!

Bin Liu
E5-02-17
Cheliub@nus.edu.sg
Chapter 2
Chemical Engineering
Calculations
"
- Sl, CCS, and Amerlcan Lnglneerlng unlLs
- unlL converslon
- SlgnlflcanL flgures
- valldaLe a quanLlLaLlve problem soluLlon
- Sample mean and sLandard devlaLlon
- ulmenslonal homogenelLy
- Llnear lnLerpolaLlon !" exLrapolaLlon
- PomogenelLy of equaLlons
!"#$%&'($)
#
- A measured or counLed quanLlLy has a numerlcal value
and a unlL. ln mosL englneerlng calculaLlons, lL ls
essenLlal Lo lnclude boLh when expresslng Lhls quanLlLy
(e.g., 2 seconds, 0.3 grams, 3 sLudenLs).
value unlL
200.30 cm
- MosL numerlcal values have a unlL lL ls lmporLanL and
essenLlal Lo glve Lhe unlL for Lhe numerlcal value!
- A dlmenslon ls a properLy LhaL can be measured.
- Llme, lengLh, mass, LemperaLure
- or calculaLed by mulLlplylng or dlvldlng dlmenslons
- veloclLy (lengLh/Llme), denslLy (mass/lengLh
3
)
*+'&) ,+- .'/$+)'0+)
$
*+'&) ,+- .'/$+)'0+)
- 1he numerlcal values of Lwo quanLlLles may be added or
subLracLed CnL? lf Lhe unlLs are Lhe same.
3 apples + 2 apples = 3 apples
3 apples + 2 oranges = ?
- numerlcal values and Lhelr correspondlng unlLs may
always be comblned by mulLlpllcaLlon or dlvlslon.
3.0 grams / 1.3 cm
3
= 2.0 g/cm
3
4.0 hours ! 33 mlles/hour = 220 mlles (2.2!10
2
mlles)
1.0 kg ! 9.8 m/s
2
= 9.8 kg m/s
2
= 9.8 n
(3.0 kg/s) / (0.20 kg/m
3
) = 23 m
3
/s
%
10+($2)'0+ 03 *+'&)
- A measured quanLlLy can be expressed ln Lerms of any
unlLs havlng Lhe approprlaLe dlmenslon.
- 1he equlvalence beLween Lwo expresslons of Lhe same
quanLlLy may be deflned ln Lerms of a raLlo, known as a
converslon facLor.
- Lxamples of converslon facLors wlLh equlvalenL
numeraLors and denomlnaLors
3600 s 24 h 365 days 1 m 1 km 10
3
m
1 h 1 day 1 yr 10
2
cm 10
3
m 1 km
&
- 4,)$ 5+'&)
- mass, lengLh, Llme, LemperaLure, elecLrlcal currenL, llghL
lnLenslLy
- 657&'87$ 5+'&)
- deflned as mulLlples or fracLlons of base unlLs (mlnuLes and
hours are mulLlples of Lhe unlL second)
- .$2'($- 5+'&)
- compound unlLs obLalned by mulLlplylng and/or dlvldlng
base or mulLlple unlLs
- deflned as equlvalenLs of compound unlLs
e.g., 1 erg 1 gcm
2
/s
2
9:)&$/) 03 *+'&)
'
- 9; <9:)&=/$ ;+&$2+,&'0+,7$ ->*+'&?)@
- lnLernaLlonally accepLed sysLem of unlLs
- meLer (lengLh), kllogram (mass), second (Llme), kelvln
(LemperaLure), ampere (elecLrlc currenL), candela
(lumlnous lnLenslLy)
- 1A9 <1$+&'/$&$2B2,/)$%0+-@ ):)&$/
- ldenLlcal Lo Sl, wlLh g and cm replaclng kg and m as base
unlLs for mass and lengLh, respecLlvely.
- C/$2'%,+ $+B'+$$2'+B ):)&$/
- fooL (lengLh), poundmass (mass), second (Llme)
- converslons noL based on mulLlples of Len
9:)&$/) 03 *+'&)
(
9:)&$/) 03 *+'&)
)
9:)&$/) 03 *+'&)
!*
Lach of Lhe Sl base unlLs can be made smaller or larger ln unlLs of Len
by addlng Lhe approprlaLe meLrlc preflxes shown below:
6$&2'% D2$3'E$)
!!
9:)&$/) 03 *+'&)
!"
Some converslon facLors for converLlng Lhe Amerlcan Lnglneerlng
SysLem Lo Lhe Sl:
1 fL = 0.303 m, 1 lb
m
= 0.434 kg, 1 lb
mol
= 434 mol.
1 8Lu ls energy needed Lo ralse 1 pound of waLer by 1
o
l. 1 8Lu =
1033 ! = 232 cal.
FG$ C/$2'%,+ H+B'+$$2'+B 9:)&$/ 03 *+'&)
DG:)'%,7 I5,+&'&: J,/$ 03 *+'& 9:/"07
LengLh fooL fL
Mass ound (mass) lb
m
1lme Second, mlnuLe, hour,
day
S, mln, h, day
1emperaLure uegree 8anklne or
lahrenhelL
8 or l
Molar amounL ound mole lb
mol
!#
- Sources of unlL converslon facLors
- erry's Chemlcal Lnglneers' Pandbook
- Cnllneconverslon.com
- rocess of converLlng unlLs
- unlL converslon facLors may be found ln Lables or from
elecLronlc resources.
- Lhe process of converLlng unlLs may be performed
manually or elecLronlcally.
- lL ls expecLed LhaL you wlll be capable of elLher.
10+($2)'0+ K,%&02)
!$
10+($2)'0+ K,%&02)
I5,+&'&: HL5'(,7$+& (,75$)
Mass 1 kg = 1000g = 0.001 meLrlc Lon = 2.20462 lb
m
= 33.27392 oz
1 lb
m
= 16 oz = 433.393 g
LengLh 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 10
6
m = 10
10
= 39.37 lnch = 3.2808 fL =
1.0936 yard = 0.0006214 mlle
1 fL = 12 ln. = 1/3 yd = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm
volume 1 m
3
= 1000 L = 10
6
cm
3
= 10
6
mL = 33.3143 fL
3
= 264.17 gallon
1 fL
3
= 1728 ln.
3
= 28.317 L
lorce 1 n = 1 kgm/s
2
= 10
3
dynes = 10
3
gcm/s
2
= 0.22481 lb
f
1 lb
f
= 32.174 lb
m
fL/s
2
= 4.4482 n = 4.4482 10
3
dynes
ressure 1 aLm = 1.01323 10
3
n/m
2
(a) = 101.323 ka = 1.01323 bar = 1.01323
10
6
dynes/cm
2
= 760 mm Pg aL 273k (Lorr) = 10.333 m P
2
C aL 4 C =
14.696 lb
f
/ln.
2
(psl) = 33.9 feeL P
2
C aL 4 C = 29.921 ln. Pg aL 0C
Lnergy 1 ! = 1nm = 10
7
ergs = 10
7
dynecm = 2.778 10
7
kWh = 0.23901 cal =
0.7376 fLlb
f
= 9.486 10
4
8Lu
ower 1W = 1 !/s = 0.2390 cal/s = 0.7376 fLlb
f
/s = 9.486 10
4
8Lu/s = 1.314
10
3
hp
!%
HE,/87$) 03 *+'& 10+($2)'0+)
1 Kg = 2.2 lb
m
F =
1 Kg 9.8 m
s
2
=
9.8 N
2.2 lb
m
32.2 ft
s
2
lb
f
s
2
32.2 lb
m
ft
F =
= 2.2 lb
f
1 N = 0.22 lb
f
!&
HE,/87$) 03 *+'& 10+($2)'0+)
1o converL a quanLlLy ln Lerms of one unlL Lo lLs equlvalenL
ln Lerms of anoLher unlL, mulLlply Lhe glven quanLlLy by
Lhe converslon facLor, whlch ls new unlL/old unlL".
!'
converL acceleraLlon unlL of cm/s
2
Lo km/yr
2
converL denslLy unlLs of lbm/gal Lo kg/m
3
HE,/87$) 03 *+'& 10+($2)'0+)
cm 3600
2
s
2
24
2
h
2
365
2
day
2
1m 1 km
s
2
1
2
h
2
1
2
day
2
1
2
year
2
10
2
cm 10
3
m
= 9.95 x 10
9
km/yr
2
1
lb
m
264 gal 0.454 kg
1
gal 1 m
3
1 lb
m
= 1.20 x 10
2
kg/m
3
!(
HE,/87$) 03 *+'& 10+($2)'0+)
!)
newLon's 2nd law of moLlon deflnes force (l) Lo be
proporLlonal Lo Lhe producL of mass (m) and acceleraLlon
(a, lengLh/Llme
2
)
l = ma
- Sl: kg m/s
2
1 newLon (n)
- CCS: g cm/s
2
1 dyne (dyne)
- ALS: 2.174 lb
m
x fL/s
2
1 poundforce (lb
f
)
- g
c
ls used Lo denoLe converslon facLor from naLural Lo derlved
force unlLs
K02%$ ,+- M$'BG&
g
c
=
1 kg x m/s
2
1 n
=
32.174 lb
m
x fL/s
2
1 lb
f
"*
1he welghL (W) of an ob[ecL of mass (m) ls Lhe force
exerLed on Lhe ob[ecL by gravlLaLlonal aLLracLlon
M N /B
where Lhe gravlLaLlonal acceleraLlon (g) varles wlLh Lhe
mass of Lhe aLLracLlng body (whlch wlll be Lhe LarLh ln
mosL cases ln Lhls course). 1he value of g aL sea level
and 43 laLlLude ls 9.8066 m/s
2
or 32.174 fL/s
2
.
K02%$ ,+- M$'BG&
"!
HE,/87$O WaLer has a denslLy of 62.4 lb
m
/fL
3
. Pow much does
2.000 fL
3
of waLer welgh
(1) aL sea level and 43 laLlLude (g
o
)
(2) aL locaLlon x where Lhe alLlLude ls 4002 fL, 32.3 n laLlLude.
9075&'0+: CravlLaLlonal acceleraLlon g
h
ls a funcLlon of helghL
above sea level (h) accordlng Lo Lhe expresslon
- where r
e
ls Lhe
mean radlus
of Lhe LarLh,
6371 km (3939 ml)
M$'BG& ,+- 6,))
g
h
= g
0
( )
2
r
e
r
e
+ h
""
M$'BG& ,+- 6,))
WaLer has a denslLy of 62.4 lb
m
/fL
3
. Pow much does 2.000 fL
3
of
waLer welgh (1) aL sea level:
ueLermlne Lhe mass of Lhe waLer
M = v = 62.4 lb
m
/fL
3
x 2.000 fL
3
= 124.8 lb
m
CalculaLe Lhe welghL of Lhe waLer
W = mg = 124.8 lb
m
x 32.174 fL/s
2
x = 124.8 lb
f
1 lb
f
32.174 lb
m
fL/s
2
"#
M$'BG& ,+- 6,))
g
h
= g
0
( )
2
r
e
r
e
+ h
= 32.174 ( )
2
ft 3959 mile
s
2
3959 mile + 4002 ft ( )
1 mile
5280 ft
= 32.162
ft
s
2
AL locaLlon x where h = 4002 feeL
CalculaLe Lhe welghL of Lhe waLer
W = mg = 124.8 lb
m
x 32.162 x = 124.8 lb
f
1 lb
f
32.174 lb
m
ft/s
2
ft
s
2
"$
HE,/87$O 1,7%57,&$
a) Lhe welghL ln lb
f
of an ob[ecL of 23.0 lb
m
.
b) 1he mass ln kg of an ob[ecL LhaL welghLs 23 newLons.
c) 1he welghL ln dynes of an ob[ecL of 10 Lons.
M$'BG& ,+- 6,))
"%
JC9C) 6$&2'% 10+35)'0+ 1,5)$- 6,2) !2"'&$2 P0))
SepLember 30, 1999
Cnn nASA losL a 123 mllllon Mars orblLer because one
englneerlng Leam used meLrlc unlLs whlle anoLher used
Lngllsh unlLs for a key spacecrafL operaLlon, accordlng Lo a
revlew flndlng released 1hursday.
lor LhaL reason, lnformaLlon falled Lo Lransfer beLween Lhe
Mars CllmaLe CrblLer spacecrafL Leam aL Lockheed MarLln
ln Colorado and Lhe mlsslon navlgaLlon Leam ln Callfornla.
"&
# .'/$+)'0+,7 G0/0B$+$'&:: an equaLlon havlng quanLlLles of
same unlLs on boLh sldes.
- A valld equaLlon ln physlcs musL be dlmenslonally
homogeneous.
- 8uL, belng homogeneous does noL necessarlly mean Lhe
equaLlon wlll be Lrue, slnce lL does noL Lake lnLo accounL
numerlcal facLors.
.'/$+)'0+,7 Q0/0B$+$'&:
Lxample: y (m) = a x (s) + b
1o malnLaln dlmenslonal homogenelLy, Lhe dlmenslon of a musL
be m/s whlle Lhe dlmenslon of consLanL b musL be m
"'
ulmenslonless quanLlLles (no unlL): scale lndependenL.
.'/$+)'0+7$)) I5,+&'&'$) <02 B2058)@
R
e
= =
v D m m kg 1
s 1 m
3
Pa s
1 Pas = 1 kg/(ms)
R$:+07-)
+5/"$2
v: mean fluid velocity of the fluid; d: diameter of the pipe; :
density; : dynamic viscosity of the fluid
N
u
= =
h D J m s m K
m
2
sK J
h: convective heat transfer coefficient; D: characteristic length;
: thermal conductivity of the fluid
J5))$7&
+5/"$2
"(
- 9%'$+&'3'% +0&,&'0+: a convenlenL means Lo express very
large and very small numbers as a producL of Len ralsed
Lo a power.
- 123,000,000 = 12.3!10
7
= 1.23!10
8
= 0.123!10
9
- 0.000028 = 0.28!10
4
= 2.8!10
3
= 28!10
6
- SLandard sclenLlflc noLaLlon form ls wrlLLen such LhaL
Lhere ls one dlglL Lo Lhe lefL of Lhe declmal.
- Lnglneerlng sclenLlflc noLaLlon form ls wrlLLen such LhaL
Lhe exponenL ls a facLor of 3.
9%'$+&'3'% J0&,&'0+
")
1he slgnlflcanL flgures of a number are Lhe dlglLs from Lhe flrsL
nonzero dlglL on Lhe lefL Lo elLher
- lasL dlglL (zero or non) on Lhe rlghL lf Lhere ls a declmal, or
- lasL nonzero dlglL of a number lf Lhere ls no declmal.
2300 or 2.3!10
3
has 2 slgnlflcanL flgures
2300. or 2.300!10
3
has 4 slgnlflcanL flgures
2300.0 or 2.3000!10
3
has 3 slgnlflcanL flgures
23,040 or 2.304!10
4
has 4 slgnlflcanL flgures
0.033 or 3.3!10
2
has 2 slgnlflcanL flgures
0.03300 or 3.300!10
2
has 4 slgnlflcanL flgures
9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$)
#*
D5280)$ 03 9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$)
1he number of slgnlflcanL flgures provldes lndlcaLlon of Lhe
preclslon of measured or calculaLed values.
lf you reporL a value of a measured quanLlLy wlLh 3 slgnlflcanL
flgures, you lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe value of Lhe Lhlrd of Lhese flgures may
be off by as much as a halfunlL.
- l.e., 8.3 g means beLween 8.23 g and 8.33 g
- whereas, 8.300g means beLween 8.2993 g and 8.3003 g
- lor example, 2300 m means Lhe lengLh ls beLween 2230 and
2330 m
- 1.200 m means Lhe lengLh ls beLween 1.1993 and 1.2003 m.
- 2.232 cm 1 cm ls Lhls Ck?
- 0.3 kcal = 2.093 k! ls Lhls Ck?
#!
When Lwo or more quanLlLles are comblned by mulLlpllcaLlon
and/or dlvlslon, Lhe number of slgnlflcanL flgures ln Lhe resulL
should equal Lhe lowesL number of slgnlflcanL flgures of any of
Lhe mulLlpllcands or dlvlsors.
lf several calculaLlons are Lo be performed ln sequence, lL ls
advlsable Lo keep exLra slgnlflcanL flgures of lnLermedlaLe
quanLlLles and Lo round off only Lhe flnal resulL.
R07$) 03 9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$) <;@
(3) (4) (7) (3)
(3.57)(4.286) = (15.30102) 15.3
(2) (4) (3) (9) (2) (2)
(5.2 x 10
-4
)(1.635 x 10
6
)/(2.67) = 318.426966 3.2 x 10
2
= 320
#"
602$ HE,/87$)
(2.2) x (1.2343) = (2.7139) (2.7)
(3.31) x (3.2343)/(3.43) = (3.3836) (3.38)
(98)/(93.01) = (1.0337) (1.1)
(2) (5) (5) (2)
(3) (5) (3) (5) (3)
(2) (4) (5) (2)
##
When Lwo or more numbers are added/subLracLed, Lhe
poslLlons of Lhe lasL slgnlflcanL flgures of each number
relaLlve Lo Lhe declmal polnL should be compared. Cf Lhese
poslLlons, Lhe one farLhesL Lo Lhe lefL ls Lhe poslLlon of Lhe
lasL permlsslble slgnlflcanL flgure of Lhe sum or dlfference.
R07$) 03 9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$) <;;@
#$
H+B'+$$2'+B 9%'$+&'3'% J0&,&'0+
A number wrlLLen ln Lnglneerlng noLaLlon ls wrlLLen ln Lhe
form: a = b x 10
n
- b ls a number from 1 Lo less Lhan 1000
- n ls a mulLlple of Lhree
1o wrlLe a number ln englneerlng noLaLlon:
- shlfL Lhe declmal polnL ln groups" of Lhree places Lo glve a
number beLween 1 and 1000
- mulLlply by a power of 10 equal Lo Lhe number of places
Lhe declmal polnL has been moved.
HE,/87$):
16 330 000 000 = 16.33!10
9
0.000 000 43 = 430!10
9
#%
8oundlng up means LhaL we lncrease Lhe LermlnaLlng dlglL by a
value of 1 and drop off Lhe dlglLs Lo Lhe rlghL. lf Lhe nexL place
beyond where we are LermlnaLlng Lhe declmal ls greaLer Lhan flve,
we round up. lor example, 3.47 3.3.
lf Lhe number Lo Lhe rlghL of our LermlnaLlng declmal place ls four
or less (4, 3, 2, 1, 0), we round down. 1hls ls done by leavlng our
lasL declmal place as lL ls glven and dlscardlng all dlglLs Lo lLs rlghL.
lor example, 6.734 6.73.
lor roundlng off numbers ln whlch Lhe dlglL Lo be dropped ls a 3, lL
ls always Lo make Lhe lasL dlglL even. lor example, 1.23 > 1.2, 1.33
> 1.4, buL 1.2301 >1.3, 1.33001 > 1.4
R05+-'+B !33
#&
x s
x
1he sLandard devlaLlon provldes an esLlmaLe of how well you
know a parLlcular measuremenL. ln mosL cases, Lhe sLandard
devlaLlon should be expressed Lo CnL slgnlflcanL flgure.
1he number modlfled by Lhe slgnlflcanL flgure should be
expressed Lo agree ln place wlLh Lhe sLandard devlaLlon.
lor example, a value resulLlng from a spreadsheeL calculaLlon
of an average and sLandard devlaLlon mlghL be 10.1298
0.2393. 1hls should be expressed as 10.1 0.3
9&,+-,2- .$(',&'0+) ,+- 9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$)
#'
very low sLandard devlaLlons: lf your calculaLed sLandard
devlaLlon ls less Lhan 1 ln Lhe lasL slgnlflcanL flgure, round
up Lo 1. lor example, 2.34 0.0002 would be expressed
as 2.34 0.01.
More examples:
9&,+-,2- .$(',&'0+) ,+- 9'B+'3'%,+& K'B52$)
M20+B R'BG&
333.13983 0.0289433 333.16 0.03
333.139 0.000234 333.139 0.001
333.13983 28.9433 360 30
#(
C8820,%G$) &0 (,7'-,&$ 2$)57&):
- backsubsLlLuLlon of your soluLlon lnLo Lhe equaLlon(s) Lo
make sure lL works
- orderofmagnlLude esLlmaLlon
- applylng a LesL of reasonableness
S,7'-,&'+B R$)57&)
#)
9,/87$ 6$,+
Suppose we carry ouL a chemlcal reacLlon: A producLs,
sLarLlng wlLh pure A ln Lhe reacLor and keeplng LemperaLure
consLanL aL 43C.
AfLer Lwo mlnuLes, we draw a sample from Lhe reacLor and
analyze lL Lo deLermlne x, Lhe percenLage of Lhe A fed LhaL
has reacLed.
$*
varlaLlons ln sampllng and chemlcal analysls procedures (e.g
LemperaLure, Llme) lnLroduce scaLLer ln measured values.
9,/87$ 6$,+
WhaL ls Lhe Lrue value of x?
- value obLalned aL 43.0000C and 2.0000 mln?
- C8 Lhe value calculaLed by averaglng x over an lnflnlLe
number of Lrlals?
$!
9,/87$ 6$,+
9,/87$ /$,+: Lo esLlmaLe Lhe Lrue value of x:
$"
1o express Lhe exLenL Lo whlch values of a random varlable scaLLer
abouL Lhelr mean, we use:
- 8ange: dlfference beLween Lhe hlghesL and lowesL values ln a seL
- Sample varlance
Sample sLandard devlaLlon
1he hlgher Lhe value of s
x
, Lhe more devlaLlon from Lhe mean.
9,/87$ S,2',+%$ T 9&,+-,2- .$(',&'0+
$#
C%%52,%: () D2$%')'0+
.')&2'"5&'0+ 03 6$,)52$- S,75$)
68% 95% 99%
$$
300 baLches of a plgmenL are produced each week. ln Lhe
planL's quallLy assurance program, each baLch ls sub[ecLed Lo
a preclse color analysls LesL. lf a baLch does noL pass Lhe LesL,
lL ls re[ecLed and senL back for reformulaLlon.
HE,/87$ 1,7%57,&'0+
Company pollcy dlcLaLes LhaL as long as Lhere are no more
bad baLches (?) Lhan 3 sLandard devlaLlons above Lhe mean,
operaLlon ls normal. lf ? exceeds Lhls quanLlLy, Lhe process
musL be shuL down for malnLenance.
Pow many bad baLches ln a week would lL Lake Lo shuL down
Lhe process?
$%
HE,/87$ 1,7%57,&'0+
$&
1wo Lhermocouples were LesLed by lnserLlng Lhelr probes
ln bolllng waLer, recordlng Lhe readlngs, removlng and
drylng Lhe probes, Lhen dolng lL agaln. 1he resulLs of 3
measuremenLs are glven below:
1) CalculaLe Lhe range, Lhe sample mean, and Lhe sample
sLandard devlaLlon of Lhe Lwo Lhermocouples.
2) Whlch Lhermocouple readlngs exhlblLs a hlgher degree
of scaLLer?
HE,/87$ 1,7%57,&'0+
A (
o
C) 72.4 73.1 72.6 72.8 73.0
8 (
o
C) 97.3 101.4 98.7 103.1 100.4
$'
HE,/87$ 1,7%57,&'0+
1) CalculaLe Lhe range, Lhe sample mean, and Lhe sample
sLandard devlaLlon of Lhe Lwo Lhermocouples
$(
Measured daLa may be obLalned ln dlscreLe quanLlLles.
- lrom callbraLlon daLa, a conLlnuum can be approxlmaLed uslng
Lhe Lechnlques of
- '+&$2807,&'0+: esLlmaLe beLween daLa polnLs
- $E&2,807,&'0+: esLlmaLe beyond Lhe range of daLa polnLs
LwopolnL sLralghL llne flL llnear lnLerpolaLlon
C+,7:)') 03 D20%$)) .,&,
b = y
1
-mx
1
= y
2
mx
2
$)
K'&&'+B .,&,O ;+&$2807,&'0+ ,+- HE&2,807,&'0+
- ln englneerlng, one varlable ls ofLen obLalned by measurlng
anoLher varlable.
- varlable y can be obLalned by measurlng varlable x. 8uL y
may vary wlLh x llnearly and nonllnearly.
K02 $E,/87$:
WhaL ls Lhe pressure lf Lhe LemperaLure ls 400 k and Lhe
volume ls 1 m
3
(2 seL values)
%*
- lnLerpolaLlon: Lhe value of y for a value of x ls wlLhln Lhe
range of Lhe LabulaLed daLa,
- LxLrapolaLlon: Lhe value of y for a value of x ls ouLslde Lhe
range of Lhe LabulaLed daLa.
K'&&'+B .,&,O ;+&$2807,&'0+ ,+- HE&2,807,&'0+
%!
FU0 D0'+& P'+$,2 ;+&$2807,&'0+
Suppose y changes llnearly wlLh x on recLangular axes,
Lhen we can wrlLe: y = ax + b
1he slope ls: a =
1he lnLercepL ls: b = y
1
- ax
1
or b = y
2
- ax
2
AfLer obLalnlng a and b, Lhey can be subsLlLuLed lnLo Lhe
equaLlon for predlcLlng Lhe measured daLa
y
2
- y
1
x
2
- x
1
%"
(see Appendlx A.1 of lelder)
FG$ P$,)&9L5,2$ 6$&G0-
1he dlfference beLween measured value ($
%
) and predlcLed
value (&'
%
+ b), denoLed as (
%
, ls glven by (
%
) $
%
* +&'
%
, -./ Lhe
resldual of Lhe %
01
polnL.
%#
FG$ P$,)&9L5,2$ 6$&G0-
1he leasLsquares meLhod produces Lhe besL Lhrough Lhe
daLa of n polnLs, Lhus mlnlmlzlng sum of Lhe squares of Lhe
reslduals. 1he Lask ls Lhus Lo flnd a and b LhaL mlnlmlzes
a and b are deLermlned by dlfferenLlaLlng wlLh regard Lo
boLh a and b, seLLlng Lhe derlvaLlves equal Lo zero, namely,
%$
1he soluLlons for a and b are:
FG$ P$,)&9L5,2$ 6$&G0-
%%
nonllnear equaLlons Llnear ploL
y = ax
2
y vs x
2
y
2
= a(1/x) + b y
2
vs 1/x
1/y = a(x
2
- 4) 1/y vs (x
2
- 4)
Sln y = a(x + 3) Sln y vs (x + 3)
FG$ P$,)&9L5,2$ 6$&G0-
y = a*exp(bx) lny = lna + bx
y = ax
b
lny = lna + b*lnx
lf an lnlLlal equaLlon ls noL ln a proper form, lL can be rearranged.
%&
P0B,2'&G/'% 9%,7$)
y = a*exp(bx) lny = lna + bx y = ax
b
lny = lna + b*lnx
%'
A concenLraLlon C (mol/L) varles wlLh Llme L (mln) as C =
3.00*exp(2.00L).
(a)WhaL are Lhe unlLs of 3.00 and 2.00?
(b) Suppose Lhe concenLraLlon ls measured aL L = 0 and L = 1
mln. use 2polnL llnear lnLerpolaLlon Lo esLlmaLe C aL L =
0.6 mln and L aL C = 0.1 mol/L from Lhe measured value
and compare Lhese resulLs wlLh Lhe Lrue values of Lhese
quanLlLles.
(c) SkeLch a curve of C versus L, and show graphlcally Lhe
polnLs you deLermlned ln (b).
HE,/87$ (roblem 2.18 of lelder)
%(
(a) 3.00 mol/L, 2.00 mln
1
(b) L = 0 C = 3.00 exp[(2.00) (0)] = 3.00 mol/L
L = 1 C = 3.00 exp[(2.00) (1)] = 0.406 mol/L
lor L = 0.6 mln, use equaLlon:
2
%30
= 3.00 + (0.6 - 0) = 1.4 mol/L
2
4'&50
= 3.00 exp[(2.00)(0.6)] = 0.9 mol/L
0.406 - 3.00
1 - 0
%)
lor C = 0.10 mol/L:
0
%30
= (0.10 - 3.00) + 0 = 1.12 mln
1 0
0.406 3
0
4'&50
= = ) 1.70 mln

1
2.00
ln
C
3.00

1
2.00
ln
0.10
3.00
&*
HE,/87$ (roblem 2.40 of lelder)
A soluLlon conLalnlng a hazardous wasLe ls charged lnLo a
sLorage Lank and sub[ecLed Lo a chemlcal LreaLmenL, whlch
ls supposed Lo decompose Lhe wasLe lnLo harmless
producLs. 1he concenLraLlon of Lhe wasLe, C, has been
reporLed Lo vary wlLh Llme as C = 1/(a+bL). When sufflclenL
Llme has elapsed for C Lo drop Lo 0.0100 g/L, Lhe conLenLs of
Lhe Lank are dlscharged lnLo a rlver LhaL passes by Lhe planL.
1he followlng daLa are Laken for C and L:
F <G@ VWX YWX ZWX [WX \WX
C (g/L) 1.43 1.02 0.73 0.33 0.38
&!
(a) lf Lhe glven formula ls correcL, whaL ploL would yleld a
sLralghL llne LhaL would enable you Lo deLermlne a and b?
(b) LsLlmaLe a and b uslng Lhe leasLsquares meLhod. Check
Lhe goodness of flLLlng by generaLlng a ploL of C versus L
LhaL shows boLh Lhe measured and predlcLed value of C.
(c) uslng Lhe resulLs of parL (b), esLlmaLe Lhe lnlLlal
concenLraLlon of Lhe wasLe ln Lhe Lank and Lhe Llme
requlred for C Lo research lLs dlscharge level.
(d) ?ou should have very llLLle confldence ln Lhe Llme
esLlmaLed ln parL (c). Lxplaln why.
(e) 1here are oLher poLenLlal problems wlLh Lhe whole wasLe
dlsposal procedure. SuggesL several of Lhem.
&"
(a) 1/C vs L, slope = b, lnLercepL = a
(b) b = slope = 0.477 L/gh, a = lnLercepL = 0.0823 L/g
(c) C = 1/(a+bL) = 1/[0.0823+0.477(0)] = 12.2 g/L
L = (1/C - a)/b = (1/0.01 - 0.0823)/0.477 = 209 h
(d) L = 0 and C = 0.01 are ouL of Lhe range of Lhe experlmenLal daLa
(e) 1he concenLraLlon of Lhe hazardous subsLance could be enough
Lo cause damage Lo Lhe bloLlc resources ln Lhe rlver: Lhe LreaLmenL
requlres an exLremely large perlod of Llme.