HARMONIC WHEEL: UTILITIES

http://www.harmonicwheel.com
In the next 2 large sections the main utilities of the Harmonic Wheel are explained in detail. They
have been written in a simple and friendly way so as to be useful even for the layman. In fact a
summary of main musical concepts is given, which may serve as an introduction to Music
Theory and Harmony for anyone interested in this subject. Thus all the concepts are explained
in the simplest cases !for example in the " #a$or %ey& and the rest of them are solved
automatically with the aid of the Harmonic Wheel. In this development a big effort has been made
to logically connect all the concepts to give the theory a solid and unified structure.
All the explanations are given without using the musical notation, for it is unnecessary in this
approach. 'nly one example of it is presented in one of the last chapters. (evertheless it is
strongly recommended to learn it for it is one of the few languages having the status as a universal
language along with the mathematical language the symbols for the physical units and the symbols
for the chemical elements. #oreover once the contents of this Web page are ac)uired it will be
easier to understand this system of script.
*ven for those people having musical %nowledge this new way of connecting musical concepts will
result very interesting. +nd particularly those musicians who play monophonic or percussion
instruments will find, in Level , a very useful summary of Harmony foundations, which may
be sufficient to satisfy their real professional needs thus avoiding the necessity of reading
complex and extensive texts.
The contents have been organi,ed into 2 -evels:
Level ! is devoted to fundamental aspects of Music Theory. This level deals with the musical
notes the intervals the #a$or and minor scales and the %eys. The Harmonic Wheel allows us to
easily obtain the interval between any two notes as well as the notes belonging to any #a$or or
minor scale being it natural harmonic or melodic along with their corresponding %ey signature. +s
novelty the Harmonic Wheel gives a complete and panoramic view of the existing relationships
among all the %eys. While the cycle of fifths shows the %eys on a line !one dimension& the
Harmonic Wheel shows them on a surface !two dimensions&. .o besides the cycle of fifths the
changes of mode are also visible which are not in the cycle of fifths. Thus a real MA" #$ TH%
&%'( is achieved.
Level is devoted to the foundations of Harmony. This level deals with the construction of #a$or
minor +ugmented and diminished chords as well as all possible / note chords that can be obtained
by superimposing #a$or and minor thirds. Then the existing relationships among the different
types of chords are explained by means of scales. 'n the Harmonic Wheel all these chords have a
simple graphical representation. This fact facilitates us to obtain the notes composing them that is
their arpeggios. 'n the other hand this instrument allows us to obtain automatically all the chords
associated to any #a$or or minor scale. This function is named )H#*+ $,-+%*. +s novelty the
particular representation of notes and consonant chords on the Harmonic Wheel explains
graphically the construction of the #a$or scale its relationship with its relative minor scale and the
most important characteristics of their associated chords. +ll these things are difficult to see even in
the conventional musical script. #oreover than%s to this %ind of representation it is easy to
determine which chords are more or less affine to any given scale. 0inally some special scales
containing 1 2 and 3 notes are explained along with their associated chords.
LEVEL 2: FOUNDATIONS OF HARMONY
http://www.harmonicwheel.com
9. MAJOR AND MINOR CHORDS
+ )hord is a set of 4 or more notes that sound simultaneously. In a similar way as we saw with the
intervals there are some combinations of 4 notes that when played together produce a sensation of
harmony, rest and stability. They are the so5called )onsonant )hords and there are only two types
of them: Major and minor )hords. The rest of the chords are +issonant.
+ Major )hord is built by superimposing a # 4
rd
and a m 4
rd
intervals on a note which is called
the *oot. +nd a minor chord is built by superimposing first a m 4
rd
and then a # 4
rd
.
Thus for example the " #a$or chord is composed by notes " * 67 and the + minor chord is
composed by notes + " *. In both cases it can be seen that between the first note !that is the
root& and the last one there is a 8 1
th
interval !" 9 6 in the first case and + 9 * in the second one&
which ma%es these chords especially stable. The " #a$or chord is simply represented by :"; while
the + minor chord is represented by :+m;.
Those people who play polyphonic instruments such as piano guitar etc. must learn to play these
types of chords as well as other types that will be described in the next chapters. #oreover they
must learn to play the notes composing these chords successively both ascending and descending
what is %nown as Arpeggios. 'n the contrary those people who play monophonic instruments
such as trumpet saxophone etc. can only play the arpeggios but not the chords. +nyway both the
former and the latter must learn to recogni,e the different types of chords :by ear;.
'n the Harmonic Wheel the )onsonant )hords that is Major and minor chords are shown in
*%+ and are placed inside curved triangles. The notes composing these chords that is their
arpeggios are placed $ust at the vertices of these triangles.
In 0ig. << we can see how the notes composing the " and +m chords are so easily found by using
the Harmonic Wheel.
0igure <<. The notes composing the " and +m chords !consonant& are placed at the vertices of
curved triangles.
The two chords considered in this example contain the note *. If we loo% for all possible #a$or and
minor chords containing that note the answer again is very simple: They are those chords
surrounding the note * !0ig. <2& that is: * *m " +m + and " m.
0igure <2. 'btaining all #a$or and minor chords containing the note *.
10. AUGMENTED AND DIMINISHED CHORDS
+n Augmented )hord is a 4 note +issonant chord built by superimposing two # 4
rd
intervals.
Thus for example the " +ugmented chord is composed by notes " * 6 . +s can be seen there
are no 8 1
th
intervals between these notes but an + 1
th
so this chord is unstable and produces a
sensation of tension. The " +ugmented chord is represented by :"=;.
'n the Harmonic Wheel the Augmented )hords are represented by the spiral red lines. In 0ig.
<4 we can see how to obtain the notes composing the "= chord: they are those on the spiral going
by note ".
0igure <4. The notes composing the "= chord !dissonant& are on a .piral.
-#T%. In chord construction the enharmonic notes not following the series of 4
rd
intervals must
be discarded.
If we try to add another # 4
rd
on the 6 we shall obtain the note > which is enharmonic to "
!?oot of the chord&. Therefore chords "= *= and 6 = are enharmonic to each other and they are
the only three +ugmented chords containing the note *. @ue to the symmetry present in this chord
there are only / different +ugmented chords.
+ diminished )hord is a / note +issonant chord built by superimposing three m 4
rd
intervals.
Thus for example the * diminished chord is composed by notes * 6 > @ . +s can be seen
there are no 8 1
th
intervals between these notes but two d 1
ths
!tritones& so this chord is unstable
and produces a sensation of tension. The * diminished chord is represented by :* ;.
'n the Harmonic Wheel the diminished )hords are represented by the radial red lines. In 0ig.
</ we can see how to obtain the notes composing the * chord: they are those on the radius going
by note ".
0igure </. The notes composing the * chord !dissonant& are on a ?adius.
-#T%. ?emember that in chord construction the enharmonic notes not following the series of 4
rd
intervals must be discarded.
If we try to add another m 4
rd
on the @ we shall obtain the note 0 which is enharmonic to *
!?oot of the chord&. Therefore chords * 6 > and @ are enharmonic to each other and they
are the only four diminished chords containing the note *. @ue to the symmetry present in this
chord there are only 4 different diminished chords.
'ccasionally a 4 note chord built by superimposing two m 4
rd
intervals is also called diminished.
This chord does not contain any 8 1
th
as well but a d 1
th
!tritone& so it is also dissonant. In our
case and in order to avoid misunderstandings we will call it /minor, flat fifth )hord0. +nd if the
root is * it will be represented by :*m! 1&;. Its notes !* 6 > & are also on the radius going by
note *.
-#T%. The suspended 1
th
and suspended 2
th
)hords are not considered here because they are
not built by 4
rds
but by /
ths
. (evertheless their representation on the Harmonic Wheel is very
simple too for their notes are placed on a circumference.
11. FOUR NOTE CHORDS
Ap to now we have explained the construction and graphic representation of #a$or minor
+ugmented and diminished chords !in this last case with 4 and / notes&. These chords include all
possible chords built by superimposing two #a$or o minor 4
rd
intervals. +nd as we have seen all
of them have a very simple geometric shape on the Harmonic Wheel.
The superimposition of three #a$or o minor 4
rd
intervals gives 3 possibilities. However the case of
three #a$or 4
rds
results in an +ugmented chord which has only 4 different notes and has been
studied in the last chapter. The other B possibilities actually correspond to / note chords but the
case of three minor 4
rds
results in a diminished chord which has been studied in the last chapter
too. .o we shall go on with the construction and graphic representation of the remaining 2 types of
chords. They have been grouped by couples in order to show the existing symmetries. In all cases
the ?oot of every chord has been mar%ed with and the rest of the notes with .
(ow besides of the 4
rd
and 1
th
intervals a B
th
will appear between the first and the last note in each
chord. ?elating to the symbols used to represent the chords the most simple as well as universally
accepted ones have been chosen. 8articularly the symbol :B; is used to indicate the minor B
th
and
the symbol : ; for the #a$or B
th
. 0rom now on we shall not repeat that the enharmonic notes not
following the series of 4
rd
intervals must be discarded as it has already been mentioned several
times.
+ Major 2
th
)hord is a / note chord built by superimposing a # 4
rd
a m 4
rd
and a # 4
rd
intervals
!in this se)uence&. Thus for example the " #a$or B
th
chord is composed by notes " * 6 >. This
chord is represented by :" ;.
+ minor 2
th
)hord is a / note chord built by superimposing a m 4
rd
a # 4
rd
and a m 4
rd
intervals
!in this se)uence&. Thus for example the + minor B
th
chord is composed by notes + " * 6. This
chord is represented by :+mB;.
0igure <1. 6raphic representation of " and +mB chords on the Harmonic Wheel.
+ +ominant 2
th
)hord is a / note chord built by superimposing a # 4
rd
a m 4
rd
and a m 4
rd
intervals !in this se)uence&. Thus for example the 6 @ominant B
th
chord is composed by notes 6
> @ 0. This chord is represented by :6B;. It is worthwhile to point out that in this chord a d 1
th
!tritone& is formed between the 4
rd
and the B
th
of the chord !in the example between > and 0&.
+ half3diminished )hord is a / note chord built by superimposing two m 4
rd
and one # 4
rd
intervals !in this se)uence&. Thus for example the > half5diminished chord is composed by notes
> @ 0 +. This chord is represented by :> ;. It is worthwhile to point out that in this chord a d
1
th
!tritone& is formed between the root and the 1
th
of the chord !in the example between > and 0&.
0igure <2. 6raphic representation of 6B and > chords on the Harmonic Wheel.
+n Augmented, Major 2
th
)hord is a / note chord built by superimposing two # 4
rd
and one m
4
rd
intervals !in this se)uence&. Thus for example the " +ugmented #a$or B
th
chord is composed
by notes " * 6 >. This chord is represented by :"= ;.
+ minor, Major 2
th
)hord is a / note chord built by superimposing one m 4
rd
and two # 4
rd
intervals !in this se)uence&. Thus for example the + minor #a$or B
th
chord is composed by notes
+ " * 6 . This chord is represented by :+m ;.
0igure <B. 6raphic representation of "= and +m chords on the Harmonic Wheel.
12. CHORDS AND SCALES
Ap to now we have studied the chords as if they were independent to each other that is without
saying which chords are related with which other chords. 6enerally a melody consists of notes
belonging either to a #a$or or to a minor scale. 'n the other hand each melody usually has an
accompaniment that is normally composed by notes belonging to the same scale as the melody.
+nd also in a general sense this accompaniment consists in chords built by superimposing 4
rd
intervals !#a$or or minor& on every scale degree.
Thus for example a musical passage written in " #a$or will have an accompaniment that in most
cases will be formed by the chords shown in Table /. In that Table both 4 and / note chords have
been considered.
Table /. " #a$or scale and 4 and / note chords associated to this scale.
" #a$or scale I " II @ III * IC 0 C 6 CI + CII >
4 note chords I " II @m III *m IC 0 C 6 CI +m
CII >m!
1&
6
*
"
+
0
@
>
6
*
"
+
0
@
>
6
*
"
+
0
@
>
/ note chords I " II @mB III *mB IC 0 C 6B CI +mB CII >
>
6
*
"
"
+
0
@
@
>
6
*
*
"
+
0
0
@
>
6
6
*
"
+
+
0
@
>
The musical system of script provides us with an easy and compact way for representing both the
melodies and the chords. +s an example the information in Table / is again shown in 0ig. <3 using
the music notation.
0igure <3. " #a$or scale and the 4 and / note chords associated to this scale.
-ogically #usic as in every art has no exact rules or strict limits. 'n the contrary everything is
allowed and nothing is prohibited with the aim of creating beauty or simply producing different
emotions. This means that in a composition which melody is in " #a$or we can find other chords
than those above mentioned7 or we can find even in the melody some notes outside this scale.
"hords in Table / and in 0ig. <3 are simply those associated in a natural way to the " #a$or
scale. That is to say that they represent the :first option; to add an accompaniment to a melody
written with the notes of that scale. Therefore those chords are the chords that will be found in
most cases in the scores or musical passages which melodies are created with the notes of the "
#a$or scale. #oreover Table / and 0ig. <3 also tell us that the chords contained in them are affine
among them. .o this way we begin to relate chords among them instead of considering them as
isolated and independent things.
If we had considered the + natural minor scale instead of the " #a$or scale we would have
obtained the same previous chords but in another order that is assigned to different scale degrees.
>ut if we consider the + harmonic or melodic minor scales some different chord types will then
appear. The 4 and 1 note chord types appearing in Major and minor scales are precisely all
those studied in chapters 5 to !!.
The tas% of adding chords to a melody is %nown as harmoni6ation of melodies and represents an
important part in the study of Harmony. #a$or and minor scales besides serving us to create
melodies as well as providing the most suitable chords to accompany them are the %ey to relate
chords among them for the chords associated to any Major or minor scale always form a set of
chords which are affine among them.
When tal%ing about scales and their associated chords it is worthwhile to clarify the difference
between Tonic and ?oot. The Tonic is :the first note of a scale; !that is the I degree& and the ?oot
is :the first note of a chord; !that is the note above which the 4
rd
intervals are superimposed&.
Therefore in a #a$or or minor scale there is only one tonic but there are B roots one for each
chord associated to the scale. These B roots are precisely the notes of the scale. The chord whose
root is the tonic of the scale is called Tonic )hord. .o if considering 4 note chords the tonic chord
in the " #a$or scale is "7 and the tonic chord in any + minor scale is +m.
#n the Harmonic 7heel, the consonant chords are always grouped by couples formed by a
Major chord and its relative minor chord. And each of these couples is assigned the 8ey
signature that would correspond to these chords if they were tonic chords. (o, each Major or
minor chord also represents a 8ey. This fact allows us to directly obtain the %ey signature
associated to any #a$or or minor scale as was done in "hapter B.
Dnowing the chords associated to any #a$or or minor scale for any number of accidentals in the
%ey signature is therefore a corner stone to harmoni,e melodies. +nd because it may result very
complex in the Harmonic Wheel a very simple system to obtain all the chords associated to any
scale has been implemented as will be seen in the next "hapter. #oreover moving a series of notes
or chords from one %ey to another is also a complex operation that can be easily performed by using
this instrument. This operation is named Transposition and is )uite common in #usic. However
the transposition of notes should be mentally performed which re)uires the study of their
associated rules and much practice as well.
13. CHORD FINDER AND THE MAJOR-MINOR SYSTEM
In the last chapter it was pointed out that %nowing the chords associated to any scale is extremely
important and we also saw the big difficulties related to it. If we go bac% to Table / or 0ig. <3 and
we pay attention to their second part that is that showing the 4 note chords we will see that the
first 2 chords are consonant and the last one is dissonant. The Harmonic Wheel allows us to obtain
the consonant chords of any scale in an automatic way. We will show it with an example:
If we choose the " #a$or scale !0ig. <E& the @+?D >-A* -I(*. show the region in the
Harmonic Wheel embraced by this scale which is a curved rectangle. 8recisely inside this region
there are the consonant chords associated to the " #a$or scale that is the 4 #a$or chords $, ), 9
and the 4 minor chords +m, Am, %m. *ach of these chords is preceded by a ?oman numeral
indicating its corresponding scale degree.
0igure <E. "onsonant chords associated to the " #a$or scale.
0urthermore in this representation we can observe that the chords ) and Am have a :central
position; in the " #a$or scale. If we now pay attention to the 4 #a$or chords we see that the $
chord !.ubdominant& is located to the left of ) !Tonic& that is towards a %ey signature with more
flats so it is said that the (ubdominant )hord has a regressive character. 'n the contrary the 9
chord !@ominant& is located to the right of ) that is towards a %ey signature with more sharps so it
is said that the +ominant )hord has a progressive character.
The analysis of the 4 minor chords is completely analogous. Thus the +m chord is located to the
left of Am so having a regressive character with respect to it. +nd the %m chord is located to the
right of Am so having a progressive character with respect to it. These 4 chords +m, Am and %m
correspond to degrees II CI and III respectively. However if we consider these 4 minor chords
inside the + natural minor scale !relative of " #a$or& then the Am chord will be the Tonic chord !I
degree& +m the .ubdominant !IC degree& and %m the @ominant !C degree&. Therefore the great
symmetry that exists between the 4 #a$or and the 4 minor chords associated to a #a$or scale is
apparent. The deep relationship between a #a$or scale and its relative minor scale is now evident
too. The corresponding chord for the CII degree that is the >m! 1& did not appear in this analysis
for it is not a consonant chord but a dissonant one.
-oo%ing at 0ig. <E again we can say that the 2 notes of a Major scale are the minimum
necessary to form 4 Major chords in intervals of " :
ths
. one /central0 chord and, with respect
to it, one regressive and one progressive chord. This provides this set of B notes with a strong
cohesion and unity and establishes the particular succession of whole and half steps among them as
well. #oreover with the same B notes we can form other 4 minor chords in intervals of 8 1
ths
too:
one central chord and with respect to it one regressive and one progressive chord. These facts
$ustify both the existence of the #a$or and its relative minor scales and at the same time confer
these two modes a supremacy with respect to the other 1.
+s we saw the representation of notes and chords provided by the Harmonic 7heel allows us
to easily understand which is the underlying relationship connecting the 2 notes composing a
Major scale, that is to say, which is the origin of its particular succession of whole and half
steps, the reason why two relative modes are established, the Major and the minor, and which
are the main characteristics of the chords associated to them. +ll this information is not visible
in other %inds of representations even in that of 0ig. <3 where the standard music script was used.
This is a conse)uence of the particular design of the Harmonic Wheel which is based on the most
fundamental relationships among sounds that is the consonance relationships.
+nyway once one has seen and understood this analysis he will find very logical that Western
music evolved with time towards the #a$or5minor system where the tonics of these two modes are
precisely the roots of the two chords having a :central position; !from the point of view of
consonances& in the #a$or scale.
-et us go on considering the / note chords associated to the #a$or scale that is those in the last
part of Table / and 0ig. <3. Their locali,ation in the Harmonic Wheel is automatic too since to the
right of each chord there is a symbol indicating the chord type !0ig. 2F&.
0igure 2F. / note chords associated to the " #a$or scale.
>y rotating the two discs forming the Harmonic Wheel we will find the chords associated to any
#a$or scale. >ut this powerful and versatile musical abacus also implements the minor scales:
natural harmonic and melodic. .o by means of a similar procedure we will find every chord
associated to any minor scale.
The option given by the Harmonic Wheel to obtain the chords associated to any scale is called
)H#*+ $,-+%* function. +nd this function is not restricted to the #a$or and minor scales but it
is also valid for other types of scales that will be explained later !"hapters <1 and <2&. #oreover
due to the graphic nature of the scale and chord representations, it is very simple to determine
which chords are nearer to or further from a given scale that is if they contain some notes
belonging to the scale or on the contrary they are completely unrelated to it.
14. PENTATONIC SCALES. PROPERTIES
When tal%ing of the " #a$or scale in "hapter < we said that the B notes in this scale correspond to
the :white piano %eys;. (ow with the notes corresponding to the :blac% piano %eys; a 1 note scale
is obtained which is called the :0 #a$or 8entatonic .cale;. Its notes and the intervals among
them are the following:
0 #a$or 8entatonic scale
Thus we can define a Major "entatonic (cale as a set of 1 notes where the intervals among them
are: W W <.1W W <.1W. .o in order to obtain the " #a$or 8entatonic scale we only have to
begin with " and %eep to the previous interval succession:
" #a$or 8entatonic scale
There are two options for representing this scale on the Harmonic Wheel !0ig. 2<&.
0igure 2<. Two possible representations of the " #a$or 8entatonic scale.
0rom these graphic representations it is easy to understand the two most important properties of
this type of scale:
<. 7ith the notes of a Major scale it is possible to form 4 different Major "entatonic
scales. 0or example with the notes of the " #a$or scale it is possible to form the 0 " and
6 #a$or 8entatonic scales.
2. Any Major "entatonic scale can be obtained from the notes of 4 different Major scales.
0or example the " #a$or 8entatonic scale can be obtained from the notes of 0 " or 6
#a$or scales.
The relative minor scale of " #a$or 8entatonic is the :+ minor 8entatonic scale; which notes and
intervals among them are:
+ minor 8entatonic scale
Therefore we can define a minor "entatonic scale as a set of 1 notes characteri,ed by the
following interval succession: <.1W W W <.1W W. + minor 8entatonic scale has the same notes
as its relative #a$or 8entatonic scale but a different tonic.
+lthough the 8entatonic scales have a very ancient origin nowadays they are widely used in
modern music and $a,,. +nd particularly in ,mprovisation techni)ues.
1. DIMINISHED SCALES AND THEIR ASSOCIATED
CHORDS
+ diminished scale is composed by eight notes in alternating intervals of half and whole steps
!HW&. Thus for example if we begin with note > the following diminished scale is obtained:
> diminished scale !HW&
@ue to the existing symmetry in this scale / from its 3 notes can be considered the tonic: > @ 0
and 6 . Its representation on the Harmonic Wheel is very simple for it corresponds to 2
consecutive radii !0ig. 22&. +nd the / possible tonics are the notes contained in the left radius.
!?emember that the notes located at the ends of each radius are repeated&.
0igure 22. @iminished scale representation.
+ diminished scale can also be defined as an 3 note scale in alternating intervals of whole and half
steps !WH&. Asing this definition and beginning with note " yields
" diminished scale !WH&
@ue to the existing symmetry in this scale again / from its 3 notes can be considered the tonic. In
this case: " * 0 and +. +nd because the " diminished scale !WH& has the same notes as the >
diminished scale !HW& its graphic representation is newly that in 0ig. 22 but its / possible tonics
correspond now to the right radius. It is easy to prove that there are only 4 different diminished
scales.
*very diminished scale contains 3 consonant chords and includes for each of them its
corresponding relative chord !#a$or or minor& and its parallel chord !that is the one obtained by
changing the mode&. 0urthermore it contains every diminished chord formed by considering any
note of the scale as the root.
The diminished scales are widely used in modern music and $a,,. +nd particularly in
improvisation techni)ues.
1!. HE"ATONIC SCALES AND THEIR ASSOCIATED
CHORDS
The Hexatonic scales are those having 2 notes. (ext the two most important types of hexatonic
scales are described.
+ 7hole Tone scale is composed by 2 notes in intervals of one whole step. Thus for example if
we begin with note " the following Whole Tone scale is obtained:
" Whole Tone scale
@ue to the existing symmetry in this scale any of its notes can be considered the tonic. Its
representation on the Harmonic Wheel is very simple for it corresponds to 2 non5consecutive spiral
lines !0ig. 24&. It is easy to prove that there are only 2 different Whole Tone scales.
+ Whole Tone scale has no consonant chords but it contains every +ugmented chord formed by
considering any note of the scale as the root. #oreover it contains every @ominant B
th
chord with
+ugmented or diminished 1
th
that is the B! 1& and B! 1& chords which are formed by considering
any note of the scale as the root. 0or example if we consider " as the root the "B! 1& and "B! 1&
chords are obtained.
0igure 24. Whole Tone scale representation.
+n Augmented scale is composed by 2 notes in alternating intervals of <.1W and H. Thus for
example if we begin with note " the following +ugmented scale is obtained:
" +ugmented scale
@ue to the existing symmetry in this scale 4 from its 2 notes can be considered the tonic: " * and
+ . Its representation on the Harmonic Wheel is very simple for it corresponds to 2 consecutive
spiral lines !0ig. 2/&. It is easy to prove that there are only / different +ugmented scales.
+n +ugmented scale contains 2 consonant chords 4 #a$or and 4 minor whose roots are the 4
possible tonics of this scale. 0urthermore it contains every +ugmented chord formed by
considering any note of the scale as the root.
0igure 2/. +ugmented scale representation.
Hexatonic scales but mainly the Whole Tone scale are widely used in modern music and $a,,. +nd
particularly in improvisation techni)ues.
0igure 2/. +ugmented scale representation.
Hexatonic scales but mainly the Whole Tone scale are widely used in modern music and $a,,. +nd
particularly in improvisation techni)ues.