Learning Element: LE-2 Culverts for streams and small rivers

LARGE-SIZED CULVERTS
Remember that:
- when the natural soil is soft or unstable a foundation has to be provided to support the culvert. Such a foundation can be
flexible (floating timber in wet areas, a layer of gravel in dryer conditions) or rigid (lean concrete);
- box culverts need to be designed according to the required size, the type of soil in the area and the layer of soil covering
the culvert. Assemble the data mentioned in FIELD INSTRUCTIONS - STRUCTURES so that a wall-founded decision on the type
of structure can be taken;
- the minimum area of culvert space required is one-third of the area of the waterway at times of flood. If the cross-section
of the waterway at a time of flooding is 30 m
2
an opening of at least 10 m
2
should be provided;
- box culverts should be protected from scour by headwalls, wingwalls and aprons;
- aprons can be made of different materials (reinforced concrete, gabions, masonry) but a filter construction made of various
sizes of stone (the largest on top) is both cheap and effective;
- the gradient of the culvert should be between 3 and 5 per cent. If a gradient steeper than 5 per cent is necessary, aprons
are essential!;
- whenever possible the opening of the culvert should be in line with the water flow in the existing stream bed;
- you should ask for instruction booklets and appropriate tools when you are requested to assemble corrugated steel pipes.
DRIFTS
Remember that:
- drifts are best applied in streams which are usually dry or have a very small permanent water flow;
- drifts and causeways should not be located near or in a river bend;
- different designs are used for streams with stony/gravelly beds than for streams with beds of loose sand;
- it is best to construct the drift within the dry seasons and, as near as possible, towards the end of the dry season when the
water-table is lowest.
Construction
- Rechannel the water flow so that you obtain a dry working space.
- Set out the centre-line of the drift with survey pegs showing the future level of the drift surface.
- Set out reference pegs at the down-stream and the up-stream sides of the drift. These pegs should be placed at a fixed
distance (say two metres) from the edges of the future drift so that they will not be lost during construction. The drift
surface should preferably have a crossfall of approximately 3 per cent towards the down-stream side. This means that if your
reference pegs are 10 metres apart the one on the down-stream side should be 30 cm lower than the one on the up-stream
side. In case of doubt, always follow the gradient of the existing river bed. A string over the tops of the survey and reference
pegs shows the level of the drift surface.
- The longitudinal section should be horizontal with two sloping approaches joining the drift to the road. These approaches
should have a gradient of maximum 20 per cent (10 per cent is better) and should carry on well above the highest flood
level. The transitions from the horizontal section to the approaches should be gently curved so that a smooth-riding surface
is provided to the passing vehicles.
- Place multi-purpose pegs showing where the foundation trenches will be excavated. These trenches should be wide
enough to allow sufficient working space to the masons or carpenters.
- Dig these trenches as deep as possible, preferably until you have reached a solid layer (rock, hard soil). When you
encounter water very soon (high water-table) drain this water as well as possible (buckets, pump, mitre drain) and continue
digging until further progress is impossible. In such conditions, a gabion foundation wall is best. If gabions are not available,
fill the trench with rocks up to the water level and continue with masonry until you have reached the correct levels as shown
by the strings.
- After completing the foundation wall(s) excavate the area in between and place the hand-packed stone.
- Finish with a layer of concrete if specified in the design.
- Excavate as necessary for the apron on the down-stream side of the drift, going from one metre depth at the drift edge
sloping upwards to the river bed. The width of the apron should be minimum two metres but preferably more.
- First place small-sized stones, then larger-sized and put the largest at river bed level.
Note: Always study the design carefully. Depending on the design of the drift, sometimes a different work method will be
necessary.
- After the work on the drift itself has been completed, improve (especially in sandy soils) the transitions from the road
surface to the drift approaches.
- Dig trenches of one metre wide and one metre deep immediately next to the drift approaches, across the width of the
road.
- Place a layer of hand-packed stones at the bottom of the trench and backfill the trench with layers of gravel. Compact each
layer (maximum thickness 15 cm) thoroughly with hand-rammers.
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES
After you have learned this element you should be able to:
- explain which factors have to be considered before a big culvert is designed;
- give a rule of thumb to determine the approximate size of a culvert;
- describe important points to be taken into account when a culvert is constructed;
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of corrugated-steel pipes.
Concrete pipe culverts are discussed in module M-10, LE-5 Drainage.
The culverts discussed here are larger structures designed to accommodate larger flows.
All culverts require a good foundation whether they have a large or a small diameter. A foundation can be provided in
different ways:
(1) by improving the existing subsoil (place gravel);
(2) by constructing a floating floor. This method is especially suitable in soft swampy areas and consists of placing several
layers of round timber (diameter 5-10 cm) on top of each other, so that a floating timber floor results;
(3) by pouring a concrete floor (usually only applied when major structures are concerned).
Fig 4

Box culvert

Arch culvert - Scaffolding for the arch e.g. removable armco pipes
Box culverts are generally made of reinforced concrete, although the walls can also be made of masonry. The thickness of
base, walls and roof and the reinforcement steel required depend on:
- the over-all dimensions of the culverts;
- the type of soil in the area where the culvert is constructed;
- the layer of soil covering the culvert.
Since these factors vary with the circumstances encountered, the design of these culverts should be done by qualified
engineers. There are, however, a number of points which are generally applicable to all culverts:
- the foundation for pipe culverts should always be shaped to fit the pipe;
- the maximum area of the waterway needs to be determined in order to calculate the size of the culvert required. As a rule
of thumb you can assume that the area of the culvert required is one-third of the area of waterway when the stream has
reached its highest flood level, i.e. for every three square metres of waterway one square metre of culvert should be placed;
- an apron (figure 5) should be made to protect the bed from erosion at the outlet side of the culvert. Aprons can be made of
different materials (reinforced concrete, gabions, masonry). A filter construction made of stones of various sizes, as shown in
figure 2, is cheap and very effective.

Fig 5
- head/wing walls should be made at the inlet and outlet side of the culvert. They protect the road embankment from the
river water and serve also to support the embankment, so that the soil does not slide into the river when a vehicle passes;
- it is very important to properly compact the soil around, between and on top of the culverts. This compaction should be
done in layers not exceeding 15 centimetres.
- the gradient of culverts should normally be the same as the gradient of the stream bed. However, to prevent silting the
gradient should not be less than 3 per cent. A gradient greater than 5 per cent is not recommended unless the
circumstances are exceptional. In this case take protective measures to prevent erosion!
- when a natural stream crosses the road at an angle, it is often better to construct a skew crossing or to realign the road, so
that a 90 crossing can be constructed. If an existing channel bed is altered, usually a lot of erosion problems can be
expected.

Fig 6
Corrugated steel culverts
This culvert type consists of sections of metal which can be bolted with simple tools (figure 7).

Fig 7
The assembly and installation of these culverts is not described here, as the instructions can be easily obtained from the
supplier. The advantages of these steel culverts are their strength, their flexibility and their easy assembly. However, steel is
a costly material and in many countries the pipes are not locally manufactured and readily available.
Always make a cost comparison between alternative solutions. You will find that for rural roads the manufacture of
structures with locally available materials and skills is often cheaper and preferable.