Flow Assurance Master Class

Nihl Gler-Quadir, PhD

Principal Consultant, EICE International Inc.

1
What is Flow Assurance?
Operational Safety
Environmental Footprint
Appraisal
Conceptual
FEED
Detailed
Design
Remediation
Surveillance
Diagnostics
Monitoring
Operations
Planning
Design
Control
Operations
Optimization










Hydrate Inhibition
Wax Suppression
Emulsification
Corrosion
Drag Reduction
Water Treatment
Asphaltene Inhibition
Radial Conduction
Free Convection
Forced Convection
Annulus Radiation
Wellbore Heating
Pipeline Cooldown
Transient Analysis
Black Oil Modeling
Vapor-Liquid Equilibria
PVT Analysis
Hydrate Prediction
Wax Deposition
Asphaltene
Water Analysis
Reservoir Inflow
Nodal Analysis
Artificial Lift
Pressure Maintenance
Integrated Asset Model
Well Testing
Well Completion
Multiphase Flow
Pipeline Network
Heavy Oil
Steam Injection
CO
2
Sequestration
LNG & NGL Lines
Transient Analysis
Economic Justification
Heat Transfer Fluid Flow Fluid Properties Chemical Treatment Integrated Analysis
Maintain
production
reliably,
economically
and safely
from sandface
to processing
facilities
2
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000

0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature
(F)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)

Reservoir
Platform
Hydrate
Asphaltene
Wax
Bubble Point
C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l
s

Heating
Insulation
WELLBORE
PIPELINE
RISER
The Challenge of Flow Assurance
Boosting
Operational Goals
Ensure uninterrupted flow 24x7x365 at target rates
Avoid operating in hydrate region for extended periods
Control wax deposition in pipeline
Limit asphaltene precipitation in well
Manage impact of slugs on processing facilities
Design Objectives
Adequate throughput capacity for life of field production
Ability to monitor entire system from sandface to platform
Infrastructure in place to respond operationally
3
Day 3 - Integrated Workflows

H. Integrated Flow Assurance Analysis
Combining fluid flow, heat transfer and
thermodynamics
Deepwater/subsea systems
Heavy oil transport
Drag reduction
Monitoring and control

I. Integrated Production Analysis
The economics of flow assurance
Reservoir decline how it impacts production
Introduction to artificial lift methods
Integrated asset modeling reservoir,
production, process plant, economics

J. Flow Assurance Considerations in
Conceptual Design & Operations
A hands-on session where participants will
learn to apply the concepts discussed in the
preceding sessions in a practical example
involving the creation of a field development
plan for a hypothetical asset with particular
emphasis on the impact of flow assurance
issues on the overall design and operation.

Day 2 Applying Flow Assurance

D. Thermodynamics
Single phase properties oil, gas and water
Black oil and empirical models
Compositional PVT analysis
Hydrates, wax and asphaltenes prediction
Scales

E. Transport Properties
Viscosity prediction methods
Oil-water viscosity emulsions
Other fluid properties

F. Heat Transfer Analysis
conduction, convection and radiation
Heat transfer through composite layers
Wellbore heat transfer
Pipeline heat transfer
Wellbore and pipeline heating

G. Transient Phenomena
Basic principles of single phase transient
flow
Multiphase flow transients
Pipeline startup, shut-in and blowdown
Terrain induced slugging

Day 1 Basics of Flow Assurance

Introduction
Introductions
What is Flow Assurance
The Challenge (Operations and Design)
Course Overview

A. Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
Single phase flow
One-dimensional momentum balance equation
The concept of friction factor
Pipeline transmission applications

B. Multiphase Flow Fundamentals
Basic multiphase flow concepts
Flow patterns, holdup and pressure drop
Horizontal and near-horizontal flow
Vertical, inclined and downward flow

C. Multiphase Phenomena in Flow Assurance
Modeling multiphase flow behavior
Three-phase oil-gas-water flow
Impact of multiphase flow on corrosion / erosion
Hydrodynamic slugging
Course Outline
4

Single phase flow

One-dimensional momentum balance equation

The concept of roughness and its influence on friction factor

Pipeline transmission applications
A. Fluid Flow Fundamentals
5
Single Phase Flow
Type of Pipeline
Primary Operating Consideration
Gas Gathering System Condensate, Water, Network
Gas Transmission Throughput, Compression
Gas Distribution Low Pressure Network
Refined Products Batch Movement
Heavy Oil Viscosity
Volatile Hydrocarbon PVT behavior

Hydraulics
analyze flow and predict pressure from fluid behavior
Heat Transfer
analyze and predict temperature behavior
Thermodynamics
how pressure and temperature impact fluid behavior

Key Flow Assurance Issues
6
Momentum Balance
Potential Energy at A
+ Kinetic Energy at A
From the Law of Energy Conservation:
Potential Energy at B
+ Kinetic Energy at B
- Friction Loss in
Pipe =
B
A

Total Pressure Gradient =
Pressure Gradient due to Friction (Frictional Loss)
+ Pressure Gradient due to Elevation (Potential Energy)
+ Pressure Gradient due to Velocity Change (Kinetic Energy)
where (with appropriate units):
frictional gradient = - f v |v| / (2 g
c
D)
elevation gradient = - g/ g
c
. Sin
kinetic energy gradient = - v . dv/dL
is relatively small and generally ignored
(except for high velocity gradients, e.g. flare lines)

L
7
Example A1 Pipeline Pressure Gradients
B
A
1) friction gradient = - f v |v| / (2 g
c
12/12)
= - 0.01 * 5 * 25
2
/ (2 * 32.2 * 1)
= - 0.49 (lbf/ft
2
) / ft
= - 0.49 / 144 (in^2/ft^2) = -3.37E-3 psi/ft
2) elevation gradient = - g/ g
c
. Sin
= - 5 * sin(5) / 144 = -3.03 E-3 psi/ft
3) kinetic energy gradient = 0
4) Total pressure gradient = - 3.37E-3 - 3.03E-3 = -6.4E-3 psi/ft
5) Pressure at B = 1000 10000 * 6.4E-3 = 936 psi
= 5 deg
L = 10,000 ft D = 12 inch
v = 25 ft/sec
= 5 lb/ft
3
f = 0.01
Determine the pressure at B, when the pressure at A is 1000 psi
8
Friction Factor
How to determine the friction factor term f in the frictional gradient:
frictional gradient = - f v |v| / (2 g
c
D)

dimensionless Reynolds number:
R
e
= v D / (6.72E-4 * )

Note: multiplier is to convert viscosity from cp to lb/sec/ft

Moody Chart: f = f(R
e
,/D)
. Laminar Flow Region: 0 < R
e
< 2300
f = 64 / R
e


Turbulent Flow Region: R
e
> 4000
Colebrook-White Equation:
f = 1 /(1.74 2 log (2 /D) + 18.7 / R
e
f
0.5
)
2


relative roughness = /D

Jains eqn:
1/(f
1/2
) = 1.14-2 log(e/d+21.25/Re
0.9
)

Class Question: How do we handle the transition?
2300< R
e
< 4000

9
Example A2 Friction Factor
Find the friction factor in a 12-inch gas transmission pipeline, given the following
data: v = 25 ft/sec, D = 12 inch, = 0.0018 inch, = 5 lb/ft
3
, = 0.01 cp
Alternate Numerical Method (Colebrook-White)

1) Set f = 0.015 as initial estimate for friction factor
2) Update f for next iteration from Colebrook-White equation:
f = 1 /(1.74 2 log (2 /D) + 18.7 / R
e
f
0.5
)
2
= 1 / (1.74 2 log (2 x 0.00015) + 18.7 / 18601190 x 0.0185)
2

= 0.01302455
3) Repeat previous step with f = 0.01302455
4) Converge until error within tolerance (3 iterations, f=0.01302956)
1) Relative roughness /D = 0.0018 / 12 = 0.00015
2) Reynolds number R
e
= v (D/12) / (6.72E-4 x )
= 25 x (12/12) x 5 / (6.72E-4 x 0.01) = 18,601,190
3) From Moody chart, friction factor f = 0.015 (estimate)
Note: Colebrook-White generally converges within 2-3 iterations
10
Example A3 Transition Zone Friction Factor
Determine the friction factor for a 12-inch heavy oil pipeline, given
the following :
v = 1 ft/sec, D = 12 inch, = 0.0018 inch, = 60 lb/ft^3, = 30 cp
1) Relative roughness /D = 0.0018 / 12 = 0.00015

1) Reynolds number R
e
= v D / (6.72E-4 x )
= 1 x (12/12) x 60 / (6.72E-4 x 30) = 2976 (transition)

2) From laminar flow model, friction factor f = 64 / R
e
= 0.021504

1) From Colebrook-White (or Moody chart), turbulent friction factor = 0.0438

2) From interpolation, weighted friction factor at transition = 0.03039
Note: Pipe roughness has minimal impact in transition zone
11
Symbol Definition
f Friction factor
Density (lb/ft^3)
v Velocity (ft/sec)
g
c
Conversion factor (32.2 lbf-sec^2/lb-ft)
g Acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec^2)
D Pipe internal diameter (inch)
L Pipe length (ft)
dv/dL Velocity gradient (ft/sec^2)
P Pressure (psi)
dP/dL Pressure gradient (psi/ft)
Absolute viscosity (cp)
Absolute roughness (inch)
R
e
Reynolds number
Terminology
12

Basic multiphase flow concepts

Flow patterns, holdup and pressure drop

Horizontal and near-horizontal flow

Vertical, inclined and downward flow
B. Multiphase Flow Fundamentals
13
Basic Concepts of Two-Phase Flow
V
G
V
L
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

h
L
A
L
A
G
Liquid Phase (with Gas Bubbles)
Gas Phase (with Liquid Entrainment)
Holdup H
L
= A
L
/ (A
L
+ A
G
)


Slippage = v
G
- v
L


New concept of holdup H
L
as the volumetric liquid phase fraction and H
L ns
as the no-slip
holdup

H
L ns
= q
L
/ (q
L
+ q
G
) where q
L
and q
G
the phase volumetric flow rates at in situ conditions

Significant slippage between phases (gas is faster, except for downhill flow)
H
L
> H
L ns

Frictional pressure gradient much higher (due to interfacial shear
i
)
Velocity of wave propagation is orders of magnitude slower
Distribution of phases based on prevailing flow pattern (dependent on geometry, in situ rates,
fluid properties)
Concept of superficial phase velocities:

v
SL
= q
L
/ Area of Pipe = v
L
x H
L

v
SG
= q
G
/ Area of Pipe = v
G
x (1 - H
L
)

and Mixture Velocity, v
m
= v
SL
+ v
SG

i

Extending Single Phase Flow:

wG

wL

14
Example B1: Multiphase Flow Parameters
Area = D
2
/ 4 = (3.14) x ( 3/12)
2
/4= 0.049 ft
2


Q
L
= 1000 BPD x 5.615 (ft
3
/bbl) / 86400 (sec/day) = 0.065 ft
3
/sec @ Std conditions
Assuming incompressible liquid, q
L
= Q
L
= 0.065 ft
3
/sec

Q
G
= 1000 BPD x 1000 (SCF/bbl) / 86400 (sec/day) = 11.574 ft/sec @ Std conditions

q
G
= Q
G
x P
std
/ (P/z) x (T + 460) / (T
std
+ 460)
= 11.574 x (14.7 / (147/0.9)) x (460+100) / 520 = 1.122 ft
3
/sec

v
SL
= q
L
/ Area = 0.065 / 0.049 = 1.3 ft/sec

v
SG
= q
G
/ Area = 1.122 / 0.049 = 17.3 ft/sec

H
L ns
= q
L
/ (q
L
+ q
G
) = 0.065 / (0.065 + 1.122) = 0.055

v
L
= v
SL
/ H
L
= 1.3 / 0.25 = 5.3 ft/sec

v
G
= v
SG
/ (1 H
L
) = 17.3 / 0.75 = 23 ft/sec

Slip = v
G
v
L
= 17.7 ft/sec
Given an average holdup of 0.25, predict all relevant multiphase flow parameters
in a horizontal 3-inch ID flowline operating at a pressure of 147 psia and 100 deg
F producing 1000 BPD at a GOR of 1000 SCF/BBL. Use an average
compressibility factor of 0.9 and assume that none of the gas is in solution.
15
Horizontal Flow
Stratified (both Smooth and Wavy)
Intermittent (Elongated Bubble and Slug)
Dispersed Bubble
Annular

Vertical Flow
Bubble (Bubbly and Dispersed Bubble)
Intermittent (Slug & Churn)
Annular

Inclined Flow
Upward Inclination (see Vertical Flow)
Downward Inclination (see Horizontal Flow)
Multiphase Flow Patterns
Flow pattern boundaries may vary significantly with even slight changes in inclination
angle. As such, empirical horizontal and vertical pattern maps are not suitable for
predicting flow patterns in a pipe or wellbore where the inclination deviates by even a few
degrees from vertical/horizontal. Computer-generated mechanistic models that rigorously
account for inclination (e.g. Barnea et al) are more appropriate for such predictions.
16
Horizontal Flow Patterns
Stratified Flow
at low flow rates the liquid and gas separated due to gravity
at low gas velocities the liquid surface is smooth, (stratified
smooth)
at higher gas velocities, the liquid surface becomes wavy,
(stratified wavy, or wavy flow)
some liquid droplets might form in the gas phase.
Annular Flow
at high rates in gas dominated systems
part of the liquid flows as a film around the pipe circumference
the gas and remainder of the liquid (entrained droplets) flow in the
center
of the pipe.
the liquid film thickness asymmetric due to gravity also called as
annular-mist or mist flow..
Dispersed Bubble Flow
at high rates in liquid dominated systems
the flow is a frothy mixture of liquid and entrained gas bubbles
flow is steady with few oscillations.
also called as froth or bubble flow.
Slug Flow
at moderate gas and liquid velocities
alternating slugs of liquid and gas bubbles flow through the
pipeline.
Possible vibration problems, increased corrosion, and
downstream equipment problems due to its unsteady behavior.
Mandhane Map
(Empirical)
Bubble,
Elongated
Bubble
Flow
Slug
Flow
Stratified Flow
Dispersed
Flow
S
U
P
E
R
F
I
C
I
A
L

L
I
Q
U
I
D

V
E
L
O
C
I
T
Y

V
S
L
,


F
T
/
S
E
C

SUPERFICIAL GAS VELOCITY V
SG
, FT/SEC
Wav
e
Flo
w
Annular,
Annular
Mist
Flow
17
Vertical Flow Patterns
Taitel-Dukler-Barnea Model
(Mechanistic)
Superficial Gas Velocity (m/s
2
)
Superficial Liquid Velocity (m/s
2
)
S
u
p
e
r
f
i
c
i
a
l

L
i
q
u
i
d

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
2
)

Superficial Liquid Velocity (m/s
2
)

DISPERSED BUBBLE
BARNEA
TRANSITON
BUBBLY

SLUG OR CHURN

ANNULAR

Vertical Pipe Flow Patterns

BUBBLE
FLOW

ANNULAR
FLOW

SLUG
FLOW

CHURN
FLOW

Well Flow
18
Example B2: Predicting Flow Pattern
Procedure:
From inclination angle, determine appropriate prediction map to use
Estimate in situ rates from standard production rates
Compute superficial phase velocities
Predict flow pattern from map
Area = 3.14 x (3 /12)
2
/4 = 0.049 ft
2

Assuming incompressible liquid
q
L
= 1000 BPD x 5.615 (ft
3
/bbl) / 86400 (sec/day) = 0.065 ft
3
/sec

q
G
= 1000 BPD x 1000 (SCF/bbl) / 86400 (sec/day) x
(14.7 / (147/0.9)) x (460+100) / 520 = 1.122 ft
3
/sec

v
SL
= q
L
/ Area = 0.065 / 0.049 = 1.122 ft/sec
v
SG
= q
G
/ Area = 1.122 / 0.049 = 17.261 ft/sec

From Mandhane map (horizontal), flow pattern = SLUG
Find the prevailing multiphase flow pattern in a horizontal 3-inch ID flowline
operating at a pressure of 147 psia and 100 deg F producing 1000 BPD at a GOR
of 1000 SCF/BBL. Use an average compressibility factor of 0.9 and assume that
none of the gas is in solution.
19
Pressure Gradient in Two-Phase Flow

Total Pressure Gradient =
Pressure Gradient due to Friction (Frictional Loss)
+ Pressure Gradient due to Elevation (Potential Energy)
+ Pressure Gradient due to Velocity Change (Kinetic Energy)

where:
frictional gradient = - f
TP

TP
v
TP
|v
TP
| / (2 g
c
D)
elevation gradient = -
s
g/ g
c
. Sin
kinetic energy gradient = -
TP
v
TP
. dv
TP
/dL


The new two-phase flow terms introduced are:
slip-weighted mixture density (based on holdup correlation):

s
=
L
. H
L
+ (1 H
L
)
G

two-phase density, friction factor and velocity:

TP
, f
TP
, v
TP
which are all dependent on the pressure drop
calculation method (correlation)

20

Multiphase Flow Correlations
(from Chevron Pipeline Design Manual)

Pressure Drop
Near Horizontal
Low GOR - Beggs & Brill
Gas/Condensate
High Velocity Eaton-Oliemans
Low Velocity None
Near Vertical
Gas/Condensate Gray, Hagedorn & Brown
Gas/Oil - Hagedorn & Brown
Inclined Up - Beggs & Brill (fair)
Inclined/Vertical Down None (Beggs & Brill with caution)

Liquid Holdup
Near Horizontal
Low GOR - Beggs and Brill
Gas/Condensate none (Eaton better than
others)
Near Vertical
Gas/Condensate no slip
Gas/Oil - Hagedorn and Brown
Inclined Up
Low GOR - Beggs and Brill
Gas/Condensate
High Velocity none (use no slip)
Other none (use Beggs & Brill with
caution)
Inclined/Vertical Down none (Beggs & Brill with caution)

Flow Patterns
Near Horizontal Taitel-Dukler (except Dispersed-Bubble
boundary where a fixed V
SL
= 10 ft/sec is recommended)
Near Vertical Taitel-Dukler-Barnea
Recommendations
General Modeling Guidelines

Liquid holdup accuracy requires detailed pipeline elevation profile

Flow pattern-dependent mechanistic analysis is required for
accurate holdup prediction

Pressure profile is dependent on holdup accuracy (elevation
gradient)

Kinetic energy losses generally negligible (except low
pressure/high velocity)

Choice of correlation should be based on a range of factors
including geometry, fluid characteristics and field history

Mechanistic correlations (OLGAS, Tulsa) generally scale up better

Rigorous 3-phase analysis may be required for low velocity flow
with significant water cut
21
Symbol Definition
V
L
, V
G
Phase velocities (ft/sec)
V
SL
, V
SG
Superficial phase velocities (ft/sec)
H
L
Liquid Holdup
H
L ns
No slip holdup
q
L
, q
G
in situ volumetric flow rates (ft
3
/sec)

i
,
wL
,
wG
Shear at interface / pipe wall (psi/ft)
h
L
Height of liquid level
A
L
, A
G
Cross-sectional area for phase
Terminology
Subscript Definition
L, G, O, W Liquid, Gas, Oil, Water
i, w Interface, wall
std Standard conditions (60 F, 14.7 psia)
TP Two-phase
ns No slip
m mixture
22

Modeling multiphase flow behavior

Three-phase oil-gas-water flow

Impact of multiphase flow on corrosion / erosion

Slugging phenomena

C. Multiphase Phenomena in Flow Assurance
23

All flow correlation employ a 3-step approach
Establish Flow Pattern
Determine Holdup
Calculate Pressure Drop
Empirical vs. Mechanistic correlations
Empirical correlations are primarily regression-based
Mechanistic models are based on physics + data
To model flow behavior in a pipe (or well)
Input Data
pipe geometry (diameter, length, elevation profile)
Fluid characteristics (oil, gas & water gravities)
Phase ratios (water cut, GOR)
Specified boundary conditions may be:
Pressure at inlet and Flow Rate at Outlet
Pressure at both ends
Flow Rate at Inlet and Pressure at Outlet
Calculation Procedure is Sequential and Iterative
Pipe divided into Segments
Temperature traverse calculations in parallel
Fluid properties (e.g. density, viscosity at every segment)
Results: pressure, holdup, flow pattern, temperature and phase properties at every
pipe segment
Network models (e.g. gathering system) are significantly more complex
Modeling Multiphase Flow Behavior
H
L
P T FP
Inlet Data:
Temperature, Fluid Characterization
Pressure or Flow Rate Boundary
Outlet Data:
Pressure or Flow Rate Boundary
H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP H
L
P T FP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance Along Pipeline, X
Pressure
Temperature
Holdup
24
Common Uncertainties:

Flow pattern boundaries are not fully understood (and blurry)
Holdup predictions do not scale up well for large diameter pipes
Pressure drop error could be as high as 20 percent
Errors greater for rough terrain, extreme velocities (high or low)
Uncertainties in Multiphase Flow Modeling
What Can be Done:

Define elevation profile in as much detail as possible
Define fluid accurately
use measurements (where available), e.g. bubble point, viscosity
Use correlations as appropriate for the situation (pipeline geometry, field
history, applicability)
Validate, validate, validate
leverage available data and past history to adjust model
A
B
Path 1
Path 2
Why will the computed pressure drop for Path 2 ALWAYS be greater?
25
Three-Phase Flow Analysis
Holdup H
L
= A
L
/ (A
L
+ A
G
)


Slippage = V
G
- V
L

V
G
V
L
h
L
Combined Oil + Water Liquid Phase (with Gas Bubbles)
Gas Phase (with Liquid Entrainment)

wL


Rigorous 3-phase flow analysis is an order of magnitude more complex
Most analysis methods tend to lump oil and water into a common
homogeneous liquid phase with no slippage between oil and water
When segregation does occur, water fraction in the liquid phase
Note: When segregation occurs, the water fraction in the liquid phase may
be several times higher than the water cut of the produced fluid. Why?
Two-Phase Flow
Rigorous Three-Phase Flow

wG

V
G
V
O
Oil Phase (with Gas Bubbles and Entrained Water Droplets)
Gas Phase (with Oil and Water Entrainment)
Holdup H
L
= A
L
/ (A
L
+
A
G
)
Water Fraction H
LW
= A
OW
/ A
L

Slippage (gas-oil) = V
G
V
O
Slippage (oil-water) = V
O
- V
W

i


wG


wL

Water Phase (with Gas Bubbles and Entrained Oil Droplets)
V
W

IW


IW

26
Example C1: Three-Phase Flow
From Example B1 (two-phase)
H
L
= 0.25
Pipe Area = 0.049 ftt
2

q
L
= 0.065 ft
3
/sec
q
G
= 1.122 ft
3
/sec
v
SG
= qG / Area = 1.122 / 0.049 = 17.3 ft/sec
H
L ns
= q
L
/ (q
L
+ q
G
) = 0.065 / (0.065 + 1.122) = 0.055
V
G
= V
SG
/ (1 H
L
) = 17.3 / 0.75 = 23 ft/sec

With Oil-Water Segregation:
Water Cut, F
W
= 0.10
Water Fraction H
LW
= 0.40

v
SO
= qL * (1 - F
W
) / Area = 0.065 * 0.9 / 0.049 = 1.19 ft/sec
v
SW
= qL * F
W
/ Area = 0.065 * 0.1 / 0.049 = 0.13 ft/sec

V
O
= V
SO
/ H
L
/ (1-H
LW
) = 1.19 / 0.25 / 0.6 = 7.95 ft/sec
V
W
= V
SW
/ H
L
/ H
LW
= 0.13 / 0.25 / 0.4 = 1.32 ft/sec

Slip
G-O
= V
G
V
O
= 15.1 ft/sec
Slip
O-W
= V
O
V
W
= 6.62 ft/sec
Example B1: Given an average holdup of 0.25, predict all relevant multiphase
flow parameters in a horizontal 3-inch ID flowline operating at a pressure of 147
psia and 100 deg F producing 1000 BPD at a GOR of 1000 SCF/BBL. Use an
average compressibility factor of 0.9 and assume that none of the gas is in
solution.

Extend your original analysis (in Example B1) to the three-phase flow scenario where there is segregation
between oil and water, assuming a produced water cut of 10 percent and the volumetric fraction of the water
being 40 percent of the total liquid phase.
27

Corrosion risk is higher when:
Produced gas is sour (definition: partial pressure of H
2
S and CO
2
> 0.05)
> 0.5 percent mole fraction for 1000 psi system pressure
Water volume is high
Water velocity is low
Low lying areas of water accumulation are at highest risk

Flow regime dependency
Stratified Flow corrosion damage can occur at low water velocity
Slug Flow high shear increases corrosion rate and reduces inhibitor
performance
Annular Flow high velocity combined with sand accelerates erosion/corrosion

Separation of aqueous phase increases corrosion risk
Higher water volume in line (e.g. 10% water cut has 40% volume)
Lower water velocity (from 5.3 ft/sec to 1.3 ft/sec)

Erosional (maximum) mixture velocity:

V
m,max
= 100 /
ns
(0.5)

Where

ns
=
L
. H
L
+ (1 H
L
)
G

Factors Impacting Corrosion / Erosion
28
Hydrodynamic Slugging
Hydrodynamic slugs are generated at moderate liquid and gas rates (see flow pattern
map) and are a common occurrence in most multiphase flowlines.
Slug Length Prediction

A. Prudhoe Bay Model (Brill et al)
Mean slug length (ft) is given by:

ln(L
m
) = - 2.663 + 5.441 (ln(D)
0.5
+ 0.059 ln(V
m
) (16-in 1979)
ln(L
m
) = - 3.579 + 7.075 (ln(D)
0.5
+ 0.059 ln(V
m
) 0.7712 ln(D) (16+24-in 1981)

log normal distribution predicted

B. Hill & Wood (BP 1990)
1) Calculate Lockhart-Martinelli parameter
X = (V
SL
/ V
SG
)
0.9
x (
L
/
G
)
0.4
x (
L
/
G
)
0.1
2) Estimate holdup from X using Taitel-Dukler stratified model (see Figure)
3) Determine gas and liquid phase velocities from holdup
4) Determine slug frequency (slug/hr) from:

F
s
= 2.74 H
Lst
x (V
G
V
L
) / (D/12) / (1 H
Lst
)

To calculate Slug Frequency from Slug Length (or vice versa):

1) Estimate liquid holdup in slug H
L,slug
using Gregory-Nicholson-Aziz equation n:
H
L,slug
= 1 / (1 =1/(1+ (V
m
/ 28.4)
1.39
))
2) Assume liquid holdup in bubble H
L,bubble
to be approx 20 percent
3) From material balance, slug factor (ratio of slug length to total slug + bubble length):
SF = (H
L
- H
L,bubble
) / (H
L,slug
- H
L,bubble
)
4) Slug Length is given by: L
s
= SF x V
m
/ (F
s
/ 3600)


Rule of Thumb: Longest slug (for facilities design) = 6 x Mean Slug
X
(Lockhart-Martinelli parameter)

L
i
q
u
i
d

H
o
l
d
u
p

H
L
s
t

29
Example C2: Slug Size and Frequency
Mixture Velocity, v
m
= 3 + 6 = 9 ft/sec

From Prudhoe Bay Model (1980), average slug length

L
m
= exp(- 3.579 + 7.075 (ln(D))
0.5
+ 0.059 ln(V
m
) 0.7712 ln(D)) = 247 ft

From Hill & Wood (BP) Model:

X = X = (V
SL
/ V
SG
)
0.9
(
L
/
G
)
0.4
(
L
/
G
)
0.1
= 3.84

From chart in preceding slide, Taitel-Dukler stratified model holdup H
Lst
@ X=3.84 is 0.68
Liquid velocity when stratified = v
L
/ H
Lst
= 3 / 0.68 = 4.41 ft/sec
Gas velocity when stratified = 6 / (1 0.68) = 18.75 ft/sec
Slug frequency, F
s
= 2.74 H
Lst
x (18.75 4.41) / (D/12) / (1 H
Lst
) = 100 slug/hr

Calculate Slug frequency/length:

H
L,slug
= 1/(1+ (V
m
/ 28.4)
1.39
)) = 1 / (1 + (9/ 28.4)
1.39
) = 0.83
H
L,bubble
= 0.2 (assumed liquid hold up in the bubble)

Slug Factor = (H
L
- H
L,bubble
) / (H
L,slug
- H
L,bubble
) = (0.5 0.2) / (0.83 0.2) = 0.47

Mean slug length (for Hill & Wood model) L
s
= 0.47 x 9

/ (100

/ 3600) = 154 ft

Slug Frequency (for Brill et al Prudhoe Bay model) = 3600 * 0.47 * 9 / 247 = 62 slug/hr
The following data are available for a 10 inch horizontal pipeline operating in the slug flow regime:
average holdup = 50 percent, v
SL
= 3 ft/sec, v
SG
= 6 ft/sec. Predict the mean slug length and slug
frequency.
Fluid properties: liquid density = 55 lb/ft3, liquid viscosity = 6 cp
gas density = 2 lb/ft3 gas viscosity = .01 cp
X
(Lockhart-Martinelli
parameter)

L
i
q
u
i
d

H
o
l
d
u
p

H
L
s
t

30
Symbol Definition
H
LW
Volumetric water fraction in liquid phase
L
m
Mean slug length
V
m,max
Maximum mixture velocity (erosional velocity)

ns
No slip mixture density
X Lockhart Martinelli parameter
H
Lst
Liquid holdup when flow is stratified
H
L,slug
Liquid holdup in slug
H
L,bubble
Liquid holdup in bubble (during slug flow)
F
s
Slug frequency (slug/hr)
SF Slug Fraction = slug length / (slug length + bubble length)
Terminology
31

Single component properties

Black oil and empirical models

Compositional PVT analysis

Hydrates, Wax and Asphaltenes prediction and mitigation
D. Thermodynamics
32
To be able to solve the oil or gas problems, pressure-volume-
temperature (PVT) relationships and physical properties of gases, and
liquids are essential.
To get these properties, one can define a multi-component fluid system
compositionally, or just as Liquid, Gas, and Water mixture based on the
overall measurable data.

Apparent molecular weight
Specific gravity,
Compressibility factor, z
Density,
Specific volume, v
Isothermal gas compressibility coefficient, c
g
Vapor- Liquid Equilibrium
Gas formation volume factor, B
g
Gas expansion factor, E
g
Oil Formation Volume Factor, B
o


The Gas Oil Ratio, and Water Cut are easy to measure in the field.
Single Component (Average) Properties for
Oil, Gas, and Water
33
P V = n R T
where
p = absolute pressure, psia
V = volume, ft
3
T = absolute temperature, R
n = number of moles of gas, lb-mole
R = the universal gas constant which, for the above units, has the
value 10.730 psia ft
3
/lb-mole R

n = m/ MW
PV = ( m / MW ) R T
where
m = weight of Gas, lb
MW = Molecular Weight of the Gas

g
= m / V = (P MW) / (R T)
where

g
= Density of gas, lb/ft
3


Volume of 1 mol Ideal Gas at Standard Conditions, ( V
sc
)

at P
sc
= 14.7 psia, T
sc
= 60 F = 520 R

V
sc
= n R T
sc
/ P
sc
= (1) (10.73)(520)/ (14.7)

V
sc
= 379.4 scf/lb-mol
Ideal Gas Law
34
At a very low pressure, the ideal gas relationship gives reasonable
results 2-3 %
At higher pressures, the use of the ideal gas Lawte may lead to errors
as great as 500%

Therefore to express the relationship between the variables P, V, and T,
more accurately, the z-factor, is introduced.

P V = z n R T

z = V

/ V
ideal
= V

/ ( (n R T
act
) / P
act
)


Real Gas
35
Black Oil and Empirical Models

Black Oil Model is where the phase behavior of the mixture is based on
experimentally derived prediction methods of gas and liquid phases for
bubble point pressure, solution GOR, FVF, and viscosity.

The relative gravity of the oil, gas, and water phase are required.
All three phase gravities has to be known even if they are not expected to be
present in the mixture.

Empirical Models predict the fluid properties that will define the behavior of
the fluid mixture with changes in Pressure and Temperature.

Gas Compressibility
Solution Gas Oil Ratio
Oil, Water Formation Volume Factor
Gas, Oil densities
Gas, Oil Viscosities
36
Gas Compressibility
Gas Compressibility z-factor = f(SG, T, P)

Standing-Katz
T
pr
= T/T
pc
where

T
pc
= (y
i
*T
ci
)

P
pr
= P/P
pc
where

P
pc
= (y
i
*P
ci
)


Hall-Yarborough (wet and dry gas)










Contaminants such as CO
2
or H
2
S may be
defined to modify the z-factor.
i.e. Witcher-Aziz Correction
z = [ 0.06125 P
pr
t/ Y ] exp [ -1.2 (1 t )
2
]

where P
pr
= pseudo-reduces pressure
t = reciprocal of the pseudo-reduced temperature, i.e., T
pc
/ T
Y = the reduced density that can be obtained as the solution of
the following equation:

F(Y) = X1 +[( Y + Y
2
+ Y
3
+ Y
4
) / ( 1-Y)
3
] (X2) Y
2
+ (X3) Y
X4
= 0

where X1 = - 0.06125 P
pr
t exp [ -1.2 (1-t)
2
]
X2 = ( 14.76 t 9.76 t
2
+ 4.58 t
3
)
X3 = ( 90.7 t 242.2 t
2
+ 42.4 t
3
)
X4 = ( 2.18 + 2.82 t )
T
pc
= T
pc


P
pc
= P
pc
T
pc
/ (T
pc
+ B (1-B) )

= 120 [ A
0.9
A
1.6
+ 15 (B
0.5
B)
4.0
]
37
Example D1 Gas Thermodynamic Properties










1) Calculate the Specific Gravity of the gas.

SG
gas
=0.687461379

2) Using the Standing-Katz Gas Compressibility Chart, find the
z-factor for the gas at 90 F and 1200 psia. ( ignore
contaminants)
z-factor = 0.75

3) Update the z-factor for the contaminants
z-factor = 0.82

4) Calculate gas density at 90 F and 1200 psia. Use the
Engineering EOS

g
=5 lb/cuft
M Tc Pc
16.04 343.34 667.00
30.07 550.07 707.80
44.10 665.93 615.00
28.01 227.52 492.80
44.01 547.73 1070.00
34.08 672.40 1300.00
Component y
C1 0.790
C2 0.007
C3 0.004
N2 0.012
CO2 0.017
H2s 0.170
Total 1.000
Determine the following properties for the natural gas with the given composition.
Mol Weight and critical Temperature and Pressure data is also supplied from Pure
Component Data tables.
38
Procedure for Predicting Gas Compressibility
Procedure
Calculate the Apparent Molecular Weight of the gas M
g
= (y
i
*M
i
) 19.93 lb/lb-mol
Calculate the Specific Gravity of the gas SG
g
M
g
/ M
air
0.688
Calculate the Pseudo Critical temperature T
pc
= (y
i
*T
ci
) 404 F
Calculate the Pseudo Critical Pressure P
pc
= (y
i
*P
ci
) 779 psia
Calculate the Pseudo Reduced Temperature T
pr
= T/T
pc

1.36 F
Calculate the Pseudo Reduced Temperature P
pr
= P/P
pc
1.54 psia
Read the corresponding Compressibility Factor from
the Standing and Katz Chart z-factor 0.75

Check if the sour gas contains more than % 5 contaminants
sum the mol fraction of H
2
Sand CO
2

If more than % 5, calculate the Adjustment Factor, ,
for the contaminants = 120*(A
0.9
-A
1.6
)+15*(B
0.5
-B
4.0
) 40.9 F



where

A=(y
H2S+
y
co2
) 0.187

B
= y
H2S
0.17

Calculate the Adjusted Pseudo Critical Temperature T
pc
= T
pc
- 363 F
Calculate the Adjusted Pseudo Critical Pressure



P
pc
= (P
pc
* T
pc
)/(T
pc
+B(1-B)* 690.6 psia
Recalculate the Pseudo Reduced Temperature and
the Pseudo Reduced Pressure using the adjusted Pseudo Critical T and P
T
pr
1.51 F
P
pr
1.75 psia
Read the Gas Compressibility Factor from
the Standing and Katz chart z-factor 0.82

39
Solution Gas Oil Ratio

Solution Gas Oil Ratio (R
s
)
The bubble point pressure equation is reversed to solve for the solution gas oil ratio.
When oil is reaches to surface conditions some natural gas to come out of solution due to the P
and T change. The gas/oil ratio (GOR) is defined as the ratio of the volume of gas that comes out of
solution, to the volume of oil at standard conditions.
A point to check is whether the volume of oil is measured before or after the gas comes out of
solution, since the oil volume will shrink when the gas comes out.
In fact gas coming out of solution and oil volume shrinkage will happen at many stages of the flow
while the hydrocarbon stream from reservoir through the wellbore and processing plant to export.

P
b
= f(R
s
,
g
, T,
o
)

Lasater
for R
s
R
p
R
s
= [ (379.3*35*
o,,sc
)/M
o
]/[
g
/(1-
g
]

( suggested for API>15
)
Standing
for P1000 R
s
= (
g
*(P*X)
1.20482
/ (18)
1.20482
( suggested for API<15
)
for P<1000 R
s
=
g
*[X(P/13.36)
0.93023
]
1.24082

where X = 10
(1.0125API-0.00091T)


Vazquez-Beggs
for API30 R
s =
SG*(P
1.0937
)10
11.172A
for API>30 R
s =
SG*(P
1.187
)10
10.393A


where A= API/(T+460)
40
Oil and Water Formation Volume Factor
Oil Formation Volume Factor ( B
o
)

Standing
for P < P
b
B
o
= 0.972 + 0.000147 * F
1.175
+ C

where F= R
s
*(
g
0.5
/
o sc
) + 1.25* T

Glaso

Vazquez-Beggs
for P < P
b


and API 30 B
o
= 1+4.67x

10
-
4* 0.175 D*10
-4
-1.8106R
s
D*10
-8
for P > P
b
and API >30 B
o
= 1+4.67x

10
-
4* 0.175 D*10
-4
-1.8106R
s
D*10
-8

where D=(T-60)API / SG





















Water Formation Volume Factor ( B
w
) Computed from water densities


41
Example D2 Liquid Phase Density
Determine the liquid phase density for a 3 phase mixture given the
following data.

2200 psia and 190 F.(Use Standing correlations)

Oil gravity= 30 API
Gas Gravity= .85 Water Cut = 10%

Assume oil formation volume factor is 1.2 and Rs is 100 scf/stb at insitu
conditions.


SG
oil
= 0.876


LIQ
= 48.11lb/cuft



42

Not only the properties of oil, gas, and water, but also the phase behavior
changes with the changes in Pressure and Temperature. The phase behavior
will determine the condensation or the evaporation of the phases, hence
determine the vapor-liquid split and the thermodynamic properties of the
phases.

Compositional PVT analysis predicts the properties of the Hydrocarbon
Water mixture based on the equilibrium, enthalpy, and property correlations.
Flash calculations are based on the Equation of State to decide for the phase
separation., i.e.:
Peng-Robinson
Suave-Redlich-Kwong



Composional PVT Analysis
Multiple Component Phase Diagram
43
Example D3 Liquid Fraction
Determine the Liquid Fraction of the HC mixture from the given Phase
Diagram at the following conditions:
1) at 625 F and 4000
psia

2) At 425 F and 2250
psia

3) At 175 F and 1000
psia

4) At 100 F and 500
psia
0 mol %

10 mol %

20 mol %

20 mol %
44

Gas Hydrates are formed by the C1, C2, CO
2
, H2S at P>166 psi

Formation of Hydrates require three conditions:
the right combination of P and T; favored by low T, above 32 F and high P
Hydrate forming components have to be present in the system
Some water must be in the system, not too much, not too little

Other phenomena that increases Hydrate formation:
Turbulence
High velocity- through chokes, narrowing valves due to Joule Thompson effect
Agitation, i.e. heat exchangers, separators
Nucleation sites are the points where phase change is favored, such as:
Imperfections in the pipeline
A weld spot
Fittings
Scale
Dirt
Sand
Presence of Free Water not necessary but the gas-water interface
creates a nucleation site for hydrate to form
Hydrates
Courtesy of Petrobras
45
Hydrate Prediction
The point at which hydrates form is dependent on the composition of the
gas.














This particular curve is only based on a correlation that
is valid for gases with similar compositions to those
shown in the table below. It is invalid in the presence
of H
2
S or CO
2.

EXAMPLE: For a gas with a specific gravity of 0.7, and a pressure of 1000 psia, the temperature
below which hydrates would be expected to start forming would be 64F.

If the pressure is reduced to 200 psia, the temperature below which hydrates would
be expected to start forming reduces to 44F
Hydrate Formation Prediction for Sweet Natural Gases

46


Hydrate formation prevention can be accomplished through
Water removal
Separation
Separation will remove most of the free water from gas stream
Higher System Temperatures
Pipe insulation and bundling, or steam or electrical heating
process
Lower System Pressures
High temperature system pressure drops design through line
choking.
Alcohol Inhibitors injection
Acting as antifreezes, alcohols will decrease hydrate formation
temperature below operating temperature
Kinetic (Polymer dissolved in solvent) Inhibitors
Will bond on the hydrate surface to prevent crystal growth. shift the
hydrate equilibrium conditions towards lower temperatures and
higher pressures , or increase hydrate formation time.
Antiagglomerants
These dispersants will cause water phase be suspended as
small droplets in oil or condensate
Hydrate Formation Prevention
47
Comparison of Hydrate Formation Prevention
Methods

Drying the natural gas
MeOH
EG, DEG, MEG, TEG, and TREG
TEG, TREG are too viscous , too soluble in HCs

Drying is Preferred until not economical
Used :
upstream of chokes
Short gathering lines

Heating the flow line
Initial investment
Attention needed - minimum
Fuel - readly available
Cost - low

Adding Ckemicals:
Long flow lines
48
Methanol versus Glycol
Methanol
Used at any Temperature
Prevents hydrate formation better then
DEG and EG on per lb basis
Injection technique not critical
Good fraction of Methanol
evaporates into gas.
Not as economical
Low recovery cost
High vaporization loss
Unless feeds into TEG unit, where
easily recovered in the regen
Good for
Low gas volumes
Temporary cases
Rarely needed
Long flow lines
Dissolves the hydrates already formed
Glycol
Not under 15
o
F high viscosity
Difficult to separate from liquid HCs
DEG has higher vaporization when <20
o
F
over EG
If not sprayed properly on the wet gas, as
fine droplets , then it may not work
Diluted glycols
Separate
Reconcentrate
Reuse
Good for
Continuous injection
High gas volumes
Not in long lines
Do not dissolve hydrates that already
formed

49
Methanol Injection Problems in Facilities

If gas feeds into a glycol plant for dehydration after methanol injection:

Higher Glycol Regen heat (methanol co-absorbed with H2O vapor)
Any methanol released atmosphere with H2O vapor - hazardous

Cause corrosion in glycol still and reboiler ( If high enough in the
concentration in H2O)

Reduce the capacity of solid desiccant pellets competing with water
to be absorbed





50
Economics -
Comparison of Hydrate Prevention Methods
Methanol

Low CAPEX
High OPEX

EG, DEG

High CAPEX
Low OPEX

Line Heaters

High CAPEX
OPEX depends on the fuel
Rule of Thumb:

If Methanol Injection Rate required >30 gal/hr use glycol units

If Hydrates already plugged the pipeline, reduce Pressure
both upstream and downstream of the hydrate

One sided P reduction might result in High velocity of the
hydrate plug - may damage bends and even lines - EXPLOSION
51
Cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no
longer completely soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the fluid a
cloudy appearance.

In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax
in liquid hydrocarbon form a cloudy appearance. The presence of solidified
waxes thickens the oil and clogs.

In crude or heavy oils, cloud point is synonymous with Wax Appearance
Temperature, (WAT) and Wax Precipitation Temperature (WPT).



Pour point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow
under prescribed conditions. It is a rough indication of the lowest temperature at
which oil is readily pumpable. In crude oil a high pour point is generally
associated with a high paraffin content.


Cloud Point and Pour Point Definitions
52
Waxes

Waxes are :
The organic compounds of the crude
Insoluble in the crude at the producing conditions
High molecular weight C18-C60 alkanes
C18 to C36 (paraffin waxes, macrocystalline waxes)
C30 to C60 (microcrystalline waxes),
They are:
aliphatic hydrocarbons (both straight and branched chain),
aromatic hydrocarbons,
naphthenes
resins and asphaltenes.
Melting point, Boiling point, and Solubility of the HC mix is profoundly
effected by the presence of alicyclic, aromatic, and condensed rings.
Deposits as solid when the temperature falls below the cloud point
The cloud point determines the rheology of waxy crudes
Above the cloud point, flow is Newtonian
Below the cloud point flow is non-Newtonian due to wax/solid
precipitation


53
Problems with Waxes

When wax forms:
Reduced permeability around the well bore/formation damage
Pumping cost increase because of:
Increase in viscosity can be 10 folds
Increased horse power requirement to transport the fluid through
Area for flow decreases due to wax deposition on the inner pipe wall
Increases pressure drop, can eventually plug the production string
Loss of production:
Can eventually plug the production string and/or pipeline
Can deposit in the surface facilities
Decreased equipment volume, hence reduced volume/flow
54
Wax deposits usually happen in oil
flowlines with components C7+.

Wax deposits have potential to
accumulate onto cooled surface
when it gets down to the Cloud
Point, or Wax Appearing
Temperature.

Wax formation Temperature can be
determined within 5 C.

GOR, and Pressure effects can be
measured, but it is usually calculated
via thermodynamic prediction based
on Dead Oil values.
Formation of Wax
Temperature/Pressure Relationship in Formation of Wax
Wax Formation
No Wax
Bubble Point
Reservoir Fluid
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Temperature
55
Wax Mitigation and Prevention:
Wax Deposition Removal Techniques:
Mechanical
Pigging - Scraping wax from the pipe wall and mixing it with the crude
in front of the pig

Thermal
Maintaining or increasing the temperature of the crude above the WAT
can prevent wax from settling on the pipe wall, or help to remove softened
wax.

Chemical
Chemical Solvents and Dissolvers
substituted aromatics blended with gas oil.
Chlorinated solvents environmental concerns.

Wax Prevention
Wax Inhibitors
Crystal Modifiers
Pour Point Depressants
Dispersants
Surfactants
56
Wax Deposition Rate Measurement Techniques
Wax Deposition Rate Measurements

Test Description Advantages Disadvantages
Static cold finger A cold surface is immersed in a reservoir of oil for set
duration then removed and inspected. The surface can
simple cooled block or finger, cooled tube or
sophisticated probe.

Useful inhibitor screening tool.
Quick Simple
Small volumes of sample.
Deposit formed.
Deposit directly inspected.
Accurate control of temperatures.
Adaptable for live oil.

No flow effects.
Risk of depletion of wax in small
sample volume.
Dynamic cold finger As above but shear can be applied to flow the oil over
the surface. This can be achieved with stirring or
immersing the surface in a flowing stream.
For better control concentric cylinders are used.

Useful inhibitor screening and deposition
characterization tool.
As above
Addition of shear
Accurate control of shear/stress or flow
velocity.
Risk of depletion of wax in small
sample volume.
Difficult to simulate pipeflow and
turbulence.
Difficult to monitor in-situ deposition
until end of test.
Capillary/tube blocking Warm oil is displaced through a narrow bore tube until
pressure increase indicated restriction or blockage.
Often used in uncontrolled cooling but better results
achievable with set temperature regimes.
Quick Simple
Small vols of sample
Qualitative measure of in-situ
deposition rates.
Live oils.


No direct measure of deposit.
Laminar flow regimes only.
Uncertain temperature profiles and heat
transfer rates.
Recirculating flowloops Oil is pumped through a section of pipe in which
conditions of temperature and flow can be defined.
Deposition can be detected by increasing pressure and
recovering of deposit.
Useful qualitative tool for assessing deposition
characteristic.
Simulates pipeflow regimes.
Limited sample volumes
Control of temperature and flow rate.
Qualitative measure of in=situ
deposition rates/
Complex equipment.
No direct measure of deposit at specific
points.
Need to recondition recirculating oil.
DP insensitive in Laminar flow.
Potential waxing outside deposition
section.
57
These methods detect an effect caused by wax crystallization
Cloud Point Methods
- Recommended Indirect Methods
Test Description Advantages Disadvantages
DSC When wax crystallizes from crude oil, small
quantities of heat are generated(Much like heat
given off when water freezes). The temperature at
which this heat of fusion first occurs can be
detected by a Differential Scanning Calorimeter,
DSC.
Small sample size.
Automated.
Quick.
Can estimate wax content.
High cooling rates potential for
subcooling.
Sensitivity: low wax contents difficult.
Subject to interpretation.

Infrared Detection/ Light
Scattering
Infrared Detection/ Light Scattering Wax crystals
will deflect and scatter light passing through the
oil. Infrared can be absorbed by waxes and will
penetrate black oils. Changes in light reflected or
absorbed as the oil cools will indicate wax
forming.
Sensitive.
Small sample size.
Suitable for live fluids.

Unrepresentative sample size.
Subject to interpretation
Little published validation.
NMR Sensitive.
Small sample size.
Estimate solid wax content.
Suitable for live fluids.
Unrepresentative sample size.
Little published validation.
Subject to interpretation.
Test Description Advantages Disadvantages
Thermodynamic
prediction
Model uses compositional analysis of oil and
published properties of components to predict
solubility of wax components.
Predicts cloud point and solid wax
phase for range of pressures and oil
compositions.
Very detailed input data.
Needs tuning to measured value.

58
These methods are not recommended to evaluate cloud points
Cloud Point Methods- Not Recommended Methods
Test Description Advantages Disadvantages
Visual and turbidity test

(ASTM D2500)
The term cloud point is taken from turbidity test
used to determine wax precipitation from fuels.
The wax crystals are detected by a change in
turbidity as the wax crystallizes. Often this test is
performed by eye but turbidity meters increase
sensitivity.
Simple.
Representative sample size.
Adaptable for live fluids.
Wide range of cooling rates.
Sensitivity( needs finite amount of
crystals)
Operator dependent (Visual only)
Other solids may be detected
Not suitable for Black Oils.
Viscosity As solid wax crystallizes it will effect the oils
rheology causing non-Newtonian behavior. The
Newtonian viscosity / temperature relationship of
the oil is altered as the solid phase increases.
Representative sample size. Sensitivity. May require presence of
significant solid wax phase.
Underestimating initial crystallization.
May detect other solids formation.
Subject to interpretation.
Pyknometry Crystallization will change the temperature /
density relationship of the fluid as it cools.
Representative sample size.
Suitable for live fluids.
(New techniques are improving
sensitivity)

May detect other solids formation.
Sensitivity. May require presence of
significant solid wax phase.
Underestimating initial crystallization.
Subject to interpretation.
No published validation.

59
Asphaltenes






The C:H ratio is approximately 1:1.2
Soluble in toluene but insoluble in lower n- alkanes such as pentane and hexane.
Asphaltenes are the heaviest and largest molecules in a typical hydrocarbon mixture
Oils from which asphaltenes are likely to precipitate
have low API gravity (are more dense), and have higher viscosities.
Deposits can be in the form of shiny and black graphite like appearance, or brown
sticky soft deposits.
Asphaltenes often co-precipitate with wax and even scale.
Asphaltenes
59
60
It is better to prevent formation of asphaltenes deposits, through design and
operating conditions
If it cannot be prevented via design and the operating conditions, then treatment
is necessary to prevent flocculation of the asphaltenes particles.

Chemical treatments for removing asphaltenes:
solvents
dispersant/ solvents
oil/dispersants/solvents
The dispersant/solvent approach is used for removing asphaltenes from
formation minerals.

Continuous treating may be required to inhibit asphaltenes deposition in the tubing.
Batch treatments are common for dehydration equipment and tank bottoms. There
are also asphaltenes precipitation inhibitors that can be used by continuous
treatment or squeeze treatments

Treatment and Prevention of Asphaltenes:


60
61
Asphaltenes
62
Asphaltenes Test Methods Summary
63
Scale and Mitigation Strategies:
There are different types of scales.
Calcium Carbonate
naturally exists in the resevoir (carbonate reservoirs)
Scale forms:
with co-mingling of produced fluids from different producing zones or
reservoirs
normally with decrease in pressure, carbon dioxide is released, and pH
changes to form scale.
Mitigation:
dissolution by acidification or application of calcium carbonate scale
inhibitor.

Barium Sulphate
In general barium sulphate scale results from water incompatibility,
primarily from either seawater injection and / or seawater breakthrough,
co-mingling with produced water rich in barium.
highly insoluble and will deposit at temperature drops across the production
processing plant.
Mitigation strategies::
removal of sulphate ions from seawater for re-injection,
application of barium sulphate scale inhibitors
treatment with dissolvers.
64
Scale and Mitigation Strategies:
Iron Sulphide
Iron Sulphide scale is deposited where microbial enhanced corrosion has
become a serious problem.
The scale is derived from the reaction of iron oxide from corrosion and
hydrogen sulphide,
a by-product of sulphate reducing bacteria metabolism.
Treatment for iron sulphide is application of a specialist chelating and
dissolution agent followed by microbial control with biocide application.

Calcium Sulphate
Calcium Sulphate scale is relatively soluble and only poses a real problem when
conditions are close to the solubility limit and super-saturation occurs.

Sodium Chloride
Sodium Chloride scale is caused by a saturation and evaporation process and is
readily removed by warm water in most cases.
65

Viscosity prediction methods

Oil-water viscosity emulsions

Gas viscosity

Compositional viscosity (LBC)

Oil-water surface Tension
E. Transport Properties
66
Oil viscosity
o
= F( P,T, SG
o
,SG
g
, R
s
) usually reported in PVT Analysis. If not
available, then the correlations are used.
Dead Oil Viscosity Viscosity of the oil at atmospheric conditions with
no gas in solution and the system temperature.

Saturated Oil Viscosity Viscosity of the oil at P= P
B
and T
res

Unsaturated Oil Viscosity Viscosity of the oil at P>P
B
and T
res


Viscosity Definitions

Estimating Oil viscosity at P P
B
and at T
res

1. Calculate the Dead Oil Viscosity
ob
at T
res

2. Adjust the dead oil viscosity for Gas Solubility effects at the desired
temperature
Estimating Oil viscosity at P> P
B
and at T
res

1. Calculate the Dead Oil Viscosity
ob
at T
res

2. Adjust the dead oil viscosity for Gas Solubility effects at the desired
temperature
3. Include the effects of compression and under saturation of the
reservoir
67
Viscosity Prediction Methods

L
= 10
X
-1

Where
X = 10
3.0324-0.02023 API
/ T
1.163

Dead Oil Viscosity Correlations
Beal

Beggs-Robinson

Glaso

Saturated Oil Viscosity Correlations

Chew- Connaly


Beggs-Robinson
Dead oil Viscosity at Reservoir Temperature
and Atmospheric pressure (after Beal)
68
Oil-Water Viscosity Emulsions
Emulsion Viscosity
Woelflin Correlation
Good B
w
< 40%
B
w
> 40% too high



Guth and Simha
Good B
w
< 40%
B
w
> 40% not high enough


e
/
o
= 1 +2.5 C
w


where C
w
is the Water Fraction of the Water Phase



Smith and Arnold use when no other data available


e
/
o
= 1 +2.5 C
w
+ 14.1 C
w
2

Woelflin Viscosity Data
When Brine in mixture is above 60-70%,
brine becomes the continuous phase.
69
Example E1 Emulsion Viscosity
The viscosity of a heavy crude oil sample has been
characterized from lab analysis by the following
relationship:

(T)
=
o
e
-c(T-To)
Where

c = 0.035


Viscosity at the reference temperature of 50 F is 500 cp.
Plot the viscosity curve for a range of temperatures.

1)Determine the viscosity at 100 deg F
See Plot for viscosity curve.

Oil viscosity at 100 F = 87 cp

2) What is the emulsion viscosity if the water cut is 60
percent?

From Woelflin curve (medium), viscosity ratio = 15

Emulsion viscosity = Ratio * Oil Viscosity = 15 x 87 = 1305 cp

Will this flow?
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
50.0 70.0 90.0 110.0
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
,

c
p

Temperature, deg F
Oil Viscosity vs. Temperature
70
Emulsion Mitigation
Causes of emulsions High WATER Content
That is the way with some wells
Poor Cementing
Poor reservoir management
Poor Operating practices
Production of excess water
Excess turbulence in flow created by
Over pumping
Poor maintenance of plunger
Maintenance Valves in rod pumps
More than needed gas lift gas
Centrifugal pumps with a downstream throttling valve

Suggestions to prevent emulsions:
Do not unnecessarily choke or have control valve before water separation.
Maintain plungers, rod pumps, valves
Centrifugal pumps without a downstream throttling valve
Some operators prefer Cavity Pumps, Reciprocating Pups, or Gear pumps
Optimize Gas Lift
Optimize production at integrated asset level

Else use:
Emulsifiers
71

Surface Tension = f (SG
oil
, SG
water
, P, T)

Plays an important role in calculating the flow pattern prediction in
multiphase flow.
Plays role in Gas Oil interface, as well as gas water interface, and oil-
water interface.

Surface Tension Calculation Methods:
Baker and Swerdloff
Katz et. al.

Specific Heat Capacity of the fluid - Very important parameter in heat transfer

Other Fluid Properties
72

Basic principles of conduction, convection and radiation

Heat transfer through composite layers

Wellbore heat transfer

Pipeline heat transfer

Wellbore and pipeline heating

F. Heat Transfer Analysis
73
Heat Transfer Phenomena
The heat transfer coefficient U is determined by analyzing the combined effect of the
three modes of heat transfer:

Conduction - within a solid or between solid bodies (e.g. pipe wall and soil)
Convection - achieved through the movement of fluid (e.g. submerged pipe)
Radiation - energy emitted as electromagnetic waves from a hot body

Note that radiation heat transfer is generally not significant in flow assurance (with the
exception of steam injection)

The rate of heat transfer per unit length (Btu/hr/ft) is given by:
dH/dL = U A (T
fluid
T
ambient
)
where U overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft
2
-degF
A cross-sectional area of pipe, ft
2
T
ambient
temperature of surrounding, deg F
T
fluid
average temperature of fluid in pipe, deg F
T
fluid

T
ambient

Buried Pipeline Area of Cross-Section

From basic calorimetric calculations, the change in pipeline fluid temperature due to heat transfer
to the surroundings is given by:

(T
outlet
T
inlet
) = - dH/dL x pipe length / C
p
/ mass flow rate
where C
p
specific heat capacity of fluid mixture, Btu/lb/deg F
T
inlet

74
Procedure
1. Area of pipe cross-section = 3.14 / 4 * (12/12)
2
= 0.785 ft
2
2. Mass flow rate = 5000 BPD /24 hr/day * 5.615 ft
3
3/bbl * (0.8 * 62.4) lb/ft
3
= 58,396 lb/hr
3. Estimate outlet temperature = 60 deg F
4. Heat transfer gradient, dH/dL = U A (T
fluid
T
ambient
) = 1.0 x 0.785 x (80-40) = 31.4 Btu/hr/ft
5. Change in temperature = dH / C
p
/ mass flow rate = 31.4 * 10,000 / 0.5 / 58396 = - 10.8 deg F
6. Revised outlet temp (iteration 1) = 100 10.8 = 89.2 deg F (error = - 29.2)
7. Repeat Steps 4-6 with new outlet temp
8. Revised outlet temp (iteration 2) = 85.3 deg F (error = 3.9)
9. Repeat iteration steps until convergence
10.Converged outlet temperature (after 4 iterations) = 85.8 deg F (error = 0.1)

Question will segmentation of the pipe provide greater accuracy?

Oil Gravity = 0.8, Specific Heat Capacity = 0.5 Btu/lb/degF
T
ambient
= 40 deg F
Buried Pipeline, U = 1.0 Btu/hr-ft^2-degF, Pipe Length = 10,000 ft Pipe Outer Diameter = 12 inch
T
inlet
=100 deg F
Q = 5000 BPD
Example F1 Pipeline Heat Transfer
Determine the outlet temperature for 12-inch x 10,000 ft buried crude oil (sp gravity =
0.8) pipeline flowing at 5000 BPD, given an overall heat transfer coefficient of 1.0 Btu/hr-
ft2-degF.

Temperature at the inlet of the pipeline is 100 deg F and the ambient temperature is 40 deg F.
Assume that the specific heat capacity of the oil is 0.5 Btu/lb/de gF.
75
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Outer surface: submerged (convection), buried
(conduction) or exposed (free convection)
Conduction at outer wall, coating, Insulation
Conduction at inner wall, coating, Insulation
Convection due to boundary layer - film
Convection (or conduction) in annulus
Classical Shell Balance

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U = 1 / Total Resistance

Total Resistance = sum of resistances from convection /
conduction layers

Conduction layer resistance = diameter * log
e
(dia
outer
/dia
inner
) / 2k

where: - thermal conductivity, Btu/day-ft-degF

Resistance due to film (convection) = dia
inner
/ (0.0225 * k * R
e

0.8
)

where Re - Reynolds number

Outer Surface (buried / submerged / exposed)

Resistance due to conduction (buried pipe) = diameter * log
e
((2Z+ (4Z
2
d
out
2
2
20.5
)/d
out
) / 2k
soil
where Z is the distance from the surface to the centerline of the pipe

Resistance due to convection (submerged in water/exposed to wind)
= diameter / (10 k *(0.26694 * log
10
(R
e,surrounding
)
1.3681
))

Where
R
e,surrounding
= 1.47 x Reynolds number calculated from pipe outer diameter and surrounding fluid properties

76
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, OHTC
OHTC based on the flowline internal surface Area A
i
is:
OHTC based on the flowline external surface Area A
o
is:
77
Subsea Flowline Insulation Methods
External Coatings
Flowline Burial
Pipe-in-Pipe (PIP)
Electrical Heating
Hot WaterAnnulus


U Values for Different Subsea Insulation Methods, (Loch, 2000)
78
Thermal Conductivities of Soil

Kersten(1949)
soil
= [ 0.9 log() -0.2]*10
0.01*

where

soil
soil thermal conductivity, [BTU-in/(ft
2
-hr-F)]

moisture content in percent of dry soil weight
dry density , lb/ft
3


Thermal Conductivities of Typical Soil Surrounding Pipeline (Gregory,1991)
79
Flowline Burial Depth
When the ratio between the burial
depth and the Outside Diameter is
greater than 4, the decrease in the
U value is insignificant.

Available burial techniques may set
the limit on Minimum and Maximum
Burial Depths.

Potential seafloor scouring and
flowline disturbance buckling need
to be considered .
Loch (2000)
80
Procedure
1. Area of cross-section = 3.14 / 4 * (12/12)
2
= 0.785 ft
2

2. Fluid velocity = 5000 BPD x 5.615 ft
3
/bbl / 86400 sec/day / 0.785 = 0.41 ft/sec
3. Reynolds number = 1488 * 0.41 * (12/12) * (0.8 * 62.4) / 3.5 = 8785
4. Film resistance (convection) = (12/12) / (0.0225 * 1.6 * 8785
0.8
) = 1.944 E
-2
5. Pipe wall resistance (conduction) = (12/12) x 1/(2*600) log
e
(12.5/12) = 3.4 E-5
6. Insulation resistance (conduction) = (12.5/12) x 1/(2*0.96) log
e
(13.5/12.5) = 4.175 E-2
7. Soil resistance (conduction) = log( (4*24
2
13.5
2
)
0.5
/13.5)/(2 x 24) = 2.877E-2
8. Total resistance = 1.044E-2 + 3.4E-5 + 4.175E-2 + 2.877E-2 = 9.00 E-02
9. Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 1/(9E-2 x 24) = 0.46 Btu/fr/ft
2
/degF

Overall contribution of insulation = 4.175 / 9 = 46.4 %
Overall contribution of burial = 2.877 / 9 = 32.0 %
Updating Ex F1 with U=0.46 changes the calculated outlet temperature from 85.8 deg F to 93 deg F


Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for the pipeline in Example F1
given the following data:

Example F2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
pipe diameter (inner) 12 inch
pipe wall thickness 0.25 inch
insulation 0.5 inch
Burial depth (center line to surface) 24 inch
Pipe Thermal Conductivity 600 Btu/day/ft/F
Insulation Thermal Conductivity 0.96 Btu/day/ft/F
Soil Thermal Conductivity 24 Btu/day/ft/F
Oil Flow Rate 5000 BPD
Oil Specific Gravity 0.8 water = 1
Oil Specific Heat Capacity 0.5 Btu/lb/degF
Oil Thermal Conductivity 1.6 Btu/day/ft/F
Oil Viscosity 3.5 cp
Determine the relative contribution
of insulation and burial on the
overall resistance to heat transfer.

Change the heat transfer coefficient
in Ex F1 to the calculated value and
evaluate the impact.

81
Heat Transfer In Wellbores
Outer surface: submerged (convection), buried
(conduction) or exposed (free convection)
Conduction at outer wall, coating, Insulation
Conduction at inner wall, coating, Insulation
Convection due to boundary layer - film
Convection (or conduction) in annulus
Aditional Heat Transfer in Wellbores:
Infinite Conduction
For a vertical well, the surrounding formation extends
outwards infinitely the finite depth burial model for
conduction described earlier needs to be modified.

Transient Considerations
In steam injection wells, there may a significant time-
dependent effect as the surrounding formation heats
up and heat transfer rates change as a consequence
(heat transfer rate during the early time period will be
higher). The Ramey function is used to analyze this
time dependent effect.

Heating the surrounding formation may also cause the
thermal conductivity to change around the wellbore
due to the evaporation of water.

Annulus Heat Transfer
Heat transfer in the annulus due to convection of the
static annulus fluid (water/oil/gas/vacuum) needs to be
taken into account. Additionally, radiation effects are
sometimes important (e.g. in some steam injection
systems, a reflecting coating is painted on the inside
wall of the casing to reduce radiation effects).
Classic Shell Balance
82
Symbol Definition
dH Heat transfer rate, Btu/hr
dH/dL Heat transfer gradient, Btu/hr/ft
U Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft
2
-degF
A Area of pipe cross-section, ft
2
T
ambient
Temperature of surroundings, deg F
T
fluid
Temperature of fluid, deg F
C
p
Specific heat capacity, Btu/lb/deg F
k Thermal conductivity, Btu/day/ft/deg F
Terminology
83

Basic principles of single phase transient flow

Multiphase flow transients

Pipeline startup, shut-in and blowdown

Terrain induced slugging
G. Transient Phenomena
84
Common Transient Operations
Transient Condition Operation Impact
Ramp Up / Down Rate change Rate surge
Startup Rate change from zero Pressure surge
Rate surge
Shutdown Compressor / Pump
shutdown
Pressure surge
Blowdown Pressure reduction
Terrain Slugging Caused by topography Slug formation, growth and
dissipation
Sphering Periodic operation Rate surge
Pipeline leak / rupture Unplanned Product loss
Environmental damage
Pressure surge
85
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 20 40 60
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0
Flow Rate Ramp Up
BEFORE AFTER
LIQUID INVENTORY REDUCTION
How Big is the Surge?
I
n
v
e
n
t
o
r
y
,

b
b
l

Marlin Pipeline 67 mile x 20 inch (Cunliffes approximation procedure)
Rate, MMscfd
69 bbl/MMscf liquid loading
Rate ramped up from155 MMscfd to 258 MMscfd
Predicted Liquid Inventory
Time, hr
O
u
t
l
e
t

L
i
q
u
i
d

R
a
t
e
,

b
p
h

Determine equilibrium inventory (holdup) at initial and final rates
Difference give the amount of liquid to be swept out
Estimate transition time as residence time for final inventory
Transition Time = Final Inventory / Final Rate
Estimate Transition Rate
Transition Rate = Final Rate + Inventory Change / Transition Time
86
Example G1 - Marlin Pipeline Transient
I
n
v
e
n
t
o
r
y
,

b
b
l

Rate, MMscfd
69 bbl/MMscf liquid loading
Time, hr
O
u
t
l
e
t

L
i
q
u
i
d

R
a
t
e
,

b
p
h

Initial inventory at 155 MMscfd = 19200 bbl (estimated from plot)
Final inventory at 258 MMscfd = 17600 bbl
Liquid to be swept out = 19200 17600 = 1600 bbl
Liquid Rate (Final) = Liq Loading x Gas Rate = 69 x 258/ 24 = 742 bph
Transition Time = Final Inventory / Final Rate = 17600 / 742 = 23.7 hr
Transition Rate = Final Rate + Inventory Change / Transition Time = 742 + 1600 / 23.7 = 809 bph
From data:
Actual surge rate > 1000 bph the discrepancy is caused by the high transition time
Lowering the effective transition time estimate would improve prediction(see spreadsheet)
From the pipeline inventory prediction provided for Marlin, use Cunliffes method to
approximate the surge rate at the downstream slug catcher when the gas rate at the inlet
is ramped up from 155 MMscfd to 258 MMscfd over a period of one hour. Compare the
predicted surge rate to the actual data and recommend additional steps to improve the
estimation.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0
87
Pipeline Blowdown (depressurization)
Blowdown is the controlled depressurization of a gas (or gas-dominated) pipeline
generally achieved over a period of time. Blowdown is generally a safety procedure
used to reduce the risk of pipeline rupture and fire in an emergency.
The key concerns during blowdown are:

1) How long will it take to depressurize the pipeline (to near atmospheric conditions)

2) What is the cooldown temperature profile given that the temperature will drop
below ambient due to Joule-Thompson cooling (potential for hydrate formation)

The discharge rate is generally controlled through an orifice (or valve) to ensure that
these operational issued are addressed.

Assuming critical flow,
the mass flow rate (lb/sec) through an orifice is given by the relationship:

W = C
d
K A P (MW / zT)
0.5

where C
d
is the coefficient of discharge
K is the specific heat capacity ratio for the gas
A is the area of cross-section
MW is the molecular weight
P is the upstream (pipeline) pressure
88
Example G2 - Pipeline Blowdown
Determine the pressure profile for the blowdown of a 5 mile x 6 inch (ID) gas pipeline
operating at 800 psi when the gas (gravity=0.8) is released through a 3-inch orifice (Cd
= 1.0). Average compressibility is 0.9, k = 1.4, and assume that the pipeline
temperature does not change from its initial value of 39 deg F.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Procedure
1. From geometry, orifice area = 3.14/4 * (3/12)
2
= 0.049 ft
2
2. Pipeline volume = 3.14/4 * (6/12)
2
* (5 x 5280) = 5181 ft
3
3. Gas Molecular Weight = 28.97 x 0.8 = 23.18
4. Initial density of gas = 800 * 23.18 / (0.9 * 10.73 * (460+39) = 3.85 lb/ft
3
5. Initial mass of fluid (gas) in pipeline = 3.85 * 5181 = 19934 lb
6. Initial rate of gas flowing through the orifice = 1 x 1.4 x 0.049 x 800 * (23.18/0.9/(460+39))
0.5
= 12.48 lb/sec

7. Starting from time =0, calculate the following at 100 second intervals
1. Mass rate of gas through the orifice (from the orifice equation)
2. Remaining mass of gas in the pipeline (previous mass mass rate * time increment)
3. Gas density = remaining mass / pipeline volume
4. Average pipeline pressure = density * z * 10.73 * (460+39) / 23.18
5. Determine the gas discharge rate at standard conditions from the mass rate
6. Plot the pressure and gas flow rate profiles as a function of time
Pressure Profile (psi vs. time)
Flow Rate Profile (MMcfd vs. time)
89
Pipeline Cooldown
When pipeline is shut-in, the fluid temperature drops over an extended
period of time until ambient conditions are achieved. A significant
parameter for cooldown analysis is the no-touch period which is the time
available before the pipeline must be started up again.

For a pipeline transporting waxy crude, the no-touch period is the time
before pour point (plus safety margin) is reached


From the Lumped Capacitance Cooldown Model, the temperature T is given
by :

T(t) T
o
= (T
i
- T
o
) x exp (- C x t)

where t = period after shut-in
C = U * Area of Contact / (mass of fluid * specific heat capacity)


90
Solution:

From the Lumped Capacitance Cooldown Model, the temperature
T is given by :

T(t) T
o
= (T
i
- T
o
) x exp (- C x t)

where T
i
is the inside fluid Temperature
T(t) is the inside fluid Temperature at time t
T
o
is the ambient temperature
t = period after shut-in
C = U * Area of Contact / (mass of fluid * specific heat capacity)

Procedure:

Fluid mass = 3.14/4 * (12/12) 2 * 10,000 * (62.4 * 0.8) = 391,872 lb
C = 1 x (3.14 x (12/12) x 10000) / (391872 * 0.5) = 0.16

Example G3 - Pipeline Cooldown
Given a 10,000 ft x 12 inch subsea pipe with a heat transfer coefficient of 1
Btu/hr/ft2/F and an average fluid temperature of 100 deg F, estimate the no-touch time
when the surrounding temperature is 40 deg F.

Crude oil characteristics: specific gravity = 0.8, heat capacity = 0.5 Btu/lb/F, pour point = 50 deg F

0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00
Time, hr
F
l
u
i
d

T
e
m
p
,

F

For a range of time periods (e.g. 0-24 hrs in 1 hr increment) calculate and plot T(t)
From the plot (see right), no-touch time = 11 hr (actual time will be lower)
91

Combining fluid flow, heat transfer and thermodynamics

Deepwater/subsea systems

Heavy oil transport

Monitoring and control
H. Integrated Flow Assurance
92
Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer & Thermodynamics
Fluid Flow Analysis
Predicts Flow & Pressure Behavior
Heat Transfer Analysis
Predicts Temperature Behavior
Thermodynamic Analysis
Predicts Fluid PVT Properties Flow Assurance
Integrated Analysis
of Flow Behavior,
Pressure and
Temperature
Performance, and
Fluid Properties
Hydrate Management
Thermodynamics establishes hydrate limits
Temperature and pressure determine hydrate performance
Heat transfer controls temperature profile
Fluid Flow influences Heat Transfer
Heavy Oil Transport
Heat Transfer determines temperature profile
Temperature controls viscosity behavior
Fluid viscosity establishes fluid flow
Fluid Flow influences Heat Transfer
Production Performance
Flow rates establish production
performance
Pressure determines flow rates
PVT properties impact pressure and
temperature profile
Temperature and pressure influence
PVT properties
93
Flow Assurance in Deepwater / Subsea
Commingling of
incompatible fluids
Deeper, colder
plugging & deposition
High back-pressure
Need for boosting
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Reservoir
Facilities
Hydrate
Asphaltene
Wax
Bubble Point
Fewer wells, minimal intervention
Premium on reliability
Limited monitoring of
wells, pipeline & riser
Flow assurance in deepwater is about designing and operating systems that handle
the many unique challenges of subsea production while mitigating unnecessary risk to
ensure the continuous flow of oil and gas from capital-intensive projects
94
Oil Gravity = 0.8, Specific Heat Capacity = 0.5 Btu/lb/degF
T
ambient
= 40 deg F
Buried Pipeline, U = 1.0 Btu/hr-ft^2-degF, Pipe Length = 20 miles Pipe Outer Diameter = 12 inch
T
inlet
=100 deg F
Q = 5000 BPD
Example H1 Heavy Oil Throughput Capacity
Determine the throughput (BPD capacity) for a 12-inch x 20 mile heavy oil pipeline with
an inlet conditions of 250 psi and 100 deg F. The minimum outlet pressure is 100 psi.
The viscosity of the crude is characterized as a function of temperature (deg F) by the
following exponential fit of lab data:

viscosity, cp = 500 x exp (-0.035 (temp in deg F 50))

Solution Procedure
1.Set the initial estimate of the throughput to be 30,000 - 50,000 BPD
2. Use the iterative procedure described in Example F1 (Pipeline Heat Transfer) for calculation of outlet
temperature for the given inlet temperature of 100 deg F. With a reasonable outlet temperature estimate,
the solution should converge in 4 iterations (or less).
3. Compute the velocity from the estimated flow rate.
4. Compute the viscosity at the average fluid temperature (mean of fixed and calculated outlet temp)
5. Update Reynolds number with the new velocity and viscosity
6. Update friction factor using the laminar flow equation (validate that Reynolds number is within range)
7. Calculate the frictional pressure gradient from the friction factor
8. Compute the outlet pressure for the estimated flow rate.
9. Update the estimated flow rate and repeat Steps 2-8 until the outlet pressure is approx 100 psi. This is the
calculated throughput for the pipeline.

Calculated throughput = 42,000 BPD (outlet temperature = 83 deg F)
95
Drag Reduction
Drag Reduction Additives (DRA) are long-chain,
ultra-high molecular weight (1-10 million)
polymers that are injected into liquid pipelines
(both crude and refined products) to increase
throughput capacity.
DRA does not alter the fluid properties or coat
the pipe wall, but rather drag reduction occurs
due to the suppression of energy dissipation by
eddy currents in the transition zone between
the laminar sub-layer near the pipe wall and the
turbulent core at the center of the pipe.
Turbulent flow in the pipe is therefore a
prerequisite for DRA to be effective.
In crude oil pipelines, DRA injection rates vary in the range of 10-50 ppm, with the
corresponding drag reduction effectiveness, the fractional reduction in frictional
pressure drop in the treated line, typically about 30-70 percent, and generally more
effective in lighter crudes.
Modeling the effect of DRA injection in a pipeline is relatively straightforward.
Vendor supplied Performance Curves the effective drag reduction as a function
of flow rate for a range of concentrations.
These curves are pipeline specific and are generated from flowline
tests conducted by the vendor.
96
I. Integrated Production Analysis


The economics of flow assurance

Reservoir performance
how it impacts production

Introduction to artificial lift methods

Integrated asset modeling (IAM)
reservoir, production, process plant, economics
97
Economics of Flow Assurance
At a high level, the economics of flow assurance involves a balance between
Cap Ex and annual Op Ex Costs based on the projected revenue stream.

Higher investments in Cap Ex are justified when the field is expected to produce
economically for a longer period (the projected life of a typical offshore field
varies from 10-30+ years).

Several factors effect the Revenue projections, including:

pricing forecasts for oil and gas

the availability of future markets through nearby pipeline connections
(especially for gas)

fiscal regimes (taxation, royalty, production sharing)

the time value of money (relating to deferred production)

98
Economics of Flow Assurance
Capital Expenditure
Drilling and completion of wells
Pipelines and gathering system installation
Installation of prime movers (compressors / pumps / multiphase pumps)
Facilities (platform, slug catcher, separator, heaters, recovery and reinjection,
other topsides)
Artificial lift installations including related facilities such as compression, power
lines etc.
Operating Costs
Facilities maintenance
Inhibitors/chemicals for hydrates (methanol/glycol), wax, asphaltenes, corrosion,
surfactants, etc.
Power costs for compressors, pumps, heaters, topsides, etc.
Personnel (platform, onshore, central support)
QHSE
Some of the key components of Cap Ex and Op Costs that need to be
included in any economic analysis for evaluating flow assurance alternatives:
99
Reservoir performancehow it impacts
production
Reservoir Decline

Reservoir Pressure (current) = Reservoir Pressure (previous) * Decline Rate * Cum Production

Note: for gas fields p/z is sometimes used instead of pressure (p) in the above equation


Maximum Drawdown

Drawdown is generally limited to avoid problems such as sand production

Bottom Hole Pressure > Reservoir Pressure Max Drawdown Limit


100
Introduction to Artificial Lift Methods





Most oil production reservoirs have sufficient
potential to naturally produce- during the early
phases of production.
As reservoir pressure decrease, water
encroachment will naturally cause all wells to slow
down in production.
At some point, an artificial lift will be used to
continue or increase production.
On the other hand most water producing wells will
need some kind of artificial lift due to the high
hydrostatic pressure it creates on the oil, gas, or
both.
A well with high water rate will be usually put on
an artificial lift from the beginning.
Available technologies add energy to the system
to lift the fluids to the surface. There are times an
oil well may need:




P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e


(
P
s
i
)

Hydraulic Pumps
PCP
Plungers
ESP
Gas Lift
Rod Pump
101
Integrated Asset Modeling, IAM
Reservoir, Production, Process Plant, Economics


IAM help to determine :
impacts of new drilling
best locations to set compression
to influence the order and location of the new drilling
evaluating the impact of third party activity
investigating gathering system improvement opportunities
for tubing sizes and evaluation of options versus performance
identifying wellwork candidates and other production enhancement
opportunities

and to analyze:
upsets and production losses
requests from Infill Team on lateral capacity
uplift for future
pressure changes for future pipeline projects,
pressure changes for future compressor projects
for debottlenecking

In summary, the reservoir decline, added wellhead compressor, the new wells
feeding into the same line, the increased compressor suction pressures, and
the availability of processing facilities, along with the economics can be
coordinated to give the optimized production scenerios.
102

DTS
ESP
wellbore data
seabed data
FPSO
manifold
multiphase
pump
Subsea monitoring
& control data
multiphase
meter
flowline
measurements
Flow Assurance Monitoring & Control
103
103
IAM Visualization
Business value of these new operating tools achieved
through improved operations efficiency, integrity
management, and organizational performance, by
integrating activities around reservoir, wells,
pipelines, facilities, and commercial decision-making
Near Real-Time Field Data and Model Results Monitoring
104
104
Map-based Visualization
Near Real-Time Field Data and Model Results Monitoring
105
105
IAM Online Model Calculations
Differential Line Pressure (actual versus model
calculated)
Pipeline resistance (DP/Q)
Mixture Velocity
Erosion Rate (Salama)
Corrosion Rate (de Waard)
Liquid Hold-up
Model Error Tracking
106
Reservoir Inflow
Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR):
Production rate as a function of flowing wellbore pressure, (P
wf
).

Productivity Index under-saturated oil reservoir

PI = Q
o
/ (P
R
- P
wf
) Linear

Vogels equation below the bubble point pressure

Q
o
= Q
omax
(1 0.2 P
wf
/P
R
0.8 (P
wf
/P
R
)
2
)

where Q
omax
is a hypothetical maximum rate at P
wf
= 0

The following equation can be used when P
wf
< P
B
< P
R


Q
o
= PI (P
R
- P
B
) + 0.5 PI / P
B
(P
B
2
P
wf
2
)

For Gas Wells (back pressure equation):

Q
G
= C
p
[ (P
R
)
2
(P
wf
)
2
]
n
for 0.5 < n < 1.0


Q
omax

P
wf

Q
o

Oil Production Rate
F
l
o
w
i
n
g

B
o
t
t
o
m

H
o
l
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Slope = 1 / PI
P
r

Productivity Index
in Under-Saturated Reservoirs
107
Example I1 - Oil Well IPR
Since test pressure (1234 psi) < BPP (2222 psi)

PI = Q
o
/ [(P
R
- P
B
) + 0.5 / P
B
(P
B
2
P
wf
2
)]
= 1.07 bpd/psi

Q
omax
= Q
o
/ (1 0.2 P
wf
/P
R
0.8 (P
wf
/P
R
)
2
)
= 2792 bpd

Calculate Q
o
for a range of P
wf
using the equation:

Q
o
= PI (P
R
- P
B
) + 0.5 PI / P
B
(P
B
2
- P
wf
2
)

Where: P
R
= 3636 psi
P
B
= 2222 psi
PI = 1,07 bpd/psi

The maximum rate is 2713 bpd (at P
wf
= 0)

From a well test, the bottom-hole pressure was measured as 1234 psi at a rate of 2345
bpd. The static pressure in the reservoir after the well was shut-in for 48 hours was
measured as 3636 psi. Lab tests show that the bubble point pressure at the reservoir
temperature of 200 deg F was 2222 psi. Determine the productivity index and
absolute open flow potential and use these values to plot the IPR curve for the well.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0.0 1000.0 2000.0 3000.0
Pressure vs. Rate
Rate (bpd)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
p
s
i
)

108
Example I2 - Integrated Production System
An integrated gas production system extends from the reservoir through the wellbore,
pipeline and compressor flowing into the separation facilities. Estimate the delivery
capacity to a downstream trunk line operating at a fixed pressure of 1000 psia. The
following data applies:
Reservoir
Pressure = 5000 psia, Temperature = 200 deg F, Gravity = 0.75
Deliverability: Cp = 7.8E-6, n = 0.9
Well
Depth = 10,000 ft, Diameter = 4 inch
Average friction factor = 0.015, Average Z = 0.8
Surface Pipeline
Length = 20 miles, Diameter = 6 inch
Surface Temperature = 80 deg F
Average friction factor = 0.01, Average Z = 0.9
Procedure

1. Estimate gas deliverability Qg (range: 25 35 MMscfd)
2. From the reservoir pressure, calculate the flowing BHP using the gas deliverability equation
3. Estimate the average wellbore temperature to be the average of the reservoir and surface temp (140 F)
4. Approximating the average wellbore pressure to the FBHP, calculate the estimated velocity and density
5. Calculate the frictional pressure gradient from the friction factor, density and velocity
6. Calculate the elevation gradient from the density
7. Determine the wellhead pressure for the estimated rate from the two pressure gradient terms
8. Estimate the surface velocity and density using the same approach as that for the wellbore
9. Calculate the surface frictional gradient and use this to calculate the delivery pressure from the wellhead
pressure for the estimated rate.
10.Compare the delivery pressure with the 1000 psia delivery requirement, adjust the estimated rate,
and repeat steps 2-9 until convergence is achieved.
11.The final converged estimate of throughput is approximately 31 MMscfd
109
Flow Assurance Issues

110
Symbol Definition
P
wf
Flowing bottom hole pressure (psi)
PI Productivity Index (bpd/psi)
P
R
Reservoir pressure (psi)
Q
o,max
Absolute open flow (bpd)
C
p
Gas deliverability constant
N Gas deliverability exponent
P
B
Bubble point pressure (psi)
Terminology
111
Unit Conversions
Unit of Measure US Oilfield Units Other Units Conversion
Pressure (abs) psia kPa
bar
kPa = psia x 6.8948
bar = psia x
0.068948
Temperature deg F deg C deg C = (deg F 32)
*/ 1.8
Oil Gravity deg API specific gravity SG = 141.5 / (131.5
+ API)
Pipe Diameter inch mm mm = 25.4 x inch
Pipe Length ft meter meter = ft x 0.3048
Liquid Volume bbl ft
3

meter
3

ft
3
= bbl x 5.615
meter
3
= ft
3
x 0.0283
meter
3
= bbl x 0.159
Gas Volume scf (ft
3
) sm
3
(meter
3
) meter
3
= ft
3
x 0.0283

Liquid Rate bpd m3/d m3/d = bpd x 0.159
Gas Rate MMscfd km
3
/d
MMsm
3
/d
km3/d = 28.3 x
MMscfd
MMsm3/d = .0283 x
MMscfd
Standard Conditions: 14.7 psia, 60 deg F (1.02 bar, 15.5 deg C)
Absolute Zero: -460 deg F (-273 deg C)
112
J. Flow Assurance Considerations in
Conceptual Design & Operations
Two participative classroom exercises, J1 and J2, where the
concepts discussed in the preceding sessions will be applied to two
practical example involving the creation of:

J1 a field development plan with particular emphasis on the
impact of flow assurance issues on the overall design.

J2 a Pipeline throughput increase without significant capital
investment
113
Workshop J1- Conceptual Design Problem
Surface Ambient Temp = 60 deg F
Minimum Delivery Pressure to Trunk Line = 1750 psia
Compressor Power / Stage = 150 HP
Overall Compressor Efficiency = 80%
Initial Number of Stages (Year 1-5) = 3
Final Number of Stages (Year 6 +) = ?
Satellite
After Year 5
Contractual Rate = 20 MMscfd
Est. Inlet Temp at Manifold = 68 deg F
Riser Depth = 5000 ft
Diameter = 10 inch
U = 6 Btu/hr/ft2/degF
MAOP = 1250 psia
Roughness = .0012 inch
Well Depth = 14000 ft
Diameter = 6 inch
U = 6.5 Btu/hr/ft2/degF
Geothermal grad = 1.2 deg F / 100 ft
Roughness = .0012 inch
Gas Gravity = 0.75
Average Compressibility = 0.9
Specific Heat Capacity = 0.7
Cp / Cv Ratio = 1.31
Pipeline Length = 10 mile
Diameter = 8 inch
Roughness = .0012 inch
U = 3.3 Btu/hr/ft2/degF
Ambient Subsea Temp = 39 deg F
MAOP = 1550 psia
Initial Reservoir Pressure = 5000 psia
Decline Rate = 0.01 psi/MMscf
Reservoir Temperature = 120 deg F
Max Drawdown (avoid sand production) = 3000 psi
Deliverability Constant Cp = 8 E-6 MMscf/psi2
Deliverability Exponent n = 0.90
Subsea
Manifold
Riser Base
Bottom
Hole
Platform
Reservoir
Maximize production within the constraints of the operating envelope through
the first five years of operation.

After five years, a satellite field is being brought on-stream at the subsea
manifold with a contractual rate of 20 MMscfd. What is the impact on existing
production and how much additional compression is needed to produce both
fields?
114
Basic Engineering Concepts Applied:
Reservoir
Gas deliverability equation (see
Reservoir Deliverability)
Reservoir decline
Drawdown limit
Wellbore
Pressure gradient (see Momentum
Balance)
Heat transfer (see Heat Transfer)
Manifold
Fluid mixing temperature
Subsea Pipeline
Pressure gradient
Heat transfer
Hydrate prediction temperature

Riser
Pressure gradient
Heat transfer
Platform
Compression
Workshop J1 - Engineering Design Concepts
Reservoir Decline

Reservoir Pressure (current)
= Reservoir Pressure (previous) * Decline Rate * Cumulative
Production

Note: for gas fields p/z is sometimes used instead of pressure
(p) in the above equation
Fluid Mixing at Junction (Subsea Manifold)

Mixture Temperature (downstream)
= (Stream1 Temp*Stream1 Rate + Stream2 Temp*Stream 2 Rate)
/ (Stream 1 Rate + stream 2 Rate)

Note: for multiple streams, the downstream temp is the mass-
weighted temperature of all incoming streams
Simplified Hydrate Prediction

The following empirical model (Hammerschmidt) is used:
Hydrate formation temp (deg F) =8.9 x psia
0.85


Compressor Power

HP = 550 * Mass Rate (lb/s) * Head (ft) / Efficiency / g
Head = n / (n 1) * Pinlet * (Ratio
((n-1)/n) 1)
)

Maximum Drawdown

Drawdown is generally limited to avoid problems such as sand
production

Bottom Hole Pressure > Reservoir Pressure Max Drawdown Limit

115
Location Minimum Temp Min Pressure Max Pressure
Reservoir NA NA NA
Bottom Hole NA Drawdown limit NA
Manifold Hydrate limit NA Pipeline MAOP
Riser Base Hydrate limit NA Riser MAOP
Platform Inlet Hydrate limit NA NA
Delivery NA Trunk line
pressure
NA
Workshop J1- Summary of Operating Constraints
Solution cannot violate any of the above constraints for the projected 10-year operating scenario

116
Spread Sheet 1 of the Excel file Workshop J1 defines the full problem to be
solved:
Lines 5-10 summarizes the results for a simulation scenario in terms of the
pressure & temp at the key points along the system.
The bright yellow fields in Column D represent the variable to be changed (well
rate, satellite rate, cumulative production, compressor stages).
DO NOT CHANGE ANY OTHER FIELDS
Workshop J1- (Excel File)
117
1. In Spreadsheet 1, set satellite production = 0; number of compressor stages = 3 to start the analysis
2. For year 1, set cumulative production = 0 (new field) and adjust Well Production (range: 25-35 MMscfd) until none of the
constraints are violated. Enter this value in Sheet 2 for year 1 and determine the cumulative volume produced by the well
at the end of the year.
3. Enter the cumulative volume in Sheet 1 and repeat Step 2 for Year 2
4. Repeat Steps 2-3 for the first five years.
5. At Year 6, set satellite production = 20 MMscfD and determine the flow rate at which the minimum delivery pressure is
achieved.
6. Note that the hydrate temperature limit is violated because of the cooler satellite production stream. Add another stage of
compression (stages = 4) so that production from the Well increases and the pipeline temperature no longer falls below the
hydrate limit.
7. Repeat Steps 2-3 for the remaining years in the scenario
8. Note that the pipeline temperature falls as well production drops dues to reservoir decline. If temperature drops below the
hydrate limit, add more compression in Year 6 and repeat the steps through the end.
9. The plot on the right shows the predicted production profile for the ten year scenario.


Spread Sheet 2 of the Excel file Workshop J1 is the worksheet used to determine the
cumulative production volume from the production profile.
Solution to Workshop J1- (Excel File)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 5 10 15
Well Production Profile
Years of Production
W
e
l
l

P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
,

M
M
s
c
f
d

118
Workshop J2
-Pipeline Operations Problem
How much can pipeline throughput be increased without significant capital
investment (through a combination of existing pump capacity utilization and DRA
injection)? Assume DRA performance is for medium crude per chart on right.

Analyze the operational economics given:
a) Utility rates of euro 0.10/kWh
b) DRA injection cost of euro 10/gallon
0
500
1000
1500
0 20 40 60 80 100
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

Pipeline Profile Distance Elevation OD
KM m inch
Inlet Pump Station (SP1) 0 416 16
Intermediate Pump Station (SP2) 44.6 740 16
Highest Point 69.4 1263 16
16/10 Switch 80.8 1100 10.75
Refinery 88.8 431 10.75
Current Operations:
Crude oil gravity = 0.83 avg. viscosity = 3
cSt
Operational service = 170day/yr
Average sand = 390 ppm
88.8 km x16 inch branch line flowing from mainline to refinery (10 inch pipe for final 8 km)
Inlet Pump Station SP1 3x500 kW (1 spare), Intermediate Pump Station SP2 2x500kW
units (1 spare).
SP1 Outlet
SP2 Inlet
SP2 Outlet High Point Refinery
74.3 27.3 53 2.2 39.7
Pipeline pressure profile (bar) from SCADA at 650 m3/hr:
119
Spread Sheet 1 (Baseline) is the worksheet used to determine the baseline pipeline
operation from current operations data (SCADA pressure profile).

Key Assumptions:
Line fill compaction = 1.5% (change in volume at in situ pressure and
temperature)
Wall thickness = 0.375 inch for 16 inch pipe, 0.365 for 10 inch pipe (Schedule 40)

Adjust pipe roughness and pump efficiency until predicted profile matches SCADA
Use adjusted values and calculated pipeline inlet pressure for all subsequent
analysis
Solution to Workshop J2 - (Excel File)
Spread Sheet 2(Analysis) is the worksheet used to analyze various operating
scenarios

Key Constraints:
Pressure at Highest Point > 0 bar (else slack line conditions)
Pipeline velocity < erosional limit (const in API RP14E = 135 for solid (sand)<1
lb/bbl)
Spread Sheet 3 (Costing): is the worksheet used to estimate the DRA and power
costs for the various scenarios.
120
Workshop J2 - Results Summary

Flow Rate PS1 PS2 Drag Reduction Injection Rate Injection Injection DRA Cost Add. Power Cost Total
m3/hr units units US gal/day SP1 SP2 euro/day euro/day euro/day
650 2 1 0% 0 No No 0 0 0
750 2 1 46% 145 Yes Yes 2891 0 2891
750 2 1 70% 254 Yes No 2541 0 2541
750 3 1 0% 0 Yes No 0 1200 1200
800 2 1 62% 232 Yes No 2321 0 2321
800 3 1 20% 28 Yes No 276 1200 1476
850 3 1 35% 107 Yes Yes 2138 1200 3338
900 3 1 50% 195 Yes Yes 3908 1200 5108
950 3 1 60% 264 Yes Yes 5282 1200 6482
1000 3 1 70% 339 Yes Yes 6777 1200 7977
The table above summarizes the results for the pipeline throughput analysis.














Key Observations:
1) Pipeline is operating close to capacity under current conditions (spare pumps not
used, no DRA injection)
2) Throughput cannot be increased beyond 1000 m3/hr without additional capex (new
pump units, pipeline resizing, or looping)
3) Erosional velocity in the 10-inch line will not be a factor if sand is controlled
4) Pump operation (spare) is a more cost effective option than DRA injection
121

1. Flow Assurance Design Guideline, Deepstar IV Project CTR 4203b-1, 2001
2. Brill, J.P. and Beggs, D.H.: Two-Phase Flow in Pipes (any edition)
3. Golan, M. and Whitson, C.H.: Well Performance, Second Edition, 1995
4. Offshore Multiphase Production Operations, SPE Reprint Series No. 58
5. Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary (www.glossary.oilfield.com)
References:
122
For additional information please contact:


Dr. Nihal Guler-Quadir,
Dr. Kunal Dutta-Roy

EICE International Inc.
16350 Park Ten Place
Houston, Texas 77084
United States of America

Nihal.G.Quadir@EICEinternational.com
Kunal.DuttaRoy@EICEinternational.com

phone: +1 (281) 646-8669
cell: +1 (713) 459-9422


Contact Information