Opical Tranducer Maual

Optical Transducers
Trainer
ST2301

Operating Manual
Ver.1.1

An ISO 9001 : 2000 company

94-101, Electronic Complex Pardesipura,
Indore- 452010, India
Tel : 91-731- 2570301/02, 4211100
Fax: 91- 731- 2555643
email : info@scientech.bz
Website : www.scientech.bz
Toll free : 1800-103-5050

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ST2301

Scientech Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

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ST2301

Optical Transducers Trainer
ST2301
Table of Contents
1. Features 4
2. Technical Specifications 5
3. Introduction to Transducers and Instrumentation 6
4. Recommended Testing instruments for Experimentation 13
Experiment 1 14
Characteristics of Filament Lamp
Experiment 2 17
Characteristics of Photovoltaic Cell
Experiment 3 21
Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell
Experiment 4 26
Characteristics of PIN Photodiode
Experiment 5 31
Characteristics of Phototransistor
Experiment 6 36
Optically Controlled Switching System
5. Glossary of Terms 39
6. Warranty 40
7. List of Accessories 40
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ST2301

Features

A self contained trainer having 4 different optical transducers on board.
Study of light controlled switching system.
On board signal conditioning circuitry.
Built in DC Power Supply.
Functional blocks indicated on board mimic.
Fully documented student work book and operating manual.
Compact size.
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Technical Specifications
Transducers :

Light Source :
Signal Conditioning Circuitry :

Input Circuits :

Output circuits :

Power Supply :
Interconnections :
Dimensions (mm) :
Weight :
4 Nos.
1. Photoconductive Cell
2. Photovoltaic Cell
3. Phototransistor
4. PIN Photodiode
Filament Lamp
1. Power Amplifier
2. DC Amplifier
3. Current Amplifier
4. Electronic Switch
5. Comparator
6. Buffer
1. Carbon potentiometer
2. Wirewound potentiometer
3. Slide potentiometer
1. Moving Coil Meter
2. Relay
3. LED
230 V, +/- 10%, 50 Hz.
4 mm banana sockets
W420, H100, D255
3 Kgs. (approximately)

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Introduction to Transducers and Instrumentation
An Electronic Instrumentation system generally consists of three major elements :
1. Input Device ( Transducers or sensors )
2. Signal Conditioning or Processing Circuitry
3. Output Device (Display)
The input device receives the quantity under measurement and delivers the
proportional electrical signal to the signal conditioning circuitry, where the signal is
amplified, filtered or otherwise modified into a format which is acceptable to the
output device. The output device may be indicating meter, an oscilloscope or a
recorder for a visual display.
The input quantity may be electrical or non-electrical. Non-electrical quantities
include process variables like temperature, pressure & flow rate which are widely
employed in process and product plants. The electrical quantities include current,
voltage, resistance, inductance, capacitance, frequency, phase angle, power and
magnetic quantities like flux, flux density and reluctance etc.
The optical quantity includes intensity of light falling on the device which converts it
into electrical output. In order to use electrical techniques for measurement of all
these quantities, we require a primary detection device called transducer. One
definition states "a transducer is a device which, when actuated by energy in one
transmission system supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a second
transmission system ".
In order to extract information from mechanical system only mechanical displacement
or velocity can be used. Hence, most of mechanical measurements firstly convert it
into displacement or velocity and then transducers convert mechanical force or
displacement into an electrical signal. These devices which convert physical
quantities to electrical signal form a very large group of important transducers. Thus,
transducer may be redefined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an
electrical signal.
Reasons of using Transducers :
1. They convert physical quantities into electrical output.
2. The signal conditioning becomes very easy.
3. The mass - inertia effects are minimized. In fact when dealing with electrical or
electronic signals, the inertia effects are due to electrons which have negligible
mass. In many situations we do not come across mass or inertia problems at all.
4. The effects of friction are minimized.
5. The electrical & electronic systems can be controlled with a very small power
level.
6. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the
purpose of measurement.
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7. Telemetry or remote indications of recording is an important part of modem day
instrumentation technology and this completely eliminates the data transmission
through mechanical means and hence electrical and electronic principles have to
be employed for those conditions.
8. The data can be stored and used for process control with the help of digital
computers.
When the definition of transducer is confined to a device that covers the entire
detectors transducer stage, whenever the transducer converts a non- electrical quantity
into an analogous electrical signal, the transducer may be thought of consisting of two
important & closely related part viz.
1. Sensing Element
2. Transduction Element
a. Sensing or detector element :
It is a part of a transducer which responds to physical phenomenon or a
change in physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing element
must be closely related to the physical phenomenon.
b. Transduction element :
A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an
electrical output. The transduction element in a way acts as a secondary
transducer. Transducers can be classified according to their application,
method of energy conversion, nature of output signal and so on. All these
classifications usually result in overlapping areas, a sharp distinction
between and classification types of transducers is difficult, however they
may be classified on basis of :
i. Principle of Transduction used :
Transducers can be classified as the basis of principle of transduction
as resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. depending on how they convert
the input quantity into resistance, inductance and capacitance
respectively.
ii. Primary or Secondary transducers :
A primary transducer is one which responds to physical phenomenon
or a change in physical phenomenon. The response of primary
transducer must be closely related to the physical phenomenon. A
secondary transducer is one which transforms the output of the
primary transducer to an electrical output.
iii. Passive & Active Transducers :
Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from
an auxiliary power source. They also derive part of the power
required for conversion from the physical quantity under
measurement e.g. Potentiometer. Such transducers cannot work in
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the absence of external power. Active transducers are those which do
not require an auxiliary power source to produce their output. Since,
they develop their own voltage or current output. The energy
required for production of output signal is obtained from physical
quantity being measured.
iv. Analog & Digital Transducers :
Analog transducers convert input quantity into an analog output
which is a continuous function of time. Digital transducers convert
the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the form of
pulses.
v. Transducers & Inverse transducers :
Transducers can be broadly defined as a device which converts a non
electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical
quantity into a non electrical quantity. It is a precision actuator which
has an electrical input and allow non-electrical output. Many data
indicating and recording devices are inverse transducers. However,
such devices which include instruments, pen recorders, oscilloscopes
that convert the electrical signals to a mechanical movement are
placed at the output stage (data presentation stage). The more useful
application of inverse transducer is in feedback measuring systems.
Selection of a Transducer :
In a measurement system the transducer is the input element with the critical function
of transducing some physical quantity to a proportional electrical signal Selection of
the appropriate transducer is therefore the first & perhaps most important step in
obtaining accurate results. A number of elementary questions asked before a
transducer can be selected.
1. What is the physical quantity to be measured?
2. Which transducer principal can best be used to measure this quantity?
3. What accuracy is required for this measurement?
The first question can be answered by determining the type and range of the physical
quantity. An appropriate answer to the second question requires input, output transfer
characteristics of the transducer to be compatible with the recording or measurement
system.
In most cases these two questions can be answered readily, implying that the proper
transducer is selected by the addition of an accuracy tolerance. In practice this is
rarely possible due to the complexity of the various transducer parameters that affect
the accuracy. The accuracy requirement of the total system determines the degree to
which individual factors contributing to accuracy must be considered.
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1. Fundamental transducer parameters
Type and range of measurement, sensitivity, excitation.
2. Physical Conditions :
Mechanical & electrical connections, mounting provisions, corrosion resistance.
3. Ambient Conditions :
Non-Linearity effects, Hysterisis effects, Frequency response resolution.
4. Environmental Conditions :
Temperature effects, Acceleration, Shock & Vibration.
5. Compatibility of the associated equipment :
Zero balance provisions, Sensitivity tolerance Impedance matching, Insulation
resistance etc.
The total measurement error in a transducer activated system may be reduced to fall
within the required accuracy range by the following techniques :
1. Using in place system calibration with corrections performed in the data
reduction.
2. Simultaneously monitoring the environment and correcting the data accordingly.
3. Artificially controlling the environment to minimize possible errors.
Characteristics of Transducer :
When choosing a transducer for any application, the input, transfer & output
characteristics have to be taken into account.
1. Input characteristics :
This determines the input quantity the transducer is going to measure and its
operating range. The useful operating range may be a decisive factor in selection
of a transducer for a particular application. The upper limit is decided by the
transducer capabilities while the lower limit of range is normally determined by
the transducer error or by the unavoidable noise originating in the transducer. In
fact the transducer should maintain a good resolution throughout its operating
range.
Ideally a transducer should have no loading effect in the input quantity being
measured. The magnitude of loading effects can be expressed in terms of force,
power or energy extracted from the quantity under measurement. For working of
the transducers therefore, the transducer that is selected for a particular
application should ideally extract no force, power or energy from the quantity
under measurement in order that later is measured correctly.

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2. Transfer Characteristics :
They require attention of three separate elements viz.
a. Transfer function,
b. Error,
c. Response of transducer to environmental influences.
i. Transfer function :
It defines relationship between the input quantity and the output.
q
0
= f (q
i
)
q
0
= output of transducer
q
i
= input of transducer
ii. Error :
The errors in transducers occur because they do not follow in many
situations the input and output relationship given by
q
0
= f (q
i
)
Any departure from above relationship results in errors.
iii. Transducer response to environmental errors :
This is of great importance and is often given insufficient attention
when choosing the best transducer for a particular measurement.
This gives rise to results that are not as accurate as expected, or,
worse results that are the performance of the transducer is fully
defined by its transfer function and errors, provided that the
transducer is in constant environment and not subjected to any
disturbances like stray electromagnetic & electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature changes, pressure &
humidity changes, changes in supply voltage and improper
mechanical mountings. If transducers are subjected to above
environmental disturbances which they are, precautions are taken, so
that changes in transfer function and resulting errors do not occur.
Therefore, the transducer selected must be guarded against the
interfering and modifying inputs.

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3. Output Characteristics :
The three conditions in the output characteristics which should be considered :
a. Type of electrical output,
b. Output Impedance,
c. Useful Range.
i. Type of Electrical Output :
The types of electrical output available from the transducers may be
a voltage, current, impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
These output quantities mayor may not be acceptable to the latter
stages of the instrumentation system. They may have to be
manipulated i.e. their magnitudes changed or they may have to be
changed in their format by signal conditioning equipment so as to
make them drive the subsequent stages of instrumentation system.
ii. Output Impedance :
The output impedance Zo of a transducer determines to the extent
the subsequent stages of instrumentation is loaded ideally the value
of output impedance should be zero if no loading effects are there on
the subsequent stage. However, the output impedance cannot be
made equal to zero & therefore its value should be kept as low as
possible to minimize the loading effects.
The output impedance determines the amount of power that can be
fed to the succeeding stages of the instrumentation system for a
given output signal level.
iii. Useful Output Range :
The output range of a transducer is limited at the lower end by noise
signal which may shroud the desired input signals. The upper limit is
set by the maximum useful output level. The output range can be
increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of amplifier in the
transducer. However the inclusion of an amplifier also increases the
noise level and therefore in such situations the amplifier may not be
of any use at all.
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Summary of Factors Influencing the choice of Transducers :
It will be realized that there are many ways for measurement of a physical quantity
and in many cases, there is no best way. The transducers and the method used may
depend upon the instrumentation already available and also on the experience of the
user.
Unfortunately most transducers are not sensitive to just one quantity of measurements
are to be made under conditions where there is likelihood of two or more input
quantities influencing the transducer, it is desirable to select a transducer which is
sensitive to the desirable quantity & insensitive to the unwanted quantity. If this is not
possible, ways & measures should be found to eliminate or compensate for the effects
of the unwanted input quantity. Following are some of the factors influencing the
choice of a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity.
1. Operating Principle,
2. Sensitivity,
3. Operating Range,
4. Accuracy,
5. Cross Sensitivity,
6. Errors,
7. Transient & Frequency response,
8. Loading Effects,
9. Environmental Compatibility,
10. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals,
11. Usage and Ruggedness,
12. Electrical aspects,
13. Stability & Reliability,
14. Static Characteristics.
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Optical Transducers :
The ST2301 Optical Transducers Trainer deals with 4 different types of Optical
Transducers viz.
1. Photovoltaic Cell,
2. Photoconductive Cell,
3. PIN Photodiode,
4. Phototransistor.
Photonic transducers convert light energy into a proportional electrical output. The
transduction mechanisms made use of in different types of photonic transducers
include photo-emissive effect, photoconductive effect, photovoltaic effect and pyro
electric effect.
Accruing to the photo emissive effect, electrons are emitted from surface of a material
on absorption of light energy in the form of photons. When the energy of an
impinging photon is greater that the work function of the material, the photon
liberates an electron with a kinetic energy equal to the difference between the
photonic energy and the work function. This effect is used in vacuum and gas filled
phototubes where photons impinging on a photocathode liberate electrons which are
attracted towards the anode due to anode - cathode electric field, thus producing
anode current proportional to light energy. The famous photomultiplier tube is based
on photoemission and has provision for photo current multiplication. In the
photoconductive transducers, the input photon energy creates electron hole pairs, then
increasing the number of available charge carriers and the conductivity of the
semiconductor material of which they are made. They are made by depositing a thin
film of Cadmium sulfide, Lead sulfide or lead solenoid on a ceramic substrate.
Cadmium sulfide devices respond in the visible region, matching the response of a
human eye. Lead sulfide & Lead solenoid detectors respond in 1 to 3 m & 1 to 6m
respectively.
Photovoltaic detectors are PN function based detectors. These junction type photo
detectors more appropriately called photodiodes can also be operated in the
photoconductive mode. In the photovoltaic modes, the impinging photons generate
electron-hole pairs in the depletion range. The electrons and holes respectively move
towards N-side and P-side under the influence of the depletion field, leading to
accumulation of charges on the two sides and consequently an open circuit voltage or
a short circuit current that is proportional to light energy input.
In case of pyro-electric detectors the light radiation falling on the detector changes the
temperature of the material. The changes in temperature are accompanied by changes
in electrical polarization. The changing electrical polarization is sensed as an
electrical signal. The light radiation needs to be chopped to provide a changing
temperature pattern for the pyro-electric detector to work.
Recommended testing instruments for experimentation
Digital Multimeter 3 digit
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Experiment 1
Objective :
Characteristics of Filament Lamp
Theory :
The light source used in ST2301 Trainer is a imported Tungsten filament lamp with a
mixture of nitrogen and argon gas under low pressure. The lamp glows more brightly
as the power feeding the lamp is increased. Two factors will be affected as the lamp
voltage is increased :
1. The temperature of the filament is proportional to the input power. Power varies
with the square of the voltage and is also affected by the resistance of the lamp,
which increases as the filament temperature increases.
2. The spectral response of the lamp varies with the filament temperature. At low
temperatures the light is in the infrared region of the visible spectrum and the
light gradually increases in frequency (red-orange-yellow...) as the temperature
is raised. These factors make it difficult to be precise about the response of the
sensors which will be investigated.
The lamp is connected as shown below

Lamp Filament Figure 1
Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.
a. The socket C of Wire Wound potentiometer to +12V supply.
b. The socket A of Wire Wound potentiometer to 0V.
c. The socket B of Wire Wound potentiometer to I/P of Power Amplifier.
d. Connect output of Power Amplifier to input of filament lamp through a
Digital Multimeter connected as an Ammeter at 200mA range.
e. Connect the other input of Filament Lamp to +ve input of Moving Coil
Meter.
f. Connect the -ve input of moving coil meter to 0V.
2. Switch On the Power Supply & set the 10K Wire Wound potentiometer to
minimum for zero voltage (on Moving Coil Meter) from the Power Amplifier.
3. Take readings of Filament Lamp current as indicated on the Digital Multimeter
as lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in below table.
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Lamp Filament
voltage (V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lamp Filament
current (mA)

Lamp Filament
power (mw)

Lamp
Resistance ()

4. Switch Off the Power Supply.
5. Calculate the corresponding values of Lamp Filament power (VI) and
resistance (VI) recording the results in the given table.
6. Plot the graphs of lamp power and resistance against applied voltage. It should
resemble the one given in graph 1.
7.

Lamp Voltage (Volts) Figure 2

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Figure 3
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Experiment 2
Objective :
Characteristics of Photovoltaic cell
Theory :
The photovoltaic cell is a two layer device. It generates a voltage by electron/hole pair
production when the junction is exposed to light. These diffuse across the junction to
set up voltage. A current will flow if a resistance is placed across the terminals.
Devices optimized for energy production are often called solar cells. This is an
important class of photo-detectors. They generate a voltage which is proportional to
EM radiation intensity. They are called photovoltaic cell because of their voltage
generating characteristics when light falls on them. They in fact, convert the EM
energy into electrical energy. They are active transducers i.e. they do not need an
external source to power them instead they generate voltage. The photovoltaic cell is
shown in Figure 4

Figure 4
The cell is a diode constructing a P-N junction between appropriately doped
semiconductors. Photons striking the cell pass through the thin P- doped under layer
and are absorbed by electrons in the lower N layer causing formation of conduction
holes and electrons causing a difference of potential to develop across the junction.
All photovoltaic cells have low but finite internal resistance. When connected in a
circuit having some load resistance the cell voltage is reduced some what from the
rated value.
If the output of the cell is short circuited there will be no output voltage at all, since
this will be dropped internally across the resistance of the cell. The short circuited
output current obtained will vary from zero to maximum according to the incident
light. The device can be used either as a voltage source or as a current source and is
inherently a linear device. To increase the output voltage cells may be connected in
series. Parallel connection allows a greater current to be drawn.
The photovoltaic cells can operate satisfactorily in the temperature range of -1 00 to
125C. The temperature changes have little effect on short circuited current but affect
the open circuited voltage considerably.
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The tremendous advantage of the photo-voltaic cell, as its name implies, are its ability
to generate a voltage without any form of bias and its extremely fast response. This
means that it can be used as an energy converter directly. One use of this is in
photographic exposure meter which requires no battery, also the advent of the space
age brought about a tremendous effort in the area of direct conversion of solar energy
to electrical energy. The solar cell is used for providing power for spacecrafts and the
advances in solar cell technology have found their way into many earth based
applications.
The Photo voltaic cell used in ST2301 Trainer is Sanyo or Sinonar 4U. Its
characteristics are as under.
Parameter Conditions Min. Typ. Max.
Surface area Ambient

8 10 mm (4)

Open circuit voltage Ambient

1.6V

Short circuit current

3A

The Photoconductive cell is already connected as under.

Figure 5
Procedure :
a. The socket C of Wire Wound potentiometer to +12V.
b. The socket A of Wire Wound potentiometer to 0V.
c. The socket B of wire wound potentiometer to input of Power Amplifier.
d. The output of Power amplifier to input of Lamp Filament.
e. The other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving Coil Meter.
f. The -ve input of Moving Coil Meter to 0V.
g. Output of Photovoltaic Cell to 0V through a Digital Multimeter connected
as an Ammeter at 2mA range, to measure short circuit current of
photovoltaic cell.
2. Switch On the Power Supply & set the 10K Wire Wound potentiometer to
minimum for zero output voltage from Power Amplifier.
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3. Place the opaque box over the plastic enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
Take readings of Photovoltaic cell short circuit output current as indicated on
Digital Multimeter as lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record results in
below table.
4. Switch Off the Power Supply & set the Digital Multimeter as a voltmeter at
2/20 VDC range to read the open circuit output voltage.
5. Switch On the Power Supply and take the readings adding results to above
table.
7. Plot the graphs of photovoltaic cell short circuit current & open circuit voltage
against Lamp Filament voltage. It should resemble the one given Figure 6.

Lamp Filament Voltage (Volts)
Figure 6

Lamp Filament
voltage (V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Short Circuit output
current ( A)

Open Circuit output
voltage (V)

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Figure 7
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Experiment 3
Objective :
Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell
Theory :
Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carriers e.g.
electrons are available in the material when an electric field is applied .In certain
semiconductors. Photoconductive cell are elements whose conductivity is a function
of incident electromagnetic radiation. Since, resistance of these materials decrease
with increase in incident light, therefore these materials are also called Light
Dependent Resistor or LDR. Commercially available photoconductive cell materials
are cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenoid (CdSe) with band gap of 2.42 eV &
1.74 eV respectively. On account of the large energy bands, both the materials have a
very high resistivity at ambient temperature which gives a very high value of
resistance for practical purposes. The photoconductive cells use a special type of
construction which minimizes resistance while providing maximum surface.
Photoconductive cells are made by chemically sintering the required powder into
tablets of the protective envelope of glass or plastic. Electrons are deposited on the
tablet surface and are made of materials which give an ohmic contact but with low
resistance compared with that of the photoconductor.
The electrodes are usually in the form of interlocked fingers as shown.

Figure 8
Photoconductive cell are made from cadmium sulfide doped with silver antimony or
indium chemically deposited on a substrate. Light falling on the sensitive area breaks
chemical bonds. The resulting electrons and holes become available to increase the
conductivity. These bonds are slow to re-form when light is removed and the response
time is sluggish. The resistance of the ORP12 drops dramatically as the incident light
increases. Its characteristics are given in table given. The device requires a suitable
load resistor to provide a voltage output which then falls with increasing illumination.
The characteristics of a photoconductive cell vary considerably depending upon the
type of material used. When the cell is kept in darkness its resistance is called Dark
Resistance. The dark resistance may be as high as 10
10
. If the cell is illuminated its
resistance decreases. The resistance depends on the physical character of
photoconductive layer as well as on the dimensions of the cell and its geometric
configuration. The current depends upon the electricity voltage applied and it is of the
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order of the mA. When using photoconductive cell for a particular application it is
important to select the proper dark resistance, as well as suitable sensitivity. The
sensitivity is defined as :
S =
H
R
/W.m
-2

Where,
R = Change in resistance;
H = Change in irradiation; W/m
-2

The spectral response of the sensor must match that of the light source. A Photo
conductor has a relatively large sensitive area. A small change in light intensity causes
a large change in resistance. The relationship between irradiance and resistance is,
however not linear. It is closely an exponential relationship. The spectral response of
cadmium sulfide cell closely matches that of the human eye and the cell is often used
in application where human vision is a factor, much as street light control or
automatic iris controls for cameras, to alter the bias of transistor or change the gain of
an amplifier. Such circuits are used in automatic brightness composition of TV
receivers. Photoconductive cells are also used in bridge circuit applications, and for
measurement of attenuation of light etc.
The device used on ST2301 is ORP12. Its characteristics are given below :
Cell resistance 50 lux 2.4K
1000 lux 130
typical ambient 500
Dark resistance 10M
Rise time 75mS
Fall time 350mS
610nm
Peak response
spectral

The photoconductive cell is already connected as shown below :

Figure 9
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ST2301

Procedure :
1. Connect the circuits as shown in Figure 1.
a. Socket C of Wire Wound potentiometer to +12V.
b. Socket A of Wire Wound potentiometer to 0V.
c. Socket B of Wire Wound potentiometer to input of Power Amplifier.
d. Output of Power Amplifier to input of Lamp Filament.
e. Other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving Coil Meter.
f. -ve of moving coil meter to 0V.
g. Connect C Socket of Slide Potentiometer to +5V.
h. Output of Photoconductive cell to B input of Slide Potentiometer.
i. Connect a Digital Multimeter as voltmeter on 20V DC range to measure
the Photoconductive cell output voltage between output of
photoconductive cell and 0V
2. Set the 10K Slide Potentiometer setting to 3 so that the photoconductive cell
load resistance is approximately 3K. ( can be verified with DMM)
4. Switch On Power Supply and set the Wire Wound potentiometer to minimum
for zero output voltage from the Power Amplifier.
5. Take readings of Photoconductive cell output voltage as indicated on the Digital
Multimeter as the Lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in
below table.
Lamp Filament
voltage (V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Photo conductive/
cell output voltage (V)

7. Plot the graph of Photoconductive cell output voltage against Lamp Filament
voltage. It should resemble the one given in Figure 10.
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ST2301


Lamp Filament Voltage (volts) Figure 10

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ST2301


Figure 11
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ST2301

Experiment 4
Objective :
Characteristics of PIN Photodiode
Theory :
One of the problems with P-N junction photo-devices is the electric field which forms
across the junction. This manifests itself as a capacitance of typically 100pF which
limits the rise and fall time of the photocurrent. To minimize this effect a third layer
of intrinsic or very lightly-doped silicon can be incorporated. This separates the
charged regions and greatly reduces the capacitance to typically 15pF A PIN
photodiode can be operated in two ways. The tiny photocurrent can be amplified by a
high gain current/voltage converter whose output can then be converted to a voltage.
A suitable circuit with a gain of 10,000 is provided on the ST2301 and the output will
rise linearly with increasing illumination. Alternatively the device can be connected
via a buffer to a high-gain voltage amplifier; the output from this will rise
logarithmically with increasing with increasing irradiance. In this mode it works as a
photovoltaic cell.
This differs from a standard PN photodiode by having a layer of intrinsic (pure)
silicon. The Intrinsic (I) region between normal P&N junction. The main
improvement of introduction of I region is reducing capacitance of junction resulting
in fast response time. The system has the electrical characteristics of a rectifier.
Radiation is directed in the vicinity of the PN junction & cause a flow of current.

Figure 12
The Photodiode is reverse biased. The reverse bias saturation current is dependent
upon the intensity of incident light. The Photo current Vs light relationship is linear
over a wide range. In order to maintain linearity the bias voltage should be kept
constant. The output resistance of photodiode is very high of the order of tens of mega
ohms. The DC resistance is the diode leakage resistance and that too is very high.
This DC resistance depends upon the light intensity. The frequency response of a
photodiode is largely dependent upon the intrinsic capacity which reduces junction
capacitance. The cut off frequency is given by :
fc =
2
1
R
L
C
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ST2301

Where,
C = capacitance of photodiode
R
L
= is the load resistance.
The cut off frequency is of the order of MHz. Even in dark there is always leakage
current of the Photodiode and this current are known as Dark current. The Dark
current doubles about every 10C increase in temperature for silicon and this
decreases the signal to noise ratio. Comparing Photodiodes with photoconductors, the
Photodiode possesses considerably better frequency response, linearity spectral
response and lower noise. The disadvantages of Photodiodes include small area and
rapid increase in dark current with temperature bias voltage requirement and necessity
of amplification at low illumination levels.
Because of their fast response time photodiodes are used as cine film sound track
readers. Similarly, they can be used as detectors of modulated light in optical
communication systems and also in switching circuits. Because of advancement in
integrated circuits which combine photodiodes with circuits. Various photo-detector
packages are available which can be used for edge and width sensing and for area
measurement.
Other developments include a single photodiode coupled to an amplifier in the same
encapsulation, and such an arrangement can provide high sensitivity at high
frequencies. Special controlled geometry photodiodes allow measurement of position
or null of position.
The device used on ST2301 is BPX65, its characteristics are given below :
Dark current 1nA
Light current 7nA/lux 10nA/lux
ambient 1A
Peak response spectral 850nm (I.R.)
Capacitance 15pF
Response time R
L
=5k 50ns 100 ns
The PIN Photodiode is already connected as under.

Figure 13
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ST2301

Procedure :
a. Socket C of Wire Wound potentiometer to +12V.
d. Output of Power Amplifier to input of filament lamp.
e. Other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving coil Meter.
f. Connect -ve input of Moving Coil Meter to 0V.
g. Output of PIN photodiode to input of Current Amplifier this is used to
measure the current output of the PIN Photodiode.
h. Output of current amplifier to input of DC amplifier.
i. Connect a Digital Multimeter as voltmeter on 20V DC range between
output of DC Amplifier and 0V to measure the output voltage of DC
amplifier.
3. Switch On the Power Supply and set the 10K Wire Wound potentiometer To
minimum for zero output voltage from the Power Amplifier.
4. Adjust Offset control of DC Amplifier to read zero in DMM Meter for zero
input at DC Amplifier.
5. Take readings of Amplifier output voltage on the Digital Multimeter as the
Lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in below table.
Lamp Filament
voltage (V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PIN Photodiode
DC amplifier
output voltage (V)

PIN Photodiode
Buffer
output voltage (V)

7. Change the Current Amplifier to Buffer to measure output of PIN photodiode.
Take readings of PIN photodiode output voltage as the lamp voltage is increased
in 1V step, record the result in table 4. Remember, to adjust the offset of DC
amplifier is giving zero output for zero input.
8. Plot the graph between PIN photodiode current amplifier output voltage, buffer
amplifier output voltage & Lamp filament voltage. It should resemble the one
given below.
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ST2301


Lamp Filament Voltage (volts) Figure 14

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ST2301


Figure 15
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ST2301

Experiment 5
Objective :
Characteristics of Phototransistor
Theory :
A phototransistor is a normal transistor in which the envelope enclosing the junction
in transparent or the light reaches the base through the entitles, which has a wide band
gap so it is transparent to the wavelengths detected. Alternatively it can be said that, it
is a transistor in which light generates by transistor action making the device very
sensitive.
The phototransistor has three layers of silicon containing tiny amOlll1ts of impurities.
These layers are termed as emitter, base & collector. When a positive voltage is
applied between collector & emitter a tiny reverse saturation current flows. This
current is due to electrons and holes created by warmth. The geometry of a
phototransistor allows light to shine on the collector-base junction and this creates
additional current carriers. This current is amplified by transistor action. The device
used is MEL 11 it is a high gain phototransistor in which the collector current is
proportional to the incident light.
With no light falling on the device there will be a small leakage current flow up due to
thermally generated hole electron pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be
slightly less than the supply voltage due to the voltage drop across the load resistor R
L

when light falls on the base region the leakage current increases with the base
connection o/c, this cut flows out via the base emitter junction and is amplified by
normal transistor action to give a large change in collector leakage current. With
increased current flowing in load resistor R
L
, output voltage reduces and is dependent
upon falling light.
V
OUT
= V - I
CEO
R
Where,
V= Supply volt,
I
CEO
= Collector leakage current,
R
L
= Load resistance.
The dark current increases in a phototransistor exponentially with rise in temperature
and if the temperature is sufficiently high the darks & light currents may be
indistinguishable. At any given temperature the dark current can be reduced to a small
value by biasing the base of the transistor which is normally left open circuited. The
sensitivity is decreased but the ratio of light to dark current is increased.
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ST2301


Figure 16
The advantages of the phototransistor are :
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small size.
3. Immediate operation on switching On.
4. Low voltage operation.
5. Long life.
A phototransistor gives a high gain. This transistor is very good for digital
applications because of the small size & fall times. The rise time which represents the
response to dark to light irradiance is about 1S and the fall time which represents
Light to dark irradiance is about 10S.
They are used in :
1. Linear Light Meter.
2. Operation of relay.
3. Modulated light.
4. Use in shaft encoders.
5. Use as switching devices for digital circuits.
The device used on ST2301 is MEL 11, its characteristics are as under :
Parameter Conditions Minimum Type Maximum
Dark current 100nA
Light current ambient 3.5mA
6. The Phototransistor is already connected as under.

Figure 17
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ST2301


Procedure :
a. Socket C of Wire Wound potentiometer to +12V
d. Output of power amplifier to input of Lamp Filament.
e. The other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving Coil Meter.
f. -ve input of moving coil meter to 0V.
g. Connect +5V to C input of slide potentiometer.
h. Connect B input of the slide potentiometer to Output of Phototransistor.
i. Connect a digital multi-meter as voltmeter between output of
phototransistor & ground on 20 VDC range to measure the phototransistor
output voltage.
2. Set the 10K slide potentiometer control to minimum setting (1) so that the
phototransistor load resistance is approximately 1K (protection resistor only)
3. Fit an opaque box over the clear plastic enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
4. Switch On the Power Supply and set the 10K wire-wound resistor to
minimum for zero output voltage from the power amplifier.
5. Take readings of photo transistors output voltage as indicated on the digital
multi-meter as the lamp voltage is increased in 1V steps. Record results in
below table.
Lamp Filament
voltage (V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Photo transistor
output voltage (V)

7. Plot the graph of phototransistor output voltage against lamp filament voltage. It
should resemble the one given below.
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ST2301


Lamp Filament Voltage (Volts) Figure 18

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ST2301


Figure 19

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ST2301

Experiment 6
Objective :
Optically Controlled Switching System
Procedure :
The system is to operate a light controlled Relay and switch On or switch Off the
light. The relay is to be On when the light level is low and should automatically be
turned Off when the light level exceeds a preset level. The system simulates the
switching On street light in evening & any such similar application
2. The socket C of wire-wound potentiometer to +12V.
3. The socket A of wire-wound potentiometer to 0V.
4. The socket B of wire-wound potentiometer to input of power amplifier.
5. Output of power amplifier to input of Lamp Filament.
6. Other input of filament lamp to +ve of Moving Coil Meter.
7. Connect -ve of Moving Coil Meter to 0V.
8. Socket C of slide potentiometer to +5V.
9. The socket B of slide potentiometer to A input of comparator.
10. Socket A of slide potentiometer to 0V.
11. The socket C of Carbon potentiometer to 5V.
12. The socket A of Carbon potentiometer to 0V.
13. The socket B of carbon potentiometer to output of photo conductive cell.
14. Output of Photoconductive cell to B input of Comparator.
15. Output of comparator to input of Electronic Switch.
16. Output of Electronic Switch to Input of Relay.
17. COM of relay to 0V.
18. NO output of relay to LED input.
20. Set the Wire Wound potentiometer & Carbon potentiometer in mid position.
21. Keep slide potentiometer on 9.
22. Switch On the Power Supply.
23. Connect a Digital Multimeter as a voltmeter on 2VDC range between input of
comparator and 0 V.
24. Disconnect DMM.
25. Turn carbon potentiometer clockwise till the LED is On.
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ST2301

26. Now, if wire wound potentiometer is turned slightly clockwise or anticlockwise
you will observe LED goes On & Off. This indicates that if light output is
increased the LED is Off and if light output is decreased the LED is On.
The experiment is very simple, A input of comparator has fixed DC voltage level
from slide potentiometer and photoconductive cell output is given to B input of
compactor. The output of compactor in turn actuates the electronic switch which
further actuates relay and LED. The B input of compactor is controlled by light output
falling on photoconductive cell which is controlled by filament lamp (wire wound
potentiometer), so when you turn the light more the LED goes off and when you
reduce the light, LED turns on .
If we are interested to find out the ambient light position where the should turn on you
can put wire wound potentiometer in fully clockwise position to read 10V on moving
coil meter and gradually reduce the voltage and note the voltage at which light turns
on, that gives the ambient light condition. By setting any ambient light position on
moving coil meter you can adjust the carbon potentiometer to turn the light on. This
will be by adjusting photoconductive cell output.

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ST2301


Figure 20
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ST2301

Glossary of Terms (Transducers)
Transducer : A device which converts information from one energy system
to another.
Sensor : A devise which senses, or measures, the magnitude of system
variables. Normally they also convert the measured quantity
into another energy system and hence they are also
transducers.
Actuator : A device which accepts an input in one system and converts it
into another energy system which is normally mechanical.
These devices are also transducers.
Accuracy : The error present in a measurement as compared to the true
value of the quantity.
Sensitivity : The ratio of the output of a device compared to the magnitude
of input quantity.
Range : A statement of the values over which the device can be used
and within which the accuracy is within the stated
specification.
Bandwidth : The range of input signal frequencies over which a device or
circuit is being operated while providing an output within its
stated specification.
Transfer Function : The mathematical relationship between two variables that are
related. Normally the relationship between the input and
output of a system.
Linear Ratio : A relationship between two quantities that have a constant for
example, a graphical straight line relationship.
Non linear : A relationship between two quantities that cannot be described
by a linear relationship.
Linearity : A measure of the deviation of a measurement from an ideal
straight line response at the same measurement over the same
range.
Response time : The time taken for the output to reach, or be within a rated
percentage of, a new final value, after the input has been
changed.
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ST2301

Warranty
1) We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.
2) The guarantee will become void, if
a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the operating
manual.
b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) The customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
3) The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
4) The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.

List of Accessories
1. Patch Cord 16" (2mm) ............................................................................18 Nos.
2. Mains Cord.............................................................................................1 No.
3. Light Cover.............................................................................................1 No.
4. e-Manual ................................................................................................ 1 No.
Updated 19-06-2008
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