4.1. Objectives The objectives of this laboratory are to establish the rheological nature of an asphalt cement by meas- uring stress at various strain rates and to determine the temperature sensitivity by measuring the viscosity at various temperatures. Measurements will be made using four rotary vis- cometers (Fig. 1), which differ in their torque range. Each group will make measurements using one of these viscometers. Groups 1 and 2 will measure viscosity at various temperatures. Groups 3 and 4 will measure stress at various strain rates (and measure viscosity at a few selected temperatures). The rheological data collected by each group will be analyzed by the entire class in order to establish the rheological nature of the asphalt sample. 4.2. Background Asphalt cement behavior depends on temperature and time of loading. At high temperatures during the summer or under sustained loads such as slow moving trucks, asphalt cements act like viscous liquids and will flow. If the resistance to flow is too little, the pavement may develop permanent deformation (rutting) under heavy repeated loads. Conversely, if the asphalt cement becomes too stiff and/or brittle at low temperatures, cracking may develop. The material characteristic used to describe the resistance of liquids to flow is the viscosity, and the study of viscosity of materials is rheology. Viscosity can be thought of as the resistance between two layers of molecules moving over one another at different velocities. The shear force required to initiate this movement is significantly different for every material, for different tempera- tures, and for different velocities. The chemical makeup of the asphalt cement also affects the rheology of asphalt cements, and rheological testing provides viscositytemperature relationships that distinguish between the different asphalt cements. Viscosity is a direct indicator of stiffness, and when aggregate is coated with asphalt cement and compacted, the properties of the asphalt cement directly influence the resulting stiffness of the com- pacted mixture. The stiffness is the engineering quan- tity used to design pavement structures using asphalt concrete materials. Thus, the design is going to be affected by any property change in the asphalt cement. Because the asphalt cement changes stiffness (as indicated by the viscosity) with temperature, a material constructed with asphalt cement will change stiffness during each season of the year. ViscosityTemperature Asphalt cements are said to be temperature sus- ceptible, that is, their viscosity is highly dependent upon their temperature. For instance, the viscosity of an asphalt cement during construction (135C) could be 0.2 Pas, while the viscosity of the same asphalt in a pavement on a hot summer day (60C) could be around 200 Pas, or 1000 times more viscous (three orders of magnitude). Although the viscosity of asphalt is not typically measured at low temperatures, Fig. 1. Brookfield viscometer, showing detail of the spindle and specimen container (inset). 42 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210 the stiffness of the asphalt continues to increase by several additional orders of magnitude as pavement temperature decreases during the winter months. The temperature susceptibility of asphalt cements varies significantly between sources. Asphalt cements with very high temperature susceptibilities are unde- sirable, since the viscosity may become too low at high temperatures and/or the asphalt may be overly stiff at low temperatures. Low viscosity during construction may lead to drain-down of the asphalt during the transport or possibly an unstable (tender) mixture during rolling. After paving (during the service life of the pavement), low viscosity during summer months may lead to rutting, and high stiffness during winter months may lead to cracking. In practice, asphalt grade specification limits have been developed that control the temperature sus- ceptibility to acceptable limits. Although beyond the scope of this laboratory, it should be noted that the rheological behavior of asphalt in modern specifica- tions (the Superpave Performance-Graded Binder Specification) is measured at high temperatures using a rotary viscometer to determine viscosity, at inter- mediate temperatures using a dynamic shear rheom- eter to determine complex shear modulus, and at low temperatures using a bending beam rheometer to measure creep stiffness. In this laboratory, the rheo- logical behavior of asphalt at intermediate and high temperatures will be characterized using viscosity measurements from the rotary viscometer. Rate of Shear The second variable that alters the rheological behavior (viscosity) of an asphalt cement is the rate of shear, which is commonly expressed as the time rate of shear strain, resulting from the application of a shear stress. The shear stress is given by = & , (1) where & is the rate of shear strain resulting in the sample from the applied stress, and is the absolute viscosity of the material. If a plot of vs. & is a straight line, then the material is Newtonian and there will be only one viscosity for this fluid. Most asphalt cements are Newtonian at high temperatures (60C and greater). If the plot is nonlinear, there will be a different viscosity for every combination of shear stress and rate of shear straina non-Newtonian fluid. Asphalt cements are non-Newtonian at lower temperatures, and when modified by blending with such additives as crumb rubber and polymer. When the log of shear stress is plotted as a function of the log of rate of shear strain, all data (at a given temperature) are observed to plot along a straight line. A slope of unity indicates Newtonian behavior. The deviation from unity of the slope of this straight line indicates the degree of non-Newtonian behavior; a slope less than unity is typical of the non- Newtonian behavior in asphalt cements. This distinc- tion is important when investigating behavior of asphalt cements in complex loading situations in the laboratory, and when investigating failure in the field. The SI units for viscosity are pascalseconds (Pas). For example, the viscosity of water is approximately 0.001 Pas, and the viscosity of liquid honey is about 10 Pas. The viscosity of an AC-10 asphalt cement at 60C is 100 Pas. 4.3. Materials and Equipment Two samples of asphalt cement Four Brookfield rotary viscometers for determination of shear stress and viscosity 4.4. Experimental Procedure 1. The class will be divided into four groups. Each will use one of the four Brookfield viscometers. Each viscometer has a different torque capacity. Spindle sizes and testing temperatures have been selected depending on the range and capacity of the viscometer, as indicated in Tables 1 through 4. 2. The Brookfield rotary viscometer measures viscosity by rotating a spindle at a constant rate in a fluid and measuring the torque required. In order to convert this torque value into viscosity, the dimensions of the spindle and the thickness of the fluid surrounding the spindle must be known. The Brookfield viscometer uses preprogrammed constants to calculate shear stress, shear strain rate, and viscosity for a spindle size number. The operator must enter the correct spindle number into the viscometer in order to measure correctly the viscosity of the fluid. For this laboratory exercise, these values have already been entered. 3. To make measurements using the Brookfield viscometer, set the temperature of the sample on the Thermosel oven. When the sample has reached the set temperaturewait two minutes after the oven indicator has reached the setpoint set the rotational speed (in rpm). After the spindle has made at least one complete rotationthe time for this rotation will vary depending on the TAM 224/CEE 210 Asphalt Cements 43 speedrecord the required data (shear stress or viscosity). 4. Adjust the sample temperature or the rotational speed, depending on which parameter is being varied. Then repeat step 3 until all the data have been acquired. 5. Share the data with all students in your lab section. It is the responsibility of each student to record all the class data before leaving the laboratory. 6. Complete Tables 1 through 4. 4.5. Analysis of Results 1. Using data in Tables 1 and 2, plot viscosity versus temperature for the asphalt at a single shear rate. 2. Using the data in Tables 3 and 4, plot shear stress versus shear rate for the asphalt at 60C. Determine whether this asphalt is Newtonian or non-Newtonian in its rheological behavior. 4.6. Topics for Discussion Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the following questions are to be addressed in your report. 1. Describe how temperature (climate) can influence the selection of a grade of asphalt cement. 2. Discuss the impact of temperature on the perfor- mance of an asphalt cement when it is used in a pavement. 3. Discuss the differences between a Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid. 4. What is meant by the term rheology? 5. What problems can occur if the temperature sus- ceptibility of an asphalt cement is too high? 6. Briefly explain how the temperature susceptibility of asphalt is beneficial from the standpoint of constructability. 7. What is the relationship between shear stress and rate of shear strain, and how can it be used to indicate non-Newtonian behavior in a fluid? 8. Describe how the rotational viscometer determines viscosity. References Callister Jr., W. D. 2003. Materials Science and Engi- neeringAn Introduction, 6th ed. New York: Wiley, Section 12.10. Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering Mate- rials and Their Applications, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. There is a cursory treatment of asphalt cements in Section 17.8. Roberts, F. L., P. S. Kandhal, E. R. Brown, D.-Y. Lee, and T. W. Kennedy. 1991. Hot Mix Asphalt Mate- rials, Mixture Design, and Construction. Lanham, Md.: NAPA Educational Foundation. Wallace, H. A., and J. R. Martin. 1967. Asphalt Pave- ment Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill. Young, J. F., S. Mindess, R. J. Gray, and A. Bentur. 1998. The Science and Technology of Civil Engineer- ing Materials. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, Chapter 12. 44 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CE 210 Table 1Viscosity at temperatures between 90C and 130C (Group 1)
Viscometer: Brookfield RDVII+ Spindle: 21 SRC: 0.93 RPM: 0.6 Data point Temperature, T (C) Viscosity, (Pas) a
1 090 2 100 3 110 4 120 5 130 a Units conversion: 1 mPas = 1 cP (1 Pas = 1000 cP)
Table 2Viscosity at temperatures between 140C and 180C (Group 2)
Viscometer: Brookfield LVTDVII Spindle: 18 SRC: 1.32 RPM: 0.6 Data point Temperature, T (C) Viscosity, (Pas) a
1 140 2 150 3 160 4 170 5 180 a Units conversion: 1 mPas = 1 cP (1 Pas = 1000 cP) TAM 224/CE 210 Asphalt Cements 45 Table 3Shear stress at selected shear rates and viscosity at selected temperatures (Group 3)
Viscometer: Brookfield HADVIII Spindle: 29 SRC: 0.25 Data point Temperature, T (C) Rotational speed, RPM Shear strain rate, & (sec 1 ) Shear stress, (Pa) a