GONDER UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Course Title: Construction mterils!
Course No CEn"# $%&'($#)#)*
Instructor: Demels+ Smuel
Ac,emic Yer $%'$-$%')
1) INTRODUCTION
Classification and Nature of construction Materials
Mechanical properties of materials.
2). CEMENTING MATERIALS
Lime
Gypsum
Portland Cement
3) CONCRETE
Concrete Making Materials
Fresh Concrete
ardened concrete
Concrete Mi! "esign
#) BRICKS
Manufacture
$ypes
$esting and Classification
%) ) TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTION
Characteristics and "efects
Preser&ations
'trength Properties
Con&ersions
() METALIC MATERIALS
7) MASONARYS
STONES
CONCRETE BLOCKS
8) PAINTS. AD/ESIVES AND ASP/ALTS
REFERENCES
)a) Ci&il *ngineering Materials + Fifth *dition, *dited -y Neil .ackson and
/a&indra 0."hir.
)-) Materials of Construction + $hird *dition, 1y /.C. 'mith
)c) Construction Materials + $ypes 2ses and 3pplications, 1y Cale- orn-ostel
)d) Construction Materials + 1y Mikyas 3-ayneh
)e) Properties of Concrete + $hird *dition, 1y 3.M. Ne&ille

1
4. Mechanical prper!ie" #S!a!ic "!re""$"!rain prper!ie")
3pplication of forces on solid -odies under e5uili-rium results in the
de&elopment of internal resisting forces and the -ody undergoes deformations to
a &arying degree.
6 7nternal forces are called stresses.
6 7nternal deformations are called strains.
"epending upon the arrangement and direction of the e!ternal forces, the stress
produced in a -ody may -e 8
(a) $ensile stress
(b) Compressi&e stress
(c) 'hearing stress
(d) 1ending stress
(e) $orsional stress
(f) 9arious com-ination of the a-o&e stresses
3 material is said to -e elastic if it reco&ers its original form. :n the contrary if it
fails to reco&er its original form it is said to -e plastic. Most engineering
materials are in part elastic and in part plastic.
Materials used for -uilding structures are said to -e strong if they are capa-le of
safely supporting their o;n ;eight and any applied loads ;ithout distortion.
'trength properties &ary ;ith the rate and fre5uency of loading and, in non6
homogeneous materials, ;ith the direction of load. $he moisture content )such as
in tim-er ) and temperature )such as in plastics) also influence the strength
properties.
Mechanical $ests
<ith reference to the arrangement and direction of e!ternal forces, the follo;ing
classification may -e made 8
(i) $ension test )7&) 1ending test
(ii) Compressi&e test )&) $orsion test
(iii) 'hear test
<ith reference to the rate and duration of the load application.
(i) 'tatic tests 8 made ;ith gradually increasing load.
(ii) "ynamic tests 8 made ;ith suddenly applied loads.
(iii) <ear tests 8 made to determine resistance to a-rasion and impact.
2
(iv) Long6time tests 8 made ;ith loads applied for a long period of time.
(v) Fatigue tests 8 made ;ith fluctuating stresses repeated a large num-er of
times.
<ith reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.
(i) "estructi&e tests 8 tests on specimens .
(ii) Non6destructi&e tests 8 tests on e!isting structure.
$he tension and compression tests are generally used to pro&ide -asic design
information on the strength of materials and as an acceptance test for the
specification of materials.
<hen a specimen is su-=ected to a gradually increasing a!ial tensile force, it is
assumed that the stress is distri-uted uniformly on the cross section
)perpendicular to the line of action of the force)

t
P
A
=
>
<here,
t
? tensile stress
P ? applied load
3
>
? area of the section perpendicular to the line of action of the
applied
force.
$he stress
t
and strain are called the nominal stress and strain since they don@t
include changes due to increase in length and reduction in area of the specimen.
Common types of nominal stress6strain diagrams.

3
Stress
, Pa
Strain ,
mm/mm
Type b
Type a Stress
, Pa
Strain ,
mm/mm
Stre
ss
,
Pa
a) !"#ti$e materia$s b) Britt$e
3 ductile material ;ill e!hi-it a large deformation -efore complete failure
;hereas a -rittle material ;ill fail ;ithout sho;ing much deformation.
For practical engineering purposes and many engineering materials, the initial
stress strain relations may -e assumed to -e linear.

t
? * or
E
p A
$ L
PL
A $
t
= = =

) )
) )
>
>
>
>

*, the slope of the straight line, is called the modulus of elasticity.
$he stress6strain relation is referred to as ook@s la;.

E$a
ooks la; applies for the elastic range.
Properties for the elastic range
(i) Proportional limit 8 the greatest stress ;hich the material is capa-le of
;ithstanding ;ithout a de&iation from the la; of proportionality of stress to
strain. )point a)
(ii) *lastic limit 8 the greatest stress ;hich a material is capa-le of ;ithstanding
;ithout a permanent deformation remaining upon release of stress. )point -)
%
e
B
A

&
Strain , mm/mm
Stre
ss
,
Pa
E$asti#
ran'e
P$asti# ran'e
(
#
b
a
Stre
ss
,
Pa
Strain , mm/mm
Strain ,
mm/mm
E$asti# an( P$asti# strains )&r ("#ti$e
materia$
!eterminati&n &) yie$( stren't* )&r britt$e
materia$s
#) N&n+meta$$i# e$asti# materia$s s&)t
r"bber)
Stre
ss
,
Pa
Strain ,
mm/mm
(iii) *lastic strength 6 measured -y the stress ;hich represents the transition
from the elastic range to the plastic range )a to d are on the -oundary -et;een
the elastic and plastic ranges)
(iv) Aield point 8 stress at ;hich there occurs a marked increase in strain
;ithout an increase in stress )only for ductile materials).
c 6 upper yield point.
d 6 lo;er yield point.
7t indicates transition from the elastic to the plastic range.
(v) Aield strength 8 the stress at ;hich yielding occurs.
'tress6strain relations of most materials do not sho; specific yield points.
$o determine this stress, an offset strain :3 ?
>
is measured from the
original :
)as sho;n in the second figure) and a line 31 is dra;n through the point 3,
parallel
to the straight line portion of the stress6strain cur&e. $he stress, at the
intersection
point e, is called the yield stress and is a measure of the yield strength -ased
on the
offset method. 3. '. $. M. commonly used &alues are
>
? >.>>2 and
>
?
>.>>3%.
)&i) Modulus of *lasticity )young@s modulus) 8 the slope of the initial linear
portion of the
stress6strain cur&e. $hree different methods are employed for materials ;ith
cur&ed
stress6strain diagrams.
(a) 7nitial tangent modulus 8 the slope at the origin of the cur&e.
*
4
? tan
4
(b) 'ecant modulus 8 the slope of the line =oining the origin and a
selected point 3 on
the cur&e.
*
2
? tan
2
(c) $angent modulus 8 the slope of the tangent to the cur&e at a selected point
1.
*
3
? tan
3

(vii) 'tiffness 8 measured -y its modulus of elasticity. 3 stiffer material e!hi-its
a
relati&ely small deformation in the elastic range.
,

3
Str
es
s
,
Pa
Properties for the plastic range
7n the plastic range a permanent deformation remains in the stressed -ody after
complete remo&al of the load.
Plastic strength 8 it is the ma!imum stress a material can possi-ly resist =ust
-efore failure. 7t may correspond to the ultimate strength )ultimate stress) or to
the fracture )rupture) strength
"uctility 8 it represents the material a-ility to deform in the plastic range.
7t is measured -y the percentage elongation.

!
L L
L
e
)
)
=

=
>
>
4>> 4>> B B

L
>
? original length.
L
f
? length at rupture.
7t is also measured -y the percentage reduction in area.
-
.$tim
ate &r
/ra#t
"re
stress
,
"
.$
ti
m
at
e
str
en
/r
a#
t"r
e
str
es
s,
Str
es
s
,
Pa
Strain , Strain ,
A
Strain , mm/mm

1
a) !"#ti$e materia$ b) Britt$e
Str
es
s
,
Pa

!
A A
A
a
)
=

>
>
4>> B
$oughness 8 materials a-ility to a-sor- energy in the plastic range. 7t comprises
-oth strength and ductility.

=
)
p
( T

Ce%en!in& %a!erial"
0n a 'enera$ sense &) t*e 1&r(, #ements are materia$s 1it* a(*esi2e an(
#&*esi2e pr&perties, 1*i#* ma3e t*em #apab$e &) "nitin' &r b&n(in' t&'et*er
)ra'ments &r parti#$es &) s&$i( matter int& a #&mpa#t 1*&$e4
/&r en'ineerin' p"rp&ses t*e meanin' is $imite( t& t*&se materia$s 1*en mi5e(
1it* 1ater )&rm a paste, 1*i#* is temp&rari$y p$asti# an( $ater &n a ri'i( mass
a)ter settin' an( *ar(enin'4 Cements &) t*is are 3n&1n as #a$#are&"s #ements
1*&se prin#ipa$ #&nstit"ents are #&mp&"n(s &) $ime4
6
Stres
s
Strain

)
Ca$#are&"s #ements are #$assi)ie( int& N&n + *y(ra"$i# #ements an( *y(ra"$i#
#ements4
N&n + *y(ra"$i# #ements7 eit*er n&t ab$e t& set an( *ar(en in 1ater e5amp$e7
n&n+
8y(ra"$i# $ime &r )at $ime) &r n&t stab$e in 1ater e5amp$e7 'yps"m p$asters)
8y(ra"$i# #ements7 ab$e t& set an( *ar(en in 1ater an( remain stab$e in
1ater
E5amp$e7 P&rt$an( #ement, *y(ra"$i# $imes)4
Lime, 'yps"m, P&rt$an( #ement are "se( in t*e #&nstr"#ti&n &) b"i$(in's an(
en'ineerin' 1&r3s eit*er as #&mp&nents )&r bin(in' materia$s e5amp$e7
m&rtar) &r as #&nstit"ents &) b"i$(in' materia$s e5amp$e7 #&n#rete)4
LIME
Lime is ma(e )r&m #a$#i"m &r ma'nesi"m #arb&nate, 1*i#* are ab"n(ant
minera$s an( &##"r in $imest&ne r&#3s4 8i'* + #a$#i"m $imest&ne #&nsists &)
m&re t*an 9: per#ent &) #a$#i"m #arb&nate 1*i$e (&$&miti# $imest&ne #&ntains
ab&"t %: an( %3 per#ent &) ma'nesi"m #arb&nate4
Production and use of lime
Lime, a$s& #a$$e( ;"i#3$ime, is #a$#i"m &5i(e CaO), a 1*ite &r 'rayis* 1*ite,
)ine$y #rysta$$ine s"bstan#e t*at s&metimes *as a ye$$&1 &r br&1n tint be#a"se
&) ir&n imp"rities4
T*e ra1 materia$s "se( )&r t*e pr&("#ti&n &) $ime is $imest&ne CaC&
3
), b"t
s&metimes (&$&mites a minera$ )&rm &) #a$#i"m+ma'nesi"m #arb&nates) is
"se(4 T*e $imest&ne "se( s*&"$( be &) *i'* #a$#i"m type #&ntainin' m&re t*an
9:< CaCO
3
4
Lime is man")a#t"re( by #r"s*in', 'rin(in', an( 'ra(in' t*e ra1 materia$ an(
t*en #a$#inin' &r b"rnin' it at ab&"t 9::+11::
&
C in 3i$ns t& (ri2e &)) #arb&n
(i&5i(e4
CaC&3 =>'CO
3
) = *eat CaO=>'O) = CO
2
Lime rea#ts 2i'&r&"s$y 1it* 1ater t& )&rm #a$#i"m *y(r&5i(e ?CaO8)
2
@ 3n&1n
as SLAKE! &r 8A!RATE! $ime4 B*en $ime is "se( as a #ementin' a'ent in
m&rtar )&r mas&nry &r p$aster, it is "se( in t*e *y(rate( )&rm4
CaO = 8
2
O CaO8)2 = 8eat
8
T*is pr&#ess is 3n&1n as s$a3in' &r *y(rati&n4 0t re;"ires ab&"t 6 t& 1, (ays s&
t*at a$$ t*e parti#$es 1i$$ 'et en&"'* time t& be *y(rate(4
Sl0in"
!"rin' s$a3in' #&nsi(erab$e *eat is e2&$2e( )&$$&1e( by s"((en e5pansi&n
1*i#* ma3es t*e $ime b"rst int& pie#es an( )ina$$y be#&mes p&1(er &r pasty4
!epen(in' &n t*e am&"nt &) 1ater a((e(, t*ere are t1& types &) s$a3in'7 Bet+
s$a3in' an( !ry+s$a3in'
Bet+s$a3in'
C"i#3$ime is mi5e( 1it* e5#ess 1ater &n sites4 A)ter sie2in' "ns$a3e( parti#$es
t*e *y(rate( $ime is $e)t t& mat"re )&r se2era$ (ays4
!ry+s$a3in'
.n(er #are)"$$y #&ntr&$$e( &perati&n as it #an be in a )a#t&ry) D"st s"))i#ient
1ater is a((e( t& *y(rate t*e ;"i#3$ime, t*e $"mps brea3 (&1n int& a (ry
p&1(er 3n&1n as (ry *y(rate &r *y(rate( $ime4 0t is &btaine( by a((in' a$m&st
e5a#t$y t*e t*e&reti#a$ ;"antity &) 1ater re;"ire( t& #*an'e t*e b"rnt $ime int&
*y(rate( $ime4
C"i#3$ime m"st be 3ept in (ry st&ra'e an( #are)"$$y pr&te#te( )r&m (ampness
"nti$ "se(4
Settin" n, /r,enin" o1 Lime
S$a3e( $ime *ar(ens &r sets by 'ra("a$$y $&sin' its 1ater t*r&"'* e2ap&rati&n
an( abs&rbin' #arb&n (i&5i(e )r&m t*e air, t*"s re2ertin" 3c0 t& #a$#i"m
Carb&nate CaCO
3
)4
T*e #y#$e is #&mp$ete( in t*e #*emi#a$ #*an'es )r&m t*e &ri'ina$ $imest&ne,
t*r&"'* b"rnin', s$a3in', an( settin', as s*&1n be$&14

"rying
C
C:
2

CaC:
3

Ca:
Ca):)
2

eating )around
4>>>
>
c)
'laking
9
Lime m&rtar (&es n&t *ar(en "n(er 1ater, an( )&r #&nstr"#ti&n "n(er 1ater
$ime *as t& be 'r&"n( t&'et*er 1it* a 2&$#ani# as* &r )ine$y 'r&"n( b"rnt #$ay
ti$e7 Si$i#a = A$"mina = $ime p&EE&$ani# #ement4) T*e pr&#ess &)
*ar(enin' &) $ime m&rtar is s& s$&1 t*at n&1a(ays+p"re $ime m&rtar is n&t
m"#* "se( in t*e #&nstr"#ti&n in("stry4
Uses
0n #&nstr"#ti&n, s$a3e( $ime #*ie)$y "se( t& ma3e m&rtar )&r b"i$(in' bri#3 an(
st&ne mas&nry an( )&r p$asterin' 1a$$s &) b"i$(in's4
T*e )&$$&1in' are t*e maD&r "ses &) $ime in t*e #&nstr"#ti&n in("stry7
1. Be((in' )&r $ayin' mas&nry "nits i4e4 bri#3s, #&n#rete b$&#3s, st&ne "nits
et#)7 $ime #ement m&rtar is "se( )&r t*is p"rp&se, "s"a$$y in t*e rati& &)
C7 L7 S &) 1717- &r 1727-4 T*e 1717- rati& 'i2es/res"$ts in a str&n'er
m&rtar 1*i$e t*e 1727- rati&s are m&re 1&r3ab$e, be#a"se in m&rtar
#ement #&ntrib"tes t& stren't* 1*ere as $ime impr&2es 1&r3abi$ity &) t*e
)res* m&rtar4
2. Be#a"se $ime rea#ts 1it* si$i#e&"s materia$s "n(er *y(r&t*erma$
#&n(iti&ns, it is emp$&ye( in t*e man")a#t"re &) a n"mber &) #a$#i"m
si$i#ate pr&("#ts s"#* as bri#3s, b$&#3s, ti$es et#4
3. Stabi$iEati&n &) r&a( s"r)a#es bases an( s"b+bases4 T*e "se (epen(s "p&n
t*e rea#ti&n &) $ime 1it* parti#"$ar #&nstit"ent materia$s &) t*e s&i$ t&
'i2e a #ementin' e))e#t4 S$&1 F ine))e#ti2e in #&&$er #$imates4
T*e presen#e &) $ime in a m&rtar #&ntrib"tes t*e )&$$&1in'7
1. P$asti#ity an( 1&r3abi$ity
2. 8i'* 1ater retenti2ity *ar(ens s$&1$y)
3. 0mpr&2e( b&n( stren't*
4. A $i'*ter #&$&"r m&rtar
5. 8i'* san( #arryin' #apa#ity
Typi#a$ m&rtar pr&p&rti&ns an( app$i#ati&ns7
>&rtar
P&rt$an( #ement C) 7 Lime L) 7
San( S)
App$i#ati&n
1 :42, 3 8i'*$y stresse( en'ineerin'
app$i#ati&ns
1 1 - Genera$ p"rp&se
1:
1 2 9 Genera$ p"rp&se b"t "ns"itab$e 1*ere
(ampness &##"rs
1 3 12 0nteri&r "se &r 1*ere s*e$tere( )r&m
se2er e5p&s"reH "ns"itab$e 1*ere
(ampness &##"rs
Ne2er attempt t& "se $ime as p$aster "nmi5e( 1it* &t*er materia$, as 1i(e
#ra#3s 1&"$( &##"r &n a##&"nt &) t*e s*rin3a'e &) $ime &n *ar(enin'4
8y(rate( $imes are &)ten a((e( t& P&rt$an( #ement m&rtars in pr&p&rti&ns
2aryin' )r&m , t& 8, per#ent &) t*e 1ei'*t &) #ement t*e pr&("#t bein' compo
mortar) t& in#rease t*e p$asti#ity an( 1&r3abi$ity4
Lime *as been "se( in t*e *y(rate( )&rm a$t*&"'* #a$#i"m &5i(e ;"i#3$ime)
may be m&re e))e#ti2e in s&me #ases e4'4 app$i#ati&n in stabi$iEati&n)4
C"i#3$ime 1i$$ #&rr&si2e$y atta#3 e;"ipment an( t*ere is a ris3 &) se2ere s3in
b"rns t& pers&nne$4 E2en 1*en 1&r3in' 1it* s$a3e( $ime, pr&$&n'e( e5p&s"re &)
t*e s3in #an res"$t in irritati&n, an( &##asi&na$$y, ras*es4
T*e a2era'e #&mpressi2e stren't* &) $ime m&rtar is $ess t*an t*at &) #ement+an(
'yps"m+m&rtars4 0t 2aries )r&m , 3')/#m
2
t& 2: 3')/#m
2
4 0ts tensi$e stren't* is
ab&"t 3 t& , 3')/#m
2
4 .s"a$$y a((in' P&rt$an( #ement t& t*e mi5t"re impr&2es
t*e me#*ani#a$ pr&perties &) $ime+m&rtar4
'()ra*lic li%e+t*is a spe#ia$ type &) $ime #&ntainin' 1: t& 16< ea#* &)
a$"min"m &5i(e, si$i#&n, an( ir&n &5i(e 1it* %: t& %,< $ime an( s&me
ma'nesi"m &5i(e, an( #an "e! *n)er +a!er4 0t is "se( 1*ere s$&1 "n(er 1ater
settin' is re;"ire(4
Production and use of gypsum
Gyps"m is a *y(rate( #a$#i"m s"$p*ate 1it* t*e #*emi#a$ )&rm"$a CaSO
%
4
28
2
O4 0t is 1i(e$y )&"n( in nat"re in &re b&(ies &) se(imentary &ri'in
s&metimes #&2ere( by (ep&sits &) NaC$ &r #$ay an( $ime r&#3s4 0t is rare$y )&"n(
in t*e p"re )&rm4
Pr)*c!in Prce""
Gyps"m *as a "ni;"e pr&perty t*at ma3es it 2a$"ab$e in #&nstr"#ti&n4 B*en t*e
ra1 'yps"m, CaSO
%
428
2
O, is *eate( t& a temperat"re &) ab&"t 1-:+2::
:
C, it
$&ses ab&"t t*ree+)&"rt*s 3/%) &) its 1ater &) #rysta$$iEati&n, 'i2in' a #a$#ine(
s"bstan#e #&mm&n$y #a$$e( PL3'$*/ :F P3/7', &r *emi*y(rates4
2?CaSO
%
428
2
O@ = 8eat 2?CaSO
%
4 I8
2
O = 3/2 8
2
O@
11
2CaSO%4 28
2
O = 8eat CaSO
%
)
2
48
2
O = 38
2
O
By b"rnin' 'yps"m t& a #&nsi(erab$y *i'*er temperat"re an*y(r&"s s"$p*ate
may be pr&("#e( *i'* temperat"re 'yps"m (eri2ati2e)
CaSO
%
428
2
O) = 8i'* *eat J CaSO
%
= 28
2
O
JP$aster t&& s$&1 in settin' a#ti&n re$"#tant t& abs&rb 1ater)
B*en 1ater is a((e( t& 2?CaSO
%
41/2 8
2
O@, it *y(rates int& )e$te( )ibers matte(
t&'et*er) #rysta$s #emente( t&'et*er an( resets in any (esire( s*ape t& its
&ri'ina$ r&#3$i3e )&rm, CaSO
%
4 28
2
O4
CaSO
%
428
2
O
8y(rati&n >&(erate *eat
re+#rysta$$iEati&n)
CaSO
%
4
1
/
2
8
2
O
A 1i(e 2ariety &) settin' a##e$erat&rs an( retar(ants retar(ers) are "se( in t*e
te#*n&$&'y &) 'yps"m4 A##e$erati&ns in#$"(e s"#* s"bstan#es as p&tassi"m
a$"m an( #a$#i"m4 T*e m&st "se( retar(ers are 'enera$$y &r'ani# s"bstan#es &)
*i'* m&$e#"$ar 1ei'*t, 1*i#* a#t as pr&te#ti2e #&$$&i(s an( impr&2e t*e
sti))ness an( me#*ani#a$ stren't* &) t*e materia$s4 C&mm&n$y "se( retar(rs are
3eratin, a$i'imate, s&(i"m si$i#ate, '$y#er&$, bent&nite, '$"e, sa1("st et#4
Pro4erties o1 G54sum s Construction Mteril
A seri&"s $imitati&n in t*e "se &) 'yps"m (eri2es )r&m t*e in*erent
#*ara#teristi#s &) t*e str"#t"re &) 'yps"m t& abs&rb m&ist"re4 O1in' t& t*is
p*en&men&n, t*e me#*ani#a$ stren't* 'reat$y (e#reases4
Gyps"m *as $&1 #&e))i#ient &) t*erma$ #&n("#ti2ity an( t*ere)&re, it is a 2ery
'&&( materia$ )&r t*erma$ )ire) pr&&)in'4 A 'reat (ea$ &) *eat is re;"ire( t&
rem&2e t*e 1ater &) *y(rati&n &) 'yps"m an( as t*e e2ap&rati&n ta3es p$a#e,
t*e 'yps"m p$aster) (&esnKt #ra#3 &r spa$ b"t its s"r)a#e is #&n2erte( t&
an*y(r&"s p&1(er 1*i#* a#ts as an e5#e$$ent *eat ins"$at&r retar(in' t*e
)"rt*er e2ap&rati&n &) 1ater &) #rysta$$iEati&n &) t*e insi(e $ayers &) 'yps"m4
T*e stren't* &) 'yps"m is, *&1e2er, (estr&ye( by pr&$&n'e( e5p&s"re t&
e5treme *eat a)ter t*e 1ater &) *y(rati&n is )ina$$y rem&2e( &r (ri2en &))4
12
Gyps"m is a$s& "se( )&r s&"n(+abs&rbin' #&nstr"#ti&ns as in a#&"sti#a$ p$aster,
p$asters b&ar(s, partiti&n ti$e, r&&) ti$e an( rein)&r#e( p$aster (e#3in'4
.n#a$#ine( 'yps"m is an e))e#ti2e, e#&n&mi#a$ retar(er in #ement4
S!ren&!h , S!r*c!*ral G(p"*%
T*e "$timate stren't* &) 'yps"m *as been )&"n( t& 2ary )r&m , 3')/#m
2
t& 2::
3')/#m
2
, (epen(in' "p&n t*e am&"nt &) 8
2
O "se( in mi5in' t*e 'yps"m paste,
t*e #&mp$eteness &) (ryin' &"t &) 8
2
O a)ter t*e 'yps"m paste *as set, t*e
am&"nt &) )&rei'n materia$s mi5e( 1it* t*e 'yps"m t& retar( &r a##e$erate its
rate &) settin' an( t*e temperat"re "se( in #a$#inin' t*e 'yps"m r&#34
/&r *i'*est stren't*, $east p&ssib$e am&"nt &) 1ater s*&"$( be a((e( &r "se( in
preparin' t*e 'yps"m p$aster4 T& ma3e 'yps"m s"))i#ient$y p$asti# &r 1&r3ab$e
33+38< 1ater is re;"ire(4 Bit* #are in mi5in' an( (ryin' &"t, 'yps"m #an be
pr&("#e( re'"$ar$y 1it* an a2era'e #&mpressi2e stren't* &) 1:: 3')/#m
2
4
Gyps"m 'ains it )"$$ stren't* in a )e1 *&"rs i) #are)"$$y 3i$n+(rie(, an( air+
#"re( 'yps"m 'ains stren't* s& rapi($y t*at )&rms may be rem&2e( t*e (ay t*e
'yps"m is p&"re(4
Gyps"m is 1ea3ene( by pr&$&n'e( e5p&s"re t& 1ater an( s*&"$( n&t be "se(
1*ere it 1i$$ be 3ept 1et )&r a $&n' peri&( &) time4
T*e m&("$"s &) e$asti#ity &) str"#t"ra$ 'yps"m is ab&"t 6:,:::+3')/#m
2
an(
2,1::,::: 3')/#m
2
)&r stee$4 T*e "nit 1ei'*t &) str"#t"ra$ 'yps"m is ab&"t 128:
3'/m
3
, 1*ereas t*at &) #&n#rete is 2,%:: 3'/m
3
4
PORTLAND CEMENT
P&rt$an( #ement is a #ementin' materia$ 1*i#* is &btaine( by t*&r&"'*$y
mi5in' t&'et*er calcare*" &r &t*er $ime bearin' materia$ 1it* ar&illace*"
an(/&r &t*er si$i#a, a$"mina &r ir&n &5i(e bearin' materia$s, b"rnin' t*em at a
#$in3erin' temperat"re an( 'rin(in' t*e res"$tin' #$in3er4
Mnu1cture
T*e pr&#ess &) man")a#t"re &) #ement #&nsists &) 'rin(in' t*e ra1 materia$s,
mi5in' t*em intimate$y in #ertain pr&p&rti&ns (epen(in' "p&n t*eir p"rity an(
#&mp&siti&n an( b"rnin' t*em in a 3i$n at a temperat"re &) ab&"t 13:: t&
13
1,::
:
#, at 1*i#* temperat"re t*e materia$ sinters an( partia$$y )"ses t& )&rm a
n&("$ar s*ape( #$in3er4 T*e #$in3er is #&&$e( an( 'r&"n( t& a )ine p&1(er 1it*
a((iti&n &) ab&"t 2 t& 3< &) &(p"*%4


>i5in' may be in ,r5 ,r5 or semi#,r5 4rocess) &r 6et 6et 4rocess) state
(epen(in' &n t*e *ar(ness &) t*e a2ai$ab$e r&#34
T*e 1et pr&#ess is "se(, in 'enera$ )&r t*e s&)ter materia$s s"#* as chal- r
cla(4 Bater is a((e( t& t*e pr&p&rti&n mi5t"re &) #r"s*e( #*a$3 an( #$ay t&
pr&("#e s$"rry, 1*i#* is e2ent"a$$y $e( t& a 3i$n4
T*e )r( &r "e%i$)r( pr&#ess is "se( )&r t*e *ar(er r&#3s s"#* as $imest&ne an(
s*a$e4 T*e #&nstit"ent materia$s are #r"s*e( int& p&1(er )&rm an(, 1it* a
minim"m am&"nt &) 1ater, passe( int& an in#$ine( r&tatin' n&("$isin' pan
1*ere n&("$es are )&rme( 3n&1n as ra+ %eal)4 T*is is )e( int& a 3i$n an(
1%
Cl5
Bas* mi$$
St&ra'e basins Bet 'rin(in' mi$$s t& ma3e
s$"rry
Limestone
Cr"s*er
St&ra'e basins
B$en(in' &) s$"rry t& #&rre#t #&mp&siti&n
St&ra'e &) #&rre#te(
s$"rry
P&1(ere( C&a$ &r
'as
C&rre#te( s$"rry )e( t& r&tary
3i$n
S$"rry is #&n2erte( int&
#$in3er
A((iti&n &) 2 t& 3< &)
'yps"m
C$in3er is 'r&"n( in ba$$
mi$$
Cement si$&s
Pa#3in' p$ant
t*erea)ter t*e man")a#t"rin' pr&#ess is simi$ar t& t*e 1et pr&#ess a$t*&"'* a
m"#* s*&rter $en't* &) 3i$n is "se(4 !ry an( semi+(ry pr&#esses are m&re
ener&( e,,icien! t*an t*e 1et pr&#ess4
Prpr!inin& , Ra+ Ma!erial"
0n &r(er t& )i5 t*e pr&p&rti&ns a##"rate$y, #*emi#a$ ana$ysis s*&"$( be ma(e &n
t*e ra1 materia$s4 T*e res"$ts are "s"a$$y repr!e) in terms &) t*e .i)e" &) t*e
principal cn"!i!*en! ele%en!"/
T*e ra1 materia$s "se( )&r t*e man")a#t"re &) #ement #&nsist main$y &) li%e,
"ilica, al*%ina an( irn .i)e4 T*ese &5i(es intera#t 1it* &ne an&t*er in t*e
3i$n t& )&rm m&re #&mp$e5 #&mp&"n(s4 T*e re$ati2e prpr!in" &) t*ese .i)e
c%p"i!in" are resp&nsib$e )&r in)$"en#in' t*e 2ari&"s pr&perties &) #ementH
in a((iti&n t& ra!e , clin& an) ,inene"" , &rin)in&/
Appr&5imate O5i(e C&mp&siti&n Limits &) Ra1 >ateria$s4
O7i,e Content (8t! 9*
Lime CaO) -: + -6
Si$i#a SiO
2
) 16 + 2,
A$"mina A$
2
O
3
) 3 + 8
0r&n O5i(e /e
2
O
3
) :4, + -4:
>a'nesia >'O) :4, L %4:
S"$p*"r tri&5i(e SO
3
) 1 + 3
A$3a$is + S&(a Na
2
O)
+ P&tas* K
2
O) :43 + 142
Titani"m O5i(e TiO
2
) :41 + :4%
P*&sp*&r&"s Pent+&5i(e
P
2
O
,
)
:41 + :42
Carb&n (i&5i(e CO
2
) 1 + 3
>an'anese O5i(e >n
2
O
3
) : + :41
1,
:sic C+rcteristics
C+emicl Com4osition
Genera$$y )&"r prin#ipa$ #&mp&"n(s are #&nsi(ere( t& be imp&rtant4
Nme o1 com4oun,s C+emicl Com4osition Usul 33re2ition
Tri#a$#i"m si$i#ate 3CaO4SiO
2
C
3
S
!i#a$#i"m si$i#ate 2CaO4SiO
2
C
2
S
Tri#a$#i"m a$"minate 3CaO4A$
2
O
3
C
3
A
Tetra#a$#i"m
a$"min&)errite
%CaO4A$
2
O
34
/e
2
O
3
C
%
A/
0t is m&re "s"a$ t& #a$#"$ate t*e pr&p&rti&ns &) t*ese #&mp&"n(s )r&m t*e
pr&p&rti&ns &) t*eir &5i(e #&nstit"ents "sin' B&'"eKs met*&(4
C
3
S M %4:6 CaO) + 64-:SiO
2
= -462A$
2
O
3
= 14%3/e
2
O
3
= 248,SO
3
)
C
2
S M 2486SiO
2
+ :46,%C
3
S
C
3
A M 24-,A$
2
O
3
+ 14-9/e
2
O
3
C
%
A/ M 34:%/e
2
O
3
T*e t1& si$i#ates, C
3
S an( C
2
S t&'et*er )&rm 6: t& 8: per #ent &) t*e
#&nstit"ents in t*e #ement an( #&ntrib"te m&st t& t*e p*ysi#a$ pr&perties &)
#&n#rete4 !"rin' *y(rati&n C
0
S *y(rates rapi($y, 'eneratin' a #&nsi(erab$e
am&"nt &) *eat an( ma3in' a si'ni)i#ant #&ntrib"ti&n t& t*e (e2e$&pment &) t*e
earl( "!ren&!h #ini!ial "e!!in&), parti#"$ar$y ("rin' t*e )irst 12 )a("4 C
3
S
*y(rates s$&1$y an( is main$y resp&nsib$e )&r t*e (e2e$&pment in stren't* a)ter
ab&"t 7 )a("4 Cements ri#* in C
2
S res"$t a greater resistance to chemical attack
an( a sma$$er )r(in& "hrin-a&e4
T*e *y(rati&n &) C
0
A is e5treme$y e.!her%ic an( ta3es p$a#e 2ery ;"i#3$y,
pr&("#in' $itt$e in#rease in stren't* a)ter ab&"t 32 h*r"4 0t is t*e lea"! "!a4le
an( #&n#rete &) a #ement ri#* in C
3
A are "*"cep!i4le ! "*lpha!e a!!ac-4
1-
S"$p*ate #&mbines 1it* C
3
A t& pr&("#e an e5pan(in' #&mp&"n( 1*i#* #&"$(
res"$t in (isinte'rati&n &) t*e #&n#rete4
C
;
AF rea#ts s$&1$y4 0ts main p"rp&se in P&rt$an( #ement is t& re("#e t*e
temperat"re re;"ire( ("rin' b"rnin' in t*e 3i$n4
B*i$e t*ere #an be &) $ar'e (i))eren#es in t*e ear$y stren't* &) #&n#retes ma(e
1it* (i))erent P&rt$an( #ements, t*eir )ina$ stren't*s 1i$$ 'enera$$y be 2ery
m"#* t*e same4
Fineness
T*e 'reater t*e s"r)a#e area &) a 'i2en 2&$"me &) #ement t*e 'reater t*e
*y(rati&n4 T*ere)&re )ine #ement 1i$$ (e2e$&p stren't* an( 'enerate *eat m&re
;"i#3$y t*an #&arse #ement4
/ine #ements, in 'enera$, impr&2e t*e #&*esi2eness &) )res* #&n#rete an( #an be
e))e#ti2e in re("#in' t*e ris3 &) b$ee(in', b"t t*ey in#rease t*e ten(en#y )&r
s*rin3a'e #ra#3in'4
>eas"re( )ineness is an &2era$$ 2a$"e 3n&1n as "peci,ic "*r,ace an( is
e5presse( in s;"are metres per 3i$&'ram m
2
/3')4
/5,rtion
Parti#$es &) #ement ta3e "p 1ater, )&rmin' a 'e$, 1*i#* #ements t*e in(i2i("a$
parti#$es t&'et*er4 T*is #*emi#a$ pr&#ess is #a$$e( h()ra!in4 0t #&ntin"es )&r
m&nt*s &r years as $&n' as 1ater is present4 T*e t&ta$ am&"nt &) 1ater re;"ire(
t& #&mp$ete t*e *y(rati&n &) t*e #ement is ab&"t 2,< &) t*e mass &) t*e #ement4
T*e rate &) *y(rati&n (epen(s &n t*e re$ati2e pr&p&rti&n &) si$i#ate an(
a$"minate #&mp&"n(s, t*e ce%en! ,inene"" an( t*e a%4ien! cn)i!in"
parti#"$ar$y temperat"re an( m&ist"re)4
Time ta3en t& a#*ie2e 8: per #ent *y(rati&n &) t*e main #&mp&"n(s &) P&rt$an(
#ement4
16
C*emi#a$ #&mp&"n( Time, (ays 8eat &) *y(rati&n
Ca$/' N/'
C
3
S 1: 12: ,:2
C
2
S 1:: -2 2,1
C
3
A - 2:6 836
C
%
A/ ,: 1:: %19
0t is t*e rate at 1*i#* *eat is 'enerate( an( n&t t*e t&ta$ $iberate( *eat, 1*i#*
in pra#ti#e a))e#ts t*e rise in temperat"re4 As #&n#rete is a p&&r #&n("#t&r &)
*eat 'enerate( ("rin' *y(rati&n #an (e2e$&p mi#r&+#ra#3 &n t*e bin(in'
me(i"m a))e#ts t*e ("rabi$ity &) #&n#rete)4
T*e pr&'ress &) *y(rati&n in #ement #an be (etermine( by (i))erent means, s"#*
as meas"rement &)7
1. T*e am&"nt &) CaO8)
2
in t*e paste
2. T*e *eat e2&$2e( by *y(rati&n
3. T*e spe#i)i# 'ra2ity &) t*e paste
4. T*e am&"nt &) #*emi#a$$y #&mbine( 1ater
5. T*e am&"nt &) "n*y(rate( #ement paste
6. A$s& in(ire#t$y )r&m t*e stren't* &) t*e *y(rate( paste
T*e )ina$ pr&("#t &) *y(rati&n may appr&5imate$y be 1ritten as )&$$&1s7
2C
3
S = -8 C
3
S
2
8
3
= 3CaO8)
2
2C2S = %8 C
3
S
2
8
3
= CaO8)
2
T*e initia$ *y(rati&n in2&$2es 2ery *i'* *eat &) *y(rati&n 1*i#* ("e t& C
3
A at
t*e s"r)a#e &) #ement parti#$es4 T*e ("rati&n &) t*is *i'* *eat &) *y(rati&n is
2ery s*&rt, an( t*ere )&$$&1s a s&+#a$$e( )r%an! peri), s&metimes #a$$e(
a$s& an in)*c!in peri), ("rin' 1*i#* t*e rate is 2ery *i'*4 T*is peri&( $asts
&ne &r t1& *&"rs ("rin' 1*i#* t*e #ement paste is +r-a4le4
18
Settin" n, /r,enin"
T*e #ement paste be'ins t& $&se its )$"i(ity 1*en t*e $ayers &) 'e$, )&rme(
ar&"n( ea#* &) t*e #ement parti#$es ("rin' *y(rati&n, 'r&1 t& t*e e5tent t*at
t*ey #&me int& #&nta#t 1it* ea#* &t*er4
T*e be'innin' &) n&ti#eab$e sti))enin' in t*e #ement paste is 3n&1n as t*e initial
set.
T*e sta'e at 1*i#* in#rement in t*e 2&$"me &) 'e$ is #&mp$ete( )&$$&1e( by
#&mmen#ement &) )ina$ *ar(enin' pr&#ess resp&nsib$e )&r #ement stren't* is
3n&1n as final set4 T*e times )r&m t*e a((iti&n &) t*e 1ater t& t*e initia$ an(
)ina$ set are 3n&1n as t*e setting times4 5ica! apparat"s meas"res t*e settin'
times &) t*e #ement by "sin' (i))erent penetrati&n atta#*ments4
/&r t*e (eterminati&n &) t*e initia$ set, a r&"n( nee($e 1it* a (iameter &)
1413:4:, mm is "se(4 T*is nee($e, a#tin' "n(er a pres#ribe( 1ei'*t, is "se( t&
penetrate a paste &) stan(ar( #&nsisten#y p$a#e( in a spe#ia$ m&"$(4
/ina$ set is (etermine( by simi$ar nee($e )itte( 1it* a meta$ atta#*ment
*&$$&1e( &"t s& as t& $ea2e a #ir#"$ar #"ttin' a'e , mm in (iameter an( set :4,
mm be*in( t*e tip &) t*e nee($e4 /ina$ set is sai( t& *a2e ta3en p$a#e 1*en t*e
nee($e, 'ent$y $&1ere( t& t*e s"r)a#e &) t*e paste, penetrates it t& a (ept* &) :4,
mm b"t t*e #ir#"$ar #"ttin' a'e )ai$s t& ma3e an impressi&n &n t*e s"r)a#e &)
t*e paste4
Sti))enin' &) #ement 1it*in a )e1 min"tes a)ter mi5in' ("e t& ins"))i#ient
'yps"m t& #&ntr&$ rapi( rea#ti&n &) C
3
A 1it* 1ater is 3n&1n as t*e flash set4
A false set a$s& pr&("#es a rapi( sti))enin' &) t*e paste t*at #an re'ain its
p$asti#ity by re+mi5in'4 Fal"e "e! is t*&"'*t t& be t*e res"$t &) inter+'rin(in'
'yps"m 1it* a 2ery *&t #$in3er in t*e )ina$ sta'es &) t*e man")a#t"re &) #ement4
Stren"t+
19
T*e #ement paste a$&ne is n&t "se( )&r t*e stren't* test be#a"se &) t*e
"na##eptab$y $ar'e 2ariati&n &) stren't* t*"s &btaine(4 Stan(ar( a''re'ates are
"se( )&r ma3in' pres#ribe( m&rtar &r #&n#rete test mi5es4
Soun,ness
0t is essentia$ t*at #ement paste, &n#e it *as set, (&es n&t "n(er'& a $ar'e
#*an'e in 2&$"me4 E5#essi2e #*an'e in 2&$"me &) #ement is 3n&1n as
unsoundness. E.pan"in &) *y(rate( #ement paste may ta3e p$a#e ("e t& t*e
(e$aye( &r s$&1 *y(rati&n, &r &t*er rea#ti&n, &) s&me #&mp&"n(s present in t*e
*ar(ene( #ement, name$y ,ree li%e, %a&ne"ia an( calci*% "*lpha!e4
L"" n i&ni!in
T*e $&ss &) i'niti&n s*&1s t*e e5tent &) #arb&nati&n an( *y(rati&n &) )ree $ime
an( )ree ma'nesia ("e t& t*e e5p&s"re &) #ement t& t*e atm&sp*ere4 T*e
ma5im"m $&ss &n i'niti&n at 1:::
&
C) permitte( by AST> is 0 6 26 i"
accep!a4le ,r ce%en!" in !rpic")4 Be#a"se *y(rate( )ree $ime is inn&#"&"s,
)&r a 'i2en )ree $ime #&ntent &) #ement, a 'reater $&ss &n i'niti&n is
a(2anta'e&"s4
T54es Cement (ASTM Clssi1iction*
Oaryin' t*e prin#ipa$ #&mp&"n(s, 1*i#* #an be a(D"ste( in ra1 materia$
#&mp&siti&n &) &5i(es, #an (e2e$&p #ements *a2in' spe#i)i# pr&perties4 Sma$$
#*an'e in &5i(e #&mp&siti&n in("#es $ar'e in)$"en#e &n #&mp&"n( #&mp&siti&n
&) #ement4 A##&r(in'$y, t*e )&$$&1in' maD&r types &) #&mmer#ia$ #ements #an
be pr&("#e(7
T54e I (Or,inr5 Portln, Cement*
2:
/&r "se in 'enera$ #&n#rete #&nstr"#ti&n, 1*ere t*e spe#ia$ pr&perties spe#i)ie(
)&r Types 00, 000, 0O F O are n&t re;"ire(4
T54e II (Mo,i1ie, cement*
/&r "se in 'enera$ #&n#rete #&nstr"#ti&n e5p&se( t& m&(erate s"$p*ate a#ti&n,
&r 1*ere m&(erate *eat &) *y(rati&n is re;"ire(4
T54e III (R4i, /r,enin" cement*
!e2e$&ps stren't* rapi($y 3 (ays stren't* M 6 (ays stren't* &) &r(inary
P&rt$an( #ement)4 T*e rapi( rate &) (e2e$&pment &) stren't* is attrib"te( t& t*e
*i'*er )ineness &) 'rin(in' spe#i)i# s"r)a#e n&t $ess t*an 0378 "9/ c% per
&ra%) an( *i'*er C
0
S an( $&1er C
3
S #&ntent4
T*e "se &) rapi( *ar(enin' #ement is re#&mmen(e( in t*e )&$$&1in' sit"ati&ns7
1. 0n pre+)abri#ate( #&n#rete #&nstr"#ti&n4
2. B*ere )&rm1&r3 is re;"ire( t& be rem&2e( ear$y )&r re+"se e$se1*ere4
3. R&a( repair 1&r3s4
4. 0n #&$( 1eat*er #&n#rete, 1*ere t*e rapi( rate &) (e2e$&pment &) stren't*
re("#es t*e 2"$nerabi$ity &) #&n#rete t& t*e )r&st (ama'e4
21
T54e IV (Lo6 /et cement*
/&r "se 1*en $&1 *eat &) *y(rati&n is re;"ire(4 Re("#in' t*e #&ntents &) C
3
S
an( C
3
A, an( in#reasin' C
2
S a#*ie2e a $&1+*eat e2&$"ti&n4 .se( in mass
#&n#rete 1&r3s, s"#* as (am, 1*ere #ra#3s #an be )&rme( ("e t& t*e rapi( rate
&) *y(rati&n4
T54e V (Sul4+te Resistin" cement*
/&r "se 1*en *i'* s"$p*ate resistan#e is re;"ire(4 0t *as a *i'*er #&ntent &)
C
2
S an( a $&1er #&ntent &) C
3
A4
T*e "se is re#&mmen(e( "n(er t*e )&$$&1in' #&n(iti&ns4
1. C&n#rete t& be "se( in marine str"#t"re nearby sea 1ater) #&n(iti&n4
2. C&n#rete t& be "se( in )&"n(ati&n an( basement, 1*ere s&i$ is in)este(
1it* s"$p*ates4
3. C&n#rete "se( )&r )abri#ati&n &) pipes, 1*i#* are $i3e$y t& be b"rie( in
mars*y re'i&n &r s"$p*ate bearin' s&i$s4
4. C&n#rete t& be "se( in t*e #&nstr"#ti&n &) se1a'e treatment 1&r3s4
T(pe IP #Pr!lan) P::lana ce%en!)
A p::lana is essentia$$y a si$i#e&"s materia$, 1*i#*, 1*i$e in itse$) p&ssessin'
n& &r $itt$e #ementiti&"s pr&perties, 1i$$ in )ine$y (i2i(e( an( in t*e presen#e &)
1ater, rea#t 1it* #a$#i"m *y(r&5i(e at &r(inary temperat"re t& )&rm #&mp&"n(s
p&ssessin' #ementiti&"s pr&perties4
0t may in#$"(e s"#* nat"ra$ materia$s as (iat&ma#e&"s eart*, &pa$ine #*erts
an( s*a$es, t"))s, 2&$#ani# as*es an( p"mi#ites4
0t pr&("#es $ess *eat &) *y(rati&n an( &))ers 'reater resistan#e t& t*e atta#3 &)
a''ressi2e 1aters t*an &r(inary P&rt$an( #ement4 >&re&2er, it re("#es t*e
$ea#*in' &) #a$#i"m *y(r&5i(e 1*en "se( in *y(ra"$i# str"#t"res4
T54icl Com4oun, Com4osition n, Fineness o1 Portln, Cements!
Type &) #ement !esi'nati&n
AST>
C&mp&"n( #&mp4< /inenessJ,#m
2
/'
C
3
S C
2
S C
3
A C
%
A
/
Or(inary Type 0 ,: 2% 11 8 18::
22
>&(i)ie( Type 00 %2 33 , 13 18::
Rapi( 8ar(enin' Type 000 -: 13 9 8 2-::
L&1 8eat Type 0O 2- ,: , 12 19::
S"$p*ate
Resistin'
Type O %: %: % 9 19::
J /ineness as (etermine( by Ba'ner t"rbi(imeter test4
CONCRETE
Com4osition o1 Concrete
C&n#rete is #&mp&se( main$y &) t*ree materia$s, name$y, #ement, 1ater an(
a''re'ate PinertQ minera$ )i$$ers), an( an a((iti&na$ materia$, 3n&1n as an
a(mi5t"re, is s&metimes a((e( t& m&(i)y #ertain &) its pr&perties4
B*en t*ese materia$s are mi5e( an( p$a#e( in )&rms an( a$$&1e( t& #"re, t*e
#*emi#a$ rea#ti&n bet1een t*e 1ater an( #ement )&rms a *ar(ene( bin(in'
me(i"m &) #ement paste, 1*i#* s"rr&"n(s an( *&$(s t&'et*er t*e a''re'ates by
a(*erin' t*em t& a 2aryin' (e'ree4
T*e pr&perties &) #&n#rete may be '&2erne( by #are)"$ se$e#ti&n (esi'n) an(
#&ntr&$ &) t*e #&nstit"ent materia$s4 T*e re;"irements )&r a )res* an( a
*ar(ene( #&n#rete may 2ary in 1i(e ran'e, (epen(ent &n t*e type &) str"#t"re
t& be #ast an( t*e a2ai$ab$e e;"ipment4 /&r pra#ti#a$ #&n#rete mi5es, t*e
#ement, 1ater an( a''re'ates s*&"$( be s& pr&p&rti&ne( t*at t*e res"$tin'
#&n#rete *as t*e )&$$&1in' pr&perties7
1. B*en )res*$y mi5e( it is 1&r3ab$e en&"'* )&r e#&n&mi#a$ an(
easy "ni)&rm p$a#ement, b"t n&t e5#essi2e$y )$"i(4
2. B*en *ar(ene( it p&ssesses stren't* an( ("rabi$ity a(e;"ate t&
t*e p"rp&se )&r 1*i#* it is inten(e(4
3. 0t in2&$2es minim"m #&st #&nsistent 1it* a##eptab$e ;"a$ity4
OO0!S 1 + 2 per #ent
CE>ENT PASTE #ement = 1ater) 2, + %: per #ent
AGGREGATES C&"rse = /ine) -: + 6, per #ent4
C&n#rete #&mp&siti&n
Concrete M0in" Mterils
8ter
23
Bater )it )&r (rin3in' is 'enera$$y s"itab$e )&r ma3in' #&n#rete4
8arm)"$ s"bstan#es i) present in $ar'e am&"nts are7 sa$t, &i$, in("stria$ 1astes,
a$3a$is, s"$p*ates, &r'ani# matter, si$t, se1a'e et#4 Sme$$, si'*t &r taste s*&"$(
re2ea$ s"#* imp"rities4 Bater &) (&"bt)"$ ;"a$ity s*&"$( be s"bmitte( )&r
$ab&rat&ry ana$ysis an( tests4
Bater "se( in #&n#rete mi5es *as t1& )"n#ti&ns, t*e )irst is t& rea#t #*emi#a$$y
1it* t*e #ement, 1*i#* 1i$$ )ina$$y set an( *ar(en, an( t*e se#&n( )"n#ti&n is t&
$"bri#ate a$$ &t*er materia$s an( ma3e t*e #&n#rete 1&r3ab$e4
T*e t&ta$ am&"nt &) 1ater re;"ire( per "nit 2&$"me &) )res* #&n#rete (epen(s
&n t*e )&$$&1in' )a#t&rs4
1. T*e (esire( #&nsisten#y &) t*e #&n#rete, 1*i#* may be e5presse(, as 1i$$ be
seen by t*e s$"mp &r ba$$ penetrati&n test4
2. T*e ma5im"m siEe, parti#$e s*ape an( 'ra(in' &) t*e a''re'ate4
3. Bater re("#in' &r air entrainin' a(mi5t"res4
T*e "se &) sea1ater (&es n&t appear t& *a2e any a(2erse e))e#t &n t*e stren't*
an( ("rabi$ity &) P&rt$an( #ement #&n#rete b"t it is 3n&1n t& #a"se s"r)a#e
(ampness, e))$&res#en#e an( stainin'4 Sea1ater a$s& in#reases t*e ris3 &)
#&rr&si&n &) stee$ an( its "se in rein)&r#e( #&n#rete is n&t re#&mmen(e(4
0n 'enera$, t*e presen#e &) imp"rities in t*e #"rin' 1ater (&esnKt *a2e any
*arm)"$ e))e#ts, a$t*&"'* it may sp&i$ t*e appearan#e &) #&n#rete4
8ter-Cement Rtio
0t is t*e re$ati&ns*ip bet1een t*e t&ta$ )ree 1ater an( t*e #ement4 /&r a 'i2en
type &) #ement an( a''re'ate, t*e stren't* an( p&r&sity &) t*e paste+str"#t"re
are (epen(ent a$m&st entire$y "p&n t*e 1ater+#ement rati&4
/&r a 'i2en #&nsisten#y, t*e $&1er t*e 1ater #ement rati& in t*e )res* #&n#rete,
t*e $ess 2&i(s an( m&re stren't*, $ess (ryin' s*rin3a'e an( m&re ("rabi$ity,
meanin' a$$ in a$$ a better res"$tin' #&n#rete4
A""re"te
T*&"'* t*e term inert minera$ )i$$ers is &)ten "se( t& (es#ribe a''re'ates, t*ey
are n&t tr"$y inert4 T*eir p*ysi#a$, t*erma$ an( at times #*emi#a$ pr&perties
in)$"en#e t*&se &) t*e #&n#rete4 0n #*&&sin' a''re'ate )&r "se in a parti#"$ar
#&n#rete attenti&n s*&"$( be 'i2en, am&n' &t*er t*in's, t& t*ree imp&rtant
re;"irements7
2%
1. B&r3abi$ity 1*en )res* )&r 1*i#* t*e siEe an( 'ra(ati&n &) t*e a''re'ate
s*&"$( be s"#* t*at "n("e $ab&"r in mi5in' an( p$a#in' 1i$$ n&t be re;"ire(4
2. Stren't* an( ("rabi$ity 1*en *ar(ene( + )&r 1*i#* t*e a''re'ate s*&"$(7
(a) Be str&n'er t*an t*e re;"ire( #&n#rete stren't*
(b) C&ntain n& imp"rities, 1*i#* a(2erse$y a))e#t stren't* an(
("rabi$ity4
(c) N&t "n(er'& int& "n(esirab$e rea#ti&n 1it* t*e #ement4
(d) Be resistant t& 1eat*erin' a#ti&n4
3. E#&n&my &) t*e mi5t"re + meanin' t& say t*at t*e a''re'ate s*&"$( be7
(a) A2ai$ab$e )r&m $&#a$ an( easi$y a##essib$e (ep&sit &r ;"arry4
(b) Be$$ 'ra(e( in &r(er t& minimise paste, *en#e #ement re;"irement4
Cla""i,ica!in , A&&re&a!e"
A''re'ates are 'enera$$y #$assi)ie( base( &n t*eir s&"r#e, t*eir #*emi#a$
#&mp&siti&n, t*eir 1ei'*t, t*eir siEe &r t*e m&(e &) preparati&n4
Ba"e) n "*rce
(i) Nat"ra$ a''re'ates7 &btaine( )r&m ri2er be(s san(, 'ra2e$) &r t*e ;"arries
#ras*e( r&#3)
(ii) Arti)i#ia$ a''re'ates7 'enera$$y &btaine( )r&m in("stria$ 1astes s"#* as t*e
b$ast )"rna#e s$a'4
Ba"e) n che%ical c%p"i!in
(i) Ar"illceous7 #&mp&se( primari$y &) a$"mini"m A$
2
O
3
), t*e #*ie)
#&mp&nent &) #$ay4
(ii) Siliceous7 #&mp&se( primari$y &) si$i#&n (i&5i(e SiO
2
), t*e prin#ipa$
in're(ient &) ;"artE san(4
iii) Clcreous7 #&mp&se( primari$y &) #a$#i"m #arb&nate &r $ime CaCO
3
)4
Ba"e) n +ei&h!
(i) /e25 6ei"+t ""re"tes7 in#$"(es *ematite, barite, $im&nite, ma'netite,
an( ir&n an( stee$+p"n#*in' 1ei'*t )r&m 28:: t& -%::K'/m
3
) #&n#rete is
"se( )&r ra(iati&n s*ie$(in'4
(ii) Norml 6ei"+t ""re"tes7 in#$"(es san(, 'ra2e$, #r"s*e( st&ne, an( air
#&&$e( b$ast )"rna#e 1ei'*t )r&m
21-: t& 2,-: K'/m
3
)
(iii) Li"+t6ei"+t ""re"tes4 Bei'*t )r&m 13-: 3'/m
3
t& 18%:K'/m
3
) )&r
str"#t"ra$ #&n#rete, e5pan(e( #$ay, s*a$e, s$ate, an( s$a' are "se( 1*ereas
2,
)&r ins"$atin' #&n#rete p"mi#e, s#&ria, per$ite, 2ermi#"$ite, an( (iat&mite
are "se(4
Ba"e) n "i:e #+i)el( *"e) cla""i,ica!in %e!h))
(i) C&arse a''re'ates bi''er t*an %46,mm)
(ii) /ine a''re'ates sma$$er t*an %46,mm)
Gr,in" o1 A""re"te
T*e 'ra(in' &) an a''re'ate (e)ines t*e pr&p&rti&ns &) parti#$es &) (i))erent siEe
in t*e a''re'ate4 T*e siEe n&rma$$y "se( in #&n#rete 2aries )r&m 364, t& :41,
mm4
Gra(in' is t*e m&st imp&rtant )a#t&r in #&n#rete mi5 (esi'n *a2in'
#&nsi(erab$e e))e#t &n t*e 1&r3abi$ity an( stabi$ity &) t*e mi54
Gra(in' is (etermine( by a sie2e ana$ysis4 A samp$e &) a''re'ate )&r sie2e
ana$ysis is )irst s"r)a#e (rie( an( t*en sie2e( t*r&"'* t*e series, startin' 1it*
t*e $ar'est4 Any sie2e (&1n t*e $ist *as *a$) t*e #$ear &penin' &) t*e &ne ab&2e4
T*e 1ei'*t retaine( &n ea#* sie2e is re#&r(e( an( t*e per#enta'e #&mp"te(4
T*e s"mmati&n &) t*e #"m"$ati2e per#enta'e &) t*e materia$ retaine( &n t*e
sie2es n&t in#$"(in' t*e interme(iate sie2es) (i2i(e( by 1:: is #a$$e( t*e
)ineness m&("$"s4 0t is "se( as an in(e5 t& t*e )ineness &r #&arseness an(
"ni)&rmity &) a''re'ate s"pp$ie(, b"t it is n&t an in(i#ati&n &) 'ra(in' sin#e
t*ere #&"$( be an in)inite n"mber &) 'ra(in' 1*i#* 1i$$ pr&("#e a 'i2en
)ineness m&("$"s4
2-
E5amp$e &) sie2e ana$ysis &) )ine a''re'ate
Sie2e siEe Bei'*t
retaine( 'r)
< retaine( C"m"$ati2e <
retaine(
C"m"$ati2e <
passin'
94,mm : : : 1::
%46,mm 3: - - 9%
243-mm %: 8 1% 8-
1418mm 8: 1- 3: 6:
-::m
1-: 32 -2 38
3::m
1%: 28 9: 1:
1,:m
%: 8 98 2
Passin'
1,:m
1: 2 1:: :
T&ta$ ,:: 1:: 3::
/ineness m&("$"s M
3>>
4>>
3 =
E5amp$e &) sie2e ana$ysis &) #&arse a''re'ate 19 + ,mm)
Sie2e siEe Bei'*t
retaine( 'r)
< Retaine( C"m"$ati2e <
retaine(
C"m"$ati2e <
passin'
364,mm : : :
J2,4%%mm 9, 149: 149:
19mm 63: 1%4-: 1-4,:
J1342mm 2818 ,-43- 6248-
94,mm 88- 16462 9:4,8
%46,mm %61 94%2 1::4::
243-mm : : 1::4::
1418mm : : 1::4::
-::m
: : 1::4::
3::m
: : 1::4::
1,:m
: : 1::4::
T&ta$ ,::: 1::
R
6:64:8
J0nterme(iate sie2es4
R
S"m (&esnKt in#$"(e interme(iate sie2es4
/ineness m&("$"s
>D . D
4>>
>E . D>D
= =
26
A''re'ate is 'ra(e( s& as t& *a2e (i))erent siEes &) parti#$es, )r&m t*e re;"ire(
$ar'est siEe t& t*e 2ery )ine4
T*e "se &) a 1e$$ 'ra(e( mi5t"re &) a''re'ates res"$ts in impr&2e( 1&r3abi$ity
&) t*e #&n#rete an( e#&n&my &) t*e #ement sin#e s"#* a''re'ate *as a
(e#rease( am&"nt &) 2&i(s bet1een t*e parti#$es an( #&nse;"ent$y re;"ires $ess
#ement paste4 /&r a 'i2en #&nsisten#e an( #ement #&ntent, a 1e$$+'ra(e(
a''re'ate pr&("#es a str&n'er #&n#rete t*an a p&&r$y 'ra(e( &ne be#a"se $ess
1ater is re;"ire( t& 'i2e s"itab$e 1&r3abi$ity4
Bit* a 'i2en se#ti&na$ (imensi&n &) a #&n#rete str"#t"ra$ member an( spa#in'
&) rein)&r#ements, it is in 'enera$ re#&mmen(e( t& se$e#t t*e ma5im"m p&ssib$e
siEe &) a''re'ate4 T*e ma5im"m siEe an( 'ra(in' are imp&rtant be#a"se t*ey
a))e#t7
(i) Re$ati2e 2&$"me &##"pie( by t*e a''re'ate i4e4 t*e re$ati2e pr&p&rti&ns),
*en#e t*e e#&n&my in pr&("#in' #&n#rete4
(ii) T*e s"r)a#e area &) t*e a''re'ate 1*i#* (etermines t*e am&"nt &) 1ater
ne#essary t& 1et a$$ t*e s&$i(s4
(iii) T*e 1&r3abi$ity &) t*e mi5t"re4
(iv) T*e ten(en#y t& se're'ati&n4
(v) T*e p&r&sity an( s*rin3a'e4
0t is imp&rtant t& *a2e a 1e$$+'ra(e( #&arse an( )ine a''re'ate 1it* ma5im"m
p&ssib$e siEe4
Gr,in" C+rts
T*e res"$ts &btaine( as per#ent passin' &r per#ent #&arser #an be s*&1n
'rap*i#a$$y in a''re'ate 'ra(in' #*arts4 On t*e *&riE&nta$ a5is t*e sie2e
&penin's are rea( 1it* arit*meti# &r $&'arit*mi# s#a$e4 T*ey are arran'e( 1it*
in#reasin' sie2e+&penin' siEes )r&m $e)t t& ri'*t4 On t*e 2erti#a$ s#a$e &n t*e $e)t
si(e &) t*e #*art t*e t&ta$ per#enta'e #&arser are in(i#ate( as : t& 1::, )r&m
b&tt&m t& t&p4 T*e #&rresp&n(in' 2a$"es )&r t*e per#enta'e passin' are rea( &n
t*e ri'*t si(e &) t*e #*art4
A 'ra(in' #*art is espe#ia$$y "se)"$ in #*e#3in' 1*et*er t*e res"$ts &btaine(
)r&m t*e sie2e ana$ysis &) a 'i2en samp$e )a$$ 1it*in t*e $imits spe#i)ie( by
stan(ar(s4 0) t*ey )a$$ 1it*in t*e $imits t*en t*ey are sai( t& satis)y t*e stan(ar(4
S4eci1ic Gr2it5
T*e spe#i)i# 'ra2ity &) a s"bstan#e is t*e rati& bet1een t*e 1ei'*t &) t*e
s"bstan#e an( t*at &) t*e same 2&$"me &) 1ater4 T*e (e)initi&n ass"mes t*at t*e
s"bstan#e is s&$i( t*r&"'*&"t4
28
A se#ti&n #"t t*r&"'* any a''re'ate s*&1s t*e e5isten#e &) p&res permeab$e F
impermeab$e)4 Be#a"se &) t*e p&res, in #&n#rete te#*n&$&'y (istin#ti&n is ma(e
bet1een abs&$"te spe#i)i# 'ra2ity an( b"$3 spe#i)i# 'ra2ity4
Let A M Bei'*t &) t*e &2en (ry samp$e in air4
B M Bei'*t &) sat"rate( s"r)a#e (ry samp$e in air4
C M Bei'*t &) sat"rate( samp$e in 1ater4
(a) A3solute s4eci1ic "r2it57 0t is t*e rati& &) t*e mass &) a "nit 2&$"me &) a
materia$ 1it*&"t p&res) t& t*e mass &) t*e same 2&$"me &) 'as+)ree (isti$$e(
1ater4
(b) A44rent s4eci1ic "r2it5: 0t is t*e rati& &) t*e 1ei'*t in air &) a materia$
&) 'i2en 2&$"me s&$i( matter p$"s impermeab$e p&res &r 2&i(s) t& t*e 1ei'*t
in air &) an e;"a$ 2&$"me &) (isti$$e( 1ater4
Apparent spe#i)i# 'ra2ity M
A
A C
#) :ul0 s4eci1ic "r2it57 0t is t*e rati& &) t*e 1ei'*t in air &) a 'i2en 2&$"me &)
a permeab$e materia$ in#$"(in' b&t* its permeab$e an( impermeab$e 2&i(s) t&
t*e 1ei'*t in air &) an e;"a$ 2&$"me &) 1ater4
B"$3 spe#i)i# 'ra2ity M
A
B C
(d) :ul0 s4eci1ic "r2it5 (sturte, sur1ce ,r5 3sis*: 0t is t*e rati& &) t*e
1ei'*t in air &) a permeab$e materia$ in a sat"rate( s"r)a#e (ry #&n(iti&n t&
t*e 1ei'*t in air &) an e;"a$ 2&$"me &) 1ater4
B"$3 spe#i)i# 'ra2ity s4s4() M
B
B C
0n t*e #&mp"tati&n &) ;"antities )&r #&n#rete mi5es, it t*e spe#i)i# 'ra2ity &) t*e
sat"rate( s"r)a#e (ry a''re'ates t*at is a$1ays "se(4
R&#3 'r&"p B"$3 spe#i)i# 'ra2ity
A2era'e Ran'e
Basa$t 246, 246 + 249
Granite 24-, 24- + 246
Limest&ne )irm) 24-, 24- + 246
San(st&ne 24,: 24: + 24-
Trap r&#3 249: 246 + 34:
B"$3 (ensity
0t is t*e meas"re &) t*e 1ei'*t &) t*e a''re'ate t*at )i$$s a #&ntainer &) "nit
2&$"me, part &) 1*i#* is 2&i( be#a"se &) t*e $&&se pa#3in' &) t*e parti#$es4 T*e
b"$3 (ensity is "se( t& #&n2ert ;"antities by 1ei'*t t& ;"antities by 2&$"me )&r
bat#*in' #&n#rete4
29
>ateria$ K'/m
3
San( (ry) 1,2: + 1-,:
Gra2e$ 128: + 1%%:
Cr"s*e( st&ne 12,: + 1%::
Porosit5. A3sor4tion n, Sur1ce Moisture
Oari&"s states in 1*i#* an a''re'ate may e5ist4
1. O2en (ry + #&mp$ete$y (ry4
2. Air (ry + (ry at t*e s"r)a#e, s&me interna$ m&ist"re b"t $ess t*an t*e am&"nt
re;"ire( t& sat"rate t*e parti#$e4
3. Sat"rate( s"r)a#e (ry + 0(ea$iEe( #&n(iti&n, n& )ree m&ist"re &n t*e parti#$e,
b"t a$$ 2&i(s 1it*in t*e parti#$e )i$$e( 1it* 1ater4
4. !amp &r 1et + sat"rate( an( 1it* )ree &r s"r)a#e m&ist"re &n its s"r)a#e4
3:
State O2en (ry Air (ry Sat"rate( s"r)a#e (ry !amp
m&ist)

T&ta$ n&ne Less t*an E;"a$ t&
Greater t*an
m&ist"re abs&rpti&n #apa#ity abs&rpti&n #apa#ity abs&rpti&n
#apa#ity
Abs&rpti&n Capa#ity, < M
SS! Bt O! Bt
O! Bt
S
. . . .
. .

4>>
E))e#ti2e abs&rpti&n #apa#ity, < M
SS! Bt A! Bt
O! Bt
S
. . . .
. .

4>>
/ree m&ist"re, < M
! Bt SS! Bt
SS! Bt
S
. . . .
. .

4>>
T*e abs&rpti&n #apa#ity is a meas"re &) t*e p&r&sity &) an a''re'ate4
>ateria$ Abs&rpti&n Capa#ity, <
by 1t4
San( : + 2
Gra2e$ :4, + 1
Basa$t : + :4,
Granite : + :4,
Limest&ne )irm) :4, + 1
San( st&ne 2 + 6
Trap r&#3 : + :4,
:ul0in" o1 Sn,
Be#a"se &) t*eir sma$$ siEe an( 1ei'*t, san( parti#$es are easi$y p"s*e( an(
*e$( apart by s"r)a#e 1ater t*ere by in#reasin' t*e t&ta$ 2&$"me per 'i2en
1ei'*t &) san(4 T*is p*en&men&n is 3n&1n as b"$3in'4
31
E))e#ti2e
abs&rpti&
n Abs&rpti&n #apa#ity &r
t&ta$ interna$ m&ist"re
S"r)a#e
0n#rease in 2&$"me &2er (ry r&((e( san(, <
T&ta$ m&ist"re




32
C
A
B
E))e
#t &)
m&is
t"re
&n
b"$3
in'
&)
san(
>&ist"re a((e(, Bt <

1:
2:
3:
%:
: , 1: 1,
2:
A + /ine san(
B + >e(i"m san(
C + C&arse san(