DEN233 Low Speed Aerodynamics:

Basic Concepts and Elementary

Flows
Sergey Karabasov
Part1.1: Basics of inviscid flow
Introductory lectures: descriptive (0.5-1 week) :
Aerofoil characteristics, dimensionless
coefficients, brief introduction on the effects of
Reynolds number & Mach number, boundary
layers, separation, stall. Types of aerofoil for
specific applications. Lift/drag ratio. Maximum lift
coefficient; high lift devices. Control surfaces.
Finite wings: aspect ratio, wing sweep, slender
wings.
Part1.2: Basic concepts and
elementary flows
Elementary flows: (2-2.5 weeks) Fundamentals of
inviscid, incompressible flow: Continuity and
Bernoulli equations. Definitions of circulation and
vorticity. Stokes' theorem. Irrotational flow.
Definitions of stream function and velocity
potential with formulation as Laplace's equation.
Kelvin's theorem. Elementary flows: uniform flow,
source/sink, doublet and vortex. Complex flows by
superposition including Rankine oval and circular
cylinder with and without circulation. Comparison
with real flow around a circular cylinder. Kutta-
J oukowski lift theorem, aerofoil starting vortex.
Literature for Part 2
Low Speed Aerodynamics Lectures by H.P. Horton & R.C.Raichura (available on QMplus)
Fluid Dynamics Lectures by S.Nazarenko, Warwick University, 2003
Concepts used in fluid visualisation
Eulerian (time line)
Lagrangian (path line)
Streaklines
Streamlines
For steady flows: Streamline = Streakline
Stream functions
Streamlines, Cont'd
Velocity components and stream
function
Streamline slope:
Dynamics of Ideal
Fluids
Fluid is called Ideal if:
= const
(fluid can be incompressible but
is not constant. E.g. stratified
ocean water due to variation in
temperature or salinity)
viscosity = 0.
- Navier-Stokes eqn
Special case for viscosity =0:
-Euler Equation
(ideal flow equation)
When can viscosity be ignored?
Ratio of the last term on the RHS to the 2
nd
LHS term:
Example of ideal flow,
UL/v = Re>>1.
Water: v= 10
-6
m
2
/sec
Air: v= 1.5 10
-5
m
2
/sec
U=1m/sec (walking)
L=1.5m (human)
Re=10
5
>>1
BUT! High Re flow often
unstable/turbulent reduction
of L => less ideal
Re=15,000
IDEAL Laminar
flow with large L
NON-IDEAL
turbulence small L
Aerodynamic bodies: more
ideal" attached flow
Non-aerodynamic
Aerodynamic
Ideal flow: derivation of continuity eqn
s u = 0.
Ideal flow: derivation of the Momentum
equation
Material derivative
Pressure force and Gravity
Thus we derived the Euler equations for an ideal flow
Properties of Ideal Flow
Vorticity
Bernoulli Theorem
Potential
Vorticity: fluid rotation
Angular velocity in 2D
Relation with vorticity
Other form of the Euler equation
sH(x,y,z,t)
3D Vorticity equations
Take curl of both sides:
Euler equation:
Note: p does not enter into
vorticity eqn
Two-dimensional flow
Vorticity is conserved along fluid paths
E.g. vorticity is a Lagrangian invariant
2D vortex dynamics
Vorticity moves with the fluid
Different colors correspond to
different values of vorticity
In these examples there are
only 4 values of vorticity at all
times
Bernoulli's thmfor steady
irrotational flow
Definition. The flow is irrotational if the
vorticity =0 in this flow.
For irrotational flow: sH=0
I.e. H is the same constant at any
streamline
Applications of Bernoulli's thm
Pipe is horizontal: z
1
= z
2
Same flux (Au=const) => u
1
< u
2
Bernoulli: H=p/ + u
2
/2 =const =>
p
1
> p
2
Flow down a slope
nSlope: z
1
> z
2
nFree surface => p
1
= p
2
= p
atm
Bernoulli: H=p/ + u
2
/2 +z =const =>
nu
2
> u
1
Lift on an aerofoil
nShape: l
1
> l
2
=> u
1
> u
2
nBernoulli: H=p/ + u
2
/2 =const =>
np
2
> p
1
=> Net force is UP (lift)
Velocity potential
and
Relation between velocity and
potential
So:
Vorticity via potential
Equipotential lines
Relation between potential and
streamfunction
Geometrical interpretation
Wasn't that obvious? Recall
the definition of potential as
a contour integral across the
flow
Both potential and streamfunction
satisfy Laplace equation
Irrotational flow condition
As we saw previously, from the incompressibility condition:
Combination of several flows
Finding the potential and velocity of
irrotational flow
Laplace equation
incompressibility
Example of Bernoulli for a time
dependent irrotational flow
This is Bernoullis thm for a time dependent irrotational flow
It is useful for finding p via given u, but not for finding u
Conservation laws for Ideal fluids (rotational &
irrotational)
Euler equation:
Why it is only the kinetic energy and
not the sumof the kinetic and
potential energies that is conserved?
Potential energy is conserved too, - due to incompressibility
Circulation
Circulation, Cont'd
Stokes theorem
Example
Stokes theorem example, Cont'd
Kelvin circulation theorem
Proof
Use
Integrating Euler eqn,
, we have:
But this change =0 because p and are single-valued functions.
Thus we proved the Theorem.
Remarks about Kelvin theorem
1. C denotes a dyed contour, composed of the same fluid
particles at any time. The result would not be true for a
fixed in space C.
2. Constant density is not essential: Kelvin established his
result for compressible fluids too.
3. KT does not require C to be simply connected, i.e. it does
not require C to be spannable by a surface S lying wholly in
the fluid (see the vortex shedding example).
4. Invicid eqns were used on C only. If viscosity happens to be
important elsewhere in the flow away from C then KT still
holds
Example: vortex shedding
Viscous only: near aerofoil surface, thin
wake, rolled-up starting vortex
Choose C away from these regions, l
C
remains 0
l
C
= l
A
+ l
B
, l
B
= l 0 l
A
= l 0
Cauchy-Lagrange thm: persistence
of irrotational motion
Under conditions of KT (ideal flow,
conservative forces):
If a portion of the fluid is initially in the
irrotational motion, it will remain
irrotational at any time
U=const:
irrotational
irrotational
irrotational
Not irrotational
Proof of CL theorem
Prove by contradiction: suppose the
flow is irrotational initially but not at a
later time for the same portion of
fluid. Then, because of the Gauss f-la
one can find contour C s.t. circulation is
not 0, but that violates KT
Remarks about Cauchy-Lagrange
theorem
CLT is obvious in 2D
because of the vorticity
conservation along the
fluid paths
It is not obvious in 3D
because of the vortex
stretching
2D ideal flow
Consider the 2D vorticity
equation
Define a streamfunction y
Elementary flows
Elementary flows
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Uniform flow (u,0)
Point sink or source
Mass flow rate through a closed surface = constant (+ve = source, -ve=sink)
Point source, Cont'd
Cont'd
Point source/sink not at the origin
Irrotational vortex
Irrotational vortex, cont'd
Circulation along the path including
the centre
Stokes thm:
For case 5b the circulation is zero
Strength of the vortex
0
For several vortices:
Streamfunction and velocity potential
Vortex: cont'd
Rankine vortex
Point vortex
Irrotational flow everywhere
except for r=0
Vortex dipole
Vorticity moves with
the fluid
Each vortex is moved
by velocity induced
by another vortex at
its location
Dipole example: wingtip vortices
RAF Tornado
A gas" of point vortices
Each vortex is moved by the V
which is a vector sum of V's
produced by all other vortices at
its location
Bio-Savart
Example: Karman vortex street
Cloud pattern behind an island (satellite
image)
Laboratory experiment: wake
behind an obstacle
Source-sink pair
Cont'd
Calculating the velocity
and
There is no stagnation point in this flow!
The doublet
=
Streamfunction
Potential
Overall Strategy for Plotting Streamlines from
Stream Function
Write down stream function for flow by appropriately combining individual
solutions for source, sink and line vortex as a sum:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) K K + + + = y x y x y x y x , , , ,
3 2 1
y y y y
Calculate expressions for vel. components u, v from
x
v
y
u

- =

=
y y
,
Note: Huge choice as far as selction of parameters is concerned! Souce strength, vortex
direction of rotation, strength . ...
Determine coord.of stagnation point(s) via u=0 , v =0.
Determine value of stream function passing through (stagnation) point by
substituting coordinates of (stagnation) point(s) into the stream function.
Set stream function equal to the value you have determined for point in
question.
Determine values of x, y (or r, ) that satisfy this expression and plot to
obtain streamline.
Choose new point x,y

q
-Obvious question now is what happens for ...
Uniform Flow + Source + Sink
We consider symmetric case where:
Source
Sink
Strength Location
m
m -
( ) 0 , c -
( ) 0 , c
-Using superposition, can readily write streamfunction for this flow:
( )

-
-

+
+ =
- -

c x
y
m
c x
y
m y U y x
1 1
tan tan , y
{
flow
Uniform
4 4 3 4 4 2 1
) 0 , ( at Source c -
4 4 3 4 4 2 1
) 0 , ( at Sink c
-Second and third terms can be combined using:
( ) ( )

+
-
= -
- - -
b a
b a
b a
1
tan tan tan
1 1 1
To give a more concise formfor stream function
( )

- +
- =
-

2 2 2
1
2
tan ,
c y x
y c
m y U y x y
(1)
Continued...
-Nowfind stagnation points, where u=v=0. FromEq. (3) one sees that when y=0 then v=0.
( ) ( )

+ -
-
-
+ +
+
+ =

=

2 2 2 2
y c x
c x
y c x
c x
m U
y
u
y
( ) ( )

+ -
-
+ +
=

- =
2 2 2 2
1 1
y c x y c x
y m
x
v
y
- Fromeither of the two forms of S.F. on previous slide, one can determine velocity components
(2)
(3)
-Substitute y=0 into Eq. (2) and then find value of x which gives that u=0.
-After some manipulation the solutions for x are:
L
U c
m
c x =

+ =

2
1
2
1
-Hence, stagnation points at:
( ) 0 , L
and ( ) 0 , L -
-Nowdetermine value of S.F. for surface streamline fromEq (1).
( )

-
-

+
+ =
- -

c x
y
m
c x
y
m y U y x
1 1
tan tan , y
(1) - repeated
It can be seen that this is trivial and that
0 =
S
y
Continued...
- Rankine Oval then looks like ...
- We already determined value of L. Can
find points of maximum velocity and
minimum pressure at shoulders +/-h, of
oval using similar methods. All these
parameters are a function of the...
2
1
2
1

+ =

c U
m
c
L
( )
2 2
max
1
2
1
c h
c U m
U
u
+
+ =

c U
m
d

=
In summary one obtains
-As one increases dimensionless parameter d from
zero to large values, oval shape increases in size and
thickness from flat plate of length 2c to huge, nearly
circular 'cylinder'. Here think of increase when
-All Rankine ovals, except very thin ones, have large
adverse pressure gradient on leeward surface. Thus,
boundary-layer will separate in rear, broad wake
flow develops, inviscid pattern unrealistic in that
region.
const U and const c = =

.
.basic dimensionless parameter

c U m
a h
c
h
2
cot

=
U
m
a
Incompressible, inviscid, two-
dimensional flow over a cylinder:
uniform flow + doublet
Cont'd
Stagnation streamline
Cont'd
Pressure variation on the cylinder
Cont'd
Re=
Resolution of the D'Alembert paradox
Drag on the bluff bodies is finite
because the flow fails to be ideal
behind them due to the flow
separation
No separation - minimal drag -
aerodynamic shape
Drag crisis
Turbulent re-attachment
leads to drag reduction
Uniform flow + doublet +vortex (lifting
cylinder)
Cont'd
Velocity distribution
Case r=R
Cont'd
Case: 0= n /2, 3n/2
Cont'd
Pressure distribution and forces
Symmetry
Force calculation
Lift
Cont'd
Kutta-Jukowski
Zhukovski lift theorem