 300 400 500
0
0.2
0.4
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #1
100 200 300 400 500
-0.2
0
0.2
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #2
100 200 300 400 500
-0.1
0
0.1
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #3
1 128 256 384 512
-0.4
0
0.4
A
m
p
.
Pressure mode #4
Samples
FIG. 13. Analysis lters Gauthier and Berry, 2006 in the time domain for
pressure modes 14 in the laboratory space. Each plot includes 4 analysis
lters to catch the pressure mode with 4 pressure sensors. Each lter in-
cludes 512 coefcients.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
Direct wave front
Floor
reflection
FIG. 14. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for WFS with the
system in the laboratory space.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
FIG. 15. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for WFS with the
system in the reverberation chamber.
1998 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis
room compensation is achieved over a wide time range.
Again, more than simply reducing the undesirable room ef-
fect in the reproduced sound eld, AWFS more closely re-
produces the direct sound eld than WFS.
The normalized energies of the errors at each of the
monitor microphones are shown in Fig. 18 for the laboratory
space. The AWFS algorithms reduce on average the repro-
duction errors in comparison with WFS by controlling the
reproduction errors at the four error sensors. AWFS based on
independent radiation mode control gives a larger reproduc-
tion region as the higher-order radiation modes typically
corresponding to higher-order spatial derivatives are in-
cluded in the controller in that case. This again highlights the
benets of AWFS based on independent radiation mode con-
trol. AWFS performs better than WFS for all the reported
virtual source positions. Similar results were obtained for the
reverberation chamber with different virtual source positions.
2. Harmonic AWFS
The harmonic AWFS results are only reported for the
laboratory space. Consistent results were obtained for the
reverberation chamber. According to the typical FRF shown
in Fig. 5, the following frequencies were selected for on-line
AWFS: 133, 160, 220, 280, 340, and 400 Hz.
Examples of pressure modes are shown for 220 Hz in
Fig. 19. Again the radiation modes approach simple multi-
pole directivity patterns: monopole, two orthogonal dipoles,
and tesseral quadrupole at the sensor array.
The convergence coefcient was set to 0.01 for all fre-
quencies while the penalization parameter was xed to 1
except at 133 and 160 Hz where they were set to 0.0005 and
0.005, respectively for AWFS by the modied FXLMS al-
gorithm. The convergence coefcients and penalization pa-
rameters for the AWFS algorithm based on independent ra-
diation mode control were then adjusted to reach a roughly
similar residual error level at the error sensors than for the
FXLMS algorithm. However, each higher-order radiation
modes were less penalized than for the FXLMS algorithm
when possible to increase the performance outside the error
sensor location Gauthier and Berry, 2006. This was
achieved using either
m
= or
m+1

m
. The coefcients
are shown in Table I.
The results are summarized in Fig. 20, for a virtual
source in x
o
=0, 4, 0 m, where the color axis represents the
E
LS
normalized criterion at each of the monitor positions
along x
1
. The criterion E
LS
is the moving average of the
quadratic sum of the reproduction errors normalized by the
quadratic sum of the target signals at the monitor sensors. As
one can note, the WFS performance is reduced in compari-
son with the other algorithms. As for the hemianechoic re-
sults, using the FXLMS algorithm, the error is effectively
reduced near the error sensors. However, as frequency in-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.46
0.48
0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
(a)
(b)
FIG. 16. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for AWFS a
FXLMS algorithm with a penalization parameter set to 20 and b indepen-
dent radiation mode control with the system in the laboratory space.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.88
0.9
0.92
0.94
-0.5
0
0.5
Monitor no Time [s]
I
m
p
.
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
[
1
/
m
]
(a)
(b)
FIG. 17. Reproduced thick gray lines and virtual thin black lines impulse
responses at the monitoring sensor array shown in Fig. 2 for AWFS a
FXLMS algorithm with =0 and b independent radiation mode control
with
m
=0 with the system in the reverberation chamber.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis 1999
creases, this control region is spatially reduced. This is in
accordance with typical active noise control results. AWFS
based on independent radiation mode control advantageously
produces, as shown in Fig. 20, a larger control region since
the higher-order radiation modes which typically imply
higher-order spatial derivatives at the error sensor array see
Fig. 19 are allowed to converge.
D. Importance of the higher-order radiation modes
The importance of the higher-order radiation modes is
highlighted by a specic set of experiments. The size of the
active sound eld reproduction effective region is shown in
Fig. 21 in relation to the acoustic wavelength. In Fig. 21,
several harmonic AWFS results with the WFS solution
forced to zero are presented for a harmonic wave eld at
400 Hz in the laboratory space. The WFS solution is forced
to zero to illustrate only the effects of the individual radiation
modes. Clearly, when AWFS based on independent radiation
mode control includes only one radiation mode, the results
correspond to AWFS by FXLMS. When the number of
-0.6 0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
Normalized energies of the errors
-0.6 0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
-0.6 0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
0
-0.6 0.3 0 0.3 0.6
10
-1
10
0
x
1
[m]
Position #1
Position #2
Position #3
Position #5
FIG. 18. Normalized energies of the error signals at each monitoring micro-
phone for four virtual source positions in the laboratory space. Position 1:
x
o
=0, 4, 0 m, position 2: x
o
=4, 0, 0 m, position 3: x
o
=0, 1.5, 0 m,
and position 5: x
o
=2.8289, 2.8234, 0 m. WFS errors; errors of
AWFS by FXLMS; and errors of AWFS by independent radiation mode
control.
Pressure mode 1 Pressure mode 2
Pressure mode 3 Pressure mode 4
FIG. 19. Measured pressure modes at 220 Hz in the laboratory. Sensor
position; positive real part; , negative real part; positive imagi-
nary part; and negative imaginary part. Symbol diameter illustrates the
magnitude of the corresponding value. --- Corresponding computed free-
eld directivity.
TABLE I. Convergence coefcients
m
and regularization parameters
m

for harmonic AWFS based on independent radiation mode control in labo-

ratory space.
Freq. Hz
m

m
133 0.01, 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.001
160 0.02, 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.001
220 0.02, 0.2, 0.2, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.001
280 0.02, 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.0005
340 0.02, 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.001
400 0.02, 0.1, 0.1, 0.5 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.001
-0.5
0
0.5
133160 220 280 340 400
WFS
x
1
[
m
]
-0.5
0
0.5
133160 220 280 340 400
AWFS by FXLMS
-0.5
0
0.5
133160 220 280 340 400
AWFS by ind. radiation mode control
Freq. [Hz]
x
1
[
m
]
x
1
[
m
]
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
E
LS
FIG. 20. Normalized E
LS
criterion at the monitoring sensors for various
frequencies and harmonic algorithms after convergence in the laboratory.
From top to bottom: WFS, AWFS based on FXLMS and AWFS based on
independent radiation mode control. . Measurement points. The
0.1 contour lines; --- the 0.25 contour lines; and the 0.5 contour lines.
2000 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis
higher-order modes included in AWFS based on independent
radiation mode control increases, the size of the effective
control region increases from a quarter wavelength to half
the wavelength. This supports the previous observation on
the importance of the higher-order radiation modes to en-
large the effective active sound eld reproduction region.
The adaptation coefcients and penalization parameters are
shown in Table I.
IV. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
This paper investigated the objective performances of
AWFS to compensate for the room effects or any sound
eld reproduction errors on WFS in experimental situations.
The basic idea of AWFS is a simple combination of active
noise control principles and classic WFS. Such a combina-
tion is entirely contained in the AWFS general cost function
Gauthier and Berry, 2006, which consists of minimization
of the reproduction errors typically caused by the room re-
sponse Klehs and Sporer, 2003; Sporer and Klehs, 2004 or
the system limitation Corteel, 2006b at several points in
space, along with a regularization that penalizes the adaptive
solution departure from the classic WFS solution. This pe-
nalizing is what makes AWFS original in comparison with
other sound eld reproduction techniques based on active
sound control and adaptive ltering.
The results presented in this paper show that the AWFS
system successfully achieves active sound eld reproduction
in more or less reective spaces: hemianechoic chamber,
laboratory space, and reverberation chamber. These experi-
ments validate the AWFS concept and demonstrate the physi-
cal possibility of progressive sound eld reproduction in re-
ective rooms. For the three rooms, it was shown that AWFS
reduces the reproduction errors with respect to WFS repro-
duction errors in the reproduction region. AWFS based on
independent control provides an extended effective area of
sound eld reproduction since each radiation mode conver-
gence is independently adjusted so that higher-order modes
converge in the allowed time. Since these higher-order
modes are of great importance to enlarge the effective repro-
duction region, the possibility to control them independently
is a major advantage of AWFS based on independent radia-
tion mode control in comparison with modied FXLMS,
which does not allow such independent control of each ra-
diation mode convergence.
One of the original contributions of these results is that
they establish, for the rst time to the authors knowledge,
the validity of the AWFS concept based on independent ra-
diation mode control including SVD broadband lters for
broadband impulse reproduction by the way of controlled
experiments. Bai and Elliott 2004 already considered SVD
plant decoupling for cross-talk cancellation, but their paper
was limited to theoretical investigations. Moreover, at the
heart of the AWFS concept, is the denition of an a priori
solution WFS which, to the authors knowledge, was never
used or experimentally tested within an adaptive signal pro-
cessing or active noise control architecture. This paper on
experimental AWFS supports the practical interest of AWFS.
The reported experiments were performed with a spe-
cic reproduction source and error sensor conguration.
However, AWFS is not limited to a specic conguration.
These experiments with AWFS were performed to evaluate
the method. AWFS could be tested with different congura-
tions or for different practical problems: sound environment
reproduction, mock-up with sound eld simulation system,
etc. A typical AWFS extension would, for example, include
more loudspeakers and more error sensors. Indeed, we ex-
pect that a larger effective reproduction region is achievable
with a compact sensor array which would include more sen-
sors, like a dense circular microphone array. Three-
dimensional congurations of either loudspeaker or micro-
phone arrays could also be implemented within the AWFS
framework.
The tested AWFS system and implementation should be
regarded as proto-AWFS. Indeed, before AWFS can be used
for a practical application, several modications should be
done. For example, to reduce the obstruction of the error
sensors in the listening area, the control lters can be calcu-
lated off-line for the virtual source positions and saved, after
which the error sensors can be removed. An example of ef-
fective bank of compensation lters for WFS direct-sound-
eld equalization has been reported by Corteel 2006b.
Moreover, several adaptive algorithms could be applied to
AWFS, such as frequency-domain adaptation, sparse adapta-
tion, etc. Elliott, 2001 to improve the convergence proper-
ties of the algorithm or to reduce the computational burden.
Future research on AWFS should be conducted within a
specic practical application such as sound environment re-
production or sound reproduction in a dedicated listening
room to evaluate the potential of the method in real situa-
tions, possibly using more reproduction sources and more
error sensors. AWFS and the corresponding algorithms
should also be tested and evaluated on the basis of subjective
performance.
-0.5 0 0.5
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
x
1
[m]
E
L
S
(
m
o
n
i
t
o
r
s
)
AWFS, FXLMS
SVD with first mode only
SVD with modes 1 to 3
SVD with all modes
/2
0.8575 m
/4
FIG. 21. Normalized E
LS
criterion at the monitoring sensors for harmonic
algorithms at 400 Hz after convergence in the laboratory space using AWFS
with the WFS solution forced to zero. The wavelength and some corre-
sponding fractions are included.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 P.-A. Gauthier and A. Berry: Experiments with adaptive wave eld synthesis 2001
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by NSERC Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada, NATEQ
Fond Qubecois de la Recherche sur la Nature et les Tech-
nologies, VRQ Valorisation Recherche Qubec, and Uni-
versit de Sherbrooke. This research was conducted in col-
laboration with CIRMMT Center for Interdisciplinary
Research in Music Media and Technology, McGill Univer-
sity. The authors acknowledge the contribution of Emman-
uel Corratg, who contributed to the construction of the har-
monic AWFS system and harmonic experiments.
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