114 Full

http://jme.sagepub.
com/
Education
Journal of Management
http://jme.sagepub.com/content/38/1/114
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/1052562913488110
May 2013
2014 38: 114 originally published online 20 Journal of Management Education
Janine L. Bowen
Emotion in Organizations: Resources for Business Educators
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
OBTS Teaching Society for Management Educators

can be found at: Journal of Management Education Additional services and information for
http://jme.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:
http://jme.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:
http://jme.sagepub.com/content/38/1/114.refs.html Citations:
at National School of Political on September 2, 2014 jme.sagepub.com Downloaded from at National School of Political on September 2, 2014 jme.sagepub.com Downloaded from
What is This?
- May 20, 2013 OnlineFirst Version of Record
- Jan 6, 2014 Version of Record >>

at National School of Political on September 2, 2014 jme.sagepub.com Downloaded from at National School of Political on September 2, 2014 jme.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Journal of Management Education
2014, Vol. 38(1) 114 142
The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1052562913488110
jme.sagepub.com
Research Article
Emotion in
Organizations: Resources
for Business Educators
Janine L. Bowen
1
Abstract
The study of emotion in organizations has advanced considerably in recent
years. Several aspects of this research area make calls for its translation into
business curricula particularly compelling. First, potential benefits to students
are significant. Second, important contributions to this scholarship often
come from the classroom. Third, emotions are part of the learning process
and, when aroused, improve learning and retention. Finally, given that the
study of emotion in organizations has become central to our understanding
of behavior at work, it is simply time to integrate current scholarly research
into education and practice. For all these reasons, this article has two aims:
to introduce business educators to the domain of emotion in organizations
for classroom use and to provide teaching resources to those starting to
integrate emotion into existing courses. References are provided for further
reading where discussion is necessarily abbreviated. Encouragement for
greater participation in the scholarship of teaching and learning in this area
is also provided.
Keywords
emotion in organizations, management education, experiential exercise,
emotional intelligence, emotional literacy, emotional contagion, emotional
climate, assessment
1
Goucher College, Baltimore, MD, USA
Corresponding Author:
Janine L. Bowen, Business Management Department, Goucher College, 1021 Dulaney Valley
Road, Baltimore, MD 21204, USA.
Email: jbowen@goucher.edu
488110JME38110.1177/1052562913488110Journal of Management EducationBowen
research-article2013
at National School of Political on September 2, 2014 jme.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Bowen 115
Introduction
In recent years, the study of emotion in organizations moved beyond its
infancy stage into what might be called adolescence. Interest since the 1980s
continues to grow such that there are now special issues of journals, edited
books, and book series on the subject (Ashkanasy, Dasborough, & Ascough,
2009; Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011; Barsade, Brief, & Spataro, 2003;
Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Brief & Weiss, 2002; Kautish, 2010). Fueling the
interest is a desire to provide managers with practical tools to work with emo-
tion rather than avoid or dismiss it (Ashkanasy, Hartel, & Zerbe, 2002). We
are getting closer, it appears, to fulfilling Stephen Finemans (1993) hope that
emotion become a normal feature of organizational studieswhere it rightly
belongs (p. 2).
Several aspects of this research area make calls for its translation into
business curricula particularly compelling. First, potential benefits to stu-
dents are significant. Content knowledge and skill acquisition in this area are
associated not only with workplace preparation in general, but more specifi-
cally with group performance, decision making, leadership development,
interpersonal relationships, and stress reduction. Second, important contribu-
tions to this scholarship often come from the classroom (e.g., Ashkanasy &
Dasborough, 2003; Clark, Callister, & Wallace, 2003; Esmond-Kiger, Tucker,
& Yost, 2006; Liu, Xu, & Weitz, 2011; Ozcelik & Paprika, 2010; Sheehan,
McDonald, & Spence, 2009; Walsh-Portillo, 2011) and more is needed.
Emotions pervade the classroom as they do the workplace. Business course
staples like team projects, workplace simulations, and classroom-as-organi-
zation pedagogies facilitate the mimicry, creating research laboratories
through which the field can advance. Third, emotions are part of the learning
process and, when aroused and brought to consciousness, may improve
knowledge retention and recall (R. B. Brown, 2000; Forgas, 1995; Raelin &
Raelin, 2011; Steidl, Mohi-uddin, & Anderson, 2006). Finally, given that the
study of emotion in organizations has moved beyond the infancy stage to
become central concepts in our understanding of behavior at work
(Ashkanasy et al., 2009, p. 162), it is time to perform one of our prime respon-
sibilities as business educators to integrate current scholarly research into
education and practice.
For all these reasons, this article has two aims: to introduce business edu-
cators to the domain of emotion in organizations for classroom use and to
provide teaching resources to those starting to integrate emotion into existing
courses. References are provided for further reading where discussion is nec-
essarily abbreviated. Encouragement for greater participation in the scholar-
ship of teaching and learning in this area is also provided.
116 Journal of Management Education 38(1)
An Introduction to Emotion and Emotion Theories
Business educators will find many theories and definitions of emotion from
which to choose for classroom use. This is because the nature of emotion has
been a matter of scientific debate for many years, with no end in sight.
Though the issues in question are innumerable, the role of cognition serves as
one relevant demarcation for the business classroom.
Some theories assert that there are basic emotions that are reflex-like,
requiring no evaluation or judgment, and are linked through evolution to the
instinctive behaviors of animals. Basic emotion refers to the affective pro-
cesses generated by evolutionarily old brain systems upon the sensing of an
ecologically valid stimulus (Izard, 2007, p. 261). Examples include fear,
anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, and surprise (Ekman, 1992; Levenson,
2011; Plutchik, 1980). The evolutionary hypothesis began with the work of
Charles Darwin (1872/1998) who searched for similarities in the expressions
of humans and animals, as well as across human cultures. Paul Ekman (1972)
and Carroll Izard (1971) likewise studied facial expressions and brought the
notion of basic emotions into modern times. Other major proponents include
Silvin Tomkins (1984), Robert Plutchik (1980), and Jaak Panksepp (1992).
As an illustration, students might imagine scenarios that would evoke the
same emotion in an animal, an infant, and an adult (e.g., eating a tasty treat or
a monster bursting through the door). Examples of facial expressions associ-
ated with basic emotions are easily found on the Internet for more entertain-
ing discussion.
Other theorists assert that cognition is a necessary element of emotion.
Examples include Lazarus and Folkman (1984), Frijda (1994), Roseman
(1984), and Scherer (2005). It is a cognitive process, they assert, whereby
information is manipulated (even at the unconscious level) that generates an
emotion response rather than a direct and automatic response to stimuli. And
it is the way in which information is manipulated (i.e., how an individual
evaluates or appraises the stimulus) that determines the emotion. The details
of appraisal systems account for many differences between theorists. The
intuitive appeal of cognitive appraisal theories may be illustrated for students
by considering scenarios whereby the same event (e.g., being laid-off) may
result in very different emotions in different people (e.g., anger or relief), or
why the same emotion (e.g., sadness) can be brought on by very different
scenarios. Hellriegel and Slocum (2010) present a model to students of how
cognition and emotions affect behavior and its use in industry. The process
starts with a goal that an individual is trying to accomplish (e.g., reaching a
sales or weight-loss target). Individuals tend to imagine (or are even asked to
imagine) the rewards that will come from attaining that goal (e.g., a bonus or
Bowen 117
more attractive clothing). These thoughts evoke anticipatory emotions that, if
intensive enough, will trigger goal-oriented behaviors. Depending on whether
the goal is achieved, outcome emotions will be either positive or negative.
Fortunately, the two camps need not be considered mutually exclusive.
Izard (2009), for example, distinguishes basic emotion episodes (which are
automatic and short-lived) from emotion schemas (which are emotions
interacting with cognitive processes to influence mind and behavior).
Appraisal processes provide the cognitive framework for the emotional com-
ponent of the emotion schemas. Furthermore, emotion schemas develop over
time, from infanthood, and can be altered by experience. The role of cogni-
tion is but one of many matters under debate by emotion researchers. Others
include the structure of emotion (whether emotions are discrete/categorical
or continuous/circumplex), the role of consciousness, and a wide range of
definitional and measurement issues. For the business educator, no single
theory (or even classification of theories) need be chosen above all others.
Each explains a different aspect of emotion and is applicable in processes
across the organization. Emotions potential multifacetedness suggests that
any one approach to understanding it will be just thatone approach
(Fineman, 2004, p. 721).
Terminology, therefore, should be kept in general but easily understood
terms for the business classroom. Those provided by Barsade and Gibson
(2007) are representative of current textbook and article findings. Emotions
are focused on a specific target or cause, are generally realized by the per-
ceiver of the emotion, are relatively intense, and are very short-lived. After
initial intensity, they can sometimes transform into a mood. Examples include
love, anger, hate, fear, jealousy, happiness, sadness, grief, rage, aggravation,
ecstasy, affection, joy, envy, and fright. Moods generally take the form of a
global positive or negative feeling, tend to be diffuse (not focused on a spe-
cific cause), and often are not realized by the perceiver of the mood. They are
of medium duration (from a few moments to as long as a few weeks or more).
Examples include feeling good, bad, negative, positive, cheerful, down,
pleasant, irritable, and so on. A dispositional (trait) affect is an overall person-
ality tendency to respond to situations in stable, predictable ways. It is a per-
sons affective lens on the world. For example, No matter what, hes always
in the same mood.
Content and Skill Areas
A conceptual model is useful to locate where and how emotions pervade the
workplace. Ashkanasy (2003) provides such a model of the five levels of
emotion in the workplace (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Five levels of emotions in organizations.
Source: Ashkanasy (2003).
Level 1: Within-Person Phenomena
Emotions originate within individuals. As discussed above, there are emo-
tions that appear to be instinctive, automatic responses to stimuli in the envi-
ronment (noncognitive), whereas others seem to be the result of how we
interpret and make meaning of external stimuli (cognitive). Educators who
wish to introduce students to contributions from neuroscience on this matter
will find the work of Antonio Damasio (1994) of interest. His somatic marker
hypothesis explains the biology of emotion and its important role in decision
making. Theories used in organizational studies more frequently come from
psychology with a heavy focus on cognition. Affective events theory (AET)
is a fitting organizational theory for the within-person level of discussion.
Developed by Weiss and Cropanzano in 1996, AET centers on the causes and
consequences of individuals moods and emotions in the workplace, such as
the relationship between affect and job satisfaction. Events at work (so-called
uplifts and hassles) cause emotional reactions, which, depending on per-
sonality and mood, affect the intensity of short-term behavior and influence
overall feelings about the job as they aggregate in the longer-term (Brief &
Weiss, 2002; Grandey, Tam, & Brauburger, 2002). For business educators,
Bowen 119
the theory offers useful framing of the relationships between work environ-
ment, work events, personal dispositions, emotional reactions, and various
outcomes, such as job satisfaction and job performance. Robbins and Judge
(2007) illustrate the theory for students by describing the emotional ups and
downs of anticipating layoffs and the effects on job performance and
satisfaction.
Level 2: Between-Person Differences
The Ashkanasy model graduates our focus from the emotional process within
an individual to the emotional differences between people. Differences in
trait affects, for example, might be illustrated by asking students if they know
anyone who always seems to wear rose colored glasses or perhaps is more
like Eeyore from Winnie-the-Pooh. A well-known model of positive and neg-
ative trait affect was developed by Watson and Tellegen (1985). They fall in
the continuous/circumplex camp of theorists who assert that each emotion is
a combination of two or three dimensions (in their case, positive and negative
affectivity). Because a person is believed to have some of both, the concep-
tual model has two axes, creating four quadrants. It is measured with the
Positive Affect Negative Affect Scale, a 20-item questionnaire developed
with a sample of undergraduates and validated with adult populations
(Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
For business educators, perhaps the most widely known theory used to
explain emotion differences between people is emotional intelligence (EI). EI
became popularized in the business world in the 1990s (Goleman, 1995;
Salovey & Mayer, 1990). As noted by Druskat and Wolff (2008), Controversy
over EI stems mostly from the abrupt speed with which it entered the litera-
ture, which was due to its almost instant popularity (p. 442). Researchers
debate and work to resolve definitional issues (e.g., whether EI is a set of
specific abilities or a broader mix of motivational and dispositional charac-
teristics), appropriate measurement instruments (which depend on the defini-
tion and whether subjects self-assess), and matters of mutability (i.e., the
extent to which EI can be taught). For classroom purposes, Ashkanasy et al.
(2009) argue that only the ability-based approach of Salovey and Mayer
should be taught, except for comparison purposes, because other approaches
lack a well-defined, organized construct. The associated abilities test is the
MSCEIT (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test; Mayer,
Salovey, & Caruso, 2002).
Empirical studies support a positive relationship between EI and various
outcomes, such as leadership effectiveness (Dasborough, Thomas, & Bowler,
2007; George, 2000; Kellett, Humphrey, & Sleeth, 2006; Kerr, Garvin,
Heaton, & Boyle, 2006; Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2000; Pescosolido,
2002; Pirola-Merlo, Hartel, Mann, & Hirst, 2002; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005;
Wolff, Pescosolido, & Druskat, 2002; Wong & Law, 2002), job satisfaction
and performance (Joseph & Newman, 2010; OBoyle, Humphrey, Pollack,
Hawver, & Story, 2011), team performance (Ashkanasy & Dasborough,
2003; Chang, Sy, & Choi, 2012), conflict resolution (Foo, Elfenbein, Tan, &
Aik, 2004; Jordan & Troth, 2004), and other workplace outcomes. As
described by Barsade and Gibson (2007), EI is a nascent field, theoretically
and methodologically. . . . We predict the construct of EI, particularly if
deconstructed into its component parts (e.g., the four factors), will ultimately
have much to offer our understanding of organizational life (pp. 40-41). The
four factors they refer to are from the Mayer and Salovey (1997) definition of
EI: (a) ability to perceive emotion, both in self and in others; (b) ability to
assimilate emotion into cognitive processes underlying thought; (c) ability to
understand emotion and its consequences; and (d) ability to manage and
thereby to regulate emotion in self and others. Cote and Hideg (2011) are
among those suggesting additional abilities contribute to EI. Their work
focuses on the differences in peoples ability to influence others through
emotion displays. Fortunately for business educators, published classroom
exercises and assignments designed to enhance EI, or emotion skills more
generally, are increasingly common, across a wide variety of business courses
and will be reviewed below.
Level 3: Interpersonal Exchanges
Following within-person processes and between-person differences,
Ashkanasys model moves next to emotional effects from dyadic exchanges.
People often try to increase, maintain, or decrease some part of their emo-
tional display in reaction to each other, which is called emotion regulation
(Gross, 1999). Examples include the salesperson who amplifies his display of
happiness to improve sales or the attorney who amplifies displeasure to affect
negotiations. When the act is done by an employee to comply with organiza-
tional demands (display rules), it is known as emotional labor (Hochschild,
1983). The difference between a felt emotion and the emotion an employee is
expected to display creates emotional dissonance. In response, the employee
may engage in surface acting (hiding inner feelings in response to display
rules) or deep acting (trying to modify inner feelings to be consistent with
display rules). Surface acting means altering how (or how much) an emotion
is displayed after it is fully felt and has been associated with psychological
ill-effects on the employee, such as emotional exhaustion, psychological
strain, and psychosomatic complaints (Beal, Trougakos, Weiss, & Green,
Bowen 121
2006; Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee, 2002; Grandey,
2003; Grandey, Fisk, & Steiner, 2005; Holman, Chissick, & Totterdell, 2002;
Hulsheger & Schewe, 2011; Pugliesi, 1999). Deep acting, on the other hand,
requires altering how one appraises an event or stimuli to change the result-
ing emotion. Students may be reminded of cognitive appraisal theories of
emotion here. There are many fascinating studies of the consequences of sur-
face and deep acting, as well as the nature and sources of display rules (e.g.,
Bolton & Boyd, 2003; Callahan, 2002; Coupland, Brown, Daniels, &
Humphreys, 2008; Hulsheger & Schewe, 2011; Kramer & Hess, 2002; Miller,
Considine, & Garner, 2007; Rafaeli & Sutton, 2009; Tumbat, 2011). In-class
discussion of the findings can provide further nuance to the theory and are
highly relevant to students lives. The theory helps students recognize the
sources of display rules at work, the roles they themselves play as employees
and supervisors in the process, and possible consequences of prolonged emo-
tional dissonance for themselves and others.
Level 4: Group-Level Phenomenon
There is considerable research on emotion at the group level of analysis.
Most of it centers on the dynamics between leaders and followers and the
phenomenon of emotional contagion. Emotional contagion is the process by
which people influence the emotions of others by displaying their own emo-
tions and behaviors, consciously or unconsciously (Schoenewolf, 1990).
Beyond leadership courses, the topic is relevant in any business course that
uses team projects (which are typically designed to mimic workplace teams).
One place to start is the early work of Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson (1992,
1994), who focused on interpersonal connections, such as the way people
mimic facial, vocal, and postural expressions; the varying abilities people
have to infect others; and their varying levels of susceptibility. Empirical
studies continue today from many disciplines such as animal research and
psychology. The study of leader and follower affect and emotions, more spe-
cifically, is relatively new. Key findings thus far are reported by Ashkanasy et
al. (2009), including that team emotion is promulgated through emotional
contagion (Barsade, 2002); team leaders communicate emotional states in
their followers (Sy, Cote, & Saavedra, 2005); leadermember exchange rela-
tionships have an impact on teammember exchange relationships (Seers,
1989), in a process involving group and team member affect (Tse &
Dasborough, 2008; Tse, Dasborough, & Ashkanasy, 2008); team members
emotional states affect their leaders affective states and effectiveness (Tee &
Ashkanasy, 2007); and teams develop the ability to recognize emotion as a
group (Elfenbein, Polzer, & Ambady, 2007), all of which provides rich and
highly relevant material for the business classroom.
Level 5: Organization-Wide Phenomenon
The organizational level of analysis is the least researched facet of emotions
in organizations to date, but arguably with the greatest potential (Ashkanasy
& Cooper, 2008, p. 11). For the business classroom, it is an opportunity for
students to learn about emotional climate in the workplace, which is distinct
from organizational culture. Emotional climate is the present social environ-
ment in the organization as perceived by the members of the organization
(Yurtsever & De Rivera, 2010, p. 502). Organizational culture, on the other
hand, is more stable over time as leaders and members come and go. Another
distinction is that climate can vary across sites of an organization whereas
culture does not (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003). Emotional climate may be
less amenable to experiential exercises in the classroom, but a wide range of
reflective exercises that make use of students past experiences (see below)
can be very effective. Scholars are looking at ways to measure emotional
climate in organizations by separating it into eight emotional processes: secu-
rity, insecurity, confidence, depression, anger, love, fear, and trust (Yurtsever
& De Rivera, 2010). The descriptions and nuances of these eight processes
can facilitate productive discussion with students. Recent work by Sekerka
and Fredrickson (2008) and Hartel (2008) focus on how to build positive
emotional climates. For those interested in bringing the topic into the strate-
gic management classroom, Huy (2008) explains how emotions can enhance
strategic agility while Kumar (2008) describes the role of emotional dynam-
ics in strategic alliances.
Teaching Resources
To further aid business educators with integration of workplace emotion into
their courses, published classroom exercises and pedagogical approaches
were reviewed and are summarized below. Table 1 organizes them according
to the primary activity involved. Along the vertical axis are the levels of
Ashkanasys model to indicate how exercises might best be used to demon-
strate a particular content and skill area. Most exercises are highly adaptable,
however, to fit a given instructors objectives regarding emotion in
organizations.
Bowen 123
Mining Past Experience
As indicated in Table 1, using student reflection on past experience to illus-
trate emotion in organizations (at Levels 1 and 2) is a method provided by
Finan (2004), Litvin and Betters-Reed (2005), and McNeely (2000). They
point out that even undergraduates with limited work histories have consider-
able life experience from which to draw. Finan and McNeely draw out orga-
nizational experiences specifically through writing assignments, while Litvin
and Betters-Reed ask students to create a personal map based on significant
experiences that helped create their sense of self. Examples include collages,
model homes, and other three-dimensional constructs, poetry, and so on. The
authors detail each step of the assignments, when and how reference material
is introduced, steps for reflection and sharing in groups, debriefing tips, and
the like. Among their learning objectives are to surface students theories-in-
use, to give them confidence about what they already know, and to identify
questions that theory might answer. Evidence is provided to suggest that they
also increased reading of assigned material, increased interest in the course,
and improved learning retention. Not all were designed with emotion skills as
a specific learning outcome but all are perfectly suited to illustrate concepts
from AET and/or EI. R. B. Brown (2003) also draws on previous experience
in one of three exercises that are useful in conveying a sense of the basic
Table 1. Teaching Resources for Emotion in Organizations.
Teaching Resources for Emotion in Organizations
Model
Level
1
Within Person
2
Between
Person
3
Interpersonal
4
Group
5
Organizational
Brown
Myers &
Tucker
Boje
Reilly
Lewicki
et al.
Ozcelik &
Paprika
Pittenger &
Heimann
Sheehan et
al.
Miles et al.
Lindsay
Dugal &
Eriksen
Gibson
Brown
Finan
Litvin &
Beers-
Reed
McNeely
Brown
Past
Experience
Self
Assessment
Stories &
Cases
Drama Negotiations Classroom As
Organization
LTE
Myers &
Tucker
Brown
Ferris
Raelin &
Raelin
Huffaker &
West
Boggs et al.
Cross-cultural
exchanges
precepts of EI to students and in helping develop skills in emotionally intel-
ligent behavior (p. 122). With emphasis on interpersonal exchanges, it can
be used to illustrate Level 3 of Ashkanasys model. It involves journaling
about incidents that were emotionally charged to build awareness of how
often emotions are evoked and their effects on behavior. After stories are
shared in small groups, the instructor facilitates creation of a master list of
emotions and a guided discussion about EI concepts. Dugal and Eriksen
(2004) also draw on previous experience but use selected quotes from
assigned text as the starting point from which students produce personal
interpretations and personal experiences that embody the meaning of the
quote. The emotional content of the experience is also shared between stu-
dents. The exercise is highly structured and has been used in undergraduate,
MBA, and PhD courses, including leadership and organizational develop-
ment, leadership and team building, cross-cultural management, international
management, and strategy. (Because instructors select the text and quotes, the
exercise can be used for any level of the organizational model.) Gibsons
(2006) exercise, titled Emotional Episodes at Work, targets the highest
level of emotion in organizations. Student reflection on emotional episodes
from their work lives leads to discussion about how organizations generate
display rules and the implications for individual and organizational effective-
ness. The purpose of this exercise is to emphasize emotions as a central,
rather than hidden, part of work life (p. 477).
Self-Assessment
Myers and Tucker (2005) provide a series of in- and out-of-class assignments
to increase awareness of EI in a business communications course. The first
part of the series includes completing an EI assessment, reading a short book
on EI, creating an EI self-improvement plan, and journaling student progress
on the plan weekly. The assigned book, Emotional Intelligence at Work
(Weisinger, 1998), is based on Salovey and Meyers EI theory and includes a
45-item scale to test EI. They report that the scale has been shown to have
reliable scores in two research studies of college students (Tucker, Yost,
Kirch, Cutright, & Esmond-Kiger, 2002; Yost, Tucker, & Barone, 2001) (p.
47). Similarly, R. B. Brown (2003) uses self-assessment as a conclusion to a
series of exercises designed to teach EI. She asks students to write a short
self-appraisal based on Golemans (1995) four components of EI: How do
you appraise yourself in the areas of (a) self-discipline and delayed gratifica-
tion, (b) emotional awareness and self-control, (c) optimism, and (d) empa-
thy (p. 131). Students are further asked to reflect on which skill area needs
most improvement for future career success and ways by which the area can
Bowen 125
be strengthened. Both exercises help students reflect on within-person pro-
cesses, as well as differences in EI, making it suitable for addressing Levels
1 and 2 of the Ashkanasy model.
Storytelling and Case Writing
The power of good storytelling, particularly by corporate leaders, has filled
business periodicals since at least the 1980s. How-to books for executive
officers, branding managers, corporate trainers, and others continue to flour-
ish (e.g., Denning, 2011; Fog, Budtz, Munch, & Blanchette, 2010; Gargiulo,
2006, Guber, 2011; Lipman, 2006; Maxwell & Dickman, 2007; Parkin, 2010;
Simmons, 2007; Simmons & Lipman, 2006). Management scholars explore
the role of storytelling across a variety of industries and organizational con-
texts (A. A. Brown, 2010; Escalfoni, Braganholo, & Borges, 2011; Sanne,
2008; Tobin & Snyman, 2008). For classroom use, experiential teaching
handbooks often include storytelling (e.g., Alterio & McDrury, 2003; Beard
& Wilson, 2006; Silberman, 2007), including one specifically for business
educators (Reynolds & Vince, 2007). In practice, however, storytelling is not
a common teaching technique in the business classroom (except to the extent
formal case studies are considered a form of storytelling).
But for teaching about emotion in organizations, storytelling offers many
advantages. Boje (1991) advocates storytelling to strengthen a subset of lead-
ership skills that include accurately interpreting what people are experiencing
and translating those experiences into powerful stories that can affect
others.
Students conduct interviews with outside business people and are given
considerable guidance on storytelling techniques to bring emotion to life.
Similarly, Morgan and Dennehy (2004) have pairs and trios of students tell a
story, listen carefully, and then retell others stories in hope of building skills
in telling, listening, being empathetic, and noticing cues in emotion and body
language. Storytelling exercises such as these are creative vehicles for teach-
ing emotion issues at Levels 2 (between-person differences), 3 (interpersonal
exchanges), and 4 (group phenomena) of Ashkanasys model. The act of
interviewing another about emotional experiences at the workplace, and
understanding what is heard well enough to craft a story, is practice in emo-
tion skill in and of itself, which can be explicitly linked to EI (Level 2) at the
instructors discretion. Interview or story topics (e.g., recalling experiences
with emotional dissonance) can also be tailored by the instructor to reinforce
learning of interpersonal phenomena (Level 3). When stories are shared with
other students (and listened to by groups of students), the phenomenon of
emotional contagion and leaderfollower dynamics become evident. Most
students will recognize that a story well told can emotionally affect a large
group and potentially move them to action.
There is a similar approach described by Myers and Tucker (2005), but
students create case studies based on outside business interviews rather than
tell the stories of their interviewees (making it fitting for Levels 2 and 3, but
not 4). Like the others, this exercise is highly structured and time-intensive,
but requires less class time. Components of the assignment include prepara-
tory readings, identifying a businessperson interviewee, developing inter-
view questions based on Weisingers (1998) assessment scale, evoking
examples of difficult conversations with leaders during the interview, analyz-
ing the interview data, and developing a case study. The case study incorpo-
rates assigned readings and the students recommendations for how
communication between the interviewee and his/her leader can be improved.
As noted by the authors, this type of primary research, analysis, and synthesis
enhances the business curriculum by building student knowledge of EI (p.
50), as well as other content areas associated with emotion in organizations
as determined by the instructor.
Drama
The arts increasingly inspire new forms of experiential learning in the busi-
ness classroom. Role-playing, for example, is most common among pub-
lished approaches to teaching emotion in organizations. Myers and Tucker
(2005) ask students to analyze a hypothetical workplace scenario, using EI
concepts, before practicing and eventually performing a role-play of the main
characters. Other students are used as coaches who may interject comments
or suggestions during the role-play. R. B. Browns (2003) approach adds an
element of surprise and spontaneity because students who will, in turn, play
one of the central characters are removed from the room before the role-
playing begins. The entire class participates, playing members of the organi-
zation in the scenario, and discuss in advance the tack they will take with the
character who has yet to enter. In that way, the student entering the scene
belatedly will experience spontaneous emotions during the role-play, react to
them, and demonstrate emotional consequences for other students to witness.
Those playing other central characters will also directly experience spontane-
ous emotion as behaviors may be directed to them specifically. Ferriss (2009)
approach is similar to Browns in that a small number of main characters
actually feel certain emotions during the role play; however, other students
serve as observers (rather than participants) and complete feedback sheets to
facilitate an analysis of what happened through concepts of EI. Ferriss
example is also unique because it can be used in traditional, blended learning,
Bowen 127
or online courses, using a webcam and electronic blackboard system. A writ-
ten paper assignment follows the experience. Raelin and Raelin (2011) have
students construct their own dramatic scenes, based on a given emotion, and
later discuss whether the impact was beneficial.
Further on the continuum of arts-based learning is Huffaker and Wests
(2005) use of improvisational forms in a business class. They report on events
from one particular course, enrolled by undergraduate and MBA students,
and provide instructions for three easily implemented improv forms for oth-
ers to try. In their view, benefits to improv are unique because participates
must shut off their internal critics, become intensely focused and present,
and listen carefully (p. 854). Also, when students spontaneously move from
intuition to acting, without thinking, self-revelations can contribute to a skill
set different than the cognitive, judgment-driven discrimination typically
honed in the business classroom (p. 862). Source materials for the improvi-
sations are easily customized to fit any content area or organization level
where emotion in the workplace occurs. Finally, interactive drama is also
being used by business educators. Boggs, Mickel, and Bolton (2007) and
their colleagues have reportedly incorporated interactive drama in more than
500 classroom sessions for more than 17,000 students. It differs from role-
playing or improv by using trained actors, which allows students to view the
scene as though it were actually happening. The authors provide empirical
evidence to support the soundness of this technique for student learning,
Because the vivid scenes are so memorable, the students are able later to
connect them effectively to management theory or their own experiences in
reflective journals or other written assessments (p. 832). The authors pro-
vide sample scripts, including the following: Corporate Culture, Executive
Decision Making and Crisis Communication, Discrimination in the
Workplace, and Ethics in Negotiation, all of which are a good fit for incorpo-
rating emotion in organizations into the classroom.
All six of the drama-based exercises provide considerable latitude for
instructors to target emotion at any of the five organizational levels. When
crafting (or even just watching) a dramatic scene, for example, students may
be asked to focus on the causes and consequences of any one characters
moods and emotions in the workplace (reinforcing the concepts of AET at
Level 1). Acting out (or witnessing) differences in trait affects or components
of EI serves to illustrate emotional differences between people (Level 2).
Scripted or spontaneous emotional reactions between characters can easily be
emphasized to demonstrate the interpersonal level of emotion in organiza-
tions (Level 3), while the potential for one characters emotion displays to
affect the feelings and behaviors of a larger group illustrates emotional con-
tagion and other Level 4 phenomena. Finally, dramatic scenes of real or
hypothetical organizations with palpable emotional climates and display
rules can be used to teach emotion at the organization-wide level (Level 5).
Instructors who want to delve deeper into students skills at handling high-
stakes emotional dialogues at work may benefit from the latest edition of
Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When Stakes Are High (Patterson,
Grenny, McMillan, & Switzler, 2012).
Negotiation
Negotiation simulations are a form of role-playing but are distinct because
students focus on achieving a particular outcome, which they interpret as
personal accomplishment. Reilly (2005) shares his use of a negotiation simu-
lation for teaching the theory and practice of EI to law students. He argues
that not only law schools but also all professional degree-granting programs
should make training in emotion a curriculum staple. He details one simu-
lated negotiation exercise, known as Charlene Walker. Key characters
include Ms. Walker, a low-income mother of three, her attorney, a social
worker, and an assistant city attorney. Raw emotions tend to come quickly
to the fore, which seem to almost take the student actors by surprise (p.
305). Before long, play-acting transforms into genuine emotional behaviors
and responses. The debriefing includes discussion of EI with the aim of tran-
sitioning students away from a win-at-all-costs approach (and the high
emotion it evokes) to a mindset that encourages creativity, open mindedness,
and joint problem solving. He hopes for students to see negotiation as a form
of conversation and, therefore, every conversation a potential negotiation.
Given how common formal and informal negotiations are within any organi-
zation, Reillys materials are easily modified to fit most any business course,
whether to teach EI, emotional contagion, or other phenomena found at the
second and third levels of Ashkanasys model. In fact, many published nego-
tiation simulations can be transplanted to other courses where the emotion of
organizations is under study (e.g., Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2009).
Cross-Cultural Exchanges
Similar to Reillys concern that emotion education is missing from law
courses, Ozcelik and Paprika (2010) find it lacking from cross-cultural busi-
ness courses. Cross-cultural interactions are inherently emotional because of
heightened uncertainty. This is due, in part, to differing norms regarding
how, when, and where people should express their emotions (p. 673). As one
remedy, Ozcelik and Paprika devised a videoconferencing approach to
develop emotional awareness in cross-cultural communication. It is ideally
Bowen 129
suited for teaching concepts from Levels 1 to 3 for the multinational organi-
zation, or the organization with cross-border business dealings. In short, busi-
ness students in Budapest and northern California conducted a simulated
negotiation (based on a real-life case study) via videoconferencing.
Participants and observers were surveyed immediately thereafter, and after a
few days, about the emotions evoked and their role in the outcome. A shared
viewing, analysis, and discussion of the videotape are also included, along
with follow-up writing assignments. Real-time webcam connections (e.g.,
Windows Live Messenger) make this approach accessible to many business
educators interested in helping students explore the role of emotion in orga-
nizations operating across borders.
A low-technology option for teaching emotional awareness in cross-cul-
tural settings (which can be done in as little as 50 minutes) is a game called
Barnga. The fairly simple card game simulates a form of culture shock as
players move between groups who appear to be playing the same game but
are actually playing under different rules. Emotions quickly run high and are
aggravated by the fact that players cannot speak. During the debriefing ses-
sion, students quite easily make the connection between their experiences
during the simulation and those of businesspeople operating cross-culturally.
They also learn a great deal about their own emotional responses in uncertain
circumstances and potential consequences from their behavior (making it fit-
ting for teaching Levels 1-3 of Ashkanasys model). The game can be used in
a variety of courses, including organizational behavior, diversity manage-
ment, cross-cultural communication, international business, and so on
(Pittenger & Heimann, 1998).
Classroom as Organization
The Classroom as Organization (CAO) approach is promoted by Sheehan et
al. (2009) to develop emotional competency among students in any business
course with project-based activities, such as organizing a conference, a major
celebration (e.g., Earth Day), or a community service event. They employ
CAO pedagogy in a sport event management course whereby students man-
age and market a basketball festival on campus. The first learning outcome is
for students to gain content knowledge about event management, such as
budgeting, operations, marketing, and so on. The other is for students to
develop emotional competencies necessary to manage themselves and others
in an organizational setting. Specifically, these include the following: (a) self-
awareness, knowing ones internal states, preferences, resources, and intu-
itions; (b) self-management, managing ones internal states, impulses, and
resources; (c) social awareness, awareness of others feelings, needs, and
concerns; and (d) relationship management, adeptness at inducing desirable
responses in others (Goleman, 2001). Detail is provided on how the course
operates as an organization, with students assigned to functional departments,
wherein they create organizational norms and policies and set their own
agendas and goals.
To summarize, designing a course that simulates a functioning organization
promotes the establishment of a learning environment where students are exposed
to a high volume of interactions from which they can learn and develop emotional
competency. In addition, the course is more likely to contribute to students
emotional competency if they assume ownership, are emotionally invested, and
are committed to a core purpose and a set of core values. (p. 84)
Writing assignments help connect experiences to selected theory and concepts,
while exit interviews further assess student learning for the instructor. To assess
the approach more formally, a quasi-experimental posttest-only design was
employed, using two comparable courses being offered at the same university.
Quantitative and qualitative results collectively highlight the greater impact of
the CAO approach compared to traditional lecture and discussion approaches
on students emotional competency development (p. 91).
Another option for business educators who are interested in the CAO
approach, but for whom a real-life project is not available or appropriate, is
The Organization Game (Miles, Randolph, & Kemery, 1993). Though it is
now out of print and its paper-and-pen technology may seem antiquated, used
copies of the manual are still available online, and the 6-week simulation
remains a remarkably powerful tool, providing a realistic setting for experi-
encing and understanding emotions in a complex organization. The instructor
manual provides guidance on handling inevitably emotional outcomes.
Online business simulations are increasingly common and may also be con-
sidered. Given that the CAO approach encompasses the entirety of an organi-
zation, it can be used to teach emotion at all levels of Ashkanasys model. The
caveat provided by Sheehan et al. (2009), however, is that the course must be
designed, implemented and consistently managed to reinforce desired learn-
ing outcomes beyond the development of cognitive skill sets (p. 94). That is,
the teaching of emotion in organizations requires intentionality and careful
planning.
Learning Through Emotion
Finally, Lindsay (1992) provides not so much a classroom method or tech-
nique as a general approach to teaching called learning through emotion
Bowen 131
(LTE). LTE is based on the premise that the emotions experienced in class
(by the instructor and students) are similar to what would be felt in other
organizational settings and thus are valid data about organizational reality.
Course design is much like it would be for any course, with lectures, read-
ings, and standard exercises from assigned texts. But the schedule is kept
flexible so that when emotions are expressed (such as frustration over test
grades) they can become the basis of classroom discussion and analysis. In
addition to flexibility, course design includes experiential exercises to pro-
vide ample opportunity for trust building and emotion displays. Lindsay
argues that exercises meant to evoke particular emotions be avoided. Only
the naturally occurring, spontaneous emotions occurring in a particular
semester are addressed, making each course highly personalized. As an
example, Lindsay herself spontaneously presented herself to the class as a
case study subject who was struggling with motivational issues. Students
were invited to serve as consultants, and through their questions, explored a
range of personal issues and emotions surrounding her professional motiva-
tion (or lack thereof). Afterward, students wrote consultant reports using
theory to explain her motivational problems.
Lindsay asserts that LTE goes beyond teaching that emotions exist at work
and have an effect on performance because it focuses on current emotional
involvement in the class experience. Although she uses LTE in organizational
behavior courses, it may be considered for any course where emotion in orga-
nizations is among the learning objectives. Because any given course is likely
to evoke emotions within individuals, create exchanges of emotion between
individuals, and contain emotions passed from a leader/instructor to the
group, it is applicable to Levels 1 to 4 of Ashkanasys model. As mentioned
by R. B. Brown (2003), LTE is risky and requires high levels of trust, and
perhaps is best used after the topics of emotion at work and EI have been
introduced.
Discussion
The review of published classroom exercises and pedagogical approaches
was provided as a resource for business educators who are starting to inte-
grate emotion into existing courses. The examples need not be taken whole-
sale into a given class session but rather are highly malleable to suit the
instructors goals and learning objectives. Large schools, with business fac-
ulty dedicated to one or few areas of expertise, may be more likely to desig-
nate one or two courses (e.g., Organizational Behavior or Diversity in the
Workplace) to cover the material. Smaller schools, with a given faculty mem-
ber covering a much broader range of courses, may be more likely to
integrate the material in smaller doses across the business curriculum (not
unlike the introduction of international and environmental issues in years
past). In any case, Raelin and Raelin (2011) encourage business educators to
steer away from previous tendencies to teach students that emotion in organi-
zations should be marginalized, controlled, or even fabricated for personal
gain. Rather, they should encourage students to engage in direct emotional
expression, followed by a dialogue about the advantages and disadvantages
of emotional cognitization and control (p. 21).
The value and importance of that dialogue, or debriefing, make it worthy
of elaboration, particularly because emotions in the classroom can run high.
Instructors are encouraged to set and communicate clear goals for the debrief.
For example, does the instructor intend to debrief emotions only, which is not
about establishing facts of an incident but rather just expressing feelings? Or
is it also to reinforce learning of course material? Whatever the goals, ground
rules should be established (time permitting, with student input), such as no
interrupting, no name calling, attentive and respectful listening, and so on.
Instructors can facilitate the process with preplanned questions to prompt
discussion. Examples include the following: What emotions did you experi-
ence during the exercise? What new learning took place? What things you
already knew took on new meaning? Why do you think this exercise was
selected for this material? How does the exercise connect to real business
organizations? If conflict emerges during the debrief, instructors need to be
prepared to respond. That might include helping students distinguish between
dialogue and debate, reframing student comments so they are less personal,
taking a time-out to allow tempers to cool, and/or asking students to stop and
reflect their thoughts in writing before continuing with discussion. As the
discussion develops, instructors might write categories on the board (such as
personal reactions, events, problems, intended learning outcomes, etc.;
Burgess, 2007; Fritzsche, Leonard, Boscia, & Anderson, 2004).
When exercises and simulations go well, it can sometimes seem that a
debriefing is not necessary. But without the debrief, classroom exercises
become isolated experiences rather than opportunities for insight into real
organizational settings. And if things did not go smoothly and there were seri-
ous emotional reactions, learning may be compromised without effective
debriefing.
Educators using interactive exercises to teach emotion in organizations for
the first time should also give thought to how learning will be assessed. Informal
approaches may be appropriate in the early stages. Classroom Assessment
Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers (Angelo & Cross, 1993) pro-
vides a comprehensive guide. CATs differ from formal approaches to assess-
ment because they are formative rather than evaluative or summative. That is,
Bowen 133
their purpose is to improve the quality of student learning, not to provide evi-
dence for evaluating students. Angelo and Cross offer 50 distinct CATs from
which to choose, including 14 specifically for assessing learner attitudes, val-
ues, and self-awareness. The development of emotion skills goes beyond the
cognitive processes with which business educators are most familiar. Therefore,
new approaches to student learning assessment may also be needed.
Turning Teaching Into Scholarship
Emotion in organizations as a field of study has benefitted significantly from
the scholarship of teaching and learning. For example, some have addressed
the question of EI mutability. Ashkanasy and Dasborough (2003) used an
undergraduate leadership course to determine that interest in, and knowledge
of, EI predicted team performance. Similarly, Esmond-Kiger et al. (2006)
learned from their accounting students that prior exposure to the concept of
EI, in turn, affected EI levels. More recently, Sheehan et al. (2009) found that
the type of instruction (CAO vs. lecture) was associated with emotional com-
petency development. Others have used the classroom to explore the relation-
ship between EI and academic success (e.g., Barchard, 2003; Le, Casillas,
Robbins, & Langley, 2005; Liu et al., 2011; Walsh-Portillo, 2011).
Business faculty are uniquely positioned to contribute more to the research
domain of emotion in organizations because course staples like team proj-
ects, workplace simulations, CAO approaches, and the like mimic real orga-
nizational activities, turning classrooms into research laboratories. Applying
EI concepts to team performance (e.g., the role of individual EI vs. team EI
and performance outcomes) is one area for exploration. Replication of stud-
ies across schools would also be helpful. Theories beyond EI can also be
addressed. And given that an internship experience often accompanies busi-
ness program requirements, the effects of classroom teaching about emotion
can be followed through to real work performance. There is also the largely
untouched area of emotion and teaching in higher education. Do instructors
engage in emotional labor? If so, what are the effects? Do instructor emotion
skills lead to more effective teaching? What is the role of classroom emo-
tional contagion between instructor and students and how does it affect stu-
dent performance, or instructor performance?
As previously mentioned, business educators new to the domain may
begin with informal assessments to gauge and improve the effects of class-
room teaching on student learning. Scholarship of teaching and learning
about emotion in organizations is the next logical step as informal assess-
ments can graduate to become more formal measurements of student learning
and performance in business-like situations (e.g., team projects).
Conclusion
The notion that emotions permeate organizations, and affect individual,
group, and organizational performance, is not up for debate. The next ques-
tion is, Do we know enough about those effects to bring them into our cur-
ricula? The introductory domain review provided here allows business
educators to answer affirmatively. The study of emotion in organizations,
though fairly new, has advanced sufficiently for business educators to trans-
late its most important findings into the classroom.
Although knowledge about emotion in organizations is necessary, it is not
sufficient. Skill building is also needed. For that reason, a comprehensive
review of experiential teaching exercises was also provided. They address
emotion at all levels of the organization, in many cases have been tested for
teaching effectiveness, and provide variety in classroom activity. The chal-
lenge they present, however, is that they are often designed to evoke emotion.
Faculty members, like managers, have long viewed emotion as something to
marginalize. If we are to teach students (i.e., future managers) that emotion is
to be understood and addressed directly as an informative resource, then we
have to lead by example in our classrooms. Faculty themselves have not nec-
essarily been trained in emotion skills. They will, in some ways, be students
in their own classrooms. For this reason, it may be wise to begin with reflec-
tive exercises before tackling exercises that evoke high emotion in real time.
Preplanned debriefing sessions are also strongly encouraged.
It has been the aim of this article to arm business faculty with the knowl-
edge and tools needed to better prepare students for the emotional processes
embedded in every organization. In doing so, faculty will also be equipped to
contribute new knowledge to the domain through their own scholarship of
teaching and learning.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Goucher
College and the Atchinson Fund.
References
Alterio, R., & McDrury, J. (2003). Learning through storytelling in higher educa-
tion: Using reflection and experience to improve learning. Oxford, England:
Routledge.
Bowen 135
Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook
for college teachers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ashkanasy, N. M. (2003). Emotion in organizations: A multilevel perspective. In F.
Dansrereau & F. J. Yammarino (Eds.), Research in multi-level issues: Multi-
level issues in organizational behavior and strategy (Vol. 2, pp. 9-54). Oxford,
England: Elsevier/JAI Press.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Cooper, C. L. (2008). Introduction. In N. M. Ashkanasy & C.
L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion in organizations (pp. 1-15).
Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2003). Emotional awareness and emotional
intelligence in leadership teaching. Journal of Education in Business, 79, 18-22.
Ashkanasy, N. M., Dasborough, M. Y., & Ascough, K. W. (2009). Developing lead-
ers: Teaching about emotional intelligence and training in emotional skills. In S.
J. Armstrong & C. V. Fukami (Eds.), The Sage handbook of management learn-
ing, education and development (pp. 161-183). London, England: Sage.
Ashkanasy, N. M., Hartel, C. E. J, & Zerbe, W. J. (2002). What are the management
tools that come out of this? In N. M. Ashkanasy, W. J. Zerbe, & C. E. J. Hartel
(Eds.), Managing emotions in the workplace (pp. 285-296). New York, NY: M.E.
Sharpe.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Humphrey R. H. (2011). Current emotion research in organiza-
tional behavior. Emotion Review, 3, 214-224.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Nicholson, G. J. (2003). Climate of fear in organizational set-
tings: Construct definition, measurement, and a test of theory. Australian Journal
of Psychology, 55, 24-29.
Barchard, K. A. (2003). Does emotional intelligence assist in the prediction of aca-
demic success? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 840-858.
Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on
group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644-675.
Barsade, S. G., Brief, A. P., & Spataro, S. E. (2003). The affective revolution in
organizational behavior: The emergence of a paradigm. In J. Greenberg (Ed.),
Organizational behavior: The state of the science (pp. 3-52). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Barsade, S. G., & Gibson, D. E. (2007). Why does affect matter in organizations?
Academy of Management Perspectives, 21, 36-59.
Beal, D. J., Trougakos, J. P., Weiss, H. M., & Green, S. G. (2006). Episodic processes
in emotional labor: Perceptions of affective delivery and regulation strategies.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1053-1063.
Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2006). Experiential learning: A best practice handbook for
educators and trainers. London, England: Kogan Page.
Boggs, J. G., Mickel, A. E., & Bolton, B. C. (2007). Experiential learning through
interactive drama: An alternative to student role plays. Journal of Management
Education, 31, 832-858.
Boje, D. (1991). Learning storytelling: Storytelling to learn management skills.
Journal of Management Education, 15, 279-294.
Bolton, S. C., & Boyd, C. (2003). Trolley dolly or skilled emotion manager? Moving
on from Hochschilds managed heart. Work, Employment and Society, 17, 289-
308.
Brief, A. P., & Weiss, H. M. (2002). Organizational behavior: Affect in the work-
place. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 279-307.
Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout:
Comparing two perspectives of people work. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
60, 17-39.
Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2002). Testing a conservation of resources model
of the dynamics of emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
7, 57-67.
Brown, A. S. (2010). Storytelling in risk management. Nurse Researcher, 17, 26-31.
Brown, R. B. (2000). Contemplating the emotional component of learning: The emo-
tions and feelings involved when undertaking an MBA. Management Learning,
31, 271-293.
Brown, R. B. (2003). Emotions and behavior: Exercises in emotional intelligence.
Journal of Management Education, 27, 122-134.
Burgess, H. (2007). Working with strong emotions in the classroom: A guide for
teachers and students. Retrieved from http://teachingresourceguide.wikispaces.
com/Dev_StrongEmotions
Callahan, J. L. (2002). Masking the need for cultural change: The effects of emotion
structuration. Organization Studies, 23, 281-297.
Chang, J. W., Sy, T., & Choi, J. N. (2012). Team emotional intelligence and per-
formance: Interactive dynamics between leaders and member. Small Group
Research, 43, 75-104.
Clark, S. C., Callister, R., & Wallace, R. (2003). Undergraduate management skills
courses and students emotional intelligence. Journal of Management Education,
27, 3-23.
Cote, S., & Hideg, I. (2011). The ability to influence others via emotional displays:
A new dimension of emotional intelligence. Organizational Psychology Review,
1, 53-71.
Coupland, C., Brown, A. D., Daniels, K., & Humphreys, M. (2008). Saying it with
feeling: Analyzing speakable emotions. Human Relations, 6, 327-353.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. New
York, NY: G.P. Putnam.
Darwin, C. (1998). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press. (Original published 1862)
Dasborough, M. T., Thomas, J., & Bowler, W. M. (2007). Utilizing your social net-
work and emotional skills to emerge as the team leader. Paper presented at the
Academy of Management Annual Meetings, Philadelphia, PA.
Denning, S. (2011). The leaders guide to storytelling: Mastering the art and disci-
pline of business narrative. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Druskat, V. U., & Wolff, S. B. (2008). Group-level emotional intelligence. In N. M.
Ashkanasy & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion in organiza-
tions (pp. 441-454). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Bowen 137
Dugal, S. S., & Eriksen, M. (2004). Understanding and transcending team member
differences: A felt experience exercise. Journal of Management Education, 28,
492-508.
Ekman, P. (1972). Emotions in the human face. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions. Psychological Review, 99, 550-553.
Elfenbein, H. A., Polzer, J. T., & Ambady, N. (2007). Team Emotion recognition
accuracy and team performance. In C. E. J. Hartel, N. M. Ashkanasy, & W. J.
Zerbe (Eds.), Research on emotion in organizations (Vol. 3, pp. 89-119). Oxford,
England: Elsevier/JAI Press.
Escalfoni, R., Braganholo, V., & Borges, M. (2011). A method for capturing inno-
vation features using group storytelling. Expert Systems with Applications, 38,
1148-1159.
Esmond-Kiger, C., Tucker, M. L., & Yost, C. A. (2006). Emotional intelligence: From
the classroom to the workplace. Management Accounting Quarterly, 7, 35-42.
Ferris, W. (2009). Demonstrating the challenges of behaving with emotional intelli-
gence in a team setting: An on-line/on-ground experiential exercise. Organization
Management Journal, 6, 23-38.
Finan, M. C. (2004). Experience as teacher: Two techniques for incorporating student
experiences into a course. Journal of Management Education, 47, 478-491.
Fineman, S. (Ed.). (1993). Emotion in organizations. London, England: Sage.
Fineman, S. (2004). Getting the measure of emotionAnd the cautionary tale of
emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 57, 719-740.
Frijda, N. H. (1994). Emotions are functional, most of the time. In P. Ekman & R. J.
Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 112-122).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P., & Blanchette, S. (2010). Storytelling: Branding in
practice. New York, NY: Springer.
Foo, M. D., Elfenbein, H. A., Tan, H. H., & Aik, V. C. (2004). Emotional intelligence
and negotiation: The tension between creating and claiming value. International
Journal of Conflict Management, 15, 411-429.
Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect intrusion model (AIM).
Psychological Bulletin, 117, 39-66.
Fritzsche, D. J., Leonard, N. H., Boscia, M. W., & Anderson, P. H. (2004). Simulation
debriefing procedures. Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential
Learning, 31, 337-338.
Gargiulo, T. L. (2006). Stories at work: Using stories to improve communication and
improve relationships. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence.
Human Relations, 53, 1027-1055.
Gibson, D. E. (2006). Emotional episodes at work: An experiential exercise in feeling
and expressing emotions. Journal of Management Education, 30, 477-500.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New
York, NY: Bantam.
Goleman, D. (2001). An EI-based theory of performance. In C. Cherniss, D. Goleman,
& W. Bennis (Eds.), The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for,
measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organi-
zations (pp. 27-44). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Grandey, A. A. (2003). When the show must go on: Surface acting and deep act-
ing as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery.
Academy of Management Journal, 46, 86-96.
Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., & Steiner, D. D. (2005). Must service with a smile
be stressful? The moderating role of personal control for American and French
employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 893-904.
Grandey, A. A., Tam, A. P., & Brauburger, A. L. (2002). Affective states and traits
in the workplace: Diary and survey data from young workers. Motivation and
Emotion, 26, 31-55.
Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion and emotion regulation. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John
(Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525-552).
New York, NY: Guilford.
Guber, P. (2011). Tell to win: Connect, persuade and triumph with the hidden power
of story. New York, NY: Crown Business Books.
Hartel, C. E. J. (2008). How to build a healthy emotional culture and avoid a toxic cul-
ture. In N. M. Ashkanasy & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion
in organizations (pp. 575-588). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., & Rapson, R. L. (1992). Primitive emotional contagion.
Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 151-177.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Hellriegel, D., & Slocum, J. W. (2010). Organizational behavior. Mason, OH: South-
Western Cengage Learning.
Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Holman, D., Chissick, C., & Totterdell, P. (2002). The effects of performance moni-
toring on emotional labor and well-being in call centers. Motivation and Emotion,
26, 57-81.
Huffaker, J. S., & West, E. (2005). Enhancing learning in the business classroom: An
adventure with Improv Theater Techniques. Journal of Management Education,
29, 852-869.
Hulsheger, U. R., & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional
labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, 16, 361-389.
Huy, Q. N. (2008). How contrasting emotions can enhance strategic agility. In N. M.
Ashkanasy & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion in organiza-
tions (pp. 546-560). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Izard, C. E. (1971). The face of motion. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new para-
digm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 260-280.
Bowen 139
Izard, C. E. (2009). Emotion theory and research: Highlights, unanswered ques-
tions, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 1-25. doi:10.1146/
annurev.psych.60.110707.163539
Jordan, P. J., & Troth, A. C. (2004). Managing emotions during team problem solv-
ing: Emotional intelligence and conflict resolution. Human Performance, 17,
195-218.
Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-
analysis and cascading model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 54-78.
Kautish, P. (2010). Emotional intelligence and business education: An analysis.
Journal of All India Association for Educational Research, 22, 89-100.
Kellett, J. B., Humphrey, R. H., & Sleeth, R. G. (2006). Empathy and the emergence
of task and relations leaders. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 162-164.
Kerr, R., Garvin, J., Heaton, N., & Boyle, E. (2006). Emotional intelligence and lead-
ership effectiveness. Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, 27,
265-279.
Kramer, M. W., & Hess, J. A. (2002). Communication rules for the display of emo-
tions in organizational settings. Management Communication Quarterly, 16, 66-
80.
Kumar, R. (2008). Contested meanings and emotional dynamics in strategic alliances.
In N. M. Ashkanasy & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion in
organizations (pp. 561-574). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York, NY:
Springer.
Le, H., Casillas, A., Robbins, S., & Langley, R. (2005). Motivational and skills, social
and self-management predictors of college outcomes: Constructing the student
readiness inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65, 482-508.
Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic emotion questions. Emotion Review, 3, 379-386.
Lewicki, R. J., Barry, B., & Saunders, D. (2009). Negotiation: Readings, exercises
and cases. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Lindsay, C. (1992). Learning through emotion: An approach for integrating student
and teacher emotions into the classroom. Journal of Management Education, 16,
25-38.
Lipman, D. (2006). The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out peo-
ples best. Atlanta, GA: August House.
Litvin, D. R., & Betters-Reed, B. L. (2005). The personal map: A lesson in similari-
ties, difference and the invisible. Journal of Management Education, 29, 199-217.
Liu, Y. M., Xu, J., & Weitz, B. A. (2011). The role of emotional expression and men-
toring in internship learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education,
10, 94-110.
Maxwell, R., & Dickman, R. (2007). The elements of persuasion: Use storytelling to
pitch better, sell faster, and win more business. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey
& D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence:
Educational implications (pp. 3-31). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) users manual. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: MHS Test
Publishers.
McNeely, B. L. (2000). One-hit wonders: Using students experiences as a way to
make OB theory come alive. Journal of Management Education, 24, 520-523.
Miles, R. H., Randolph, W. A., & Kemery, E. R. (1993). The organization game: A
simulation. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Miller, K. I., Considine, J., & Garner, J. (2007). Let me tell you about my job
exploring the terrain of emotion in the workplace. Management Communication
Quarterly, 20, 231-260.
Morgan, S., & Dennehy, R. F. (2004). Using stories to reframe the social construction
of reality: A riot of activities. Journal of Management Education, 28, 372-389.
Myers, L. L., & Tucker, M. L. (2005). Increasing awareness of emotional intelligence
in a business curriculum. Business Communication Quarterly, 68, 44-51.
OBoyle, E., Humphrey, R., Pollack, J., Hawver, T., & Story, P. (2011). The rela-
tionship between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 788-818.
Ozcelik, H., & Paprika, Z. Z. (2010). Developing emotional awareness in cross-cul-
tural communication: A videoconferencing approach. Journal of Management
Education, 34, 671-699.
Palmer, B., Walls, M., Burgess, Z., & Stough, C. (2000). Emotional intelligence and
effective leadership. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22, 5-
10.
Panksepp, J. (1992). A critical role for affective neuroscience in resolving what is
basic about basic emotions. Psychological Review, 99, 554-560.
Parkin, M. (2010). Tales for change: Using storytelling to develop people and orga-
nizations. London, England: Kogan Page.
Patterson, K., Grenny, J., McMillan, R., & Switzler, A. (2012). Crucial conversa-
tions: Tools for talking when stakes are high. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Pescosolido, A. T. (2002). Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion.
Leadership Quarterly, 13, 583-599.
Pirola-Merlo, A., Hartel, C., Mann, L., & Hirst, G. (2002). How leaders influence the
impact of affective events on team climate and performance in R and D teams.
Leadership Quarterly, 13, 561-581.
Pittenger, K. K., & Heimann, B. (1998). Barnga: A game on cultural clashes.
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, 25, 253-254.
Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik
& H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research and experience: Vol. 1.
Theories of emotion (pp. 2-31). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Pugliesi, K. (1999). The consequences of emotional labor: Effects on work stress, job
satisfaction, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 23, 125-154.
Raelin, J. D., & Raelin, J. A. (2011). Updating the state-of-the-practice of emotions in
management education: The integrated emotions exercise. International Journal
of Management Education, 9, 13-24.
Bowen 141
Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. (1989). The expression of emotion in organizational life. In
L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol.
11, pp. 1-42). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Reilly, P. (2005). Teaching law students how to feel: Using negotiations training to
increase emotional intelligence. Negotiation Journal, 21, 301-314.
Reynolds, M., & Vince, R. (2007). The handbook of experiential learning and man-
agement education. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2007). Organizational behavior (12th ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Roseman, I. J. (1984). Cognitive determinants of emotions: A structural theory. In
P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology: Vol. 5. Emotions,
relationships, and health (pp. 11-36). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Rosete, D., & Ciarrochi, J. (2005). Emotional intelligence and its relationship to
workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness. Leadership and
Organization Development Journal, 26, 388-399.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition,
and Personality, 9, 185-211.
Sanne, J. M. (2008). Incident reporting or storytelling? Competing schemes in a
safety-critical and hazardous work setting. Safety Science, 46, 1205-1222.
Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social
Science Information, 44, 695-729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216
Schoenewolf, G. (1990). Emotional contagion: Behavioral induction in individuals
and groups. Modern Psychoanalysis, 15, 49-61.
Seers, A. (1989). Team-member exchange quality: A new construct for role-making
research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 118-135.
Sekerka, L. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2008). Establishing positive emotional cli-
mates to advance organizational transformation. In N. M. Ashkanasy & C. L.
Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to emotion in organizations (pp. 531-545).
Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
Sheehan, B. J., McDonald, M. A., & Spence, K. K. (2009). Developing students
emotional competency using the classroom-as-organization approach. Journal of
Management Education, 33, 77-98.
Silberman, M. L. (2007). The handbook of experiential learning. San Francisco, CA:
Pfeiffer.
Simmons, A. (2007). Whoever tells the best story wins: How to use your own stories
to communicate with power and impact. New York, NY: Amacom.
Simmons, A., & Lipman, D. (2006). The story factor. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Steidl, S., Mohi-uddin, S., & Anderson, A. K. (2006). Effects of emotional arousal on
multiple memory systems: Evidence from declarative and procedural learning.
Learning & Memory, 13, 650-658.
Sy, T., Cote, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: Impact of the leaders
mood on the mood of the group members, group affective tone and group pro-
cesses. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 295-305.
Tee, E. Y. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2007). The interactive effects of leader neuroticism
and team mood on leader performance and decision speed. Paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(SIOP), New York, NY.
Tobin, P. K., & Snyman, R. (2008). Once upon a time in Africa: A case study of sto-
rytelling for knowledge sharing. Aslib Proceedings, 60, 130-142.
Tomkins, S. S. (1984). Affect theory. Approaches to emotion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Tse, H. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2008). A study of exchange and emotions in team
member relationships. Group and Organization Management: An International
Journal, 33, 194-215.
Tse, H. M., Dasborough, M. T., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2008). A multilevel analysis
of team climate and interpersonal exchange relationships at work. Leadership
Quarterly, 19, 195.211.
Tucker, M. L., Yost, C. A., Kirch, D. P., Cutright, K. W., & Esmond-Kiger, C. L.
(2002). Linking team effectiveness & emotional intelligence. Paper presented at
ASBBS, the conference proceedings of the American Society of Business and
Behavioral Sciences, Las Vegas, NV.
Tumbat, G. (2011). Co-constructing the service experience: Exploring the role of cus-
tomer emotion management. Marketing Theory, 11, 187-206.
Walsh-Portillo, J. G. (2011). The role of emotional intelligence in college students
success. Florida International University Electronic Dissertations, Paper 491.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of
brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood.
Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219-235.
Weisinger, J. (1998). Emotional intelligence at work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discus-
sion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work.
In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior
(Vol. 19, pp. 1-74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Wolff, S. B., Pescosolido, A. T., & Druskat, V. U. (2002). Emotional intelligence as
the basis of leadership emergence in self-managing teams. Leadership Quarterly,
13, 505-522.
Wong, C.-S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional
intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. Leadership
Quarterly, 13, 243-274.
Yost, C. A., Tucker, M. L., & Barone, F. (2001). Testing the structure of the
Weisinger Emotional Intelligence Instrument (Unpublished manuscript). The
Ohio University at Athens.
Yurtsever, G., & De Rivera, J. (2010). Measuring the emotional climate of an organi-
zation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 110, 501-516.

114 Full

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

114 Full

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

http://jme.sagepub.

OBTS Teaching Society for Management Educators

http://jme.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:

- May 20, 2013 OnlineFirst Version of Record

- Jan 6, 2014 Version of Record >>

S-ar putea să vă placă și