LESSON

4 VIBRATION AND NOISE ANALYSIS

LECTURE
SUB - OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson the Trainee ill !e a!le to de"onstrate an #nderstandin$ of
Vi!ration and Noise Anal%sis&
'&( INTRODUCTION
thus far, we have discussed vibration and noise in some detail, in terms of their
causes and general characteristics. We have also covered the operation of the
instruments used to measure noise and vibration; and by now, you should have had
an opportunity to actually take some measurements.
The next step is to be able to identify specific machinery vibration problems and
noise sources. This is the purpose of ANA!"#".
)*EN DO )E ANALY+E
Normally, a vibration analysis is in order whenever periodic checks of overall
machinery vibration or noise have revealed a significant increase. $r, perhaps a
vibration monitor has signaled an alarm indicating that trouble is developing in the
machine. #n the case of machine tools, the inability to produce a satisfactory
surface finish or maintain dimensional tolerances may be a sign of mechanical
problems. The obvious next step is to analy%e the vibration to find out why.
When the problem is excessive noise, an analysis of both machinery noise and
vibration will reveal whether the noise is the result of mechanical problems in the
machine or inherent to normal machine operation.
An analysis of machinery vibration and noise should also be made at the start of a
preventive maintenance program to determine whether or not the machine is in
good operating condition. #f faults are present in the machine, our initial analysis will
reveal these so that corrections can be made to return the machine to normal
operation. Analysis data taken with the machine in good operating condition is
called baseline data and provides the basis for comparison with future periodic
checks and analyses.
To simplify our discussion, we will divide the analysis procedure into two steps; &'
(ATA A)*+#"#T#$N and ,' (ATA #NT-./.-TAT#$N. The data ac0uisition
procedure outlined here is simply a means of systematically measuring and
recording the detailed vibration or noise characteristics needed to solve the
problem. (ata interpretation involves comparing our recorded data with what we
know about the machine, its speed or speeds, what it does, and the known causes
of vibration and noise so we can pinpoint the trouble and prescribe correction.
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DATA AC,UISITION
A good analyst keeps complete records of his readings. This helps avoid confusion
and provides a historical record for future reference.
To simplify recording the analysis data, a standard form such as the one shown in
1ig. &5:9:& is recommended. This form has provisions for recording all the
information normally re0uired.
T*E -AC*INE S.ETC*
#n order to identify the points at which vibration and noise readings are taken, both
for immediate use as well as for future reference, it is necessary to make a
complete sketch of the machine. A block diagram such as that shown in 1ig. &5:9:&
is normally all that;s re0uired. Although such a sketch is not very elaborate or
artistic, it covers all the basic elements necessary.
The sketch must show all of the essential components of the machine including the
driver and driven units as well as ma<or accessories such as exciters or gear drives.
#t is important that the sketch incorporate a basic layout readily recogni%able by
others. When noise measurements are to be taken in addition to vibration readings,
a top view of the machine should be used to identify the four measurement
0uadrants around the machine. #f only vibration readings are to be taken, a side
view of the machine may be drawn.
The sketch should show the rotating speed =./3' of each component. 3achine
si%e is indicated by noting the horsepower of the driver or the output of the driven
unit.
"ince vibration readings must be taken at each bearing of the machine, the location
of each bearing point should be clearly identified.
Note the #n fig. &5:9:& that each bearing point is identified by a letter of the
alphabet. Note also that standard symbols are used to identify plain bearings,
antifriction =ball or roller' bearings and couplings.
When performing noise analysis, the location of the microphone in each 0uadrant
should be carefully dimensioned on the sketch once these positions have been
determined by experimentation ="ee )hapter ###; >/ositioning the 3icrophone?'.
#n addition to the information needed to clearly identify the machine and the pickup
and microphone locations, it is recommended that any additional information be
included which may be helpful in identifying the sources of noise and vibration. This
may include information such as gear meshing fre0uencies =number of gear teeth x
gear ./3', the number of blades on a fan, the number of vanes on a pump impeller
or the presence of large, nearby machines which may contribute background
vibration or noise.
"ometimes a more elaborate sketch is re0uired to show important details. /erhaps
the machine has a history of structural or piping problems. Thus, it may be
necessary to show the relationship of piping, pipe hangers, duct work or structural
details particularly if vibration readings will be taken at points other than the
bearings of the machine. When performing a noise analysis, it may be necessary to
sketch in nearby walls or other reflective surfaces which may have an influence on
your readings.
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SU//ORTIN0 IN1OR-ATION
!ou will note on the sample form 1ig. &5:9:&, that space is provided for entering
important supporting information. This information should be filled in completely,
particularly if the analysis data will be retained and filed for future reference.
The specific machine being analy%e should be clearly identified by noting the
manufacturer, machine type, serial number, location or other details which will
distinguish the machine from other, perhaps identical machines.
+nder T-"T )$N(#T#$N", enter information defining the operating conditions of
the machine at the time the analysis is taken. This may include conditions such as
speed, load, temperature, flow etc. Normally analysis data should be taken with the
machine operating as it normally does.
4owever, a change in operating condition may make a noticeable change in the
vibration or noise characteristics. #f the machine operates under variation
conditions, a few sample readings should be taken to detect any significant
variations in vibration or noise.
+nder (ATA, enter the day month and year the analysis is taken. #n some
instances, the time of day should be entree also because some machines will
change vibration and noise characteristics from one time of the day to the next.
This change may correspond with other plant operations, or it may correspond to a
temperature change from the warm of mid:day to the cool of the evening which
could affect piping strains or machine alignment.
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1i$& '2-4-'& This for" is idel% #sed for ta!#latin$ noise and 3i!ration data&
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1ILTER OUT READIN0S
The next step is to measure and record the overall or filter out amplitude and
predominate fre0uency readings at each measurement point.
1or vibration analysis, both displacement and velocity measurements are recorded
for the 4$.#@$NTA, 6-.T#)A AN( AA#A pickup direction at each bearing point
designated on the machine sketch. These readings, properly recorded, are shown
in fig. &5:9:,. =Where appropriate, filter out acceleration =g' readings may be taken
and recorded also. These could be entered and identified on the form in the column
normally used for recording noise measurements'.
When machinery noise is being analy%ed in addition to vibration, overall noise
amplitude and predominate fre0uency readings for each 0uadrant are taken and
entered on the form as illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:5. Noise readings taken for analysis
purposes should be taken using the >)? weighting network Bd7=)'C.
RECORDIN0 UNSTEADY READIN0S
"ometimes the filter out amplitude and fre0uency meter readings will be unsteady.
This is particularly true when the noise or vibration is complex. The meter needle
may <ump back and forth or it may swing steadily back and forth in a cyclic manner.
Whenever vibration or noise amplitude readings are unsteady, these should be
recorded by noting the maximum and minimum swing of the meter needle. 1or
example, if the amplitude meter pointer swings between, say, 5.D mils and D., mils;
this should be recorded as 5.DED.,. similarly, if the noise amplitude swings between
FD and GH d7, this should be recorded as FDEGH or FD:GH.
(o not attempt to average an unsteady amplitude reading. .ecording a single or
average reading for one which is truly unsteady may indicate to others who study
the readings that the amplitude was steady when, in fact, it was not. .ecord exactly
what you see.
When the fre0uency meter is unsteady, this simply means that there is no single
vibration, or noise fre0uency which is predominate overall the others. The usual
practice is to record unsteady fre0uency meter readings with a wavy line. "ee fig.
&5:9:, and &5:9:5. (o not record the maximum and minimum swing of the
fre0uency meter because this data may not correspond with the actual fre0uencies
causing the meter to respond. 1or example, vibration fre0uencies at &GHH and ,DHH
)/3 may cause the fre0uency meter pointer to swing from &DHH to 5HHH )/3 due
to inertia of the fre0uency meter movement. $N! "T-A(! 1.-*+-N)! 3-T-.
.-A(#N2" A.- T.+! 6A#(.
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1i$& '2-4-4& Re5ord the filter o#t dis6la5e"ent7 3elo5it% and 6redo"inate
fre8#en5ies at ea5h !earin$ in the hori9ontal7 3erti5al and a:ial dire5tions&
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1i$& '2-4-2& 1or noise anal%sis7 re5ord the filter o#t noise le3els and
6redo"inate fre8#en5ies #sin$ the ;C< ei$hted netor=&
1ILTER IN READIN0S
1ilter out amplitude and fre0uency readings are valuable for a number of readings.
1irst, the amplitude readings tell us the extent of the problem. "econdly, the
predominate fre0uency readings may direct our attention 0uickly to the problem
source, and will every often reveal vibration and noise fre0uencies we would not
ordinarily expect to find. 4owever, conclusions about the nature of a problem
should not be made, based on filter out readings alone; a thorough analysis of the
vibration or noise must be made with the tunable filter before any final decisions are
made.
To obtain the necessary filter in readings, the scanning procedure for tuning the filter
is recommended here. This procedure was discussed in detail in )hapter ### under
Tuning the 1ilter to 1ind unknown 1re0uencies. 7y scanning each fre0uency range
with the filter, all vibration or noise fre0uencies of significance will be found without
trying the anticipate which fre0uencies will be present.
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This means that even persons who are not totally familiar with a machine can still
obtain good, complete analysis data.
To begin the filter scanning procedure, first look over your filter out data, and note
the measurement point where the highest amplitude was recorded. This is a good
place to locate your pickup or microphone to begin scanning.
Next, prepare your analy%er as followsJ
&. 1#T-. "--)T$. T$ T4- 7.$A( position to permit rapid scanning.
,. 1.-*+-N)! .AN2- "--)T$. to the lowest fre0uency range
=.emember, for noise analysis, fre0uencies below IHH )/3 may be
ignored'.
5. 1#T-. (#A turned tot he beginning of the fre0uency range.
9. "elect (#"/A)-3-NT, 6-)$)#T! or N$#"- for measurement,
(isplacement is recommended for vibration fre0uencies below IHH )/3 and
velocity above IHH )/3. 1or noise analysis use d7=)'.
D. With the pickup or microphone mounted or hand:held in position, ad<ust the
A3/#T+(- .AN2- "--)T$. for an up:scale amplitude reading in the
upper two:thirds of the meter scale if possible.
With your instrument set up as outlined, begin turning the filter tuning dial slowly
through the fre0uency range while observing the fre0uency meter. $f course, make
sure that the amplitude meter is reading up:scale and one:scale at all times.
)ontinue to tune slowly until the fre0uency meter locks on, indicating that the filter is
approaching a particular fre0uency.
$nce the fre0uency meter has locked on, note the reading on the fre0uency meter
and slowly turn the filter tuning dial until the dial reading is approximately the same
as the reading on the fre0uency meter. Now, turn the filter selector to the "4A./
position and make fine ad<ustment to the turning dial to obtain the peak reading on
the amplitude meter. !$+. 1#T-. #" N$W T+N-( T$ T4- 1#."T "#2N#1#)ANT
1.-*+-N)!. Without making any further ad<ustments tot he filter, proceed to
measure and record the amplitude of vibration or noise for this fre0uency at each
measurement point designated on the machinery sketch. 6ibration readings must
be taken in the hori%ontal, vertical and axial directions at each bearing of the
machine. 1ig. &5:9:9 shows the first series of filter in readings properly recorded.
$bserving the rotating components with the strobe light will determine whether or
not the fre0uency discovered is related to the rotating speed of some part of the
machine.
After the amplitude readings have been taken and properly recorded for the first
vibration or noise fre0uency found, return the pickup or microphone to the original
measurement point. "witch the filter selector back to the 7.$A( position and
continue scanning until the next fre0uency is found. Again, fine:tune for the peak
amplitude with the "4A./ filter, and record the amplitude for this fre0uency at each
measurement point and pickup direction.
)ontinue the filter scanning procedure until all significant vibration or noise
fre0uencies have been discovered and their amplitudes properly recorded for each
measurement point designated on the machinery sketch. 1ig. &5:9:D shows the
complete analysis data obtained by this scanning techni0ue.
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#n most cases, the fre0uencies found by scanning with the pickup at the position of
the highest filter:out reading will usually provide the information needed to solve the
problem. 4owever, it is possible that other important fre0uencies might be present.
1or example, it is 0uite possible that vibration fre0uencies are present on the motor
in 1ig. &5:9:D which will not show up on the pump. Therefore, after the filter has
been scanned at the original measurement position, the filter scanning procedure
should be repeated on at least one pickup location for each ma<or component
=motor, gear box, hydraulic coupling, exciter, etc.' in the system, <ust to see if any
other significant fre0uencies are present. #n addition, for machines e0uipped with
anti:friction bearings, it is recommended that the higher fre0uencies =above ./3'
be scanned at each bearing point. This is suggested due to the fact that in many
cases, the vibration resulting from faulty anti:friction bearings is not readily
transmitted to other points on the machine.
1i$& '2-4-4& Re5ord the 3i!ration for the hori9ontal7 3erti5al and a:ial dire5tions
at ea5h !earin$&
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1i$& '2-4->& Co"6leted 3i!ration anal%sis data&
SCANNIN0 AT EAC* /IC.U/ /OSITION
The ob<ective of the scanning procedure outlined in the preceding paragraphs is to
obtain all pertinent data at each measurement point.
The procedure outlined is systematic, effective and re0uires a minimum of filter
tuning. 4owever, for those situations where a lot of time and effort is re0uired to
relocate the pickup, it may be advisable to scan the entire fre0uency range for a
pickup position and then move the pickup to another location and again scan the
fre0uency range.
This filter scanning procedure would then be repeated for each pickup location on
the machine.
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C*EC.IN0 YOUR DATA 1OR CO-/LETENESS
.egardless of the filter scanning procedure used, a 0uick check of your recorded
readings should be made to determine whether or not you have found all the
important data. After you have discovered all vibration and noise fre0uencies
through filter scanning and have recorded the amplitude and fre0uency data,
compare your filter:in amplitudes with the recorded filter out amplitudes. As a
general rule of thumb, the sum of the filter in vibration amplitudes =displacement,
velocity or acceleration' should e0ual or exceed your filter out reading. 1or example
in 1ig. &5:9:D, you will note that the filter out amplitude in the hori%ontal direction at
bearing point >A? is H.D9 inEsec. Adding the filter in amplitudes =.9 L &GHH M .&L
&H,GHH' we obtain H.DI inEsec., which does slightly exceed our filter out amplitude.
This simply tells us that we have most likely found all the important vibration data at
that particular point. $n the other hand, looking at the data recorded for the
hori%ontal direction at point >)?, you will note that the filter out reading is H.9G inEsec
and the sum of our filter in readings is only H.,G inEsec. This means that there is
probably some additional vibration information to be found, and we should scan
through the fre0uency range with the pickup at that position.
1or noise analysis, a similar checking procedure can be followed. 4owever, as you
can see from the data in 1ig. &5:9:I, noise amplitudes in decibels =d7' do not add
the same way vibration amplitudes do.
The (ecibel addition chart, 1ig. &5:9:F, must be used to add your filter:in noise
levels to compare with your filter:out reading. 1or example, in 1ig. &5:9:I at
microphone position N &, the filter out noise level is GK d7=)' ; and the filter:in noise
levels are GI, G9, GH and FK d7=)' at fre0uencies of &GHH, 5IHH, F,HH and &H,GHH
)/3 respectively. +sing the Addition )hart the noise levels are added one at a
time, starting with the smallest two and adding the sum to the next largest value
until all are combined.
1or our example, we being by first adding FK d7=)' and GH d7=)'. This is done by
subtracting the two levels =GH O FK P &' and locating this difference =&' on the
hori%ontal axis of the chart. 1rom this point on the hori%ontal scale, move upward to
intersect the curve and from this point of intersection, cross over to the left to find
the value indicated on the vertical scale. 1or our example, this value is
approximately ,.D. Add this value =,,D' to the larger of the two noise levels being
added to find the result, =GH M ,.D P G,.D'. Thus, the result of FK d7=)' and GH
d7=)' is G,.D d7=)'.
Next, add the resultant G,.D d7 to the next noise level of G9 d7. 4ere the difference
is &.D d7 and the added value from the vertical scale of the chart is approximately
,.5. Adding this value to the higher of the two =G9 M ,.5' we obtain GI.5 d7.
1inally, we add GI.5 d7=)' to the last noise level measured, GI d7=)'. 4ere the
difference is only .5 and the value added from the chart is approximately ,.G. Thus,
GI.5 M ,.G is GK.& d7=)'.
As you can see from the above example, the combined effect of the four individual
filter:in noise levels of FK,GH, G9 and GI d7=)' is approximately GK d7=)'. +sing the
(ecibel Addition )hart any number of noise levees can be combined by simply
starting with the smallest two and adding each sum to the next larger value until all
are combined. 1or all practical purposes, when combining noise levels in this
manner those noise amplitudes which are more than &H d7 below the filter:out
amplitude can be ignored as their contribution to the overall noise level is generally
less than one half d7.
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1i$& '2-4-?& Co"6leted noise anal%sis data&
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1i$& '2-4-@& DB Addition Chart for 5o"!in$ noise le3els&
ADDITIONAL DATA AC,UISITION /ROCEDURES
The procedures outlined thus far for obtaining your analysis data are essentially
manual analysis techni0ues. !ou had to manually tune the filter through the
fre0uency ranges; manually ad<ust for peak amplitudes at each fre0uency found;
and manually record your data on the data sheet.
There are other methods to do this <ob which are, perhaps, somewhat 0uicker and
easier. These additional methods may be classified as &' semi:automatic, ,'
automatic, and 5' .eal Time analysis.
SE-I-AUTO-ATIC ANALYSIS
"ome #.( Analy%ers, such as the 3odel 5DH, 1ig. &5:9:G, are available with
provisions for connecting a standard A:! recorder. $ne output receptacle on the
analy%er provides a (.). voltage proportional to the vibration or noise A3/#T+(-
to drive the vertical or >!? axis of the recorder, and another receptacle provides a
(.). voltage proportional to the filtered 1.-*+-N)! to drive the hori%ontal >A? axis
of the recorder. Thus, as the operator manually ad<usts the filter over the fre0uency
range, the recorder will automatically plot the amplitude versus fre0uency data.
The plot in 1ig. &5:9:K is a typical example of analysis data obtained in this way.
This techni0ue is termed semi:automatic from the standpoint that the data is
automatically recorded on the A:! recorder while the operator manually ad<usts the
filter through the fre0uency ranges. $f course, for a complete analysis of the
vibration, plots should be made in the hori%ontal, vertical and axial directions at
each bearing point of the machine.
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The data form in 1ig. &5:9:K is arranged so that these three sets of readings for a
single bearing point can be included on the same form. !ou will note that space is
provided for entering a sketch of the machine along with other important data such
as amplitude parameter, amplitude range, pickup location, machine identification,
operating conditions, etc.
"emi:automatic analysis has many advantages over manual analysis. 1irst, many
sources of human error in observing and recording the data are eliminated. There is
less chance of missing significant noise or vibration fre0uencies, and analysis time
is greatly reduced by eliminating the need to fine tune at each fre0uency found.
1i$& '2-2-A& An-B-Y re5order is #sed ith the IRD -e5hanal%sis -odel 2>( for
a#to"ati5all% re5ordin$ a"6lit#de 3ers#s fre8#en5% data&
AUTO-ATIC ANALYSIS
Automatic analysis is the term used to describe the procedure of obtaining vibration
or noise data where the instrument both automatically tunes the filter and records
the data. The #.( 3odel 5IH Automatic "pectrum Analy%erE7alancer, 1ig. &5:9:&H,
has this automatic analysis capability. This instrument incorporates an electronically
swept filter along with provisions for simultaneously plotting the amplitude versus
fre0uency data with a standard A:! recorder.
The data obtained by automatic analysis is the same type of graphical amplitude
versus fre0uency display obtained by semi:automatic analysis, 1ig. &5:9:K.
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-""$N 9 /A2- &9 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
#N addition to automatic analysis, the analy%er pictured in 1ig. &5:9:&H performs
several other important operations for solving difficult analysis and balancing
problems. 1or example, this instrument also functions as a synchronous or tracking
filter and has a phase meter for measuring phase very accurately. To utili%e the
synchronous filter and remote phase readout, a reference pickup is needed at the
shaft of the machine as illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:&&.
.eference pickups commonly used are the electromagnetic and photocell type,
however other reference inputs may be used which will provide a pulse a & x ./3
of the shaft. The reference pickup signal applied to the instrument actually serves
two purposesJ
&. 1irst, the reference signal >locks? the instruments filter to shaft rotating speed
automatically. Thus, changes in shaft speed have no effect on the accuracy
of your amplitude and phase measurements. The filter is always tuned to
rotating speed.
,. "econdly, the reference pickup serves as a fixed reference for phase
measurements. #n simplified terms, the instrument compares the phase of
the vibration signal to the phase of the reference signal to provide an
indication of the phase of the vibration on the instrument;s phase meter.
+tili%ing the synchronous filter and remote phase readout provides the ultimate in
accuracy for precision in place dynamic balancing.
Another important function of the tDracking filter is the ability to actually plot
vibration amplitude and phase readings versus rotating speed. .ecordings of
amplitude and phase made during machine startup or coastdown reveal those
operating speeds where vibration is highest positively identify critical speeds and
other resonant conditions. Amplitude and phase may be recorded at the same time
using a two:pin =A:!&!,' recorder. 1ig. &5:9:&, shows typical amplitude and phase
recording taken on a matching during startup. Note the points of high amplitude
and the corresponding abrupt phase changes which occur when passing through
the critical speeds.
REAL-TI-E ANALYSIS
Another method of obtaining accurate amplitude and fre0uency data for noise and
vibration analysis is through .eal:Time "pectrum Analysis. With .eal Time
Analysis, the total amplitude versus fre0uency analysis is displayed almost
instantaneously as it occur on an oscilloscope. A .eal:Time Analy%er designed for
field analysis work is the #.( 3odel GDHEGIH $n ine .eal Time analy%er illustrated
in 1ig. &5:5:&5. !ou will note that an oscilloscope is built into the front panel of the
Analy%er for instant display of the amplitude versus fre0uency analysis data.
/ermanent records may be made by simply recording the display with the chart
recorder which is also built into the front panel.
The $n:ine .eal Time analy%er is well suited for studying changes in machinery
vibration or noise O perhaps caused by changes in operating condition. .eal Time
analysis is also useful for evaluating transient noise and vibration. Transient noise
and vibration is of an intermittent nature, often containing what appears to be
periodic motions which increase or decrease with time, as well as random
vibrations. 1or example, a single blow of a forging hammer or punch press will
cause transient vibration and noise.
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$f course, manual, semi:automatic and automatic analysis techni0ues rely on the
vibration or noise being steady state. "ince these analysis techni0ues see and
record only the instantaneous amplitude of noise or vibration at the immediate
fre0uency to which the filter is tuned, any fluctuations or changes in vibration or
noise will not be indicated by the recorded data. Where the data changes with
changes in machinery operation or where it is desired to study short:lived transient
vibration and noise, the .eal:Time analy%er should be used.
The .eal:Time Analy%er produces the same amplitude versus fre0uency information
as the semi:automatic and automatic analy%er but in a much shorter time. The total
noise or vibration spectrum is displayed immediately, without delay. The analysis is
automatically and continuously up:dated to show what is happening.
As you can see, .eal:Time Analysis has many advantages. The ability to observe
the actual vibration or noise spectra while a machine undergoes changes in various
operating parameters provides information that would be difficult to obtain in any
other way.
DATA INTER/RETATION
Thus far, we have outlined various procedures to follow to obtain accurate, reliable
analysis data. (uring these measurements, the machine should have been
operating as it normally does. A check for any vibration or noise should also be
made after the machine has stopped to be sure that the measured noise and
vibration is not coming from another machine. #f significant background noise and
vibration is present, then it is likely that the original readings will be misleading.
$nce the necessary amplitude and fre0uency information has been obtained, either
by manual, semi:automatic, automatic or .eal:Time analysis; the next step is to
review the recorded data and note the readings of significance for each noise or
vibration fre0uency found. A recommended way to simplify your evaluation of the
data is to simply glance down each fre0uency column and check or circle the one,
two or three most significant amplitude readings. "ee 1ig. &5:9:&9. This is helpful
for reducing large amounts of data down to the truly essential elements.
-A.IN0 T*E CO-/ARISON
After the essential data has been determined, the next step is to compare the
readings with the characteristics of vibration and noise typical of various types of
trouble. The key to this comparison is 1.-*+-N)!. A comparison by fre0uency is
made on the basis of the rotating speed =s' of the parts in the machine. $f course,
if there is doubt as to whether or not a noise or vibration fre0uency is directly related
to some ./3 of the machine, the strobe light should be used.
When analy%ing machinery noise in addition to vibration, the ob<ective is normally to
determine what can be done to reduce existing noise levels. Where analysis
reveals that both the noise and vibration fre0uencies are the same, identifying and
correcting the source or sources of vibration will generally result in a substantial
reduction in noise also.
The table in 1ig. &5:9:&D lists the fre0uencies of vibration normally encountered, in
terms of ./3 of a part and the possible cause of the vibration. The trouble referred
to will be associated with the part whose ./3 is some multiple of the vibration
fre0uency. The comparison made should indicate without any doubt the part
causing the trouble.
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- &I 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-C& Vi!ration a"6lit#de 3ers#s fre8#en5% data re5orded ith an B-Y
re5order&
1i$& '2-4-'(& IRD -e5hanal%sis -odel 2?( A#to"ati5 S6e5tr#" Anal%9er
Balan5er&
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- &F
1i$& '2-4-''& The tra5=in$ filter of the -odel 2?( re8#ires a referen5e 6i5=#6
s#5h as a 6hoto5ell or ele5tro"a$neti5 6i5=#6 to 6ro3ide a 6#lse at ' : R/-&
1i$& '2-4-'4& /lots of a"6lit#de and 6hase 3ers#s "a5hine R/- 5learl%
identif% 5riti5al s6eeds and resonate 5onditions&
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- &G 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-'2& IRD -e5hanal%sis On-Line Real Ti"e S6e5tr#" Anal%9er&
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- &K
1i$& '2-4-'4& E:a"ine %o#r data and sele5t the "ost si$nifi5ant readin$s at
ea5h fre8#en5% for e3al#ation&
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- ,H 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-'>& This 5hart lists the 3i!ration fre8#en5ies nor"all% en5o#ntered
and the "ost li=el% 5a#ses for ea5h fre8#en5%&
DETER-ININ0 )*AT IS )RON0 )IT* T*E /ART
1inding the part of the machine causing the vibration or noise is easy. The
fre0uency of noise and vibration is normally some multiple of the ./3 of the part in
trouble, and the part responsible will appear to stand still under the strobe light.
(eciding what is wrong with the part is the next step. To do this we need to know
the characteristics of vibration for each type of trouble.
The chart in 1ig. &5:9:&I lists the most common causes of vibration you will likely
encounter, together with the amplitude, fre0uency and strobe picture characteristics
for each cause. The .-3A.Q" column provides helpful information about any
peculiar characteristics you should know to help you pinpoint the trouble. The
following paragraphs discuss each of the common machinery troubles in greater
detail.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- ,&
VIBRATION DUE TO UNBALANCE
+nbalance is perhaps the most common cause of vibration. The vibration caused
by unbalance occurs at a fre0uency e0ual to & x ./3 of the unbalanced part, and
the amplitude of vibration is proportional to the amount of unbalance present.
Normally, the largest amplitudes will be measured in the radial =hori%ontal or vertical'
direction; however, unbalance of an overhung rotor like that shown in 1ig. &5:9:&F
will often result in a high amplitude in the axial direction as well, perhaps as high as
the radial amplitudes.
The analysis data in 1ig. &5:9:&G is typical of vibration due to unbalance. The
causes and corrections of unbalance are discussed in detail in )hapter 6.
1i$& '2-4-'?& Vi!ration Identifi5ation Chart&
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- ,, 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-'@& O3erh#n$ Do#t!oardE rotors ill often re3eal hi$h a"6lit#des of
a:ial 3i!ration ith #n!alan5e&
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- ,5
1i$& '2-4-'A& Vi!ration anal%sis data t%6i5al of #n!alan5e&
VIBRATION DUE TO -ISALI0N-ENT
3isalignment is almost as common a problem as unbalance, and the reason is 0uite
simple. #n spite of self aligning bearings and flexible couplings, it is difficult to align
two shafts and their bearings so that no forces exist which will cause vibration. 1ig.
&5:9:&K illustrates the three possible types of coupling misalignmentJ
&. AN2+A. O where the center line of the two shafts meet at an angle.
,. $11"-T O where the shaft center lines are parallel but displaced from one
another.
5. A )$37#NAT#$N of angular and offset misalignment.
A bent shaft acts very much like angular misalignment, so its vibration
characteristics are included with misalignment.
3isalignment, even with flexible couplings, results in two forces, axial and radial,
which result in axial and radial vibration. This is true even when the misalignment is
within the limits of >flexibility? of the coupling.
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-""$N 9 /A2- ,9 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
The si%e of the forces and therefore the amount of vibration generated will in crease
with increased misalignment. The significant characteristics of vibration due to
misalignment and bent shafts is that it will be in both the radial and axial directions.
This is the reason that axial vibration readings are taken.
Normally, the vibration fre0uency is & x ./3; however, when the misalignment is
severe, second order =, x ./3' vibration fre0uencies may appear.
)onditions of misalignment can exist which do not involve a coupling. The
misalignment of a bearing with its shaft is one example. #n the case of a mis:
aligned sleeve type bearing, 1ig. &5:9:,H, no vibration will result unless there is also
unbalance. A radial vibration will be present as well as an axial vibration which
results from the reaction of the mis:aligned bearing to the force due to unbalance.
The real cause of this vibration is unbalance, and both the axial and radial readings
will be reduced when the part is balanced.
When an antifriction bearing is mis:aligned with a shaft, 1ig. &5:9:,&, then axial
vibration will exist even when the part is balanced /roper installation of the bearing
is necessary to eliminate the vibration.
Another condition of misalignment which results in high axial vibration is the
misalignment of sheaves and sprockets used in >6? belt drives and chain derives.
The angular and offset misalignment conditions illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:,, not only
result in destructive vibration but will also result in accelerated wear of sheaves,
sprockets, chains and drive belts.
Axial vibration is the best indicator of misalignment or a bent shaft. #n general,
whenever the amplitude of axial vibration is greater than one:half of the highest
radial =hori%ontal or vertical', then misalignment or a bent shaft should be
suspected. 1ig. &5:9:,5 is an example of the vibration readings typical of a
misalignment or bent shaft condition. 1urther on in this )hapter under the heading
/hase Analysis a procedure is outlined for utili%ing phase measurements to further
distinguish between misalignment, a bent shaft or other mechanical problems which
may produce high axial vibration.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- ,D
1i$& '2-4-'C& T%6es of "isali$n"ent&
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- ,I 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-4(& )hen an anti-fri5tion !earin$ is "is-ali$ned ith its shaft7 a:ial
3i!ration ill o55#r hether #n!alan5e is 6resent or not&
1i$& '2-4-4'& -isali$n"ent of a slee3e-t%6e !earin$ ith its shaft ill onl%
5a#se a:ial 3i!ration if a55o"6anied !% #n!alan5e&
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- ,F
1i$& '2-4-44& An$#lar andFor offset "isali$n"ent of ;V< !elt 6#lle%s 5a#ses
hi$h a:ial 3i!ration and a55elerates !elt ear&
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- ,G 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-42& This 3i!ration anal%sis data is t%6i5al of "isali$n"ent or a !ent
shaft&
VIBRATION DUE TO ECCENTRICITY
-ccentricity is another common source of machinery vibration. -ccentricity in this
case does not mean out of round, but means that the shaft =rotating' center line is
not the same as the rotor =geometric' centerline. -xamples of eccentricity are
illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:,9.
Actually, eccentricity is a common source of unbalance, resulting in more weight on
one side of the rotating centerline than on the other side. 1or example, with the
antifriction bearing illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:,9, the bore of the inner race is not
concentric with the inner race geometric centerline. The result will be to introduce
an apparent unbalance in the part mounted on the bearing. 4owever, by balancing
the rotor, the forces causing the vibration will be compensated and the vibration will
disappear. #t is for this reason that balancing a rotor in its own bearings is
recommended. #n addition, care must be taken to assure that the position of the
bearing inner race on the shaft does not change, because the eccentricity of the
bearing race is compensated for by balance correction weights on the rotor. #f the
relationship changes, then the condition may be worse than if no balance correction
had been made.
Although eccentricity is a source of unbalance which can be corrected by routine
balancing techni0ues eccentricity can also result in reaction forces in some case
which cannot be corrected by simple balancing.
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- ,K
1or example, the eccentric gear illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:,9 produces reaction forces
because of the cam:like action against the mating gear. The largest vibration will
occur in the direction on a line through the centers of the two gears, at a fre0uency
e0ual to & x ./3 of the eccentric gear. #t will look like unbalance but is not.
-ccentricity of the >6? belt sheave, 1ig. &5:9:,9, will result in reaction forces in a
manner similar to the eccentric gear. #n this case, the largest vibration will occur in
the direction of belt tension at a fre0uency e0ual to & x ./3 of the eccentric
sheave. Again, the vibration looks like unbalance, but cannot be corrected by
applying a balance correction.
#n the case of the eccentric motor armature, although the armature itself may be
balanced in terms of rotor weight distribution, a & x ./3 force is generated between
the armature and stator because of varying magnetic attraction between the
eccentric armature and motor poles. #ncreasing magnetic field strength by
increasing motor load may result in increased vibration. $ne way to check for this
condition is to measure the vibration, filter:out, with the motor operating under
power. Then, turn the power off and observe what happens to the amplitude of
vibration. #f the amplitude decreases gradually as the motor coasts down, the
problem is likely unbalance. $n the other hand, if the vibration amplitude
disappears the instant power is turned off, the problem is electrical and possibly due
to armature eccentricity. There are other electrical problems in motors and
generators which cause vibration. 1or example, shorted windings, broken rotor
bars, or a rotor which is not properly centered in the stator will cause vibration also.
A visual inspection using standard motor testing procedures will reveal the nature of
the electrical problem.
-ccentric fan, blower, pump and compressor rotors may also create forces which
result in vibration. #n these cases, the forces are une0ual aerodynamic and
hydraulic forces against the rotor. These forces will be greatest on the high side of
the rotor and thus the resulting vibration will be similar to unbalance. $n fans,
blowers, pumps and compressors there is no positive test for eccentricity except to
try to balance. #f you are unsuccessful, then inspect to see if the impeller is
concentric with the shaft <ournals.
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-""$N 9 /A2- 5H 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-44& E:a"6les of E55entri5it%&
VIBRATION DUE TO 1AULTY ANTI1RICTION BEARIN0S
Antifriction bearings which have flaws on the raceways, balls or rolls will usually
cause a high fre0uency vibration. This fre0uency is normally several times the
rotating speed of the part but probably not an even multiple of shaft ./3. Thus,
observation of the rotating shaft with the strobe light will probably not show a
stationary image as it would for vibration caused by unbalance, misalignment or
gears which occur at even multiples of shaft ./3. #n many cases, the bearing
vibration is not steady O fre0uency meter may be observed to twitch slight.
The reason for the high fre0uency and occasional unsteady or twitching fre0uency
normally encountered with faulty antifriction bearings can be explained by
examining the nature of the exciting forces generated by a faulty bearing. 1or
example, consider the vibration generated by a bearing having a flat spot on only
one ball. As the ball rolls, the flaw will intermittently come into contact with the
bearing inner and outer races, resulting in vibration at & and possibly , times ball
rolling fre0uency. 7ecause the rolling fre0uency of the ball will be several times the
./3 of the shaft, the resulting vibration will be high compared to rotating speed
fre0uency. The amplitude of the vibration will depend on the extent of the bearing
fault.
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 5&
#n addition to the vibration occurring at or multiples of ball rolling fre0uency, these
momentary impacts may excite vibration very much like the vibration created when
we ring a bell. 7y striking the bell the bell is forced to vibrate at its natural fre0uency
O the fre0uency at which it likes to vibrate.
Actually, every ob<ect including the inner and outer races of a bearing, the rotor
shaft and bearing housing has its own uni0ue natural fre0uency; and a flaw on a
rotating element of a bearing can produce the intermittent, impactive type of force
which will cause these various parts to vibrate at their respective natural
fre0uencies. Normally, the natural fre0uencies of these parts will be 0uite high
compared to the ./3 of the machine. Thus, these vibration fre0uencies measured
from a faulty bearing will also be high. #n addition, it is unlikely that the natural
fre0uencies of the various parts will be exact multiples of shaft ./3. Thus, the
fre0uency of bearing vibration will probably not be a direct multiple of shaft ./3.
1inally since there are many parts, including the inner race, outer bearing race,
bearing cage, bearing housing and rotor shaft which may be excited to vibrate by
the impact of a bearing fault, it is probable that several vibration fre0uencies will be
excited simultaneously and to varying degrees. Thus, the fre0uency of bearing
vibration may be somewhat unsteady, causing the fre0uency meter to twitch.
The analysis in 1ig. &5:9:,D was taken on a machine with faulty antifriction
bearings. Note from the A:! plot that there are actually several high fre0uencies
generated by the faulty bearing. These are likely the various natural fre0uencies of
the bearing and other related parts which are being excited. When a bad bearing is
present there will be little doubt for this is usually the only explanation for such a
high fre0uency of vibration. #n addition, the vibration generated by the bearing is
not normally readily transmitted to other points on the machine. Therefore, the bad
bearing is usually the one nearest the point where the greatest vibration of this type
occurs. .eferring to the analysis data in 1ig. &5:9:,I, you will note that the
amplitude of the high fre0uency vibration is rather high at the one point on the
machine but barely measurable at other points. This clearly points to the bearing as
being the source of this vibration.
"evere misalignment in machines e0uipped with antifriction bearings will sometimes
result in a high fre0uency bearing vibration which is not the fault of the bearing. 1or
example, in one instance, a high fre0uency vibration was detected on the bottom
bearing of a KHH ./3 motor driving a vertical pump. #N this instance, it was noted
that the vibration fre0uency was steady at &,,IHH )/3 or &9 times motor ./3 and
high in the axial direction. 7ecause of the high amplitude of vibration, the motor
was removed and the bearing replaced 4owever, after the motor was reinstalled, a
vibration check revealed that the high axial amplitude at &,,IHH )/3 was still
present O <ust as before. 1urther investigation disclosed that the motor mounting
flange was being distorted when the mounting bolts securing the motor to the pump
were tightened. The vibration fre0uency generated was e0ual to the number of
balls in the bearing =&9' times the motor ./3 =KHH'. /roper shimming to avoid
distorting the motor flange corrected the misalignment and eliminated the high
fre0uency bearing vibration.
#t should be remembered that bearings are one of the most precisely made devices
available. They do not fail prematurely unless some force or forces are responsible.
"uch forces are often the same as those which cause vibration. A careful check for
other difficulties such as unbalance and misalignment should be made after the
bearing has been replaced, particularly where premature bearing failures have been
fre0uency. This will help to insure longer, trouble:free service.
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- 5, 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-4>& Vi!ration anal%sis of a defe5ti3e !all !earin$&
VIBRATION DUE TO SLEEVE BEARIN0S
/roblems with sleeve bearings which result in high levels of vibration or noise are
generally the result of excessive bearing clearance =caused by wiping or chemical
erosion', looseness =babbet loose in the housing', or lubrication problems.
A sleeve bearing with excessive clearance may allow a relatively minor unbalance,
misalignment or some other vibratory force to result in mechanical looseness or
pounding. #n this case, the bearing is not the actual cause; it simply allows more
vibration to occur than there would if bearing clearances were correct. A bearing
which has been wiped can often be detected by comparing the hori%ontal and
vertical amplitudes of vibration and vertical amplitudes of vibration. 3achines which
are securely mounted to a rigid foundation or structure will normally reveal a slightly
higher amplitude of vibration in the hori%ontal direction. #n several instances where
the amplitude of vibration in the vertical direction appeared unusually high
compared to the hori%ontal, a wiped bearing was found to be the cause. When it is
suspected that a sleeve bearing is bad, conventional methods of inspection should
be used.
>$il whirl? is another problem associated with sleeve:type bearings. This vibration
occurs only on machines e0uipped with pressure lubricated sleeve bearings and
operating at relatively high speed O normally above the second critical speed of the
rotor. $il whirl vibration is often 0uite severe, but is easily recogni%ed because the
fre0uency is slightly less =DR to GR' than one:half the ./3 of the shaft.
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 55
1or example, a machine which rotates at GIHH ./3 may have an oil whirl fre0uency
of approximately 9HHH )/3. "ince the fre0uency is slightly less than S ./3, the
shaft will not appear to stand still under the strobe light, but will rotate.
The mechanism of oil whirl can be explained by referring to the diagram in 1ig. &5:
9:,F. +nder normal operation, the shaft of the machine will rise up the side of the
bearing slightly as shown. 4ow far the shaft will rise depends on shaft ./3, rotor
weight and oil pressure. The shaft, operating at an eccentric position from the
bearing center, draws oil into a >wedge? to produce a pressuri%ed load:carrying film.
#f the eccentricity of the shaft within the bearing is momentarily increased from its
e0uilibrium position, perhaps due to a sudden surge, an external shock load or
other transient condition, additional oil will immediately be pumped in to fill the
space vacated by the shaft, thus increasing the oil film supporting pressure. This
additional force developed by the oil film may drive the shaft into a shrilling path
around the bearing. #f the damping within the system is sufficient, the shaft will
return to its normal position in the bearing; otherwise, the shaft will continue in a
whirling path.
The problem of oil whirl is normally attributed to improper bearing design; however,
other problems such as excessive bearing wear, an increase in lube oil pressure or
a change in oil viscosity are other possible causes. Whenever oil whirl is
encountered, a temporary correction can sometimes be made by changing the
temperature =viscosity' of the lubricant. #ncreasing the loading on the bearing by
introducing a slight unbalance or misalignment is sometimes effective also.
"crapping the sides of the bearing or grooving the bearing surface to disrupt the
lubricant wedge are also successful in some cases.
"everal special sleeve bearing configurations are available to reduce the possibility
of oil whirl. "ome of these designs are illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:,G. The axial groove
bearing is normally limited to smaller bearing applications such as those used in
light gas turbines and turbines and turbo chargers. The three:lobed bearing
provides improved bearing stability against oil whirl. The three individual bearing
surfaces generate pressuri%ed oil films that act to center the shaft. Axial grooves
are sometimes included at the intersection of the lobe segments to increase whirl
resistance.
The tilting pad bearing is a common choice on larger high speed industrial
machinery. #n a manner similar to the lobed:bearing, each segment or pad develops
a pressuri%ed oil wedge which tends to center the shaft in the bearing. The tilting
feature allows each pad to follow the shaft, improving system damping and overall
stability.
$n occasion, a machine which would normally be completely stable will exhibit oil
whirl vibration. This may occur when an external source transmits vibration to the
machine through the foundation or piping. #f this background vibration occurs at <ust
the right fre0uency =i.e., the probable oil whirl fre0uency of the machine' oil whirl will
likely occur. This condition is referred to as externally excited whirl.
#n a similar manner, a normally stable machine may be excited into oil whirl by a
foundation or piping which is vibrating in resonance at a fre0uency e0ual to the
probable oil whirl fre0uency. The resonant vibration of the piping or foundation may
be the result of pulsations or flow turbulence. $il whirl resulting from this condition
is termed resonant whirl.
3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5 "/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--."
-""$N 9 /A2- 59 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
Whenever the vibration characteristic of oil whirl is found, a complete vibration
survey of the installation including background sources, foundation and related
piping should be made to determine the true cause.
Another problem encountered on machines e0uipped with sleeve bearings is called
friction whirl or hysteresis whirl. This vibration is similar in many ways to oil whirl
except that the vibration will occur on rotors operating above their first critical speed,
and the fre0uency of the vibration will always be the critical speed fre0uency of the
rotor. 1or example, if a rotor operates at 5IHH ./3 and the first rotor critical speed
is ,,HH )/3, hysteresis whirl will occur at a fre0uency of ,,HH )/3. As you can
see, this vibration may not have the characteristic fre0uency of slightly less than S
./3 associated with oil whirl. 4owever, for machines operating above or near their
second critical speed, the fre0uency of hysteresis whirl may coincide with that of oil
whirl resulting in an extremely severe vibration problem.
#n the case of hysteresis or friction whirl, a rotor which operates above critical speed
will tend to deflect or blow in a direction opposite the unbalance heavy spot. As a
result, the internal friction damping =hysteresis damping' of the rotor, which normally
works to restrict deflection, will be out of phase and this damping force will act to
further deflect the rotor. This condition is normally kept in check by the damping
provided by the bearings.
When hysteresis whirl is encountered, the usual solution is to increase stationary
damping of the bearings and structure. This can be done by changing to a tilting
pad bearing or other special bearing design. #n some cases, the problem can be
solved by reducing rotor damping. This may be a simple matter of replacing a gear:
type coupling with a frictionless coupling such as a flexible disk coupling.
#mproper lubrication can also cause vibration in a sleeve bearing. #f the bearing
lacks lubrication or if the wrong lubricant is used, the result may be excessive
friction between the rotating shaft and stationary bearing. This friction serves to
excite vibration of the bearing and other related parts of the machine in a manner
very similar to the vibration you can generate by simply moistening your finger and
rubbing it over a pane of glass. This vibration is called dry whip.
The vibration resulting from dry whip is generally high fre0uency and, thus will often
produce the associate with a dry bearing. The vibration fre0uencies generate are
not likely to occur at direct multiples of shaft ./3. Therefore they will give no
definite image under the strobe light. #n this respect, the vibration from dry whip is
similar to the vibration caused by a faulty anti:friction bearing. An inspection of the
lubricant, lubrication system and bearing clearances is in order. This condition has
been found on bearings with excessive and insufficient clearance.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 5D
1i$& '2-4-4?& The hi$h fre8#en5% 3i!ration $enerated !% the defe5ti3e !earin$
is not readil% trans"itted to other !earin$ 6oints&
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-""$N 9 /A2- 5I 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-4@& Oil hirl&
1i$& '2-4-4A& S6e5ial !earin$ 5onfi$#rations are desi$ned to red#5e the
6ossi!ilit% of oil hirl&
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 5F
VIBRATION DUE TO -EC*ANICAL LOOSENESS
3echanical looseness and the resultant pounding action causes a vibration at a
fre0uency of twice the rotating speed =, x ./3' and higher orders of the loose part.
The analysis data, 1ig. &5:9:,K, is typical of the vibration characteristics associated
with mechanical looseness. Note that the highest amplitude of vibration occurs at ,
x ./3 of the compressor. This vibration might be the result of loose mounting bolts,
excessive bearing clearance or perhaps a crack in the structure or bearing pedestal.
The vibration characteristic of mechanical looseness will not occur unless there is
some other exciting force such as unbalance or misalignment to cause it. 4owever,
when there is excessive looseness, even relatively small amounts of unbalance or
misalignment will result in large vibrations. Thus, looseness simply allows more
vibration to occur than would otherwise appear. Although these vibrations could be
eliminated by eliminated the unbalance or misalignment forces, needed to excite the
loose ness condition, this solution may re0uire an extremely fine level of balance or
alignment which may not be possible or practical.
The nature of mechanical looseness and the reason for the characteristic vibration
at , x ./3 can be explained by referring to the se0uence in 1ig. &5:9:5H:A, the
heavy spot of unbalance has rotated to the IJHH o;clock position where the
unbalance force is directed downward. This tends to force the bearing down
against the pedestal. #n fig. &5:9:5H:7, the heavy spot has rotated to a position at
&,JHH o;clock , and the resultant unbalance force is not in the upward direction. This
upward force tends to lift the bearing off the pedestal as shown in 1ig. &5:9:5H:),
the heavy spot has rotated around to a position of 5JHH o;clock, and in this position
the upward lifting force of unbalance is %ero. Therefore, the bearing will simply drop
against the pedestal. As you can see, this action produces two applied forces for
each revolution of the shaft O one force is applied by the rotating unbalance and a
second force is applied when the bearing drops against the pedestal. Therefore,
the vibration fre0uency is , x ./3. This can be viewed 0uite graphically with an
oscilloscope attached to your vibration analy%erJ The waveform which appears in
1ig. &5:9:5& is typical of mechanical looseness.
$f course, there will usually be some clearances inherent in every machine, and it is
normal that some vibration will occur at a fre0uency of , x ./3 whenever some
unbalance or misalignment is present. #n general, mechanical looseness should be
suspected as being the problem whenever the severity of vibration at , x ./3 is
more than one half the severity of vibration at rotating speed =& x ./3'. #n addition,
where extreme difficulty is encountered when attempting to eliminate the vibration
by balancing or realignment, a visual inspection should be made to detect possible
looseness conditions.
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-""$N 9 /A2- 5G 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-4C& Vi!ration d#e to "e5hani5al looseness&
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 5K
1i$& '2-4-2(& -e5hanis" of "e5hani5al looseness&
1i$& '2-4-2'& The irre$#larit% on this a3efor" is 5o""on ith "e5hani5al
looseness&
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-""$N 9 /A2- 9H 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
VIBRATION DUE TO DRIVE BELTS
6:type drive belts are popular for power transmission because they have good
capacity to absorb shock and vibration. #n addition, for many applications, 6:belts
offer relatively 0uiet operation compared to chain or gear drives. 4owever, 6:belts
can be the source of ob<ectionable vibration, especially on machine tools where very
low levels of vibration must be maintained.
6ibration problems associated with 6:belts are generally of two types; &' belt
reaction to other disturbing forces in the e0uipment and, ,' vibration due to actual
belt problems.
6:belts are often blamed as the source of vibration because the flexible strands
between the pulleys can often be readily seen to whip and flutter. "ince belt
vibration is more visible than the vibration of other parts of the machine, and
because the belts are usually the easiest part of the machine to change, belt
replacement is often one of the first attempts to correct the vibration problem.
4owever, it may be that the belt is reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine.
1or example, excessive unbalance, eccentric pulleys, misalignment or mechanical
looseness may result in belt vibration which is readily visible. Thus, the belt may
simply be an indicator of other disturbances in the e0uipment. Therefore, before
replacing drive belts, an analysis should be made to determine the true nature of
the problem.
The fre0uency of the vibration # the Q-! factor in determining the nature of belt
vibration. #f the belt is simply reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine,
such as unbalance or eccentricity of pulleys, the fre0uency of belt vibration will likely
be the same as the disturbing fre0uency. The belt is simply amplifying or
exaggerating these other disturbing forces. #f this is the case, that part of the
machine which is actually generating the disturbing forces will appear to stand still
under the strobe light of your analy%er. With multi:belt drives, it is important that all
belts have e0ual tension. #f one or more belts are slack while the other belts are
under proper tension, the slack belts may cause excessive vibration even from very
minor disturbing forces. This condition will also cause belt slippage and accelerate
belt and pulley wear. 6ibration from actual belt defects will usually occur at
fre0uencies which are direct multiples of belt ./3. The normal fre0uencies found
are &,,,5 and 9 times belt ./3. The particular fre0uency encountered will depend
on the nature of the belt problem as well as the number of pulleys and idlers over
which the belt must pass.
The ./3 of a belt can easily be determined if the length of the belt is known as well
as the pitch diameter and ./3 of one of the pulleys. +se the following formula to
find belt ./3J
RPM Pulley x
Length
3.14 x Dia. Pulley
RPM
Belt
Belt =
7elt defects that cause vibration at fre0uencies e0ual to direct multiples of bet ./3
include cracks; hard spots, soft spots or lumps on the belt faces; and pieces or
chunks which have broken off. A belt which is crooked, having taken a set shape
during packing and storing, may cause high vibration on light weight e0uipment until
it has had an opportunity to become limber. #n addition, a 6:belt may have variation
sin width. This causes the belt to ride up and down in the pulley grooves, creating
vibration because of variations in belt tension.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 9&
.egardless of the problem, belt defects can be readily distinguished from other
disturbing forces in the machine. The vibration fre0uency will occur at direct
multiples of belt ./3, therefore, the belt will appear to stand still under the strobe
light as shown in 1ig. &5:9:5,. The best way to detect belt vibration is to apply the
pickup on the bearing housing perpendicular to and in the direction of belt tension.
7elt defects normally result in a higher amplitude in the direction parallel to belt
tension.
#n some cases, the vibration amplitude resulting from faulty belts will be unsteady.
This is particularly true on multiple belt installations where the belts may slip to
varying degrees so that the faults on the belts will at one time add to one another
and another time subtract from one another. The net result will often be an
amplitude which increases and then decreases in a periodic or cyclic manner.
The extent of belt slippage on multi:belt installations can be readily observed under
the strobe light. "imply shut the machine down and mark a line with white chalk
across the belts. Then, with the machine operating at normal speed and your
analy%er filter tuned to & x belt ./3, observe the white chalk marks under the
strobe light. #f the belts are slipping relative to one another, the white marks on the
individual belts will also be seen to move relative to one another.
#mproper belt tension, pulley misalignment, mis:matched belts or excessive load and
horsepower re0uirements which cause belt slippage may also produce high
fre0uency noise and vibration due to the friction generated as the belt rubs over the
pulleys. The result is usually a distinct s0ueal or chirp.
#n summary, smooth operation can be obtained from 6:belt drives by following a
few simple precautionsJ
&. 3ake sure belts are in good physical condition.
,. 7e sure the number and si%e of belts used will meet the horsepower and
load re0uirements of the e0uipments.
5. With multiple belt installations, use belts which are matched set in order to
obtain e0ual tension on all belts.
9. 3ake sure pulleys and sheaves are round and accurately aligned with one
another.
D. )heck for wear of pulley grooves. -xcessive wear may allow the belt to ride
in the bottom of the groove, causing slippage and poor efficiency.
I. 7e sure belts are properly installed and ad<usted to proper tension as
recommended by the belt manufacturer
F. 1inally, keep other disturbing forces in the machine to a minimum.
6ibration resulting from gear problems is easy to identify because the vibration
normally occurs at a fre0uency e0ual to gear meshing fre0uency, i.e., the number of
gear teeth times the ./3 of the faulty gear. 1ig. &5:9:55 is typical of analysis data
resulting from gear vibration. Note that the vibration fre0uency in this case is e0ual
to the product of the number of gear teeth times the ./3 of the high speed pinion
gear.
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-""$N 9 /A2- 9, 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
#N complex gear arrangements where several meshing fre0uencies are possible,
an examination of drawings or blueprints of the gear box to determine the ./3 and
number of teeth on the various gears may be re0uired in order to identify which gear
or gears are the most likely at fault.
)ommon gear problems which result in vibration at gear meshing fre0uencies
include excessive gear wear, gear tooth inaccuracies, faulty lubrication and dirt or
foreign material trapped in the gear teeth. #n addition to actual gear problems, the
vibration characteristic of gears may occur as the result of other disturbing forces in
the machine such as misalignment or a bent shaft. 1or example, referring to the
analysis data in fig. &5:9:59, you will note that a high fre0uency vibration is present
on the gear box, indicating possible gear problems. 4owever, note that the axial
vibration occurring at motor ./3 fre0uency is also relatively high on the gear box
and motor suggesting that misalignment may be the source of trouble. #n this case,
the misalignment condition should be corrected first ; this may also eliminate the
high fre0uency gear vibration.
$ccasionally, problems associated with gears and gear drives will produce vibration
at a fre0uency which is not e0ual to gear meshing fre0uency. 1or example, if a gear
has only one broken or deformed tooth, a vibration at one x gear ./3 mash result.
6iewing the vibration waveform on an oscilloscope connected to your analy%er will
enable you to distinguish this problem from unbalance because of the spike:like
signal caused by a faulty gear tooth. $f course, if more than one tooth is deformed,
a vibration fre0uency e0ual to the number of deformed teeth times gear ./3 may
result.
A gear which is mounted eccentrically on its shaft will also cause vibration at & x
gear ./3, similar to unbalance. This was discussed previously under 6ibration due
to -ccentricity. Where eccentricity is the problem, any attempt to balance in place
will generally prove unsuccessful. -ccentricity, unbalance and bent shafts have
also caused gear vibration at sub:multiple fre0uencies of actual gear meshing
fre0uency.
The vibration amplitude and fre0uency from gears may also be erratic in some
cases. This erratic vibration normally occurs with gears which are operating under a
very light load condition where the load may randomly shift back and forth from one
gear to another. The impacts which occur as the load is shifted will excite the
natural fre0uencies of the gears, bearings and associated machine components.
4owever, this gear vibration can usually be detected readily at two or more points
on the machine and, thus, can be distinguished from bearing vibration which is
predominate at the point of the faulty bearing.
7ecause of the characteristic high fre0uency, gear vibration is also a common
source of ob<ectionable noise. 1or this reason, correcting gear faults and other
disturbances to reduce excessive gear vibration will normally result in a substantial
reduction in noise level also.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 95
1i$& '2-4-24& )hen fa#lt% !elts are the 5a#se of 3i!ration7 the% ill a66ear to
stand still #nder the stro!e li$ht&
1i$&'2-4-22& Vi!ration d#e to $ear 6ro!le"s&
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-""$N 9 /A2- 99 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
1i$& '2-4-24& -isali$n"ent !eteen the "otor and $ear !o: "a% !e the 5a#se
of this $ear related 3i!ration&
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 9D
VIBRATION DUE TO ELECTRICAL /ROBLE-S
6ibration of electrical machinery such as motors, generators and alternators can be
either mechanical or electrical in origin. 3echanical problems including unbalance,
misalignment and looseness have already been discussed in some detail. 6ibration
caused by electrical problems are normally the result of une0ual magnetic forces
acting on the rotor or stator. These une0ual magnetic forces may be due to J
&. .otor not round.
,. -ccentric armature <ournals
5. .otor and stator mis:aligned =i.e. the rotor is not centered in the stator'
9. -lliptical stator bore
D. 7roken bar
I. $pen or shorted windings
2enerally, the fre0uency of vibration resulting from these electrical problems will be
& x ./3 and thus will appear similar to unbalance. An easy way to check for
electrical vibration is to observe the change in vibration amplitude the instant
electrical power is disconnected from the unit. 3ake this check with your analy%er
filter in the $+T position.
#f the vibration disappears the instant power is shut off, the vibration is likely due to
electrical problems. #f this is the case, conventional electrical testing procedures
can be carried out to pinpoint the true cause of the problem. $N the other hand, if
the vibration amplitude decreases only gradually after power is removed, the
problem is probably mechanical in nature.
-lectrical problems with induction motors will often cause a swinging or pulsating
amplitude meter. This pulsating noise and vibration is caused by the slip fre0uency,
characteristic of this type motor. The slip fre0uency is simply the difference between
the ./3 of the rotor and the electrical or synchronous fre0uency of the rotating
magnetic field. The synchronous fre0uency of the magnetic field is always e0ual to
or an exact sub:multiple of the A.). line fre0uency powering the motor. 4owever,
the rotor ./3 will be slightly less due to inherent load on the motor. Therefore, if
the motor has electrical problems as well as mechanical problems such as
unbalance, there will actually be two different vibration fre0uencies present. "ince
these two fre0uencies are relatively close, their amplitudes will alternately add
together and then subtract at a rate e0ual to the difference between their
fre0uencies. The result will be a noticeable steady beat as well as the
corresponding swing of the amplitude meter.
#f the amplitude of this pulsating vibration is excessive, correction should be made to
reduce the electrical andEor the mechanical problem. $bserving the amplitude
meter the instant power is shut off will determine whether the problem is
predominantly electrical or mechanical in nature. #n many cases, the pulsation may
not be detrimental to the performance of the machine, but will have an adverse
psychological effect on personnel in the area because a noise which pulsates is
much more noticeable than one which is steady.
-lectrical motors have inherent vibration due to tor0ue pulses. These tor0ue pulses
are generated as the motor;s rotating magnetic field energi%es the poles in the
stator.
The fre0uency of vibration resulting from tor0ue pulses will be , times the A.). line
fre0uency powering the motor.
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-""$N 9 /A2- 9I 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
Thus, if A.). line fre0uency is IH 4% =IH cycles per second' or 5IHH )/3 tor0ue
pulse fre0uency will be F,HH )/3. This vibration is rarely troublesome except
where extremely low vibration levels are re0uired, or if the tor0ue pulses should
happen to excite a resonant condition in the machine or structure. #f resonance is
excited, this can also result in excessive noise.
VIBRATION DUE TO RESONANCE
#t was mentioned earlier that every ob<ect and every part of machine has a >natural
fre0uency?. This is the fre0uency at which a part likes to vibrate. 1or example, if we
were to strike a bell, it would continue to vibrate at its own natural fre0uency. This
continued vibration, called free vibration, will eventually diminish, as illustrated in
1ig. &5:9:5D, because of inherent damping.
#n addition to free vibration there are forced vibrations where the fre0uency depends
on the fre0uency of the driving force applied to the machine or structure. 1or
example, the forced vibration of a motor may be caused by the driving force of rotor
unbalance. #n such case, the fre0uency of this forced vibration is determined by the
speed =./3' of the motor.
There are several ways to confirm whether or not a part is vibrating in resonance.
$ne way is the bump test. With the machine shut down, simply bump the machine
structure with a force sufficient to cause it to vibrate. "ince an ob<ect will undergo
free vibration at its natural fre0uency when bumped or struck, the fre0uency of free
vibration generated in this way will be indicated on the analy%er;s fre0uency meter.
!our analy%er;s filter must be in the $+T position for this test. #f the vibration
diminishes very 0uickly, it may be necessary to bump the machine several times in
succession in order to sustain free vibration long enough to register on the
fre0uency meter. The #.( $n:ine .eal Time "pectrum analy%er, 1ig. &5:9:&5, is
ideal for determining natural fre0uencies this way. $f course, if the natural
fre0uencies observed as the result of this bump test are the same as the exciting
fre0uencies noted during machinery operation, then a condition of resonance exists.
Another way to diagnose resonant conditions is to record the amplitude and phase
of vibration versus the rotating speed of the machine as illustrDated in 1ig. &5:9:&,.
Normally, this is done with an instrument such as the #.( 3odel 5IH, 1ig. &5:9:&H,
with tracking filter capability. 4owever, a similar plot can be made by operating the
machine at a number of selected speeds and plotting the amplitude and phase of
vibration for each speed. #f resonant conditions do exist, they will be clearly
identified by the characteristic peak vibration which occurs, and by a large phase
shift =approximately &GHT'.
#f a resonance problem is encountered, there are several ways this can be
corrected. $ne way is to change the fre0uency of the exciting force so that it no
longer coincides with the natural fre0uency of the machine or structure. This can
usually be accomplished by either increasing or decreasing the ./3 of the
machine. #f the exciting fre0uency cannot be changed, the problem can be
corrected by actually changing the natural fre0uency. Two things determine what
the natural fre0uency of an ob<ect will be O stiffness of an ob<ect will be stiffness and
mass =weight'. Therefore, the natural fre0uency can be increased or decreased by
increasing or decreasing the stiffness or mass of the ob<ect.
$f course, resonance could be avoided by eliminating the exciting force. 7alancing
to lower than normal levels will sometimes reduce the effects of vibration at
resonance.
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6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 9F
4owever, in many cases, attempting to eliminate the exciting force by balancing and
alignment may prove to be difficult. The best solution to a resonance problem is to
separate the natural fre0uencies and exciting fre0uencies.
1i$& '2-4-2>& Stri=in$ the !ell 5a#ses it to 3i!rate at its nat#ral fre8#en5%&
*oe3er7 this 3i!ration e3ent#all% dies aa% d#e to da"6in$&
6#7.AT#$N (+- T$ A-.$(!NA3#) AN( 4!(.A+#) 1$.)-"
3achines which handle fluids such as air, water, gas, etc., will often have vibration
and noise due to the reaction of the vanes or blades on the impeller striking the
fluid. 6ibration of this type is common on pumps, fans and blowers; and can be
readily identified because the fre0uency will be e0ual to the number of vanes or
blades on the impeller times the ./3 of the machine. 1or example, you will note
from the analysis of the pump, 1ig. &5:9:5I, that the vibration at ,&,IHH )/3 is
e0ual to the number of vanes =I' times the ./3 =5IHH'. This bration is due to
inherent hydraulic forces.
Normally, aerodynamic and hydraulic vibrations are rarely troublesome unless they
excite some part of the machine, piping or duct work to vibrate at resonance.
Where excessive vibration of this type is encountered, the tests for resonance
described previously can be carried out to determine which part of the machine is
causing the problem.
#f aerodynamic or hydraulic vibration is excessive and no resonance condition can
be found, the problem may be due to improper design of the machine or related
piping or duct work. 1or example, obstructions in the path of the gas or li0uid or
sharp KHT turns in the direction of flow may cause this vibration.
Additional noise and vibration problems associated with the movement of li0uid and
gas include )A6#TAT#$N, .-)#.)+AT#$N and 1$W T+.7+-N)-.
These problems are listed together because their vibration characteristics are
generally 0uite similar vibration and noise resulting from these problems will
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-""$N 9 /A2- 9G 6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N
normally be random in nature. +nlike steady state vibration from unbalance or
misalignment, random vibration and noise has no discreet fre0uency andEor
amplitude characteristics.
"/-)#1#) )$+."- 1$. -N2#N--." 3-)4AN#)A 3A#NT-NAN)- 3$(+- &5
6#7.AT#$N ANA!"#" 8 )$..-)T#$N -""$N 9 /A2- 9K
1or example, the vibration and noise caused by cavitation in a pump may cover a
rather broad fre0uency range where individual amplitudes and fre0uencies are
constantly changing. The analysis data in 1ig. &5:9:5F is typical of the vibration due
to caviDtation. The distinct spikes at 5IHH and F,HH represent steady:state
vibration at & and , times ./3 possibly due to some unbalance or misalignment.
4owe5ver, the vibration occurring between 5H,HHH )/3 and &HH,HH )/3 is random
with no steady amplitude and fre0uency characteristics.
6A6#TAT#$N normally occurs when a pump is operating with excess capacity or low
suction pressure. "ince the pump is starved, the fluid coming into the pump will
literally be pulled apart in attempt to fill the void which exists. This creates pockets
or cavities or nearly perfect vacuum which are highly unstable and collapse or
implode very 0uickly.
(ue to their impactive nature, these implosions serve to excite the local natural
fre0uencies of the pump housing, impeller and other related parts.
"ince these implosions may occur at random intervals at various locations within the
pump or piping, the resulting vibration and noise will also be random in amplitude
and fre0uency.
#n some cases, where the fluid undergoes a substantial pressure drop at a valve, in
the pump or at changes in piping diameter, dissolved gases may be released on the
li0uid may boil. This condition is also called )avitation and has the same random
vibration amplitude and fre0uency characteristics.
.-)#.)+AT#$N normally occurs when a pump is operating at low capacity or high
suction pressure. #n other words, restricting the capacity leaving the pump causes
capacity leaving the pump causes the excess fluid to return from the discharge to
the impeller. This reverse flow and the mixing of fluids moving in opposite directions
results in random noise and vibration similar to )avitation.
1$W T+.7+-N)- is the result of resistance to the normal flow of li0uid or gas.
This resistance may be caused by obstructions, sharp turns or simply surface
friction between the fluid and the duct or piping. Another cause of flow turbulence is
the mixing of high velocity and low velocity fluids. A good example of this is the <et
engine where high velocity exhaust gases are mixed with the outside air. Although
the noise levels generated are very high, since this mixing takes place outside the
engine, only minor engine vibration is created.
"ome random noise and vibration from flow turbulence may be inherent in the
normal operation of fans, blowers, pumps, compressors. 2as turbines, etc. Where
vibration and noise levels are excessive, an inspection of the system together with
noise or vibration readings taken along the machine and related piping and duct
work will usually pinpoint the problem. #n some cases a redesign of the system may
be necessary such as the fan duct work illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:5K.
#n the original design, the sharp right angle turn resulted in the turbulence and
excessive vibration of the duct. .edesigning the duct work by using two 9DT
sections together with turning vanes significantly reduced the turbulence and duct
vibration.
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1i$& '2-4-2?& Vi!ration d#e to h%dra#li5 for5es&
1i$& '2-4-2@& Ca3itation7 re5ir5#lation and flo t#r!#len5e nor"all% 5a#se
rando" noise and 3i!ration&
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1i$& '2-4-2A& E:5essi3e 3i!ration and noise d#e to flo t#r!#len5e in air
d#5tor= "a% re8#ire a re-desi$n to 6ro3ide a "ore $rad#al 5han$e in flo
dire5tion&
1i$& '2-4-2C& -an% har"oni5all% related fre8#en5ies are 5o""onl% fo#nd
hen anal%9in$ re5i6ro5atin$ "a5hines&
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VIBRATION DUE TO RECI/ROCATIN0 1ORCES
3achines such as reciprocating compressors, piston pumps, gasoline and diesel
engines will normally have vibrations which result from the reciprocating motion
inherent in the design and operation of the machine. These inherent vibrations are
the result of inertia of the reciprocating parts plus the varying pressures on the
piston which cause tor0ue vibrations.
6ibration and noise analysis of reciprocating machines can be somewhat complex
because of the many fre0uencies which are often found. The fre0uencies normally
encountered are those at & and , times ./3; however, fre0uencies at higher orders
are also common in some designs depending on the number of pistons and their
relationship to one another. 1or example, a six cylinder 9:cycle engine may have
three power impulses for each revolution of the crankshaft. $f course, this will
result in a vibration at 5 x ./3. $n the other hand, an G cylinder engine with four
power impulses per revolution will show a vibration at 9 x ./3. .eferring to a
vibration analysis data, 1ig. &5:9:9H, note the many harmonically related
fre0uencies found on the 9:cylinder 6:type compressor.
#n general, the higher order fre0uencies found on reciprocating machines are
inherent in the machine and will rarely be a cause for concern unless, of course,
they excite a resonant condition in the machine or structure.
The problems with reciprocating machines which cause excessive vibration and
noise can be either mechanical problems or operational problems. The mechanical
problems, which have already been discussed, include unbalance, misalignment,
bent shafts, looseness, faulty bearings, etc. $perational problems which cause
vibration include blow:by leaking or sticking valves, and in<ector or ignition problems.
#N many cases, the vibration characteristics resulting from operational and
mechanical problems will be nearly the same. Thus, it is sometimes difficult to
pinpoint the exact problem without further evaluation of your analysis data.
There are several possible ways to distinguish between operational problems and
mechanical problems. 1or example, an operational problem such as faulty ignition
will normally be accompanied by a significant degrease in the efficiency of the
machine as well as excessive vibration.
$n the other hand, a mechanical problem like unbalance may show little or no
change in overall efficiency. #n addition, operational problems tend to create
une0ual reciprocating forces and, thus, may show a much greater9 increase in
vibration in a direction parallel to the reciprocating motion but only a small increase
in vibration in the direction perpendicular to this motion. 3echanical problems such
as unbalance or misalignment will normally show a substantial increase in two or
more directions.
VIBRATION DUE TO RUBBIN0
.ubbing between the stationary and rotating parts of a machine may cause the
vibration to have, in addition to the rotating speed fre0uency, a fre0uency at twice
rotating speed. #f the rubbing is continuos, then it is unlikely that nay particular
vibration characteristics will be noted.
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4owever, a very high fre0uency of vibration and noise may be present due to
friction exciting natural fre0uencies of the system.
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#t has been reported that rubbing in the seals of a steam turbine or similar large
machine will cause changes in amplitude and phase from one run to the next when
no changes have been made to the system. 1or example, a steam turbine running
at 5IHH ./3 may have a steady amplitude and phase of vibration at rotating speed
fre0uency. 4owever, reducing the speed to, say, &GHH ./3 and then increasing the
speed again to 5IHH ./3 will often produce a new amplitude andEor phase of
vibration. This seems to indicate that the point at which rubbing occurs changes
from one run to the next. $f course this condition must be corrected before
balancing could be carried out.
.ubbing, when it exists, is usually the result of a bent shaft, broken or damaged
parts, or distortion of the system that will usually be revealed by other vibration
characteristics.
VIBRATION DUE TO BEATS
#n addition to the common mechanical and electrical problems discussed thus far,
there is another form of noise and vibration fre0uently encountered in practice which
is termed a beat vibration or noise. A noticeable beat or pulsation may be the result
of a single exciting force which is continually changing in amplitude or fre0uency.
4owever, more often a pulsating vibration and noise results from the interaction of
two or more steady state sources of une0ual fre0uencies.
$ne example of a beat is the pulsating noise and vibration often associated with
induction type electric motors. #n this case, one force occurs at electrical fre0uency
and another at the slightly lower rotational fre0uency. This slip fre0uency,
characteristic of this type motor was discussed previously in this chapter under
vibration (ue To -lectrical /roblems.
/ulsating noise and vibration can also occur when two or more individual machines
are involved. 1or example, consider two machines mounted side:by:side on the
same structure with one machine operating at 5IHH ./3 and the other at 5DHH
./3. #f the vibration or noise amplitudes are significant at these two fre0uencies,
their interaction will result in a noticeable beat.
The beat or pulsation is produced by the two forces alternately and continually
coming in phase and then out of phase with one another. When the two are in
phase, their amplitudes will add together to give a maximum resultant vibration or
noise amplitude. Then, when the two forces are out of phase, their amplitudes
subtract or cancel one another to give the minimum overall amplitude.
The beat fre0uency will be e0ual to the difference between the two exciting force
fre0uencies. 1or the example above, the beat will occur at 5IHH )/3 O 5DHH )/3
P &HH )/3. #n some instances, a beat will occur at a fre0uency e0ual to the sum of
the two exciting force fre0uencies or, for our example, 5IHH )/3 M 5DHH )/3 P
F&HH )/3.
The higher beat fre0uency is usually less noticeable than the low fre0uency beat
except perhaps where a resonant fre0uency of the machine or structure is being
excited.
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SU--ARY O1 CAUSES
#t would no impossible to discuss every possible source of noise and vibration, so
we have limited our discussion to those which are most often encountered in
rotating machinery. #f the noise and vibration characteristics you observe do not fit
the pattern of any of those discussed, remember that vibration is caused by a force
which is changing in either its amount, direction or both. Therefore, try to visuali%e
how the machine in 0uestion can generate a force which gives the kind of vibration
and noise characteristics you observe.
/*ASE ANALYSIS
The ability to determine the relative motion between the various parts of a machine
or machine structure using phase measurements can be a very valuable analysis
tool. This section outlines various techni0ues for utili%ing phase measurement and
analysis to assist in pinpointing the cause of vibration. 1or review, refer to )hapter
## under /hase and )hapter ### under +sing the "trobe ight to 3easure /hase.
-ISALI0N-ENT VS A VENT S*A1T
As discussed earlier, high amplitudes of axial vibration such as that illustrated in 1ig.
&5:9:9& may be caused by &' coupling misalignment, ,' bearing misalignment, 5' a
bent shaft of 9' unbalance of an overhung rotor. $bviously, when a high amplitude
of axial vibration is detected, it would be most helpful if further tests could be made
to reduce the number of possible causes before the machine is shut down for visual
inspection and correction. This is particularly true on critical process and production
machinery where only a few hours shutdown can represent tremendous production
losses.
The first step is to select a convenient location on the machine where phase
readings can be observed. Normally, the end of the shaft or a visible coupling will
serve this purpose; however, it is important that all comparative phase observations
be made using the same reference mark.
The ob<ective of our phase analysis for detecting misalignment and bent shafts is
actually two foldJ
1irst, to determine how each individual bearing is moving axially. #n other words, is
the bearing twisting, rocking or simply moving back and forthU
"econdly, to determine how the bearings are moving axially relative to one another.
Are the bearings vibrating together =in:phase' or in opposition to one another =out:
of:phase'U
To meet our first ob<ective it will be necessary to make several axial phase
measurements on each bearing. Normally, 9 measurement positions of or each
bearing are recommended as shown in 1ig. &5:9:9&. With your analy%er filter tuned
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to the ./3 of the machine, take and record phase measurements with the pickup in
the axial direction at each of the 9 designated points on the bearing. The recorded
phase readings will likely reveal one of two possible situationsJ &' the phase
readings will be noticeably different at the 9 measurement positions; or ,' the phase
readings will all be relatively the same at the 9 measurement points.
#f the phase readings on the bearing are noticeably different at the 9 measurement
points, this indicates that the bearing is indicates that the bearing is twisting as
illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:9,.
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This twisting action is generally caused by a shaft which is bent through or very near
the bearing. A simple bow in the center of the shaft may not cause this twisting
action unless the bow is 0uite extreme. 1or machines e0uipped with anti:friction
bearings, it is possible to observe a similar twisting motion for a bearing which is
cocked on the shaft or in the bearing housing.
#f the 9 phase readings on the bearing are all approximately the same, this indicates
that the bearing is vibrating back and forth in a planar fashion as illustrated in 1ig.
&5:9:95. This indication alone does not tell us the nature of the problem; therefore,
it will be necessary to continue the axial phase measurements at the other bearings
of the machine in order to diagnose the cause.
N$T-J
-ven though our first axial readings revealed a twisting bearing, axial phase
measurements should be carried out at the other bearing points to see whether or
not any additional problems exist. After the phase readings have been taken and
recorded at the first bearing point, move the pickup to the next bearing of the
machine and take a similar set of axial phase readings at 9 points around the shaft.
This procedure is then repeated for each bearing of the machine until axial phase
data has been recorded for all points as illustrated in 1ig. &5:9:99.
CAUTION
When the pickup is moved from one bearing to the next, it is 0uite likely that the
axis of the vibration pickup will be reversed by &GHT. 1or example, referring to the
machine sketch in 1ig. &5:9:99, when readings were taken at bearing >A? we
probably had the pickup pointing to the right. 4owever, at bearing >7? we may have
had the pickup point toward the left. #f this is the case, a &GHT phase shift has
automatically been introduced, and our observed phase readings are not directly
comparable. Therefore, whenever it is necessary to reverse the direction of the
pickup axis to take phase measurements at other bearing points, a &GHT correction
must be applied to those readings to make them directly comparable with our other
readings. #f the direction of the pickup axis can be kept the same at all bearing
points, no correction factor should be applied.
After axial phase readings have been recorded for all bearings of the machine, the
final step is to compare these readings to determine how the bearings are moving
axially relative to one another. .eferring to the example in 1ig. &5:9:99, note that
the phase readings at bearings >A? and >7? are approximately e0ual. This tells us
that these bearings are vibrating in phase, as a single unit. ikewise, bearings >)?
and >(? are in phase. 4owever, bearings >7? and >)? are vibrating in opposition to
one another. Whenever two ad<acent bearings such as >7? and >)? are found to be
vibrating out of phase, this is a strong indication that the problem causing excessive
axial vibration is somewhere in between.
Normally, if a large phase difference is noted between two bearings of direct
coupled machinery, such as >7? and >)? above, coupling misalignment or a faulty
coupling is usually the cause. #f the phase difference is noted between two
bearings of the same machine, the machine should be checked for a bent shaft or
severely mis:aligned bearings.
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#f our phase analysis reveals that all bearings of the system are in phase the
problem may be the result of unbalance O especially on overhung rotors, fans or
blowers. #dentical phase readings have also been the result of a foundation which
is resonant in the axial direction at a fre0uency e0ual to the ./3 of the machine.
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1ig. &5:9:9H. This high axial vibration might be the result of misalignment, a bent
shaft or unbalance of the overhung fan.
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1i$& '2-4-4'& A:ial 6hase readin$s for D4E 6ositions on ea5h !earin$ are
re5o""ended&
1i$& '2-4-44& /hase readin$s hi5h are noti5ea!l% different at the D4E
"eas#re"ent 6oints indi5ate that the !earin$ is tistin$&
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1i$& '2-4-42& /hase readin$s hi5h are all relati3el% the sa"e7 indi5ate that the
!earin$ is 3i!ratin$ a:iall% in a 6lanner fashion&
1i$& '2-4-44& A:ial 6hase readin$s sho#ld !e ta=en and re5orded for ea5h
!earin$&
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ADDITIONAL /*ASE ANALYSIS A//LICATIONS
There are other areas where phase analysis may be helpful. 1or example, phase
measurements taken using the vibration pickup and shaft stick on both sides of a
bearing can be used to confirm a bent shaft condition. "ee 1ig. &5:9:9D. #f the
shaft is bent, the phase readings taken with the pickup on one side of the bearing
will likely differ by approximately &GHT from that taken on the other side of the
bearing.
A comparison of amplitudes and phase at various locations on the machine and
foundation will often reveal sources of looseness and other problems. 1or example,
the phase of vibration at the three designated measurement points in 1ig. &5:9:9D
should be nearly the same. 4owever, if looseness exists, a significant difference in
phase readings between any two points would positively identify the problem.
/hase measurements are also valuable for determining the vibratory shape =mode
shape' of structures, foundations and piping. 1or example, to determine the mode
shape of the structure in 1ig. &5:9:9I, simply mark off a number of measurement
points along the structure and proceed to measure and record the vibration
amplitude and phase for each designated point.
7y comparing amplitude and phase readings, you should be able to determine
whether or not the structure is vibrating at resonance. 1ig. &5:9:9F illustrates
vibratory mode shapes typical of resonant structures.
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1i$& '2-4-4>& /hase readin$s o!tained #sin$ the shaft sti5= on !oth sides of
the !earin$ are hel6f#l for 5onfir"in$&
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1i$& '2-4-4?& Co"6arati3e 6hase readin$s ta=en at the three "eas#re"ent
6oints ill#strated "a% hel6 in lo5atin$ looseness&
1i$& '2-4-4@& To deter"ine the 3i!rator% "otion of the str#5t#re7 "eas#re the
3i!ration a"6lit#de and 6hase se3eral 6oints&
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1i$& '2-4-4A& Resonate "ode sha6es&
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