I.

Eukaryotic Chromosome structure: Chromosomes are small packages of genetic

information that contain the genes (informational units of DNA). Each species has a
characteristic number of chromosomes.

1. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein. This DNA-protein

complex is called chromatin.

2. Chromosomes come in pairs

3. Members of a given pair of chromosomes are called homologous

chromosomes.

4. A cell that has 2 of each chromosome is diploid (2n), one of each is

haploid (1n).

II. Cell Cycle

This occurs in somatic cells. The time between divisions is called the generation time.

1. Interphase:

A. G1 Phase (Gap 1): the growth phase of the cell. It is during this
phase that the decision to divide is made

B. S Phase: DNA synthesis phase. When a cell is about to divide,

each chromosome replicates itself, forming sister chromatids.
Each is still one chromosome but with twice as much DNA. They
remain attached to each other at the centromere. A disk of protein
called the kinetochore holds them together.

C. G2 Phase (Gap 2): Further preparations cell division. a single

centrosome found near the nucleus divides to provide two
centrosomes. Microtubule formation is initiated at these sites. Each
centrosome may contain a pair of centrioles, each pair made up of
one "parent" and one "daughter" centriole

2. M Phase: Mitosis is the phase in which the nucleus divides.

A. Prophase

a. Condensation of chromosomes continues throughout

prophase.
 b. The nuclear envelope breaks down into small vesicles

c. The mitotic fibers form: The centrosomes that contain

the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell.
Microtubules form from the centrioles, growing out in all
directions to form a star shaped structure called the aster.
The microtubules attach to the kinetochore in the
centromere of each sister chromatid to separate poles of
the cell.

d. Chromosomes start to move toward the center of the cell

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B. Metaphase:

a. The chromosomes line up in the center of the cell,

equidistant from the two poles on the metaphase plate.

C. Anaphase:

a. Each centromere splits in two, freeing the two sister

chromatids to be drawn to the opposite poles of the spindle
in the next phase.

b. Daughter chromosomes move rapidly to opposite poles

of the cell.

D. Telophase:

a. The spindle apparatus is disassembled

b. A nuclear envelope begins to form around each group of

chromosomes.

c. Chromosomes begin to uncoil.

3. Cytokinesis: Division of the Cytoplasm: The division of the cytoplasm of the

cell, and the cleavage of the cell into roughly two equal halves is called
cytokinesis.

A. Animals: the cell is pinched in two with a constricting belt of

microfilaments. This produces a cleavage furrow, or indentation
around the cell.
 B. Plants: Plant cells assemble membrane components in their
interior, at right angles to the spindle. This partition is called a cell
plate. It continues to grow outward until it reaches the interior
surface of the plasma membrane and fuses with it. Cellulose is then
laid down on the new membranes, creating two new cell walls.

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III. Control of the Cell Cycle

a. Internal control: The Cdk-cyclin complex is able to

phosphorylate other proteins that can then bind to DNA and start
the replication process.

b. External control: the signal to divide may come from outside a

cell and are generally called growth factors. These bind to target
cells and tell them to divide — enter the S phase. Several
hormones are also growth factors.

IV. MEIOSIS — the other M Phase

Meiosis is nuclear division that decreases the ploidy level of the cells by
1/2

1. There are 2 successive nuclear and cell divisions potentially producing

4 cells.

2. DNA replication occurs only one time even though there are two
divisions.

3. Each of the 4 cells is haploid.

4. The homologous chromosomes containing genetic information form

each parent is independently distributed to each new cell.

5. There is some exchange of parts between homologous chromosomes

Meiosis I: Reduces the chromosome number

A. Prophase I: All of the same thing happen as in prophase of mitosis

with the following additions:

1. Synapsis: pairing of homologous chromosomes

 2. Crossing-over: DNA is exchanged between homologous
chromosomes.

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B. Metaphase I: Very similar to metaphase of mitosis except the spindle

fibers are connected to only one side of each chromosome. When the
chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, there is a independent
mixing of maternal and paternal chromosomes (independent assortment
of chromosomes).

C. Anaphase I: Because the microtubules are attached to only one of the

centromeres, the centromeres are not pulled apart and whole chromosomes
are pulled to either end of the cell.

D. Telophase I: The stage at which the two compliments of chromosomes

gather together at their respective poles is called telophase I. Cytokinesis
will occur in some organisms.

Haploid number is reached upon finishing Meiosis I.

Meiosis II: Meiosis II occurs to separate the sister chromatids. Meiosis II

is very similar to mitosis.

E. Prophase II: spindle fibers form

F. Metaphase II: same things happen as in metaphase of mitosis.

G. Anaphase II: sister chromatids are separated.

H. Telophase II: the spindle fibers are dismantled and nuclear envelopes
develop around the groups of chromosomes

Chromosomes are haploid and unduplicated.

I. Genetic variability:

a. crossing over

b. independent assortment of chromosomes

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