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INTRODU
UCTION
Fatigue off metals is a well kno
own situattion where yielding (aand then rupture)
r
can be ca
aused by a large n
number of stress va
ariations (m
magnitude and/or
direction) at a point even thou
ugh the ma
ax stress is
s less thann the yield stress,
and respectively the ultimate sstress.
A fatigue failure
f
starrts on a m
microscopic
c scale as a minute ccrack or defect in
the materrial and this
t
gradu
ually grow
ws under the actioon of the stress
fluctuation
ns until com
mplete fraccture occurrs.
It has bee
en estimate
ed that at least 75% of all mac
chine and structural failures
have been
n caused by
b some fo
orm of fatigue. It is therefore
t
eevident tha
at every
engineer should
s
be aware of this phen
nomenon, and have some idea of its
mechanicss and wha
at can be d
done to minimize
m
orr avoid thee risk of th
his type
of failure.
Figure 1(a
a) shows a typical siituation wh
here fatigu
ue failures can arise due to
geometrica
al configurations, an
nd Fig. 1((b) illustrattes the apppearance of the
fracture su
urface in su
uch cases..
Fig
gure 1: Fatig
gue cracks in
n an engine crankshaft.
MICRO-MECHANIS
SMS OF FA
ATIGUE
The fatigu
ue mechan
nism has two distin
nct phases
s, initiationn of a cra
ack and
propagatio
on of this crack
c
to fina
al rupture of the mate
erial.
Above a certain value of cycclic stress (fatigue limit) somee crystals on the
surface off the specimen deve
elop bands during cy
ycling. Theese bands are the
result of sliding or sh
hearing of atomic pla
anes within
n the crystaal and are termed
slip band
ds. With continued
c
cyclic acttion these
e slip bannds broade
en and
intensify to the point where separation occurs within one of the slip bands and
a crack is formed.
Once started, the crack will develop at a point of discontinuity in the material,
such as a change in cross section, a key way, or a hole. Less obvious points
at which fatigue failure is likely to begin are internal cracks, or even
irregularities caused by machining. In other words, when a load below the
yield strength of a material is applied repeatedly to a metallic specimen,
Localized Hardening occurs. Then a small crack appears, this crack is a
Line of Stress Concentration, which causes it to grow. As the crack grows,
the cross sectional area of the metal gets smaller until it can no longer support
the load. When fracture takes place, the loading is called Fatigue Loading
and the fracture is called Fatigue Failure.
Cracks generally starts at the surface of the metallic material. As the crack
grows, the two surfaces rub against each other, polishing both faces to a dull
metallic finish, whereas the fractured surface show signs of plastic
deformation and a crystalline finish.
TEST METHODS
Fatigue failures occur most often in moving machinery parts such as shafts,
connecting rods, valves, springs, etc. However, the wings and fuselage of an
airplane or the hull of a submarine are also susceptible to fatigue failures
because in service they are subjected to variations of stress. As it is not
always possible to predict where fatigue failures will occur in service and
because it is essential to avoid premature fractures in articles as aircraft
components, it is common to do full-scale testing on aircraft wings, fuselage,
engine pods, etc. This involves supporting the particular airplane section in
jigs and applying cycling varying stresses using hydraulic cylinders with
specially controlled valves.
Laboratory tests are also carried out on particular materials to establish their
fatigue characteristics and to study factors such as their susceptibility to
stress concentrations. Fatigue can be generated in direct stress due to axial
loading or bending or shear stress due to cyclic torsion or any combination of
these.
To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads,
specimens are subjected to repeated or varying forces of specified
magnitudes while the cycles of stress reversals are counted to destruction. To
establish the fatigue strength of a material, quite number of tests are
necessary. For the rotating test, a constant bending load is applied, and the
number of revolutions (Stress Reversals) of the beam required for failure is
recorded. The first test is made at a stress which is somewhat under the
ultimate strength of the material. The second test is made with a stress which
is less than that used in the first. This process is continued, and the results
The ordina
ate of the S-N curve
e (Fig. 3) is called the fatiguee strength
h; (, the
stress abo
ove endura
ance limit at which failure
f
is likely to occcur after a given
number off cycles) a statemen
nt of this sttrength mu
ust always be accom
mpanied
by a statem
ment of the
e number o
of cycles, N,
N to which
h it correspponds.
In the casse of Stee
els, a kne
ee occurs in the gra
aph, and bbeyond this knee
failure will not occurr, no matte
er how grea
at the num
mber of cyccles. The strength
s
corresponding to the
e knee is ca
alled the endurance
e
e limit , or tthe fatigue
e limit.
Processorrs of alum
minum an
nd magnesium alloy
ys publishh very co
omplete
tabulationss of the prroperties off these ma
aterials, inc
cluding thee fatigue sttrength,
which ord
dinarily run
n from ab out 30 to 40 perce
ent of the tensile sttrength,
depending
g whether the materrial is castt or wrought. These materials do not
have an endurance
e
limit, and the fatigue
e strength is usuallyy based on
n 108 or
5(108) cyccles of stres
ss reversa
als.
Nu
umber of stre
ess cycles, N
Figure 3: An
A S-N diagrram plotted frrom the resu
ults of comple
etely reverseed axial fatigu
ue test.
Material U
UNS G41300
0 steel norma
alized.
With a material like mild steel, the actual stress range could be kept
below the endurance limit.
TABLE 1: CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE ENDURANCE LIMIT
Material:
Chemical composition, basis of failure, variability.
Manufacturing:
Method of manufacturing, heat treatment, surface
condition, stress concentration.
Environment:
Corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation
times.
Design:
Size,
shape,
life,
stress
state,
stress
concentration, speed.
Instruction Manual
WP 140
Fatigue Testing
Apparatus
Test instructions
07/93
Table of contents
1
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Fatigue limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.5
Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.6
Stress-number diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3.2
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1
5.2
Technical specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3
Test bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Introduction
With this machine, it is possible to demonstrate the
basic principles of fatigue strength testing, including the production of a stress-number diagram. The sample is subjected to a pure
reversed bending stress in the machine.
Via different sample shapes, it is possible to show
the influence of the notch effect and the influence
of surface quality on fatigue strength.
10
Floating
bearing (6)
Scale
6
12
16
15
11
13
14
Theory
Oscillating stresses are far more dangerous for
structural parts and components than a static force
applied once.
Residual fracture
surface: rough
Fatigue fracture
surface: smooth
with lines of rest
o a
m
u a
t
3.2
Mb
Mb F a
Wb
d3
M
32 100.5 mm
a Wb 32 a3 F
F
b
d
8 3mm 3
a 2.0 1/mm 2
F
3.3
3.4
Fatigue limit
Stresses at which the material fails below the load
cycle limit of 10 106 are termed fatigue limit.
The corresponding number of load cycles N until
rupture should be given in brackets, e.g.
W
5
510
220 N/mm2.
3.5
Endurance
Endurance refers to the number N of load cycles
until rupture at a certain load. The magnitude of
the load according to mean stress and alternating
stress amplitude is given in brackets, e.g.
3.6
Stress-number diagram
The stress-number diagram (S-N diagram) portrays the correlation between the number of load
cycles until rupture and the corresponding load
stress in graph form. This clearly shows that as
the number of load cycles increases, the permissible load asymptotically approaches the fatigue
strength w .
a
w
0
102
103
104
105
106
107
Number of load cycles N (logarithmic)
When plotting a stress-number curve, it is important that with alternating stress, the mean stress,
or with pulsating stress, the ratio of maximum or
minimum stress to mean stress, is kept constant
for the various loads.
As the mean stress is zero in the revolving fatigue
testing machine, this condition is automatically
fulfilled.
Experiments
4.1
Remove the protective hood (unlock the fasteners by rotating the knobs to the left)
Knobs
DANGER!
DANGER!
Never operate the revolving fatigue testing machine without the protective guard! Parts of the sample could fly off when it ruptures. Rotating machine
parts must be protected against accidental contact.
13
11
14
Reset here
and true
-
Check whether the counter is counting correctly (approximately 2800 load cycles per minute).
It is possible to display the revolutionary speed
in RPM by switching over with the SEL button.
Twist floating
bearing upwards
Stopswitch(16)
4.2.1
4.2
IMPORTANT!
Ensure that the sample is firmly seated in the collet
chuck. The sample receptacle must be clean
IMPORTANT
10
DANGER!
DANGER!
4.2.2
Never operate the revolving fatigue testing machine without the protective guard.
Parts of the sample could fly off and cause injuries
when it ruptures. Rotating machine parts must be
protected against accidental contact.
Scale
IMPORTANT!
IMPORTANT
11
4.2.3
or manually stop the experiment after the required number of load cycles (no rupture) by
switching off the motor
DANGER!
Risk of burns! The sample may be very hot immediately after the experiment.
DANGER!
4.3
4.3.1
Surface roughness Rt in m
Notes
0.5
2.0
2.0
25
12
Type Sample1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Average
11300
11300
11700
11433
17150
17300
23700
19383
14030
12800
16300
14376
4.3.2
13
No.
Load
in N
Stress a
in N/mm2
Endurance N
Duration where
n=2800 1/min
200
400
14030
5 min
170
340
48800
17 min
150
300
167000
60 min
130
260
455000
2 h 42 min
120
240
1280800
7 h 37 min
a 500
400
300
200
100
0
104
105
106
107
Number of load cyclesl N
Stress-number diagram for test bar 3 made of Ck 35
14
5.
Appendix
5.1
400
a 500
300
200
100
0
104
105
106
Number of load cycles N
107
Stress-number diagram
15
Technical specifications
Dimensions :
Length x width x height : 920 x 415 x 560 mm
Weight:
38 kg
Electrical power supply:
230 V,
Alternatives optional, see type plate
Motor
Speed:
Capacity:
Load device
Force:
0 ....
Reversed bending stress
in the sample:
0....
2800
370
50Hz
RPM
W
300
600
N/mm2
16
Test bars
Test bars are made of tempering steel Ck 35,
mechanical strength properties:
Rm = 560 N/mm2, Rp0.2 = 420 N/mm2
Test bar 1
Bezel 1 x 45
Test bar 2
Bezel 1 x 45
Test bar 3
Bezel 1 x 45
17
Index
A
Adjusting the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Alternating cyclic stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Alternating stress amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B
Bending moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C
Collet chuck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Curvature radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH, Hamburg
D
Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E
Electrical power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Emergency off switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Endurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
F
Fatigue limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatigue strength under complete stress reversal . . . . . . .
Fatigue strength under reversed bending stresses . . . . .
Floating bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
6
4
3
I
Inserting the test bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
L
Load cycle counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 16
Load device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
M
Master switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Material fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor control switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
4
5
5
5
3
N
Notch effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 13
P
Protective hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pulse generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
R
Range of alternating stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Range of pulsating stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
18
19