Lecture 13

Quantization of Energy
Planck proposed that the energy of the oscillating charges,
which emit the radiation observed, could only take on
discrete values that are integer multiples of a fundamental
energy unit, and the energy unit was proportional to the
frequency of the oscillators and, thus, the radiation, i.e.,
, 2 , 1 , 0 , = = = n nh n E
n
! "
where h is called Plancks constant.
Lecture 13
Derivation of Planck Distribution
At a given temperature T, the energy distribution obeys Boltzmann
law. The probability function is, therefore, given by
kT nhv kT E
n
Ae Ae f
n
! !
= =
where A is determined by the normalization condition,
kT hv
n
kT nh
n
n
e A e A f
/
0
/
0
1 1
!
"
=
!
"
=
! = # =
$
=
$
%
The average energy of an oscillator is, therefore, given by
!
=
!
=
"
=
#
"
= 0
/
0
) (
n
kT nhv
n
n
n
e nh A f E E $
Lecture 13
Derivation of Planck Distribution-Contd
1
/
1
/ /
!
=
!
=
kT hc kT hv
e
hc
e
hv
E
"
"
We have
Since the total number of modes of oscillation per unit volume
is
4
8 ) (
!
= "# # n
the energy density is
1
8
) , (
/
5
!
=
!
kT hc
e
hc
T u
"
" #
"
Lecture 13
Derivation of Planck Distribution-Contd
We also know R(!,T) = ! cu(!,T), finally we have
R(!, T) =
2"hc
2
!
#5
e
hc/ !kT
#1
Finding where R peaks leads to the Wiens displacement law:
!
m
T = b
Planck function
Lecture 13
Photoelectric Effects
plate grid
light
e
Upon illumination by
light (e.g., UV), the
metal (e.g., zinc) cathode
emits charged particles
The charged particles
has the same ratio of
charge to mass as that
of cathode rays, i.e.,
they are electrons.
Lecture 13
Experimental Results
The photoelectric current (or the number of photoelectrons)
increases as the intensity of the light increases. However,
there does not appear to be a minimum intensity below
which the current is not produced.
The photoelectric current is produced instantaneously upon
illumination.
The reversed voltage required to stop all the photoelectrons
(stop potential) is independent of the intensity of the incident
light.
For a given cathode material there exists a minimum
frequency of the incident light, below which no photocurrent
is produced.
Lecture 13
Classical Interpretation
There is a minimum intensity below which no photoelectrons
are produced.
The electrons in the metal can acquire sufficient energy from light to
escape. Consequently, the higher the light intensity, the more the
electrons are produced and thus the larger the photoelectric current.
There is no time delay between the illumination of the
cathode by light and the appearance of photocurrent.
The stop potential is independent of the intensity of the
incident light.
There is a threshold on the frequency of the light, below
which no photocurrent can be produced.
However, it cannot explain the rest of the observed properties:
Lecture 13
Einsteins Interpretation
A beam of monochromatic light is composed of small
quanta, now known as photons.
The energy of a photon is uniquely determined by the
frequency of the light: E = h", where h is Plancks
constant.
The interaction between light and matter is equivalent to
that between photons and matter, and the photons act like
particles during the interaction.
Unlike in the classical theory, the electrons in an atom can
acquire energy from the incident light only in units of
photon energy quantum, and, for all practical purposes, one
electron can absorb only one photon during the interaction.
Lecture 13
Work Function
The work function obviously depend on the type of metal,
but it is typically on the order of a few electron volts.
The work function of a metal is defined as the amount of energy
that is required to remove an electron from the surface of the
metal. So, it is essentially the binding energy of electrons in the
metal.
The work function represents the minimum energy that a
photon must possess to liberate an electron from the
surface of a metal. Therefore, it is the physical origin of the
frequency threshold for photoelectric processes, in the
context of the interpretation proposed by Einstein.
Lecture 13
Kinetic Energy of Photoelectrons
If the photocathode material has a work function #, and the
frequency of the incident light is ", Einsteins interpretation
implies
! " # = = h K eV
max 0
where V
0
is the stop potential and K
max
is the maximum kinetic
energy of photoelectrons.
We conclude that
There is no requirement on the intensity for photoelectic
processes to occur.
Lecture 13
Confronting Experiment
A photoelectron is produced as soon as a photon is absorbed,
so no time delay is expected here.
The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not
depend on the intensity of the incident light; neither does
the stop potential naturally.
The need for a lower threshold on the frequency of the
incident light is clear: no photoelectrons can be produced if
h" < #.
Prediction: plotting the stop potential against the frequency
of the light should yield a straight line whose slope is
independent of the nature of the cathode material.
Lecture 13
Experimental Confirmation
!
V
0

! " # = h eV
0
As discussed, the stop potential
and the frequency of the light is
related by
So, the slope of the line should
simply be h/e and the intercept
gives the work function.
Millikan confirmed the prediction of the universal slope
experimentally. From the slope, the Plancks constant was
measured very precisely and the result agreed with that
from the studies of blackbody radiation.