Shotcrete in Mining

MASTER
BUI LDERS
ADMIXTURES
Shotcrete (Sprayed Concrete) for Mining Applications
by
A.J.S. (Sam) Spearing
Director International Mining
Underground Construction Group
Master Builders Technologies
A Division of Degussa Construction Chemicals
Telephone: +1-216-8397213
Telefax: +1-216-8398801
E mail: sam.spearing@mbt.com
January 2002
INDEX
1. An introduction to shotcrete
1.1 Definitions
1.2 History
1.3 Shotcrete as a support element
2. Shotcrete raw materials
2.1 Binders
2.2 Aggregates
2.3Water
2.4 Admixtures
2.5 Fibres
3. Application processes
3.1 Dry process
3.2 Wet process
3.3 A comparison between the processes
3.4 Process selection guidelines
4. Shotcrete design
4.1 Placed strength
4.2 Time
4.3 Shotcrete components and performance
5. Shotcrete mining equipment
5.1 Shotcrete spray equipment
5.2 Shotcrete dosing pumps and systems
5.3 Shotcrete lines and nozzles
6. Shotcrete service needs
6.1 Power
6.2 Compressed air
6.3 Water
7. Logistics
7.1 Slick line design and operation
8. Shotcrete application
8.1 Substrate preparation
8.2 Shotcrete spraying
8.3 Application safety
9. Training
10. Quality control and testing
10.1 Quality control
10.2 Field testing
10.3 Laboratory testing
10.4 Quality assurance planning
11. Costs
11.1 Material costs
11.2 Equipment costs
11.3 Material and equipment transportation costs
11.4 Labor costs
11.5 Application inefficiency costs
11.6 Time related costs
11.7 Other costs
12. Specification and design procedures for shotcrete support
12.1 Observational methods
12.2 The Q system
12.3 The modified Q system
12.4 The ground characteristic curve method
13. Mix design examples and case studies
13.1 Standard dry mix
13.2 Standard wet mix
13.3 High early strength with high single pass
13.4 Fiber reinforced shotcrete for slick-lines
13.5 Fiber reinforced shotcrete for slick-lines in sinking shafts
13.6 A mix to replace bolts and screen
13.7 Shotcrete for kimberlite (blue rock)
13.8 Shotcrete for water inflow areas
13.9 Wet shotcrete for economical reasons
14. The future
14.1.Future advances in shotcrete equipment
14.2.Possible improvements in synthetic fibers
14.3 Future admixture advances
15. References
16. MBT Shotcrete Admixture Products
17. Useful contacts
American Concrete Institute
American Shotcrete Association
American Society for Testing and Materials
Australian Shotcrete Society
British Standards Institute
Deutsches Institut fuer Normung
EFNARC
International Centre for Geomechanics
International Tunneling Association
1. An introduction to shotcrete (sprayed concrete)
1.1 Definitions
Shotcrete according to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) is defined as
pneumatically applied mortar or concrete, projected at high velocity.
Sprayed concrete according to the European Federation of Producers and
Applicators of Specialist products for Structures (EFNARC) is a mixture of
cement, aggregate and water projected pneumatically from a nozzle into place to
produce a dense homogeneous mass. Sprayed concrete normally incorporates
admixtures and may also include additions of (steel or synthetic) fibers or a
combination of these.
Sprayed concrete and shotcrete refer to the same material. The trend especially
in Europe is to refer to the product as sprayed concrete.
The principles applied to standard concrete technology are no different in
shotcrete (hence the growing preference to calling shotcrete sprayed concrete).
This means that shotcrete should be designed to achieve a technically
acceptable and a cost effective mixture. This implies that the following technical
aspects must be considered:
the material components and overall composition
the application conditions (including access and the availability of services)
the application mode (the dry or wet process)
logistic constraints (mainly as it influences material handling)
health and safety requirements
The true final (placed) costs should also always be considered, and this seldom
occurs, at present, in the mining industry. The key costs are:
material costs (an easy cost to establish)
logistic costs
equipment capital and operating costs
labor costs (including transportation to site)
application efficiencies (wastage especially rebound)
time related costs (the influence on the overall mining cycle time)
Shotcrete is applied by two different processes (methods), defined below (after
EFNARC) and explained in detail in Chapter 3:
Wet process is a technique in which cement, aggregate and water are batched
and mixed together prior to being fed into a purpose-made machine and
conveyed through a pipeline to a nozzle where the mixture is pneumatically and
continuously projected into place. The mixture normally incorporates admixtures
and may also include additions or fibers or a combination of these.
Dry process is a technique in which cement and aggregate are batched, mixed
and fed into a purpose-made machine wherein the mixture is pressurized,
metered into a compressed air stream and conveyed through hoses or pipes to a
nozzle where water is introduced as a spray to wet the mixture which is then
projected continuously into place. The mixture may also incorporate admixtures
or additions fibers or a combination of these.
1.2 History
The following time line indicates the development of the support technology:
1907 - The first machine to spray concrete was developed in Pennsylvania,
USA by Carl Akeley for use in construction.
1910 - The machine and process were introduced to the public at large at the
Cement Show in Madison Square Gardens in New York, USA.
1915 - This concept was later improved by the Cement Gun Company, that
later became the Allentown Gun Company. Carl Akeley also registered the
term gunite for his sprayed mortar mix and this term is still sometimes used.
1920s - Gunite was used in the USA to fireproof mine drifts (supported by
timber sets).
1930s - The term shotcrete was introduced by the American Railway
Engineering Association.
1940s - Coarse aggregate was introduced into the sprayed concrete mixes.
1954 - Anton Brunner, an engineer from Salzburg in Austria, replaced heavy
steel and timber support with shotcrete in a new diversion tunnel, in
squeezing ground, at the Runserau Power Plant
1955 - The wet shotcrete process was introduced.
1957 - Little major equipment development took place until in 1957 when the
rotary drum was perfected by Meynadier (now MEYCO Equipment) and Aliva.
These machines (still in use today for dry shotcreting) have a feed hopper
above a rotor with chambers that intersect feed openings allowing some
material to enter under gravity. A compressed air stream forces this material
into the discharge pipeline and keeps it in suspension until the shotcrete
nozzle. This development was probably as a result of the use of shotcrete in
Austria as a civil tunnel support in the 1950s.
Around 1965 - Gunite was already used in some Boliden Mines in Sweden.
This involved the dry process and in some applications the machine was on
surface and the material applied some 300m below surface (at Garpenberg
Mine).
1968 - It appears that the first recorded mining shotcrete application for
support was at the Hecla Mining Company in the USA.
1975 - The Norwegians were the first to realize the benefits of silica fume
(microsilica).
1977 - The Norwegians introduce steel fibers for the first time as a
replacement for mesh/screen.
1994 - The Underground Construction Group of MBT are the first to introduce
non caustic alkali free accelerators.
1999 - MEYCO start field testing the first shotcrete equipment capable to be
operated in a fully robotic mode (with no operator necessary).
1.3 Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) as a support element
Shotcrete in mining is a very effective support element.
For shotcrete to be the productive and efficient support that it can and should be,
all aspects must be considered. Too often in the mining industry, technically
inferior or inappropriate support systems are used, due to convenience,
ignorance, resistance to change and/or expediency.
The Table below indicates the type of performance that could be expected from
shotcrete underground 28 days after placement:
Performance parameter Performance range (at 28 days)
Compressive cube strength (MPa) 30 to 80
Flexural strength (MPa) 3 to 8
Bond strength to competent hard-rock (MPa) 0.5 to 1.5
Shotcrete is typically used for the following applications in mines:
As a temporary support.
As a permanent excavation support element (main application).
As the only permanent support (bolt and screen/mesh replacement).
For roadways (major roadways such as declines, ramps or loading/discharge
areas).
Pillar reinforcement or even replacement.
Backfill retaining wall construction.
As part of ventilation seals.
As part of an orepass lining support and wear resistant system.
As a permanent final lining in vertical shafts.
Shotcrete offers is a passive support on application (by definition). The slightest
deformation however generates a significant resistance because it is stiff and has
a high Youngs Modulus. In addition it has a micro-reinforcing effect by
penetrating and/or bridging micro-cracks in the rock. This is in contrast to the
really passive supports such as mesh/screen and most arch systems.
In typical mining applications, the sprayed shotcrete lining is thinner than used in
typical civil projects. A common thickness range in mining is between 50 and 100
mm, and hence the shotcrete cannot be considered a structural arch. It offers a
good rock reinforcement (support) however mainly because it:
Reduces unraveling.
Limits air slack (rock weathering due to moisture and air).
Offers lateral confinement to the rock surface.
Fills fractures in the rock.
For optimum performance, where bolts are also used, the bolts should have large
base plates (washers) fastened and tensioned to the bolts, against the shotcrete.
This causes the shotcrete and bolts to act as a single unit, providing a better
support system.
Poorly designed and/or applied shotcrete can be hazardous and costly. The main
reason for poor shotcreting is:
Ignorance !
This can result from
A poorly designed mix.
Unmatched and unsuited equipment and shotcrete infrastructure (mainly
supply logistics).
Inadequate services.
Ineffective quality control.
False economy.
1910 - The first shotcrete machine made
1918 Tunnel in Europe using Guniting
Early use of gunite in construction in America
Shotcreting underground (date unknown).
1957 Rotary drum dry shotcrete machine from MEYCO
2. Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) raw materials
The material constituents of the shotcrete are important in order to achieve a
desired target placed performance at the lowest cost. The materials would
include:
2.1 Binders
2.1.1 Cement binders
Cement is the bonding material (glue) that holds a cementitious material
together. For most shotcreting applications, Portland cement is used. This
cement was invented by an English bricklayer Joseph Aspdin in 1824. The
name was derived from the set materials colour and texture that resembled a
local limestone called Portland stone. The cement is produced from mainly a
mixture of klinker and gypsum. The klinker is typically produced in a rotary kiln
from lime, silica, alumina and ferric oxide.
Other types of cement that are commonly used in shotcrete include:
Sulphate resisting cement, that typically has a lower tricalcium aluminate
content than Portland cement
High alumina cement (HAC) that is produced by fusing (melting) a mix of
bauxite and limestone together. HAC is therefore not a Portland cement
derivative, and is often used in refractory applications where it can be
troweled in place or shotcreted.
For basic applications a cement content by mass of 20% is typical.
2.1.2 Cement extenders (supplementary materials)
Cement extenders are commonly used in shotcrete mainly for a cost reduction.
Fly ash is the most commonly used and is obtained as a waste product from
coal-fired power plants. The fly ash for use in shotcrete is mainly supplied as a
blend with the Portland cement already in bags or bulk.
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) is another cement extender that
can be used. GGBS is a glassy and granular material that is usually produced as
a by-product of iron production. The molten slag is rapidly quenched and then
finely ground.
Fumed silica, silica fume or microsilica as it can be called is also a cement
extender but is dealt with under the Admixture Section due to its very unique
and desirable properties.
Cement extenders are commonly used to replace about 30% of the cement used
(up to as high as 50%), but generally the rate of strength development is
reduced, and this is frequently undesirable in mining (due mainly to safety
considerations). The same applies to sulfate resistant cements and a better
alternative is the use of Portland cement and micro silica that can gain strength
rapidly (without an accelerator overdose).
2.2 Aggregates
As in concrete, aggregates are used to provide dimensional stability by providing
a rigid skeletal structure, reduce the void space to be filled with the cementitious
paste and hence reduce the cost. The main parameters to consider are:
Grading and the maximum size
Particle shape and density
The aggregate type especially the presence of reactive chemicals and
minerals (for possible alkali-acid reaction)
The compressive strength
Moisture content
When applying the shotcrete by the dry process, the aggregates can be selected
such that the voids are minimized, as is the common approach when using
concrete. As a general guide, the use of +16 mm material is to be avoided and
the modern trend is to use a maximum size of 10 mm, due to rebound and wear
considerations.
Figure 1 gives the aggregate envelope for shotcrete recommended by EFNARC.
It is possible to use gradings outside the envelope, but the performance will be
reduced, or the material cost increased as additional admixtures would need to
be used.
A typical dry process base mix by weight would consist of:
20 to 25 % of cementitious binder
20 to 15 % of coarse aggregate
55 to 65 % of sand (natural and wash sand is preferred)
Where the dry process is used, the moisture content of the aggregates should be
a maximum of 6 %.
The mix design needs to be modified when using the wet process because the
pumpability is a major issue, and generally more fines are needed to reduce the
chance of line blockages, and make pumping easier (at a lower pressure).
FIGURE 1
RECOMMENDED AGGREGATE GRADATION ZONE FOR SHOTCRETE
COMPARISONBETWEENTHELOADBEARINGCAPACITYOF PLAIN,MESH ANDSTEEL FIBREREINFORCEDSHOTCRETE5 0 4 0 3 02 0De f or ma t i oni nmm Load in kN1 00 051 01 52 02 53 0 Pl ai nshot cr et eFi br er ei nf or cedshot cr et eFi br er ei nf or cedshot cr et e( at ahi gher dose) Wi r emeshr ei nf or cement ( af t er Vandewal l e) F i g u r e 2 COMPARISONBETWEENTHELOADBEARINGCAPACITYOF PLAIN,MESH ANDSTEEL FIBREREINFORCEDSHOTCRETE5 0 4 0 3 02 0De f or ma t i oni nmm Load in kN1 00 051 01 52 02 53 0 Pl ai nshot cr et eFi br er ei nf or cedshot cr et eFi br er ei nf or cedshot cr et e( at ahi gher dose) Wi r emeshr ei nf or cement ( af t er Vandewal l e) F i g u r e 2
12
26
50
72
90
100
90
73
55
37
22
11
4
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.125
(after EFNARC)
0.25 0.5 1 2
ISO sieve (mm)
M
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p
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%

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4 8 16
100
2.3 Water
The water quality can be important and should be free from oils and not heavily
acidic. Basically if the water is potable (i.e. drinkable), it is suitable for shotcrete.
2.4 Admixtures
The American Concrete Institute in the ACI Manual of Concrete Practice (1999
edition) defines an admixture as:
A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and fiber
reinforcement, used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar, and added to the
batch immediately before or during its mixing.
Many different types of admixtures can be beneficial in shotcrete, depending on
the specific application and requirements. Most admixtures can be used in the
wet process only (discussed later), but generally only a set accelerator (usually in
powdered form) is used when dry shotcreting. In order to achieve the quantifiable
benefits from admixture usage, it is critical that the dosing equipment is reliable
and appropriate.
2.4.1. Accelerators
The use of an accelerator is essential in mining applications. Accelerators ensure
that the shotcrete:
Develops a bond with the rock as soon as possible.
Generates internal strength quickly.
Is able to be placed in thick single passes (if needed).
Shotcrete accelerators generally fall into the following categories:
Silicates (e.g. water glass or sodium silicate)
Sodium or potassium aluminates
Alkali free accelerators
Silicates are not really true accelerators as they only create a gelling effect rather
than a rapid early strength gain. Accelerators also tend to reduce the final
strength of the shotcrete. This is partly because a slower rate of strength gain
results in a finer and a more dense crystalline growth that creates a stronger final
product.
In a typical dry mix, a powdered accelerator addition of between 2 and 5% based
on the weight of the total cementitious addition would be reasonable. Accelerator
dose rates are normally expressed as a percentage of the total cementitious
content.
There is confusion in the mining industry over the definition of an alkali free
accelerator. To understand this, the difference between alkalinity and alkali
content must be noted.
Alkalinity refers to a basic liquid with a pH between 7 and 14.
Alkali content refers to the presence of alkali cations, and a liquid may
contain alkali cations but have a neutral pH.
To be a true alkali free accelerator according to CEN definitions (Comite
Europeen de Normalisation) an accelerator must contain <1 % by weight of alkali
(Na
2
O) equivalents. Certain accelerators on the market claim to be alkali free but
do not meet this specification and are only low alkali (and hence not as safe to
use or as effective).
In wet shotcrete, the dose range is about the 3 to 10% based on the weight of the
total cementitious content. The latest trend is towards the (non-caustic) alkali free
accelerators because they are more environmentally safe, induce more rapid
strength gain and tend to cause significantly less long term strength loss. With
such an accelerator, a dose rate of around 6 to 8% is normal.
Before selecting an accelerator, compatibility tests must be carried out first.
Certain accelerators react differently with different cements.
2.4.2. Water reducers (plasticizers and superplasticizers)
There are various types of water reducers available and they tend to fall into
three broad categories:
Low range (e.g. lignosulphonates) that give about a 15% water reduction, but
some can retard the strength gain
Medium range (e.g. melamines) that give about 25% water reduction
High range (e.g. polycarboxylates) that give about a 45% water reduction
These admixtures work by charging each cement particle ionically and causing
them to separate thereby effectively lubricating the mix and thus being able to
reduce the water and still obtain the same consistency (i.e. slump).
2.4.3. Microsilica (silica fume)
Microsilica is a very fine and spherical material with a high pozzolanic reactivity.
The use of the product in shotcreting has the following benefits:
Improved durability (more resistant to freeze/thaw cycles and improved
sulphate attack resistance).
Improved bonding to substrates.
Higher strengths (compressive and flexural)
Reduced rebound
Improved flow in the delivery hose (in the wet process).
Reduced wear in the pump and nozzle (in the wet process).
Improved mix cohesiveness.
Thicker single pass applications
A typical dosage would be 5 to 10% by weight of the cementitious binder.
2.4.4. Curing agents/concrete improvers
There is an incorrect perception that an underground environment provides good
curing conditions for shotcrete. This is incorrect because the ventilation tends to
cause premature drying of the shotcrete surface resulting in:
Poor hydration causing a weaker final product
Reduced substrate bonding if the shotcrete layer is relatively thin (less than
75 mm/3 inches)
Significant shrinkage cracking
Solutions to this include:
Regular wetting of the placed shotcrete.
The application of an external curing agent (such as a spray applied wax)
The inclusion in the mix (wet process only) of a concrete improver that has
the potential to improve curing and increase the bond with the substrate.
Regular wetting of the placed product is often impractical and too time
consuming. The application of an external curer involves a second (albeit simple)
operation and makes it difficult to apply a further layer of shotcrete at a later time
(for whatever reason) unless the coating is removed.
As with all concrete construction, moist curing conditions are important for 7
days. With accelerated shotcrete, good curing is important basically from after
spraying.
2.4.5. Consistency controllers
Under certain wet shotcrete applications, the use of a consistency control system
can help. The first component is added into the mix (before pumping) to keep the
open time and improve pumpability. The second component is added at the
nozzle to stiffen the mix and improve the strength development rate.
2.4.6. Hydration controllers
The useful life of a wet shotcrete mix can be a limiting factor in underground
applications due to logistic considerations. A typical batch of untreated shotcrete
should be discarded as waste after between about 1.0 and 2.0 hours (depending
on the ambient temperature). Conventional retarders can extend this to about
4 hours, but hydration controllers can effectively put the mix to sleep for up to
72 hours. This technology is of great advantage in many underground wet
shotcreting applications, because it helps resolve logistic problems.
Hydration controllers function in 2 ways:
By acting as an effective dispersant thus keeping hydrating particles apart.
By forming a barrier around all the cementitious particles, thus stopping the
hydration process altogether (unlike conventional retarders).
This effect is over-ridden when shotcreting, by adding an effective accelerator,
and the hydration controller has no adverse effect on the rate of strength gain
and the ultimate strength, provided that adequate accelerator is added.
If a hydration controller is used, a minimum flow (to BS 1881, Part 105) of 50 cm
should be used.
2.4.7. Pumping aids
Pumping aids usually also act as water reducers in shotcrete. They improve the
pumpability of harsh mixes, frequently caused by poorly graded aggregates. Air
entraining agents are a common pumping aid.
2.5 Fibers
The application of fibers in construction dates back centuries to the use of horse
hair, jute, sisal and cotton.
Concrete is by nature a brittle product and is weak in tension. In shotcreting,
reinforcement can be provided by the use of screen/mesh or fibers. Fibers have
obvious advantages over screen including:
Fibers are more evenly distributed throughout the shotcrete.
Mesh is difficult and labor intensive to apply. It can also represent a safety
hazard if manually installed.
The fiber reinforced shotcrete effectively lines the tunnel periphery, and
additional shotcrete is needed when screen is used, to fill the depressions (as
the mesh is usually fixed at the high points on the tunnel periphery).
Mesh can increase shotcrete rebound significantly (due mainly to screen
vibration during spraying).
Figure 2 is a comparison between the performance of unreinforced shotcrete and
shotcrete reinforced using screen or fibers.
Where movement of the rockmass is expected, shotcrete is frequently applied
over mesh/screen or fibers are introduced into the base shotcrete mix.
The trend is away from mesh/screen reinforced shotcrete to fiber reinforced
shotcrete in mining because:
Durability is improved.
Ductility (toughness) is increased.
Impact resistance is increased.
Surface cracking is reduced (not a major concern on mines).
Rebound is reduced.
Compaction is improved (see Figure 3).
Application productivity and safety is improved (major benefit).
Final placed costs are reduced.
Logistics is simplified.
Typical fiber reinforcement materials include:
Polyolefin fiber of which polypropylene is the most common (mono-filament or
fibrilated)
Carbon fiber
Glass fiber
Drawn steel wire
Slit sheet
Milled steel pieces
Melt extract pieces
The most commonly used types in shotcrete are the drawn wire and
polypropylene fibers.
The most important parameters for fibers are:
The aspect ratio (overall ratio of the fiber length to its diameter).
The tensile strength.
The shape.
An ideal fiber should have the following:
A length such that it can overlap and bridge at least 2 of the largest aggregate
particles used in the mix (typically a length between 25 and 40 mm).
A high aspect ratio (i.e. thin).
FIGURE 2
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE LOAD BEARING CAPACITY
OF PLAIN, MESH AND STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE
50 40 30 20
Deformation in mm
L
o
a
d

i
n

k
N
10 0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Plain shotcrete
Fibre reinforced shotcrete
Fibre reinforced shotcrete
(at a higher dose)
Wire mesh reinforcement
(after Vandewalle)
FIGURE 3
THE ADVANTAGES OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE
OVER MESH REINFORCED SHOTCRETE
MESH REINFORCED SHOTCRETE
Plain shotcrete
Potential voids or poorer
compacted shotcrete
Welded wire mesh
Mesh pinned to rock
Cover to mesh
Rock
Maintains contact and
bonds with the rock
over the entire surface
STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE
Steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete
Rock
(after Vandewalle)
A high tensile strength
A shape that results in a good anchor particularly at the fiber ends in the
shotcrete.
The use of steel fibers and particularly synthetic fibers in dry shotcrete is not
generally recommended due to the high fiber loss found in the rebound
(significantly more fiber loss than the overall measured rebound and in the +50%
range).
Where steel fiber is used a dosage rate of between 30 and 50 kg/m (0.4 to 0.6
% by volume) is generally used.
The potential use of polypropylene fibers in shotcrete for mining applications has
increased dramatically recently with the development of high performance
polymer fibers. The high tensile strength and crimped shape have resulted in
performances very similar to that obtained with steel. Dosage rates of between
about 7.0 and 13.5 kg/m (0.75 to 1.5 % by volume) are typical.
Figure 4 shows the wide variety of fiber performance that can be obtained using
different fibers. Typically high performance steel fibers have higher residual loads
immediately after failure but less load at high deformations than high
performance synthetic fibers.
The key to the cost effective use of fibers is to consider the:
Cost/J of energy
In the future, more use will be made of polymer fibers, possibly blended with
steel fibers, in high performance mining shotcrete applications.
FIGURE 4
ROUND PANEL TEST RESULTS WITH DIFFERENT FIBRES
35
30
20
25
15
5
10
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection in mm
25 30 35 40
0
L
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d

i
n

k
N
Plastic fibre A
Plastic fibre B
Plastic fibre C
Plastic fibre D
Steel fibre X
Steel fibre Y
Examples of Shotcrete Fibres
DD fibre from Synthetic Industries
Collated Dramix from Bekaert
HPP fibre from Synthetic Industries
Xorex fibre from Synthetic Industries
Barchip fibres from Hagihara
STRUX fibres from Grace
Forta fibre
GSF fibre from Grace
3. Application processes
There are two application processes in shotcreting and the selection depends on
the specific application and the site conditions.
3.1 The dry process
In this application, the particulate material is conveyed (pneumatically) in a
basically dry state from the pump to the nozzle, where the water is added.
A typical section through a dry machine is given on Figure 5.
The nozzleman is the key to the successful application because he controls the
vital water addition. Too much water causes the shotcrete to sag away from the
rock and reduces the strength, and too little water causes higher rebound and
can also lead to a strength reduction.
The moisture content of the mix (prior to water addition at the nozzle) should be
between 2 and 5% to minimize dust production at the pump. More than 5% water
can cause blockages in the line. A pre-dampener can be used to reduce the dust
at the machine and is relatively successful although the unit is large.
In a typical dry application, the water to cement ratio should be in the 0.40 to 0.45
range.
3.2 The wet process
Until the last decade, the dry process was the most common method of
application, but the wet process is rapidly gaining popularity in mining, in line with
the general move in mines to mechanize underground operations for safety and
productivity reasons.
In the wet process, the entire mix (including the total water) is fed into a hopper
and then pumped to the nozzle. The mix needs to be fluid enough in order to be
pumped and therefore the introduction of water reducers into the mix is generally
essential in order to maximize the strength gain and reduce the overall costs.
The two main pump arrangements for wet machines are shown on Figure 6.
The nozzle design in wet shotcrete is important because compressed air is
added to produce the necessary spray velocity, and generally accelerators are
also added to improve the early strength gain.
A water cement ratio around 0.40 to 0.45 is typical.
FIGURE 5
THE ROTOR PRINCIPLE OF A TYPICAL DRY-SPRAYING MACHINE
Feeding hopper
Pressurized air
Rotor
Rotor
Outlet
FIGURE 6
WET SHOTCRETE PUMP TYPES
WORM PUMP
PISTON PUMP
(With S tube)
200 O 125 O
A
D
S
(after Vandewalle)
3.3 A comparison between the processes
The Table below compares the main differences between the dry and wet
processes.
Wet process Dry process
Little dust (about 10% of dry) Considerable dust
Low maintenance cost High maintenance cost
High capital cost Low capital cost
Low rebound
(typically about 5 to10%)
High rebound
(usually 25 to 40%)
Moderate to high placement
rate
(between 4.0 and 25m/hr)
Low to moderate placement
rate
(up to about 6.0m/hr)
Low transport distance
(up to about 200m)
High transport distance
Moderate to high placed
quality
Moderate placed quality
Low operator sensitivity High operator sensitivity
Better suited to high
application volumes
Better suited to low
application volumes and
stop/start operations
3.4 Process selection guidelines
The selection of the most appropriate application process should be site specific
and based on total cost, performance and monthly consumption. As a general
guideline, if a mine places more than 3000m/year, wet shotcrete should be
considered (unless the spray areas are numerous and access between them is
difficult.
There can be no doubt that the overwhelming trend in mining internationally, is
towards wet shotcreting, due mainly to performance, productivity and overall cost
considerations. This trend has mainly occurred because of the improvement in
the equipment and the development of high range water reducers and hydration
control admixtures. These developments have resolved most of the logistics
issues on the mines associated with shotcrete transportation from the batching
plant to the spray equipment.
There is also no truth in the commonly held view that dry shotcreting is the best
option, where the overall worker skills level is low (i.e. in developing and third
world countries). Wet shotcrete has proved itself a cost effective method all over
the world, if the placement volume is high and the performance requirement high.
The main considerations when selecting the most appropriate shotcrete
application process for a specific application are:
The overall volume needed for the application and the time available to spray
it.
Logistic considerations (can bulk bags be handled, or is wet shotcrete
available via a pipeline for example).
The performance required (fiber usage for example is only a reasonable
solution in the wet process).
Overall cost considerations.
The location of each spray site and the requirements.
If fibers are needed for most applications, then the wet process is the obvious
choice due to the high fiber losses in the rebound if the dry process is used.
4. Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) design
The final strength of shotcrete, like concrete, is mainly dependant on the water to
cement ratio and the air content after placement.
Much is available concerning the design of shotcrete, but simple aspects are
frequently overlooked initially, and these can create major losses, costly delays
and final sprayed linings that do not meet the desired performance requirements.
Shotcrete design must include more than creating a laboratory mix that meets
the strength gain requirements, with locally available raw materials (such as
cement, sand, stone and water) in adequate supply. Whilst this is important,
other equally vital aspects must not be ignored:
the fact that the strength must be achieved on the rock (not in the lab)
the shotcrete must bond adequately to the rock
time available for spraying a given volume
the placed cost of the mix
4.1 Placed strength
The strength gain (and general performance) of the shotcrete needs to be
reliably achieved as sprayed. This means that the mix must be pumpable, bond
well to the substrate (with the minimum of rebound), build up desirable thickness
in few passes and usually gain strength rapidly.
This generally implies the need for a cohesive mix, with an initial high slump and
finally a low slump on placement. Such needs would not have been evident
during lab trials. Achieving such requirements is governed by the use of
admixtures and additives:
micro-silica for cohesion, rebound reduction and durability
superplasticizers for slump and water to cement ratio control (in the wet mix
process)
accelerators for early strength development and high single pass application
thickness (e.g.: with alkali free accelerators overhead single pass thickness of
between 30 and 50 cm are possible)
concrete improvers (internal curing admixtures) to achieve long term strength,
better bond, less cracks and improved durability (in the wet mix process)
4.2 Time
Time is often a scarce commodity in mining, and when shotcreting, it presents
two main problems:
Supplying adequate volumes of material to the shotcrete site for spraying.
Actually spraying the area in the time available to fit in with the mining cycle.
Adequate material can be obtained by many means, but the most exciting is the
transport of the material as a slurry down a pipe.
Untreated shotcrete has an open (useful) time of only 1 to 2 hours, and hence it
is often essential to use a hydration control admixture to increase the open time
to that needed for the safe operation and application of the shotcrete, often
around 10 hours or even more.
The time to actually spray the area is not a problem, if the shotcrete machine can
be adequately supplied with material. With dry mix machines the volumes placed
can be up to 8 m/hr, and with wet shotcrete machines, up to 25 m/hr can be
sprayed.
Shotcrete components and performance
The following Table (modified from Munn, 1997 by Garshol, 2002) gives the
typical material ranges and properties that can be expected from normal dry and
wet process shotcrete:
Parameter Dry process Wet process
Strength range (MPa) 20 60 20 80
Slump (mm) N/A 50 250
Maximum aggregate size (mm) 10 10
Maximum coarse aggregate (%) 25 40
Cement content (kg/m) 300 450 350 500
Water to cement ratio 0.40 0.45 0.36 0.50
Typical rebound without micosilica (%) 25 50 10 15
Typical rebound with microsilica (%) 20 40 5 10
5. Shotcrete mining equipment
Shotcrete equipment must be well matched to the specific application
underground. High quality equipment is needed to produce a high quality
sprayed product on the rock. Shotcrete is safety related and all aspects must be
well considered, implemented and checked.
5.1 Shotcrete spray equipment
The spray capacity of shotcrete equipment has traditionally been given in
m/hour of water in most literature. The throughput of shotcrete is usually about
20% less than this figure.
The requirements for shotcrete equipment in mining are usually different from
those in underground civil applications because in mines:
Space is frequently a constraint.
A shotcrete machine will need to travel more (between development ends)
and on poorer surfaces.
Logistics are difficult.
Quantities needed per blast are much less (smaller cross sectional area and
smaller thickness applied).
The choice of equipment depends on the following:
The placement rate needed during a shift (to minimize the mining cycle if
necessary).
The specific excavation size and the general mining tunnel dimensions.
The quantity of shotcrete to be placed per month.
The number and location of areas needing shotcrete.
The ease of access between the different areas requiring shotcreting.
The overall time that shotcrete will be needed (i.e. for on-going routine
support work, or only a specific project area in a mine).
It is important to note that in many applications where the advance rate of an
excavation needs to be high, the utilization of the shotcrete equipment tends to
be low, but the overall utilization of the mechanized equipment suite (drill rig,
LHD unit etc.) is increased.
The Table overleaf outlines the equipment specifically available for mining from
MEYCO Equipment, based in Switzerland. Other equipment is available but is
more suited to shotcrete repair work or major underground civil projects and is
therefore not given.
Machine Process Shotcrete spray
volume (m/hr)
Conveying distance
(horizontal/vertical in m)
Drive
MEYCO Piccola Dry <3.5 500/100 Electric, air or
diesel
MEYCO GM Dry 3.5 to 10 500/100 Electric, air or
diesel
MEYCO Rambo Wet 5.0 100 horizontal Electric
MEYCO Mamba Wet 20 N/A (boom to 9m
high)
Electric, diesel
MEYCO Cobra Wet 15 N/A (boom to 9m
high)
Electric, diesel
MSV 2100 Wet 20 N/A (boom to 9m
high)
Electric, diesel
The MEYCO Cobra and the North American version the Mine Shotcrete Vehicle
(MSV) both have on-board compressors.
Other equipment has also been used on the mines made by MEYCO including
the Suprema and the large spray mobile.
All concrete pumps can transport wet shotcrete, but when wet shotcreting a
custom designed pump should always be used. The reason for this is that the
pump pulsation needs to be minimized to ensure a consistent quality product is
sprayed onto the substrate. Pulsation is not a concern usually when pumping
concrete.
5.2 Shotcrete dosing pumps and systems
This is clearly only an issue in the wet process. Various pumps can be generally
used but when using the alkali free accelerators, the type of pump is important
because the accelerators are generally heavily saturated suspensions and
obtaining a consistent and adequate dose rate is important. To achieve this only
2 types of pumps are suitable:
Mono (Moyno) pumps.
Peristaltic (hose) pumps.
The mono pump is probably the best option as it is pulsation free.
The capacity of the dosing pump is also important and a rate of 10% of the
cement content by weight could be required as a maximum.
Accurate dosing is important and some of the shotcrete rigs from MEYCO have a
system that monitors the shotcrete throughput and doses the accelerator at the
correct level at all times, using a program control system (PLC). This is called the
MEYCO Dosa TDC System.
5.3 Shotcrete lines and nozzles
The nozzle design is important as it effects:
The compaction of the sprayed shotcrete (the higher the better).
The bond of the shotcrete to the rock (the higher the better).
The rebound during spraying (the lower the better).
The consistency of the mix when dry spraying.
The accelerator needs to be well mixed into the shotcrete for optimum results.
The hardware to help achieve this is therefore important.
In the dry process, the water ring and assembly is critical to ensure thorough
wetting of the mix. MEYCO have a system that also splits the water feed to the
nozzle to help the wetting process.
The air ring and general housing design for the wet mix is important for good
propulsion onto the rock and accelerator introduction and mixing.
Safety chains holding flexible hoses are essential and should be judiciously
placed.
Full write-ups on this equipment can be obtained from the following reference
sources:
MEYCO Equipment Tel: +41-52-2440700
Hegmattenstrasse 24 Fax: +41-52-2440707
8404 Winterthur
Switzerland
The MEYCO web site is http://www.meyco-equipment.ch
Wet shotcreting equipment
The MEYCO Rambo for hand
spraying
Variations of the Rambo, including a
pan mixer for converting a pre-
bagged shotcrete product into a wet
mix
The MEYCO Mamba
The MEYCO Cobra with on-board
compressor.
A MEYCO boom with the Logica
robotic system fitted (refer to
Chapter 14)
Close-up of the laser scanner (part
of the Logica system)
6. Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) service needs
For a successful shotcrete application the following is needed:
adequate mix design for spraying and performance
an adequate material supply at the machine
matched equipment and infrastructure for the application
trained crews
correct preparation prior to spraying
adequate services (e.g.: power, air and water)
correct application technique
appropriate quality control and remedial actions
6.1 Power
A reliable and well earthed electrical power supply at the correct voltage is
needed.
6.2 Compressed air
A well maintained supply of compressed air is needed with adequate pressure
and volume that depends on:
The particular equipment specification.
The condition of the equipment.
On site operating conditions.
The hose length and diameter.
As a guideline, the typical air requirements (the most critical service) are as
follows:
For dry shotcreting about 5 m/hr, the air consumption is about 15 m/minute
at a pressure between 3 and 6 bars.
For wet shotcreting about 15 m/hr, the air consumption is about 12 m/minute
at a pressure of about 6 bars.
Mine compressed air pressure (if available) is frequently too low and hence the
larger mining shotcrete rigs are often fitted with compressors.
6.3 Water
As mentioned earlier, the water quality can be important and should be free from
oil and not heavily acidic. Potable (drinkable) water is suitable for shotcreting.
7. Logistics
Getting the shotcrete to the equipment in adequate quantities and when required
is the key to the successful introduction of shotcrete in mines. It is also frequently
overlooked in the design and planning stages leading to bottlenecks and
inefficiencies later on.
There are many ways used to get shotcrete to the site including:
Vertically down a slick-line and into some form of pressure dissipater before
discharging it into a concrete pump, or some form of agitator vehicle
(transmixer).
Down a cased borehole, then as above.
Down a decline in concrete trucks.
In dry product bulk bags (containers) then if wet mix, to an underground
batching plant then into agitator vehicles.
Small bags (dry mix only).
The choice of transportation method for the shotcrete material depends mainly
on:
The mine infrastructure.
The material handling system.
The location of the working places needing shotcrete and the demand per
shift.
The daily shotcrete requirement.
7.1 Slick line design and operation
A slick line is the only shotcrete material transportation method that needs to be
elaborated on.
The following is a guideline for a slick line:
A 150 mm diameter pipe appears suitable, although a smaller diameter pipe
(say 100 mm) may be more appropriate in order to reduce the velocity.
If the vertical drop is high, allowance should be made in the pipeline for
expansion due mainly to the high temperature generated by the shotcrete
falling in the pipe.
The wear rate is high due to the free fall velocities, and this potential problem
is further exacerbated if the pipe column is not installed vertically. Generally it
is advantageous to have a second pipeline installed as a back-up.
If the mix is optimally designed, segregation is not a problem except at the
start of a pour. Before the first batch is dropped down the line, the column
must be lubricated with water and then possibly a cement and water paste.
Unless this is done, the fines will adhere to the sides of the pipe and only the
aggregate will fall to the bottom.
Some form of pressure dissipater is needed at the bottom of the pipe to
control the exit of the shotcrete from the pipe. This is generally achieved
using a kettle of some suitable design. This has a sacrificial wear plate of
solid steel, tungsten or ceramic as shown in the examples in Figure 7. The
kettle can also perform the function of a re-mixer, in case any minor
segregation has occurred.
A spare kettle should always be kept as a replacement if needed.
FIGURE 7
SHOTCRETE PRESSURE DISSIPATORS
Pipe flanges
Sacrificial
wear block
Dead ends
(i ) (i i ) (i i i )
8. Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) application
8.1 Substrate preparation
Substrate preparation in a key element in the successful application of shotcrete.
The substrate should be free from loose materials, dust and films (such as oils).
This can generally be achieved by using a combined water and compressed air
jet. Cleaning should start at the high point (the excavation roof, back or
hangingwall) and work down systematically to the low point (excavation floor or
footwall).
Adhesion onto weak structured materials (such as shales and mudstones) is
frequently poor, and should be considered when designing an appropriate
support system.
Spraying onto a surface that can vibrate (such as screen/mesh) can cause
problems such as poor placed density (and even voids) as well as increased
rebound.
8.2 Shotcrete spraying
Good application techniques are the key to ensuring compliance with target
specifications. The following should be undertaken whenever possible:
Caution must be taken not to incorporate rebound lying on the tunnel floor
against the sidewall, into the shotcrete applied to the sidewall, as this impacts
the in situ shotcrete strength very negatively. To avoid this, it is common
practice to start shotcreting on the sidewalls (ribs) and move upwards to the
tunnel roof. Rebound should always be discarded and never considered for
re-use.
During spraying, it is beneficial to rather fill cracks instead of bridging them.
This has a beneficial effect on the overall rock mass stability by tending to
stabilize the rock.
Larger voids or cavities should be carefully filled first before shotcreting the
surrounding area.
8.3 Application safety
Particular attention should be given to operator eye protection, mainly associated
with rebound. Preferably goggles that seal around the eyes should be worn. All
operators should wear at least dust masks, but the problem becomes severe in
the case of the dry process.
Skin and eye protection becomes critical if caustic accelerators are used. This
becomes less of a concern if alkali free accelerators are used, but the cement is
still alkali and can cause minor irritation. Long durable gloves should be worn at
all times (except by the operator if using a remote control).
Lighting should be adequate not only from a safety point of view, but also to
improve the properties of the final sprayed shotcrete, and this is frequently
overlooked (unless rigs are used).
9. Training
The nozzleman is the key to successfully placed shotcrete whether it is by the
dry or wet process; or manual or robotic placement.
An aspect that is frequently overlooked, is that if hand held spraying is to be
successful, the effective volume sprayed should be limited to between 4 and 8
m/hr. Shotcrete nozzle-men should also be rotated regularly during a shift, as
the work is arduous. Should higher volumes be required, the use of a spray
manipulator (robot) is essential, and offers other benefits such as higher placed
quality, especially overhead.
The correct shotcrete application technique is shown on Figure 8. Figure 9 shows
the correct hand spraying method needed for spraying at different sidewall
heights.
Various training courses are available internationally for nozzlemen including:
ACI Nozzleman Certification for hand spraying (ACI 506.3R-91).
CUC Certification for robotic spraying planned for possible introduction late
2002.
Most of the training courses are in two main parts:
Shotcrete mix design theory and testing.
Shotcrete practical application.
Both aspects are very important.
Further information on training and related matters can be taken from the
following sources:
ACI web site at www.aci-int.org
CUC web site at www.icguc.com
FIGURE 8
CORRECT SHOTCRETE APPLICATION
Extreme
rebound
High
rebound
Low
rebound
MANIPULATING THE NOZZLE TO PRODUCE
THE BEST SHOTCRETE
SHOTCRETING ANGLE
FIGURE 9
CORRECT HAND SPRAYING POSITIONS
10. Quality control and testing
Poorly applied shotcrete can create a more hazardous condition than no
shotcrete as it can give a false sense of security.
There is also no benefit to be derived from having a good quality management
system in place, unless there is a feasible and safe contingency action plan if
measured limits are not met in the shotcreting process.
10.1 Quality control
Quality control is an important and generally overlooked, parameter needed to
ensure safe, consistent and cost effective support. Quality control tests should
be:
reliable
meaningful
timeous
simple
relatively inexpensive
The main targets checked in any shotcrete quality program should be associated
with design compliance (bond and strength) and sprayed design thickness. It is
however totally unacceptable to have a quality control system in place, but fail to
take adequate actions, if non-compliance is identified.
The absolute minimum parameters that should be checked regularly during a
spraying shift are:
mix design (including water content)
services (e.g. air volume and pressure)
strength (e.g. by using sprayed panels)
thickness (can use pins into the rock, that need to be covered during spraying)
It should be noted that depending on the compressive strength test shape used,
different results are obtained with the same mix, tested at the same time. There
is however a relationship between the more common shapes tested (the cube,
the cylinder and the cylindrical drill core). EFNARC gives the relationship in the
Table overleaf:
Height to diameter ratio
Of the drilled core
Equivalent cube strength
factor
Equivalent cylinder
Factor
2.00 1.15 1.00
1.75 1.12 0.97
1.50 1.10 0.95
1.25 1.07 0.93
1.10 1.03 0.89
1.00 1.00 0.87
0.75 0.88 0.76
10.2 Field testing of shotcrete
This commonly can consist of:
Slump tests (BS 1881: Part 102)
Hilti gun
MEYCO penetration needle
Schmidt hammer tests
Drilled cores (minimum diameter of 50 mm)
Thickness marker tests
Pull-out tests
Bond/adhesion strength tests (EN 1542)
Sprayed pre-fabricated panels (BS1881: Part 120)
The thickness marker tests are important operational tests, during and just after
spraying.
The operation of the Hilti Gun is shown in the photographic sequence overleaf.
10.3 Laboratory testing of shotcrete
Laboratory test methods for shotcreting are really only useful for comparative
purposes as none of the common methods take account of the adhesion to the
substrate (rockmass), and this is the critical performance parameter.
For small scale testing of the shotcretes workability, the flow method (spread
table) is useful and relatively quick. This method is cover in BS 1881, Part 105,
and for certain high performance superplasticizers, it gives more meaningful
results than the slump test.
Shotcrete in many mining applications frequently performs under post failure
conditions (if fiber reinforced) and thus lab test methods that utilise low
deformations are considered of less relevance in mining (such as the ASTM
C1018 beam test).
Hilti Gun early shotcrete strength testing
The Hilti gun method is suitable for
shotcrete strengths between 2 and
15 MPa.
Different lengths of nails are used
for different strength shotcrete.
The nail is shot into the fresh
shotcrete.
The shotcrete layer should be
around 15cm thick if possible.
Caution should be used as the gun
is dangerous if not used correctly.
A nail shot into the shotcrete to a
depth depending on the strength of
the shotcrete and the embedded
length is recorded (using the
shoulder on the nail as a reference).
To obtain a more reliable result at
least 8 bolts should be used at each
time period where the strength is
needed.
A nut is screwed fully onto the nail
as shown.
The test nut on the nail.
The pull tester is placed securely
over the nut.
A direct pull-out load is recorded on
the dial that can be converted into a
compressive strength.
The equipment should be kept in
good condition, stored in a safe
place and regularly serviced.
The strength of the shotcrete is then calculated using the depth of the specific
nail into the shotcrete, the pull out force and a correction factor supplied by Hilti.
The following are however considered appropriate for most shotcrete mining
applications:
The round determinate panel test.
The European Federation of Producers and Applicators of Specialist Products
for Structures (EFNARC) panel test.
10.3.1 The round determinate panel test
The round determinate panel developed by E.S. Bernhard (1998) is rapidly
gaining acceptance as a suitable method for testing different shotcrete mix
performance for mining applications in particular.
A photographic sequence showing the preparation and testing of the round panel
specimens is show overleaf.
Details on this method can be found in the following references:
Bernhard, E.S. 1998, Measurements of post-cracking performance in fibre
reinforced shotcrete. Australian Shotcrete Conference 1998 Sydney,
Australia October 8 and 9 1998.
Bernhard, E.S. 1998, The behaviour of round steel fibre reinforced concrete
panels under point loads. Engineering Report CE8, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Western Sydney Australia 1998.
Bernhard, E.S., Pircher, M. 2000, The influence of geometry on performance
of round determinate panels made with fibre reinforced concrete. Engineering
Report CE8, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Western Sydney Australia January 2000.
10.3.2 The EFNARC panel test
This test is also widely accepted particularly in the underground construction
industry in Europe. With this test a point load is applied to:
A 600 by 600 mm shotcrete panel at least 100 mm thick for hand spray
application tests.
A 1000 by 1000 mm shotcrete panel for robotic application.
The failure mode is generally flexural, but sometimes punching can occur.
The normal testing age is at 7 and 28 days. The center point load is applied
typically over a 100 by 100 mm surface.
Round determinant panel testing
Considerable equipment and
services are needed to shoot the
round panels and cleaning the
equipment and hoses is important
between different mixes.
At least 3 panels are used per test
mix.
A standard shotcrete mix must be
used each test for fiber comparison
studies. In this case accelerators
are not necessary.
For comparative mixes the results
for poured (properly compacted with
a vibrator) and shot panels are
similar.
The advantage of spraying however
is it indicates whether the mix with
the specific fibre is easy to spray.
For actual mix design tests, the full
mix including accelerator must be
used.
The finish is important (especially
ensuring a near uniform thickness).
Panel condition before final
finishing.
Curing the round panels is
important.
They should be kept damp and
moved as little as possible for at
least a full day.
Recording the average diameter of
the round panel is important.
An average thickness for the panel
is critical (and the differences in the
measurements should be as small
as possible).
The round panel in the frame prior
to testing in a press.
The load and deformation data is
automatically recorded so that the
energy etc. can be calculated after
the test.
Close-up of one of the failure cracks
during a test using a synthetic
(plastic) fibre.
Examination after the test can
reveal whether the fibres tended to
pull out or snap, and how well
ditributed through the mix they
were.
The normal and desired mode of
failure is a 3 pointed star.
Occasionally only a single crack is
formed. This can be due to using a
poor fiber, too low a dose rate or
from a poorly sprayed panel.
EFNARC specifies 3 types of shotcrete toughness (energy absorption) based on
the panel test at a 25 mm deflection:
Class a 500J
Class b 700J
Class c 1000J
Bernhard (1999) has established an approximate linear correlation between the
EFNARC panel tests and the round determinate panel test as follows:
1000J at 25mm deflection in an EFNARC test = 400J at 40mm deflection in a
round panel test
Details on this method can be found in the following references:
EFNARC
Association House
235 Ash Road
Aldershot,
Hampshire, GU12 4DD,
UK
Tel: +44-1252-342072
Fax: +44-1252-333901
www.efnarc.org (publications can be downloaded at no cost).
10.4 Quality assurance planning
Successful shotcreting requirements a comprehensive quality management plan,
that checks all aspects of the process and takes effective and appropriate action
immediately any problem is identified.
The Table overleaf could be the basis of a quality assurance plan for shotcrete:
Main parameter Test Parameter Comments
Pre-spraying Composition Pre-determined based on
testing
Grading Sieve analysis
Stock levels Buffer stock essential
Storage conditions Keep dry
Equipment condition Preventive maintenance
and daily inspections
Services Must be checked each shift
Safety Key at all times
During and after spraying Substrate condition Must be prepared
Accelerator level Set based on conditions
Early strength
Thickness A critical issue
Rebound Mainly a cost issue
Visual Skilled operators make
good use of this.
Safety Always paramount
Days after spraying Shotcrete performance Sound for bond etc.
Support effectiveness Monitoring
11. Costs
Shotcrete placed costs are seldom if ever accurately estimated. The same is
evident for most underground support systems.
The following are some of the more significant cost elements:
Material costs
Equipment costs
Material and equipment transportation costs
Labor costs
Application inefficiency costs
Time related costs
Other costs
11.1 Material costs
The material cost is generally relatively easy to establish, and is higher for wet
mixes.
Material costs can be judiciously reduced by careful raw material selection,
blending and admixture usage (e.g. water reducers).
11.2 Equipment costs
The capital cost for the shotcrete and ancillary equipment is also easy to
determine, and varies significantly depending on the capacity and on the
application process. Wet machines are always significantly more costly than dry
machines.
The maintenance cost of the equipment is generally overlooked, but can be
substantial. Dry equipment maintenance per m sprayed is between 2 and 4
times more than with wet equipment. In Canada and the USA, maintenance (and
replacement) costs for the dry machine, hoses and nozzle are typically around
$14.00/m sprayed.
Depending on the tax laws in a specific country, capital equipment is written off in
between 3 to 10 years usually. Assuming a volume of shotcrete to be placed
each year, a depreciation figure can be readily estimated.
11.3 Material and equipment transportation costs
This important cost is generally ignored or avoided for any support system, but it
can be very significant and should be considered. Mines that take the time to
investigate this aspect are generally able to justify the installation of a shaft
pipeline with pumps or agitator-cars (transmixers) for the horizontal
transportation. This assumes that the monthly volumes needed are regular and
relatively large.
11.4 Labor costs
The true labor cost involved with the entire process needs to be considered.
When comparing shotcrete against other supports, any rehabilitation costs
associated typically with any support system should also be estimated. For
example, the useful life of unprotected mesh/screen is typically between 3 to 5
years (depending on the conditions).
11.5 Application inefficiency costs
The rebound must be considered when shotcreting, and is not too difficult to
estimate. Quality wet shotcreting should be 15% or less (10% or less if applied
with a manipulator), and quality dry shotcreting should be 25 to 40%. This must
be accounted for in any shotcrete costing exercise.
11.6 Time related costs
These need to be considered if the mining cycle is critical for a specific
excavation development. The effects of lost blasts, due to the support installation
taking too long is very significant in many cases. This aspect is frequently
ignored, but considering this aspect usually more than justifies the capital
expenditure of a large self contained robotic spray rig for many mining projects.
11.7 Other costs
These include the cost of:
Services
Down time on overall mining production and development
An adequately detailed sprayed concrete costing spreadsheet is available from
Mr. Knut Garshol at kgarshol@mbt.com.
12. Specification and design procedures for shotcrete (sprayed
concrete) support
The fact that shotcrete (especially fiber reinforced) is a very effective support
liner in mines is well accepted, based mainly on experience.
The design of the performance (including thickness) requirements for shotcrete
under given rock engineering conditions in mines is still relatively poorly
understood. Detailed geotechnical examination in all the developing tunnels and
excavations is not feasible or justified. Frequently on mines therefore, the
reasonable assumption is made that if a support system has worked in the past
under similar conditions that it will work again. This method however tends to
result in a worst case design that is seldom the most cost effective. There are
however methods that can be used if needed.
Methods that can be used include:
Observational Methods (mainly NATM).
The Q System developed by Barton (1974).
The Q system modified for toughness by Grant et al (2001).
The ground characteristic curve method by Speers and Spearing (1996).
12.1 Observational methods
Rock masses are very complex systems and are further complicated in mining
because the stress tensor typically changes during the operational life of most
excavations. Predicting future rock mass responses is therefore difficult at best.
Observational Methods involve field observations and monitoring to make
predictions on rock mass stability and the effectiveness of any support. The most
critical parameter measured is closure (convergence).
The most common and widely accepted system is the New Austrian Tunneling
Method (NATM), used mainly in the underground construction industry. It was
developed in the 1960s with the aim of stabilizing a tunnel in the most cost
effective manner, therefore making the most of the rocks self supporting ability.
The name was chosen by the main developer of the system Prof. L.V.
Rabcewicz.. Rabcewicz and Muller used the sprayed concrete based support
system in 1964 in the Schwaikheim Tunnel.
The first NATM application in the USA was designed for the Pittsburgh streetcar
transportation system by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA)
in 1983 (Kirwin, 1985). This method was selected over a more conventional
approach due to the potential cost savings.
This is generally an iterative process involving the following repeating steps:
1. Gather relevant on site rock and stability data.
2. Analyze the data using any method considered suitable and determine a rock
stability or classification.
3. Design an appropriate shape for the excavation profile taking account of the
final function of the excavation and the local conditions as dictated by the rock
mass properties and stress regime (tensor).
4. Develop a support system that usually involves bolting and shotcreting.
5. Install the support in the developing excavation, after each round (if blasted)
with the aim to limit rock movement (unraveling).
6. Monitor the rock stability with the installed support (with the application of
shotcrete it is sometimes difficult to identify local geological features and rock
types etc.). This always involves closure measurements but could also
include extensometer measurements and physical load measurements in the
anchors using load cells.
7. Start at step 1 again and update the information and redesign/alter the
support if necessary.
12.2 The Q system
This system is a refinement of the Rock Quality Designation (RQD) developed by
Deere et al (1969) and takes account of the presence and properties of joint sets
and the state of stress. The use of this system for shotcrete design is flawed
because it does not include a toughness requirement.
12.3 The modified Q system to include toughness
The Q system was modified by Grant et al (2001) to incorporate the shotcrete
toughness performance levels (TPL) developed by Morgan (1990). The EFNARC
panel toughness (J) is specified for each ground condition identified using the Q
system as follows:
Rock class Description EFNARC panel
toughness (J)
F Extremely poor +1400
E Very poor 1000 1400
D Poor 700 1000
C Fair 500 700
B Good < 500
A Very good 0
Grant et al suggest a rock class of G where the ground movement is expected to
be so large than even fiber reinforced shotcrete will be inadequate. They define
this when the ground movement is expected to exceed 0.05 times the bolt
spacing. Under this condition they recommend the following be considered:
Steel sets or reinforced shotcrete ribs (as per the Norwegian Concrete
Association Publication No.7 of 1993).
Conventional mesh reinforcement.
Secondary linings.
12.4 The ground characteristic curve method
This method was developed by Speers and Spearing (1996) and is useful in high
deformation applications. The method utilizes the 2 or 3 dimensional FLAC
program (ITASCA, 1992).
It uses the Mohr-Coulomb criteria for brittle failure, and although it is known that
rock failure can seldom be classified by a single criterion (Stacey and De Jongh
1977), it is a useful design tool that is especially powerful qualitatively.
In essence the numerical model is used to derive a relationship between the
pressure on a tunnel periphery generated by the support and the corresponding
rock displacement. This relationship is called the ground reaction curve, the
ground characteristic curve or the required support line (Brady and Brown
1985).
Input parameters for the support (such as cable bolts, grouted bolts, mesh and
shotcrete) can be obtained from the published literature and the manual for the
computer code.
Full write-ups on these methods can be obtained from the following references:
Rabcewicz, L.V. The New Austrian Tunneling Method. Water Power
November/December 1964 and January 1965.
Barton, N., Lien, R., Lunde, J. 1974, Engineering classification of rock
masses for the design of tunnel support. J.S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall. vol 74, no. 8.
pp. 312-320 South Africa 1974.
Grant, N.B., Ratcliffe, R., Papworth, F. 2001, Design guidelines for the use of
SFRS in ground support. Shotcrete: Engineering Developments Hobart,
Australia 2 to 4 April 2001.
Speers, C.R., Spearing, A.J.S. 1996, The design of tunnel support in deep
hard-rock mines under quasistatic conditions. J.S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall. vol 96,
no. 2. pp. 47-54 South Africa March/April 1996.
13. Mix design examples and case studies
The case studies cover the applications listed below and are given as a guide
only. Any shotcrete mix should first be lab tested to ensure that it meets the
performance criteria set for the specific application, and then field tested. Results
will vary dramatically depending on the raw materials sources and no support
should be used (including shotcrete) without the approval of a suitably qualified
and responsible person (e.g. a geotechnical or rock engineer).
Case studies will deal with the following applications:
Standard dry mix
Standard wet shotcrete mix
High early strength mix with high single pass build
Fiber reinforced shotcrete mixes for slick lines especially in sinking shafts
A mix to replace bolts and screen/mesh
Shotcrete for kimberlite (blue) rock
Shotcrete for water inflow areas
Wet shotcrete for economical reasons
Not all the case studies are from mines, but the applications are typical.
13.1 Standard dry mix
The water to cement ratio is typically between 0.40 and 0.45. To better wet the
mix and reduce dust formation at the nozzle, the water ring can be placed
between 1 and 3m back from the nozzle.
A standard typical mix could be per m:
- Portland cement 350 kg
- -8 mm aggregate 350 kg
- Fine sand 1400 kg
An accelerator dose of between 3 and 4% is typically used. This can be added as
a powder or a liquid. A water to cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.50 is typical.
13.2 Standard wet shotcrete mix
There really is no standard mix design, but a basic mix could be:
- Portland cement 425 kg
- -8 mm aggregate 300 kg
- Fine sand 1400 kg
- Water reducer 4 kg
An accelerator dose between 4 and 6 % is typically used. A water to cement ratio
around 0.40 to 0.45 is typical.
Clearly this mix can be readily modified at a nominal cost to become more
effective as illustrated in the other examples below.
13.3 High early strength mix with high single pass build
Where high early strength and thick single pass layers of shotcrete are required,
the following mix could be a guideline per m:
- Portland cement 520 kg
- Microsilica 25 kg
- Aggregate (0 to 8 mm) 1600 kg
- Water reducers 6.5 to 7.5 kg
- Internal curer 5 kg
- Hydration controller 2 kg
- Accelerator 8 %
- Steel fiber (25 mm) 50 kg
- Water:cement ratio 0.45
- Average thickness 20 cm
The above mix was used at North Cape Tunnel in Norway (Melbye, 2001) and
produced the following results:
compressive strength of > 2 MPa at I hour
> 7 MPa at 7 hours
> 30 MPa at 1 day
> 40 MPa at 28 day
rebound of around 5 %
average single pass thickness of about 250mm.
It should be noted that the poor rock quality and the arctic weather conditions
lead to the relatively high cement content.
13.4 Fiber reinforced shotcrete mixes for slick lines especially in sinking
shafts
Fundamental aspects need to be considered when designing support systems for
use during shaft sinking, and these include (Spearing and Nel 1999):
Space and access is always a major constraint.
Dust can be a concern, especially due to the limited space and ventilation
availability.
Hoisting capacity is limited.
Time is a very precious commodity, because the costs associated with delays
are huge as the time to access the orebody is directly effected.
Humidity and temperature are generally high.
The use of shotcrete as support can be highly beneficial under such constraints,
because:
The shotcrete machine can be placed out of the way on one of the platforms
of the sinking stage, or lowered when needed onto the shaft bottom.
Dust can be virtually eliminated by using the wet application process.
The shotcrete mix can be transported via a pipe range in the shaft, making it
independent of hoisting.
Shotcrete can be applied very rapidly.
The effects of temperature and humidity can be negated.
The design of the shotcrete mix is critical, and must be considered carefully.
The shotcrete mix should contain much the same constituents as any other
shotcrete, but more care is needed, as indicated below:
For standard shotcreting, typical cement contents of around 400 kg/m can be
used, but in shaft sinking, more than 400 kg/m is recommended mainly to
limit segregation during transportation.
Micro-silica is frequently used in shotcrete, but is considered very necessary
for shaft sinking, for its ability to improve the cohesiveness of the mix (in the
slick-line). Typical additions between 30 and 50 kg/m should be considered.
Hydration controllers are frequently used in shotcreting operations, mainly to
extend the useful life of the mix prior to spraying. In shaft sinking it is vital, to
reduce the effect of a concrete pipe blockage in the shaft.
Accelerators are commonly used, and when shotcreting in shaft sinking
operations they are important to gain early support. Alkali free accelerators
are becoming more frequently used in shafts mainly because they cause no
problems to people working in the vicinity, and cause less final strength
reduction.
Effective water reducers are needed to help the mix flow in the pipe, and still
give a high rate of early strength gain, by having a low water to cement ratio
(less than 0.4).
For permanent shotcreting during shaft sinking and related operations, the
use of fibre reinforced (wet) shotcrete (FRS) is highly desirable, because the
rock tends to move considerably during the useful life of the shaft and nearby
infrastructure, and the potential for rockburst damage is often a consideration.
13.4.1 Vaal River Operations 11 Shaft Moab Khotsong (South Africa)
A typical mix per m used for sinking down to 7500 feet (2300 m) below surface,
using a batch plant on surface at the 11 Shaft of Vaal River Operations in South
Africa (Buckley, 1998) was:
- Portland cement 450 kg
- Microsilica 40 kg
- -8mm stone 1400 kg
- Sand 320 kg
- Water reducer 10.7 kg
- Internal curer 5.0 kg
- Hydration controller 2.8 kg
- Accelerator 5 % (on total binder content)
- Steel fiber 50 kg
The above mix was batched on surface and sent vertically underground in a
nominal 6 inch (150 mm) diameter pipe.
13.4.2 Western Deep Levels South Mine (South Africa)
In order to access gold ore reserves in excess of 4000m below surface, a
replacement ventilation shaft was sunk between 84 and 109 levels (between
about 2580m and 3300m below surface) as shown on Figure 10. A novel raise
boring method, utilizing the V Mole (see Figure 11) was used in the
development of the 7.0m diameter shaft, by a South African contractor - RUC.
Sidewall support during the final sinking, consisted of split sets and SFRS
installed concurrently with the advance. The shotcrete was installed using a
manipulator, attached on a steel beam that was fitted around the sinking stage.
The shotcrete was mixed at a batching plant located on 84 level, and was fed via
a 150mm diameter pipe to a 1.0m re-mixing tank that was located on the second
deck of the stage.
The shotcrete design mix was as follows per m:
- Portland cement 480kg
- Micro-silica 48kg
- Total aggregate 1525kg
- Steel fiber 40kg
- Water reducer 5.5kg
- Internal curer 5kg
-.Hydration controller used part of the time
- Alkali free accelerator up to 5%
- Water 207litres
FIGURE 10
SOUTH SHAFT DEEPENING PROJECT
Main
Shaft SS
11 Level
14 Level
19 Level
108/99 Level
V
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n
t
e
r
s
d
o
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p
C
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ta
c
t R
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e
f
C
a
r
b
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n
L
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a
d
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r
R
e
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f
109 Level
113 Level
116 Level
120 Level
123 Level
126 Level
130 Level
132 Level
Shaft bottom
-4117mbd
SS1SS2
SSV Shaft
C
a
r
b
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n

L
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R
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FIGURE 11
SECTION THROUGH THE SHAFT
50 ton winch
support structure
Kibble
Stage
Drill rig
V mole
Mixer and pump
Robotic arm and
shotcrete spray nozzle
The mine personnel estimated that the total rebound was about 5%, although
physical measurements could obviously not be made.
The shaft development that passed through the Ventersdorp lava sequence, with
an unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of over 300MPa, proceeded as
planned. In the weaker Witwatersrand quartzites, with a UCS of about 200MPa,
excessive sidewall slabbing (dog-earing) occurred behind the cutter head, before
the shotcrete could be applied. This caused some delays, and it was concluded
by the project team on the mine, that the SFRS should have been applied even
sooner (right up to the face).
13.4.3 Alp Transit Tunnel Sedrun, Switzerland
The Alp Transit tunnel system for cars and trucks is aimed to accelerate
transportation through Switzerland, and reduce pollution. This will be achieved by
the use of railway transport carrying motor vehicles through the Swiss Alps.
The Gotthard Tunnel will be used mainly to transport trucks, on rail cars at high
speed (about 140km/hr). The Sedrun section of this project consists of an access
tunnel to a shaft that is being sunk some 800m, with a diameter of 7.75m, as
shown on Figure 12. Shaft Sinkers is part of the consortium involved with this
preliminary phase. The shaft will be used to provide additional starting locations
for the main tunnels, of about 57km length. Once these tunnels are complete, the
shaft and access tunnel will be used to provide services and ventilation to the
main tunnels below.
The shotcrete is batched on surface and taken to the shaft platform via a 150mm
diameter steel pipeline, fitted with a kettle (energy dissipater) at the bottom. A
custom designed kibble (bucket) with a 4.5m capacity is used to transport the
shotcrete material from the kettle to the shaft bottom (about 40m vertically). The
use of this kibble frees the hoisting system for other operations, whilst the
shotcrete is being sprayed. The shotcrete is then applied using a small air
powered wet mix pump (Allentown AP10), as a temporary support, before the
final lining is cast.
The mix design is as follows per m:
- Portland cement 450kg
- Micro-silica 40kg
- -8mm aggregate 670kg
- Sand 1080kg
- Water reducer 5.9kg
- Accelerator 4 to 8%
The water to cement ratio was 0.47.
FIGURE 12
DETAIL OF SHAFT AND EQUIPMENT AT SEDRUN
SEDRUN
Temporary
accommodation
Pipeline for
cement
transport
Access tunnel
aprox. 990m
Silos
Shaft bottom
Concrete
plant
Gotthard base
tunnel
Headgear
Ventilation
shaft
Ventilation
structure
Hoisting cage
Passenger
lift
The above mix produced the following results:
compressive strength of > 3 MPa at 4 hour
> 11 MPa at 12 hours
> 27 MPa at 1 day
> 40 MPa at 28 day
rebound of around 8 %
thickness of about 100 to 150 mm.
13.5 A mix to replace bolts and mesh INCOs Stobie Mine - Canada
A mix that has been successfully used to replace bolting and screening in drifts
at INCOS Stobie Mine in Sudbury, Canada (OHearn and Buksa, 1997) is as
follows per m:
- Portland cement 400 kg
- Microsilica 40 kg
- Coarse aggregate 350 kg
- Fine aggregate 1275 kg
- Water reducer 4.0 to 5.0 kg
- Steel fiber (30 mm length) 50 kg
- Water:cement ratio 0.40 to 0.45
- Average thickness 65 mm
The above mix produced the following results:
Slump of 65 mm (150 mm is recommended generally)
Bond strength of >0.18 MPa at 8 hours
>0.45 MPa at 1 day
> 1.2 MPa at 28 days
Compressive strength of > 9 MPa
> 40 MPa
> 44 MPa
13.6 Shotcrete for Kimberlite (blue) rock
Kimberlite pipes are frequently associated with diamonds.
Kimberlite (a variety of mica and peridotite) is hygroscopic and tends to pull water
from a shotcrete mix. This causes the shotcrete to kimberlite interface surface to
weaken to such an extent that the shotcrete bonds very poorly (if at all) to the
rock. Some form of seal is therefore needed to stop weathering from occurring in
longer term excavations.
Where shotcrete has been needed in the past, the general approach has been to
apply a thin membrane (liner) first, and then spray the shotcrete onto the
membrane. This works technically but is costly and involves a two stage
operation.
Dry shotcrete has been found to work, but according to Storrie (2001), wet
shotcrete has advantages such as higher productivity, less rebound and less
dust.
For rock engineering considerations, the shotcrete needs a 28 day strength of 45
MPa and an EFNARC energy absorption of 750 J.
Based on successful underground trials, the following wet shotcrete mix (Storrie,
2001) was found to be successful:
- Cement 500 kg
- Microsilica 40 kg
- Sand 1558 kg
- Water reducer 5.4 l
- Plastic fiber 8 kg
- Accelerator 5%
- Water:cement ratio 0.43
13.7 Shotcrete for water inflow areas
Clearly shotcrete cannot be placed over substantial water outflows, but with the
correct mix design and especially the correct accelerator and dose rate,
shotcrete can be sprayed over surprisingly high water outflows (if the pressure is
low). The ideal solution is always water sealing (injection) if required, or at least a
well considered water management plan.
The following is an example from a rail tunnel Blisadona Tunnel in Austria
(Melbye et al 2001). There was general heavy water ingress and therefore the
sprayed concrete had to gain strength rapidly, in order not to fall off the rock.
The mix design and results were as follows per m of material:
- PZ375 cement 420 kg
- Total aggregate 1750 kg
- Water reducer 0.7 %
- Hydration controller 0.4 % (for 7 hours open time)
- Alkali free accelerator 7.5% (average)
- Water:cement ratio < 0.5
Compressive strength:
6 minutes (Hilti gun) > 0.3 MPa
10 minutes (Hilti gun) > 0.4 MPa
30 minutes (Hilti gun) > 0.6 MPa
12 hours (Hilti gun) > 8.0 MPa
7 days (cores) 25.0 MPa
28 days (cores) 31.0 MPa
13.8 Wet shotcrete for economical reasons
The support system used on any mine must first protect people but also must be
cost effective. The total installed cost of support (including any longer term
possible rehabilitation costs) must always be considered. The economics of a dry
process versus a wet process should always be the main deciding factor.
Telfer Gold Mine, part of Newcrest Mining Ltd in Australia, compared the
economics of both wet and dry shotcreting for their application (Cepuritus, 1996).
The wet shotcrete process (produced on site) proved to be about 10% cheaper
than the dry process (transported to site in bulk), mainly due to transportation
cost savings as the mine is very remote (and other considerations such as
rebound reduction).
- Portland cement 425 kg
- Microsilica 40 kg
- Aggregate (-7 mm) 500 kg
- Coarse sand 1000 kg
- Dune sand 250 kg
- Water reducer 4 liters
- Stabilizer 3 liters
- Water:cement ratio 0.49
- Average thickness +50 mm
More detailed information on shotcrete (in English, German and Spanish) can be
obtained from the following sources:
www.ugc.mbt.com
Americas Tel: +1-216-8397500
MB Inc. Fax: +1-216-8398801
23700 Chagrin Boulevard,
Cleveland,
OHIO 44122, USA
Asia/Pacific Tel: +65-8607305
MBT Singapore Fax: +65-8630951
33 Tuas Avenue 11,
Singapore 639090
Australia Tel: +61-2-96244200
MBT Australia Fax: +62-2-96247681
11 Stanton Road,
AUS Seven Hills,
NSW 2147, Australia
Europe Tel: +41-1-4382211
MBT Schweiz Fax: +41-1-4382246
Vulkanstrasse 110,
8048 Zurich, Switzerland
Japan Tel: +81-3-35828814
NMB Fax: +81-3-35833800
16-26, Roppongi 3-chome
Minato-ku
Tokyo 106-0032, Japan
Latin America Tel: +1-305-6674239
5941 SW 47
th
Street, Fax: +1-305-6670793
Miami,
Florida 33155-6028, USA
South Africa Tel: +27-11-7541343
MBT Mining and Tunneling Fax: +27-11-7541105
11 Pullinger Street,
Westonaria 1780, South Africa
14. The future
The future for shotcreting in mines is positive and is likely to grow significantly.
This is not only because of the on-going advances in particularly wet shotcrete,
both from an equipment and product point of view, but also safety concerns
associated with the installation of mesh/screen (the most common alternative).
These advances will include:
Shotcrete equipment automation.
Advances in the performance of synthetic fibers.
Advances in admixture performance.
14.1 The future of shotcrete equipment
Mines typically apply shotcrete at between 50mm to 100mm thick. This is in
contrast to most underground civil applications were the typical thickness would
exceed 100mm.
A development (Tschumi, 1998) that should have a most significant impact on
shotcrete in the future, and quality control in particular, is the current on-going
development of a semi-automatic (or automatic) spray manipulator (robot) that
can:
i) Measure the tunnel profile using a laser scanner.
ii) Shotcrete to a desired thickness basically automatically, keeping the spray
angle and distance at the ideal settings (thus minimizing rebound).
iii) Check that the design thickness has been achieved, re-spraying any areas
that are under-sprayed.
The first prototype has been evaluated by INCO at its test mine in Canada
(Runciman et al 2001). These tests clearly showed the potential for such a
system. The thickness variation in fully automatic mode was found to be only
7.5mm and this is a significant achievement.
This development will permit support systems that mainly rely on fiber reinforced
shotcrete to be designed and implemented in underground mines. The safety
aspects of this are obvious because it should help resolve the most difficult
quality control issue: that of achieving the designed placed shotcrete thickness.
Less obvious are the potential cost benefits of the equipment such as:
Reduced rebound (achieved by maintaining the correct nozzle to substrate
distance and angle at all times).
Reduced maintenance costs and increased equipment life due to the more
precise and less erratic control of the manipulator under computer control.
Less operator training needs (but more computer literate maintenance
needs).
The rebound in well controlled manipulator applied wet shotcrete is typically
between 10 and 15%. The rebound using the Logica has been measured at
between 5 and 10%, so a reduction of 5% rebound is possible.
The complete Logica control system costs less than $110k, and hence can pay
for itself just with the rebound reduction after only 11000 m sprayed. This is a
simplistic approach and assumes a cost of fiber reinforced shotcrete to be
US$200/m. This calculation assumes that the use of a conventional manipulator
(boom) mounted shotcrete rig has already been justified and only the Logica
technology needs to be justified as an add-on.
In the near future, mining booms will be routinely available with and without the
Logica technology, but the future will clearly include Logica.
Full write-ups on these methods and equipment can be obtained from the
following reference sources:
Tschumi,O. 1998, State of the art of the latest generation concrete spraying
robot. 100
th
CIM Conference Montreal, Canada.
Runciman, N., Rispin, M., Newson, G. 2001, Tele-operated shotcrete
spraying with the MEYCO Robojet Logica. Shotcrete: Engineering
Developments Hobart, Australia 2 to 4 April 2001.
The MEYCO web site is http://www.meyco-equipment.ch
14.2 Possible improvements in synthetic fibers
Improvements in the handling and performance of synthetic (plastic) fibers will
continue, and the trend will be away from steel fibers. This is because:
In mining, shotcrete frequently operates post first crack, and with the steel,
corrosion of the fibers can be an issue.
The plastic fibers are not a minor hazard that can cause minor cuts to
personnel after placement (as the steel fibers do that stick out from the
shotcrete).
The plastic fibers seem able to perform such that the shotcrete can deform
more before being totally ineffective.
An issue that still needs to be fully resolved is that associated with the density of
the synthetic fibers. They tend to float and hence can cause problems with sump
pumps etc.
14.3 Future admixture advances
Many mine operators are calling for even faster early strength development so
that they can re-enter a freshly sprayed end safely but quickly. At present many
operators want at least a compressive early strength of 2 MPa after 2 hours, but
even higher strengths would be desirable. The bond early strength is actually the
important parameter rather than the compressive strength but this is not specified
at all at present, probably due to practical field testing issues. Future accelerators
will tend to develop strength even faster and still have only a little effect on the
final strength. Alkali free accelerators will be the only approved shotcrete
accelerator due to the issues of health and safety.
15. References
American Concrete Institute, Guide to shotcrete, Report 506R-2.
Almgren, G. Rock mechanics and the economics of cut and fill mining.
Application of Rock Mechanics to Cut and Fill Mining University of Lulea
Sweden June 1980.
Barton, N., Lien, R., Lunde, J. 1974, Engineering classification of rock masses for
the design of tunnel support. J.S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall. vol 74, no. 8. pp. 312-320
South Africa 1974.
Bernhard, E.S. (1998) Measurements of post-cracking performance in fibre
reinforced shotcrete. Australian Shotcrete Conference 1998 Sydney, Australia
October 8 and 9 1998.
Bernhard, E.S. (1998) The behaviour of round steel fibre reinforced concrete
panels under point loads. Engineering Report CE8, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Western Sydney Australia 1998.
Bernhard, E.S. (1999) Correlations in the performance of fibre reinforced
shotcrete beams and panels. Engineering Report CE8, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Western Sydney Australia 1998.
Bernhard, E.S., Pircher, M. (2000) The influence of geometry on performance of
round determinate panels made with fibre reinforced concrete. Engineering
Report CE8, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western
Sydney Australia January 2000.
Brady, B.H.G., Brown, E.T. (1985) Rock Mechanics for underground mining.
George Allen and Unwin London, UK.
Buckley,J.A. (1998) The application of wetcrete as a support medium.
Shotcrete and its Application SAIMM Johannesburg, South Africa
Cepuritus,P.M. (1996) Economic advantages of on-site wet-mix shotcreting.
Shotcrete Techniques, Procedures and Mining Applications Kalgoorlie,
Australia
Comite Europeen de Normalisation www.cenorm.be
Deere, D.U. (1969) Engineering classification of in situ rock. AFWL Report TR67-
144 Washington D.C., USA.
Galinat,M.A. (1998) High performance polymer fibre reinforced shotcrete.
Australian Shotcrete Conference Sydney, Australia.
Garshol, K (2002) Personal communication.
Golser, J. (1976) The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM). Shotcrete for
Ground Support ACI Publication SP-54 October 1976.
Grant, N.B., Ratcliffe, R., Papworth, F. (2001), Design guidelines for the use of
SFRS in ground support. Shotcrete: Engineering Developments Hobart,
Australia 2 to 4 April 2001.
Itasca (1992). FLAC Fast Lagrangian Analysis Continua. Version 3.0/3.2.
Kirwin, J. (1985) NATM: The wave of the future in rock tunnel construction ? The
International Magazine on Transportation in Cities Vol XII, No.5 May 1985.
Melbye,T.A., Garshol, K.F. (1999 and 2001 edition) Sprayed concrete for rock
support. Master Builders Technologies Zurich, Switzerland.
Morgan, D.R., Chen, L., Beaupre, D. (1990) Toughness of fiber reinforced
shotcrete.
Munn, R.L. (1997) Basic technology for sprayed concrete. 3
rd
National Shotcrete
Workshop (Rock Technology Ltd.) Australia November 1997.
Norwegian Concrete Association - Technical Specifications and Guidelines;
Publication No. 7 - 1993.
OHearn,B., Buksa,H. (1997) Boltless shotcrete.
1
st
South African Rock Engineering Symposium Johannesburg, South Africa
Peck, R.B. (1969) Advantages and limitations of the observational method in
applied soil mechanics. Geotechnique 19, pp 171-187.
Runciman, N., Rispin, M., Newson, G. 2001 Tele-operated shotcrete spraying
with the MEYCO Robojet Logica. Shotcrete: Engineering Developments
Hobart, Australia 2 to 4 April 2001.
Sauer, G. (2002) Light at the end of the tunnel. www.dr-sauer.com
Spearing, A.J.S. (1995) The potential for shotcrete as a tunnel support in gold
and platinum mines. Innovative Mining and Support Systems for Safety and
Productivity Colloquium SAIMM Randburg, South Africa May 1995.
Spearing,A.J.S. (1998) Practical guidelines on shotcrete application.
Shotcrete and its Application SAIMM Johannesburg, South Africa
Spearing,A.J.S.,Chittenden,N. (1998) Design,application and quality control to
ensure safe and cost effective shotcreting. Rock Mechanics and Productivity
SANGORM (ISRM) Carletonville, South Africa October 1998.
Spearing, A.J.S., Naismith, W.A. (1999) The rationale, design and
implementation of steel fibre reinforced wet shotcrete, in hard rock tunnels,
where rapid advance is needed in South Africa. Rock Support and
Reinforcement Practice in Mining Kalgoorlie, Australia March 1999.
Spearing,A.J.S., Nel,P.J.L. (1999) The design, transportation and application of
wet shotcrete for the support of vertical shafts and related development.
3
rd
International Conference on Sprayed Concrete Gol, Norway.
Speers, C.R., Spearing, A.J.S. (1996) The design of tunnel support in deep hard-
rock mines under quasistatic conditions. J.S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall. vol 96, no. 2. pp.
47-54 South Africa March/April 1996.
Stacey, T.R., De Jongh, C.L. (1977) Stress fracturing around a deep level bored
tunnel. .S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall. vol 78, pp. 124-133 South Africa.
Storrie, A. (2001) Wet shotcrete onto kimberlite. Shotcrete and Membrane
Support Colloquium SAIMM Randburg, South Africa April, 2001.
Tschumi,O. (1998) State of the art of the latest generation concrete spraying
robot. 100
th
CIM Conference Montreal, Canada.
Vandewalle,M (1997) Tunnelling the world. N.V.Bekaert S.A.
16. MBT Shotcrete Admixture Products
The list below is not exhaustive and certain products are not available in every
country. For more detailed information, please contact the local MBT operation or
the Underground Construction Group web site at:
www.ugc.mbt.com
The Technical Data Sheets for most of the products listed below can be
downloaded directly from the above web site above. Another useful source is the
Jobsite Manager, available from the local MBT office.
For assistance with any shotcrete mix design or shotcrete related problem,
contact the nearest MBT office. Never use admixtures without first insisting on
some form of testing.
Dry shotcrete accelerators
Traditional accelerators (typically 3 to 5 % dosage by total binder weight)
Accel-A-Set 2000
Accel-A-Set 120
MEYCO SA 100
MEYCO SA 120
MEYCO SA 500 series
MEYCO SA 160 to 170 series
Alkali free accelerator
MEYCO SA 545 (typically 4 to 8 % dosage by total binder weight)
Wet shotcrete accelerators
Traditional accelerators (not usually recommended)
MEYCO SA 100 (chloride free)
MEYCO SA 120 (chloride free)
MEYCO SA 430 (chloride free)
Alkali free accelerators (typically 4 to 8% dosage by weight of total binder)
MEYCO SA 160
MEYCO SA 161
MEYCO SA 162
MEYCO SA 170
Water reducers (plasticizers and superplasticizers)
Polyheed SG (can be used with TCC system below)
Pozzolith series
Rheobuild series
Glenium series
Microsilica (typically 5 to 10 % by weight of cement)
MEYCO MS 610
MEYCO MS 660 (slurry)
MEYCO MS 685 (nano-silica suspension)
Concrete improvers (concrete curing agents)
TCC 735 (dosage at 5 kg/m of shotcrete)
Consistency controllers (Total Consistency Control TCC)
MEYCO TCC 765 and 766
MEYCO TCC 780
Hydration controllers
Delvocrete Stabilizer (typically 0.4 to 2.0 % by weight of total binder)
Pumping aids (also part of TCC)
Water reducers in general
MEYCO TCC 780
Air entraining agents (e.g. Micro-Air 100)
Steel fibres
Synthetic (plastic) fibres
There are also combination admixtures, not listed above that act as
superplasticizers and hydration controllers (e.g. Glenium T801 and T803).
17. Useful contacts
American Concrete Institute (ACI) formed in 1904.
P.O. Box 9094,
Farmington Hills,
Michigan 48333-9094,
USA.
Tel: +1-248-8483700
Web site: www.aci-int.org
American Shotcrete Association (ASA) formed in 1998.
38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills,
MI 48331,
USA.
Tel: +1-248-8483780
Fax: +1-248-8483740
Web site: www.shotcrete.org
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) formed 1898.
100 Barr Harbor Drive,
West Conshohocken,
PA 19428
USA.
Tel: +1-610-8329500
Fax: +1-610-8329555
E mail: service@astm.org
Web site: www.astm.org
Australian Shotcrete Society
C/o Jetcrete Australia
30 Waratah Street,
Kirrawee,
NSW 2232,
Australia
Tel: +61-2-95218733
Fax: +61-2-95218992
E mail: s.bernhard@shotcreteengineers.com
British Standards Institute (BS standards) formed 1901.
2 Park Street,
London, W1A 2BS
United Kingdom
Tel: +44-1-6299000
Fax: +44-1-6290506
Deutsches Institut fuer Normung (DIN standards) formed 1917.
(German Institute for Standards)
Burggrafenstrasse 6,
Postfach 1107,
W-1000 Berlin 30
Germany
Tel: +49-30-2601362
Fax: +49-30-2601231
European Federation of Producers and Applicators of Specialist
Products (EFNARC)
Association House,
235 Ash Road,
Aldershot,
Hampshire, GU12 4DD,
UK
Tel: +44-1252-342072
Fax: +44-1252-333901
Web site: www.efnarc.org
International Centre for Geomechanics (CUC)
Rheinstrasse 4,
Postfach 64,
CH-7320 Sargans,
Switzerland.
Tel: +41-81-7253150
Fax: +41-81-7253140
E mail: cuc@icguc.com
Web site: www.icguc.com
International Tunnelling Association (ITA)
C. Berenguier Secretary General
CETU 25,
Ave. Francois Mitterand,
Case No. 1-69674,
Bron-Cedex,
France
Tel: +33-47-8260455
Fax: +33-47-2372406
E mail: aites@imaginet.fr
Web site: www.ita-aites.org
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