@J 1996 Elsevier Science Limited 030&i-0161(95)00026-7 Printed in Northern Ireland. All rights reserved 030%0161/96/$15.00 Review of analysis of tube sheets V. G. Ukadgaonker, P. A. Kale, Mrs. N. A. Agnihotri & R; Shanmuga Babu Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Bombay 400 076, Zndia (Received 15 January 1995; accepted 9 February 1995) Various design methods have been proposed by a number of researchers for analyzing stresses and deflections in multiperforated plates, popularly known as tube sheets. The purpose of this paper is to show the different techniques developed by various researchers in the analysis of tube sheets. A thorough literature review is undertaken and the different techniques such as analytical, experimental and numerical are dealt with separately. Finally the results obtained by various research workers are compared and the authors work is also mentioned. The future scope in this field as proposed by the authors is also discussed. NOMENCLATURE d hole diameter Eh3 D= 12(1 - Y2) flexural rigidity of perforated plate D* = ti*h3 12(1 - Y2) flexural rigidity of the equivalent solid plate E Elastic modulus of the plate material E* Elastic modulus of equivalent plate h plate thickness P pitch of the hole pattern 7 (D*/D) X 100 deflection efficiency p [(p - d)/p] X 100 ligament efficiency Y Poissons ratio of the plate material V* Poissons ratio of equivalent solid plate Subscripts: A triangular pitch pattern Cl square pitch pattern INTRODUCTION Tube sheets, which are multiperforated plates, Ligament eficiency: the ratio of the minimum being important components of pressure vessels ligament width, (p - d), to the pitch, p, of the from functional, structural and cost points of hole pattern as shown in Fig. 1, i.e. [(p - d)/p] X view, the optimum design is of paramount 100. Ligament efficiency varies from unity for an importance. The stress concentration factor isolated hole to nearly zero for as ligament width found at the edge of the hole in a stressed plate is becomes small relative to the distance between of great practical importance. An exact theoreti- holes. 279 cal solution for the stresses and deformation everywhere in the tube sheet is not possible but approximate solutions can be obtained. During the last decade many authors have proposed analytical, experimental or numerical techniques to solve this problem. Osweiller in his literature review concerning the tube sheet has shown the evolution of equivalent solid plate concept over four decades. The purpose of the present paper is to study the different concepts developed over recent decades by various authors in the analysis of the tube sheet. Definitions Hole pattern: the holes in the tube sheet can be arranged as shown in Fig. 1 in three different patterns viz equilateral triangular, square and staggered square. The equilateral triangular pattern is most widely used since it is the most effective packaging arrangement. 280 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. 0000 00000 000000 0 om 0000 - EQUILATERAL S Q?iARE TRIANGULAR (0 PITCH 1 (DPITCHI , , h , , STAGGERED SQUARE (0 PITCH 1 Fig. 1. Different types of hole patterns. Stress concentration factor: The ratio of maxi- mum principal stress to the nominal stress without any discontinuity at the same section. Literature review The deflections and the stresses in a drilled plate subjected to any type of loading is more compared to a solid plate of the same dimensions under similar loading conditions. The weakening effect of the perforations may be described either in terms of deflections and ligament efficiencies or in terms of the ratios of the elastic properties such as Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, for the drilled plate and the solid plate. Various theoretical, experimental and numerical methods have been proposed for evaluation of these deflection efficiencies or modified elastic con- stants. The following section discusses each of the three techniques separately. Analytical techniques Gardner in 1948 was the first to introduce the concept of equivalent solid plate for the design of a floating tube sheet heat exchanger. He introduced the terms called Deflection Efficiency and Ligament Efficiency which takes into account the weakening effect of the perforations. The flexural rigidity D* of the equivalent solid plate is given by where q is the depends upon the and the degree of ligament efficiency. solid plate having deflection efficiency which type of penetration pattern drilling of the plate, i.e. the The stresses in an equivalent the flexural rigidity D* are calculated using classical structural analysis methods and then in the real plate by dividing D*=r/D them by p, where p is the ligament efficiency. Due to lack of experimental results, Gardner proposed formulae based on minimum ligament width in circumferential direction: n*=l- 4 - sin [ lb Jr -l 1(1- q,=1-3sine1 - n [;(l-P)] which leads to values of about O-5 for typical values of CL. Gardner later adopted the same method for the design of fixed tube sheet heat exchanger.3 The main drawback of Gardners analysis is that no consideration has been given to the interaction effect of the tube sheet with other parts of the pressure vessel and that the edge condition he assumed is either simply supported or clamped, but the actual edge condition lies somewhere in between these two. In 1952 Miller proposed4 the use of the mean ligament width divided by the pitch for the calculation of 71 which leads to the values of about O-6 for typical values of p. In 1952 Malkin and Horvay proposed5,6 that the perforated plates could be replaced by a hexagonal honey comb structure as shown in Fig. 2 with parallel-sided load-carrying members. This approximation is valid only for small ligament efficiencies less than 20%. By equating the strain energy for this idealized structure to that of equivalent solid plate, they obtained curves for the effective Youngs modulus E* and the Poissons ratio y* of the plate and for the corresponding stress concentration factors. Based on these results they calculated the deflection efficiency which was found to be obtained by Gardner and Miller. lower than that Fig. 2. Circular hole approximated by hexagon. Review of analysis of tube sheets 281 Blake and Paton proposed7 a method for estimating stresses in a rectangular tube plate or large circular tube plates, taking into account the effect of a bellows or diaphragm. The theory of Timoshenko for beams on elastic foundation was used. Relationships between tube plate stress, tube loads and deflection for diaphragm or bellows-type heat exchangers were derived. Figure 3 shows the values of deflection efficiency obtained by mechanical tests and electrical resistance tests based on the conducting sheet analogy. A tube plate test rig was constructed to test the validity of the design expressions obtained by analytical technique. The ex- perimental work of Blake and Paton will be discussed later in the present paper. In 1969 GardneP improved his floating tube sheet method by considering the unperforated annulus of the tube sheet periphery and proposed a direct formula. Figure 4 shows the comparison of deflection efficiency obtained by various researchers includ- ing Duncans experimental results discussed later. The figure clearly reveals the greater disparity of results of various authors. Solemo and Mahoney reviewed and compared all these theories and proposed a refinement to Horvay and Duncan theories, which, however, does not agree with the experimental results. In later years more attention has been paid to the accurate determination of effective elastic constants E* and use of them in design of the perforated plates. The earlier research works, theoretical or experimental, for the evaluation of effective 04 o-2 o-3 04 o-5 fmax -%/ fmax 01 I I I I I I ,,,,I 01 015 02 33 OC 05 06 07 080910 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 3. Deflection efficiency values obtained by Blake and Fig. 5. Sampsons effective elastic constants for bending and Paton. plane stress. t '1 0 0.25 0.50 O-75 l-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 4. Comparison of deflection efficiencies. elastic constants was mainly focused on the triangular penetration pattern. The effective elastic constants given in 1971 ASME codes was based on the expeimental results obtained by Sampson~ which are discussed later. Sampson found E*/E and Y* values for in-plane loading are different than for bending loading, but they exhibit isotropic behaviour. Figure 5 gives the Sampson experimental elastic constants values as a function of ligament efficiency. - PLANE STRESS CONSTANTS 282 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. In 1962 ODonnell and Langer proposedl* general effective elastic constants values based on Sampsons results as shown in Fig. 6 which can be used for both in-plane loading and bending loading and for any thickness h/p > 2. The error due to the approximation involved was found to be 8%. They have also given the expression for the ligament stress intensity based on stresses averaged across the minimum ligament section at the plate surface which is as follows: where p/h is reciprocal of the ligament efficiency factor and crl = u, or oe whichever has largest absolute value; and k is the stress concentration factor whose value depends upon the biaxiality ratio p, which can be evaluated from Fig. 7. Similar expressions have been given for finding ligament stress intensities averaged through the depth of the plate and the peak stresses in perforated plates taking into account mechanical as well as thermal loads. Other work was based on the application of energy principles to idealized geometries.5*6T3-17 Methods for analysis for the plates perforated by square penetration pattern came to be known with the start of 1960s. In the case of square u z - 0.5 a ii w 0.4 z = it 0.3 :: 0.2 1 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 (ZLO 0.5 0.6 030~091.0 h/R, LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 6. Effective elastic constants used for design. K. I , I I I I I 1 QfcAVERAGE STRESSINTENSITY~ IN MINIMUM LIGAMENTSECTION r a=6 :STRESSES IN EQUIVALENT- SOLID PLATE ml=QrofQe(WHICHEVER HAS THE- LARGEST ABSOLUTE VALUE) 0.6 Illlllll 11 IIIl11. -1.0 - Mb 0.6- 0.4-0.2 0 l 0.2 0.4 l 0.6+0.6 et.0 /i BIAXIALITY RATIO Fig. 7. Stress intensities in perforated plate ligaments. penetration pattern the effective elastic constants in pitch direction and in diagonal direction are different, i.e. they exhibit anisotropic behaviour. Meijers**19 has considered the most general case of a doubly periodic pattern of equal circular holes. The Complex Variables technique is used i.e., normal and shear stresses are related to two complex stress functions. Both in-plane loading and bending loading were considered. Equations which relate the moments per unit length M,,M,, i& and shear forces per unit length N,, NY to the two complex stress functions are given. Similarly the mean values of the above quantities are related to the two complex stress functions. From the equivalent solid plate one can obtain the values of the mean moments; from this it is possible to find out the two complex stress functions. Once the stress functions are known it is possible to find out the moment distribution in actual perforated plate. Meijers considered a thin plate for the bending problem for which Kirchotfs assumptions are valid. Extensive numerical results were given in the graphical form for rectangular and rhombic penetration patterns. Results given include effective Youngs modulus, effective Poissons ratio and stress distribution for in-plane loads and moment distribution for bending loads covering the entire range of parameters given by the ratio of hole diameter to pitch in respective directions, required to define the doubly periodic pattern of holes. Figures 8 and 9 show the Review of analysis of tube sheets 283
0.2 0.L Al 26 0.8 1.0 Fig. 8. Effective Youngs modulus for rectnagular pattern (P. Meijers). @6- t ;lw 0% - >I? o-2 - v,~+ EFFECTIVE POISSONS RATIO I 02 0 . 1.0 Al* Fig. 9. Effective Poissons ratio for rectangular pattern (P. Meijers). curves for the effective Youngs modulus and effective Poissons ratio. By using the Complex Variable technique Meijers has obtained stress distribution for square patterns under uniaxial and shear loading. Figure 10 shows the stress concentra- tion in square pattern for various values of hole diameter-to-pitch ratios. Similar curves are given for diagonal or diamond pattern and general rhombic pattern. He has also considered the problem of bending of thin perforated plates. Figure 11 shows the variation of bending moment in the ligament of the plate and around the hole boundary for square pattern. M,* and 44: are the bending moments per unit length applied at the edge of the plate. He has also given results for torsional loading on square pitch pattern and triangular pitch pattern. Bailey and Hicks in 1960 derived the effective elastic constants for plates with square penetra- tion pattern using an Airy stress function approach which takes advantage of the symmetry Fig. 10. Stress concentrations at point A for rectangular pattern and notched strip (Meijers). Fig. 11. Square pattern moment distribution along hole boundaries and x-axis for M:= My*= 1 (M,, small) (Meijers). properties of the typical element. The loading conditions were unequal uniform tension in x and y directions and uniform applied shear. The general problem with unequal uniform displace- ments in the x and y directions, are split into two cases as shown in Fig. 12 and the total solution of the problem is obtained as superimposition of these two cases. Boundary conditions are satisfied only at discrete points at every 10 around the edges of the square element of the plate as only a finite number of terms in the infinite series have been taken. The error due to this approximation was found to be only 0.01%. Imposition of the boundary conditions as- shown in Fig. 12 calculates the unknown arbitrary 284 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. CASE 1 CASE 2 5x = 6,~ 6x z-6,, ux =vy Ux =-vy Fig. 12. Symmetrical and antisymmetrical displacements. constants in the series. By using this approach they have developed formulae for E*/E and Y*. Variation of elastic constants with respect to p/d is shown in Figs 13 and 14. Bailey and Hicks have evaluated local stresses at certain locations in a square penetration using a numerical method and a digital computer. They have considered the basic cases of isotropic tension and pure shear in both pitch and diagonal directions. Figure 15 shows the stress distribution across the minimum ligament section for uniaxial tension loading. Experimental values were obtained from the photo-elasticity tests. Slot and ODonnell have developedl a new theory and formulas for the thick perforated plates for square and triangular pitch patterns subjected to uniform in-plane loading, based on a generalized plane strain condition. Plane stress condition was assumed in the analysis of thin perforated plates. The influence of Poissons ratio ,- t- ,SY_MPTOTI C VALUE FOR c/a la0 1.5 20 25 30 : PITCH OF HOLES/DIA.OF HOLES d 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3 .5 PITCH OF HOLES/DIAMETER OF HOLES Fig. 14. Effective Poissons ratio (Bailey and Hicks). on the effective elastic constants was also analyzed. In this method displacement of a point in the perforated plate is equated to its displacement in the equivalent solid plate. Figure 16 gives the comparison of the theoretical results of Slot and ODonnell for the perforated plates loaded in bending with the experimental results of Sampson9 and theoretical results of Meijers approximate formulae. The results of ODonnell PHOTOELASTIC MEASUREMENT OF STRESSES ACROSS LIGAMENT XPERIMENTAL DISTANCE ACROSS LIGAMENT, X/2h or Y /2h Fig. 15. Stress distribution across the ligament section for uniaxial tension (Bailey and Hicks). Fig. l3. Effective modulus (Bailey and Hicks), Review of analysis of tube sheets 285 0 b PHOTOELASTIC TESTS (HIP=?) 1 SAMPSON - --. THEORETICAL FORMULAS - MEIJERS - THEORETICAL FORMULAS - SLOT AND ODONNELL , OO I I I I I I I I I o-2 0-L 0.6 04 1.0 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY - y1 Fig. 16. Effective elastic constants obtained by Slot and ODonnell for triangular pattern. are in agreement with the design practice and confirms that the effective elastic constants of thick perforated plate are the same for in-plane loading, bending or torsion. The problem involving a number of holes in non-symmetric arrays has been solved by Hulbert in 1970 by using a boundary point least square technique which is an extension of the point matching technique.22 He used a computer program based on this technique to calculate stresses in plates with symmetric or non- symmetric arrays of holes either in plane strain or plane stress conditions. Though the numerical work in the boundary point least squares approach increases as the number of series coefficients and number of boundary equations needed increases with the number of rows of holes, it is not too difficult. A more rational method of analysis of heat exchanger tube sheet stresses was presented by Yu and Syracuse in 1955.23 Their analysis includes the interaction effect between the tube sheet and the connecting shell and flange. The condition at the joint is formulated based on the fact that the sum of the moments acting on various parts of the joint must be equal to zero. This condition replaces the usual one of zero edge moment for a simply supported tube sheet or one of zero edge rotation for a clamped tube sheet. The edge moment condition is shown in Fig. 17. They have found from their analysis that in the case of an external floating head type of Ma Fig. 17. Balance of moments at joint (Yu and Syracuse). K,, K,,, Kf= rotation stiffness of shell, head and flange respectively; e,, & = edge rotations of shell. heat exchanger, the tube stresses are not independent of shell-side pressure, which is in contrary to Gardners and Millers observations. Yu and Syracuse in 1956 presented another paper, a step further towards a more exact analysis of tube sheet problem.24 The analysis takes into consideration the force in the middle plane of the tube sheet due to the motion of the joint in a direction normal to the shell axis, the rotation-resisting capability of the tube bundle, and the bending moments exerted by the flanges and shells. Figure 18 shows an element of a plate under the various loadings as described above. The stresses in the tube sheet calculated by this method are bound to be lower than those calculated by their previous method.23 However, a direct stress is at the same time induced due to any presence of the force N. Therefore, although the maximum final stress in the plate is always decreased through the additional considerations of the effect of the tube bundle, this is not so when iV is taken into account. Boon and Walsh25 in 1964 took into account the reactive bending of tubes in addition to the interaction effects under any combination of hydro-static differential pressure and thermal ! Fig. 18. Element of plate under various loadings (Yu and Syracuse) q and m are respectively the resisting and moment exerted by the foundation N-force in the middle plane of the tubesheet. 286 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. g 016 - 5 g on- - 014 - z E 013- ; 012- s Oll- TUBE BENDING NOT - CONSIDERED 007f --- TUBE BOJDING CONSIDERED 006 - 10 12 14 16 16 20 22 24 26 28 30 Nla Fig. 19. Tube sheet deflection versus n/a (Boon and Walsh). expansion loading, in the analysis of fixed tubesheet exchange. Figure 19 shows a plot between the tubesheet deflection at the centre of the tube sheet and n/a, where IE is the number of tubes and a is the inside radius of the shell. Only a small percentage reduction in deflection, considering tube bending, is observed which do not justify the use of more complicated models for practical applications. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES 0.7 Experimental values of effective elastic constants reported by Nuno, Fujie and Ohkumaz6 are shown in Figs 20 and 21. Experiments conducted on plastic plates with Poissons ratio of O-39, were perforated in a square pattern and were tested for uniaxial loading in both the pitch and diagonal directions. Plates with four different ligament efficiencies ranging between 13% and 50% were tested. The dotted line in Fig. 21 takes into account the influence of Poissons ratio Y* based on the empirical relation developed by ODonnell and Langer.* In 1960 Sampson9 undertook experimental tests on rectangular plastic plates with v = 0.5, using the photo-elastic frozen stress technique for both in-plane loading and bending. Sampsons effective elastic constants for relatively thin plates 1-o I I I 11111 EFFECTIVE ELASTIC MODULII - - BAlLEV,HlCKS AND HULBERT - - BAlLEV,HlCKS AND HULBERT THEORIES THEORIES -- PvRC APPROXIMATION -- PVRC APPROXIMATION , 0.6 so.5 w 04 0.3 0.2 o-1 0 DIRECTION _ DIRECTION _ DIRECTION. DIRECTION. EXPERlMENtq - EXPERlMENtq - Lb1 0.15 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 04 1-O LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 20. Effective modulus obtained by Nuno, Fujie and Ohkuma. 0.9 0.6 I o- 0.1 I I I I ' l'l"'l'~1 EFFECTIVE P;lSiJNS RATIO z . I 0 cd NUNO,FUJIEld34 0 LAWRENCE DIAGONAL DIRECTION CALCULATED FOR &%iiALUES MEASURED ON MATERIALS HAVING 3 ~0.39 I I 1 I I I ,l.,IIIl&. 045 0.2 0.3 04 LIGAMENT EFFIC O-5 0.6 IENCY 04 I.0 Fig. 21. Effective .Poissons ratio obtained by Nuno, Fujie and Ohkuma. Review of analysis of tube sheets 287 in bending differ from those of plane stress, but as the plate gets thicker, for h/p 3 2, E* and Y* values for bending approach those for in-plane loads, as shown in Fig. 22. This figure shows the variation of the elastic constants with respect to the thickness of the plate. It appears from Fig. 22 that h/p = 2 is the transition region between thin and thick perforated plates. Tests were also performed on an aluminium specimen with Y = O-327 under bending to study the effect of the materials Poissons ratio on the effective elastic constants. Based on the test values, Sampson established an empirical relation as shown in Fig. 23 to estimate the values of the effective elastic constants for any material and for any ligament efficiency. Leven also conducted tests27*28 on circular plastic plates with Y = O-5. The plates were simply supported and uniformly loaded. Plate deflections were measured and ligament stress variations along radial sections were obtained. The measured deflections agreed with those calculated using Sampsons elastic constants thereby supporting their validity. As mentioned earlier, Bailey and Hicks2 carried out a number of experiments to verify h 1 -=- O-C-R 3 h-1 o3 x-7 q o-2- * w I PLANE STRESS 0.2 0406oal 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80100 H/R 1-o . H- DEPTH OF PLATE 1 2 R - PITCH OF TRIANGULAR HOLE PATTERN 0.8 t 2h - MINIMUM LIGAMENT WIDTH Fig. 22. Variation of effective elastic constants with thickness of the plate (Sampson). 12 I I I I1 IIIIII.~ _ EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP 1O- v~v*p[O.L3L3(vpIV-l)(L,hIRt23026H~-~ _ WHERE V#bvp=POISSON S RATIOS FOR _ PLASllC(\H).S) - $6~ I POISSION S RATIOS FOR METALS - 0.6 - 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 08 1.0 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 23. Effect of material Poissons ratio Y on effective Poissons ratio v* (Sampson). their theoretical analysis. They conducted uni- axial tensile tests on wide aluminium plates perforated with circular holes having a pitch-to- diameter ratio of 1.5. The holes were drilled such that the load was applied in the pitch direction in one series of tests and in a diagonal direction in a second series. Test results are shown in Table 1. Bailey and Hicks conducted photo-elastic tests on an Araldite model to study the stress distribution in a plate. 2o The model was 0.135 inch thick and was perforated with square system of holes having a diameter of l/2 inch and a pitch of 3/4 inch. Stresses were measured across the ligaments and along the sides of the square panels. As mentioned earlier Blake and Paton conducted tests on rolled brass strips 1 inch thick drilled with 1 inch diameter holes on different triangular pitches, for the evaluation of deflection efficiency.7 Electric resistance measurements were made in tests conducted on replicas of these test specimens prepared in electric resistance paper. Deflection efficiency was Table 1. Comparison of elastic constants for square pe- netration pattern Loading direction Pitch Pitch Diagonal Diagonal Elastic constants E*/E V* E*/E V* Experimental values O-46 o-2 0.27 0.55 Analytical values 045 0.20 O-29 o-51 288 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. calculated by comparing the results with those for undrilled specimen. The experimental results are shown in Fig. 3 from which one can observe that the curve does not depart greatly from the boiler joint efficiency line especially between the standard ligament efficiency ranges of 20% to 28.5%. The results obtained by the electrical resistance paper tests are linear and suggests greater stiffness than the boiler joint efficiency line whereas the mechanical tests exhibit a dip when diameter-to-pitch ratio approaches unity. An apparatus (a tube plate test rig) was constructed for measuring stresses and deflec- tions in a tube plate for various loading conditions. The tube sheet material was naval brass and had dimensions 3.5 inches wide, O-5 inch thick perforated by 5/8 inch diameter holes. The Cupro-Nickel tubes of 5 feet effective length was expanded into the tube plate and the other end was rigidly attached to a column. Arrange- ment for varying the diaphragm dimensions from 0 to 8 inches was provided. The deflection was measured by a dial gauge and stresses at any point of the tube plate by means of strain gauges. The experimental results are bound to be in good agreement with theoretical design values. Duncan in 1955 carried out experiments for the bending of circular plates.29 The actual loading conditions were approximated by the technique of equivalent loading, using the concentrated loads and simulated hydro-static loading, using the flexible-bag technique He compared the deflection and stress in a given test plate before and after four-, two- and one-pan drilling and provided specific experimental values for the structural efficiency of each type of drilled plate. He also investigated the dependence of this efficiency on the ratios of hole size/pitch and pitch/thickness. Deflection efficiency for the three different patterns tested used were 60% for four-pass drilling, 51% for two-pass drilling and 41% for one-pass drilling. Hydrostatic loading experiments were per- formed to study the effect of deflection values when hole size of given pattern was enlarged keeping the thickness of the model constant and when thickness was varied for a fixed drilling pattern. Table 2 gives the results for hydrostatic loading experiments for two-pass drilling patterns. Duncan and Upfold in 1963 conducted30 flexural and tension tests on a series of rectangular sections of steel, gun metal and Table 2. Dellection efficieocy values obtained by hydros- tatic loading experiments for two-pass drilliig Deflection efficiency Holes S/32 inch dia., 2 inch thick Holes l/8 inch dia., 2 inch thick Holes 3132 inch dia., 2 inch thick 7 54% 68% 81% 77 44% 56% 66% Where n = deflection of undrilled plate (theoretical)/ deflection of drilled plate obtained by experiments X 100; 17 = deflection of undrilled plate obtained by experiments/ deflection of drilled plate obtained by experiments X 100. perspex perforated by triangular, square and square/diagonal layout. The holes were progres- sively jig drilled on a fixed pitch covering a range of ligament efficiencies from 100 to 0 for all three drilling layouts. An interferometric technique was used to observe flexural behavior for mild steel specimen and the Salet-Ikeda technique was used for other materials. Tensile tests were carried out for all the three type of drilling patterns. Figures 24-27 summarize the results of bending and tension tests carried out on 45 specimens. The authors concluded from their experiments that different materials with different modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio exhibit similar equivalent physical pro- perties when perforated in a geometrically similar manner. The experimental results also support the theory of Bailey and Hicks. ODonnell in 1972 conducted31 bending tests on a series of aluminium beam specimens perforated in triangular or square array for various ligament efficiencies of 50%, 20% and 10%. The thickness-to-pitch ratio ranged from 3.5 for the thickest specimen to O-25 for the thinnest. For the case of plate perforated in a square penetration pattern, effective elastic constants are evaluated for loading in pitch direction as well as in diagonal direction. ODonnells solution21 for thick perforated plate, Meijers solutions18,19 for thin perforated plates and Sampsons11 experimental results are also included in his graphs. For the case of a triangular pattern, theoretical values of effective Youngs modulus for thin plates are significantly higher than those for thick plates for the same ligament efficiency. ODonnells experimental results also follow the same trend, i.e. an increase in effective Youngs modulus with decrease in h/p. Theoretical values Review of analysis of tube sheets 289 0.6- I TOFVALIDITY ,sO.Z BOILER EFFld-.. _ . , 0 0.2 0.k 0.6 0*6 1.0 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 24. Effective Youngs modulus for triangular pattern obtained by Duncan and Upfold. I I 4 --A--A- DUNCAN (TENSILE 1 .-&.-&-.-A-.- DUNCAN + TURLEY TRIANGULAR PATTERN 0 0.2 04 0.6 O-8 P-d/P Fig. 25. Effective Poissons ratio for triangular pattern obtained by Duncan and Upfold. of effective Youngs modulus for the thick perforated plate appear to be valid for the entire range of thickness h/p 3 2. Experimental results of ODonnell also confirm this behaviour. But ODonnells experimental vaues of E*/E in the thin plate region is slightly higher than theoretical results, which implies that thin plate theoretical results of E*/E are applicable to only much thinner plates. Again the experimental results of Y* obtained by ODonnell follows the same trend but slightly higher than the theoretical results which implies that theoretical GUN METAL 3 SQUARE PATTERN LAWRENCE (FLEXURE 1 A DUNCAN 1 FLEXURE 1 DIAGONAL PATTERN LAWRENCE ( FL EXUREI- DUNCAN (FLEXURE) BATT (PHOTOELASTIC PLANE STRESS 1 THEORETICAL CURVES FROM BAILEY AND HICKS i 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3 P/d L I L I 0 O-2 04 0.5 O-6 0.7 ( P-d 1 /P Fig. 26. Effective Youngs modulus for square pattern obtained by Duncan and Upfold. thin plate Y* values are applicable to much thinner plates. For the case of square pitch pattern, experimental results of E*/E obtained by ODonnell are in good agreement with the 290 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. L 0 1 I 4 DUNCAN (F\EXRk) 0 BATT(PH~TO-ELASTIC), 0 LAWRENCE (FLEXURE I GUN METAL THEORETICAL CURVES FROM BAILEY AND SQUARE PATTERN I I I I 1.5 I ' p/d2;' 1 0.33 o-5 0.6 0.66 (p-d)/P 1 Fig. 27. effective Poissons ratio for square pattern obtained by Duncan and Upfold. theoretical results in the thick plate region. In the thin plate region, the measured values of Y* are slightly higher than theoretical values. Measured values of Y* in the pitch direction differ from the theoretical values even in thick plate region especially for a ligament efficiency of 10%. ODonnell has suggested one should use the theoretical values for Y*. NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES Jones has determined3* the elastic stress distribu- tion in the perforated plate with triangular penetration pattern for in-plane loads and bending loads. 3D analysis was made for a plate with 5% ligament efficiency and 2D analysis for a plate with 10% ligament efficiency. Only the shaded portion of the plate as shown in Fig. 28 is required to be modelled. Figure 29 shows the 3D model. Boundary conditions, in terms of displacements for the shaded region are obtained from the concept of equivalent solid plate and type of loading. Results are given in the form of contours of stress intensity as shown in Fig. 30. In addition to this Jones has also considered the problem of determining the stress distribution in EA OF FINITE EMENT STUDY Fig. 28. Shaded area used for finite element modelling (Jones). 1 LCO ELEMENTS I 1925 NODES t =c*o t/p-2*0 L h/b r0.05 _----- X w (a) TOP VIEW (bl OVERALL VIEW OF THE THREE DIMENSIONAL MODEL Fig. 29. Three-dimensional finite element model (Jones). a circular plate with a centrally placed circular hole which is subjected to step change of temperature on the surface. Meijers has given33 the refined theory of bending and torsion of a thin perforated plate. The classical solution requires refinement as the ratio h/R tends to zero, where h is the thickness of the plate and R is the hole radius. For very thick perforated plates, i.e. for h/R+ 03, solutions are available which are approximations of plane stress or generalized plane strain conditions. Meijers has given interpolation of results for the intermediate values of h/R. The accuracy of the interpolated results was checked by using finite-element solution. Figure 31 shows the element type and the element distributions in the ligament. The element used is a prism Review of analysis of tube sheets 291 3 0 * 5019 4 O-5675 5 O-63&1 6 0.7006 7 O-7672 10 8 0*8339 9 0 -9005 10 0 l 9870 Fig. 30. Contour plot of stress intensity for plane stress, isotropic loading (Jones). LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 32. Comparison of results. results are in good agreement with the theoretical results of Bailey and Hicks,* Meijers and Hulbert** in respective cases of loading. Ukadgaonker and Kale have considered35 the problem of plates with square penetration patterns with ligament efficiencies of 17*14%, 28*57%, 37.14% and 48.57% subjected to in-plane loads in pitch and diagonal directions. Finite element analysis was done by using ANSYS version 5.0 program. 8-noded quad- rilateral elements are used for analysis. Figure 32 shows the graph of the stress concentration factor versus ligament efficiency for pitch and diagonal directions. COMPARISON OF RESULTS Fig. 31. Element type and element distribution (Meijers). Triangular penetration pattern element with 18 nodal points. He stated that he found that the finite element solution agreed well with interpolated results. No numerical results were given in his paper. Kushwaha et al. have carried out finite element analysis of thin perforated plates with square penetration pattern.34 Plates with thickness-to- pitch ratio from 0.17 to O-28 were considered with ligament efficiencies varying from 15% to 50%. Stress concentration factors were found out for in-plane as well as bending loads. The finite element program COSMOS was used. Their Thick perforated plates. As pointed out by Sampson in Fig. 22, a thick perforated plate is one having the thickness-to-pitch ratio greater than 2. For thick plates the effective elastic constants for bending loads approach their respective values for in-plane loads. Hence for comparison purposes the results have been shown for in-plane loads only. Figures 34 and 35 show the values of effective Youngs modulus and effective Poissons ratio respectively, ob- tained by various researchers. ASME Code36 292 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. Fig. 33. Infinite plate with square pattern of holes. prescribes the values obtained by ODonnell and Lange?* to be used in design equations. Therefore their results have been shown by solid curves in these figures. Figures 34 and 35 show that the results obtained by other researchers are in close agreement with that of ODonnell and Langer. Thin perforated plates. These are ones having ratio of thickness-to-pitch less than 2. For thin plates effective elastic constants are different for In In 22 0.50 - 0.50 - 22 00 LL . ! ! . ! ! 0.40 - 0.40 - z z 22 a- a- 3; OJO- 3; OJO- / 0 / / / 22 22 / 22 / 2 2 020 020- / w w > > 10 F F y OJO- t t w w 0.00 +f, 00 SLOT AND SLOT AND ODONNELL[211 ODONNELL[Zll - - A A MEIJERS [191 MEIJERS [191 + ODONNELL AND LANGEROD: + ODONNELL AND LANGEROD: Q HORVAY [61 Q HORVAY [61 I y 0.10 -x- SAMPSON [lo] -x- SAMPSON [lo] I . . DUNCAN 1301 DUNCAN 1301 0.60 0.00 I m I m 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.20 OLO OLO 060 040 060 040 1.00 1.00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 34. Comparison of results for thick plate/triangular Fig. 34. Comparison of results for thick plate/triangular pattern/in-plane loading. pattern/in-plane loading. o-70 1111~~1111111.lllrlllll11ll111111111~ 00 - SLOT AND ODONNELL I211 AA - MEIJERS Cl91 0.60 o o -ODONNELL AND LANGER Cl21 1 0.00 0.20 * 0.60 0.00 l-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY fig. 35. Comparisons of results in plane loading (thick plate/triangular pattern). in-plane loads and bending loads. Figures 36 and 37 show the results obtained by various researchers. In these figures a solid curve is shown for the results obtained by Meijers. Square penetration pattern Thick perforated plates. Figures 38 and 39 show the values of effective Youngs modulus in pitch and diagonal directions obtained by various z 0*60- Ga z = 0*50 - .P z 2 040 - * . ul 2 0.30- 2 0 =0.20- ? L k O.lO- L w -MEIJERS[19] - DDONNELLB +-+ SAMPSON o.ootm 11 0.00 0.20 O-40 0.60 O-60 l-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 36. Comparison of results (thin plate/triangular pattern/bending). Review of analysis of tube sheets 293 0.60 1 &e-a MEIJERS [191 A A A ODONNELL [311 o o o SAMPSON 1101 Q BAILEY 6 HICKS 1201 Q BAILEY 6 HICKS 1201 A MEIJERS [191 A MEIJERS [191 -t- SLOT 6 ODONNEL[211 -t- SLOT 6 ODONNEL[211 o NUNO, FUJIE 6 OHKUMA o NUNO, FUJIE 6 OHKUMA LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 39. Comparison of results for thick plate/square pattern/in-plane loading. LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 37. Comparison of results (thin plate/triangular pattern/bending). 035 g 0.30 C 0. i 025 a a i investigators for plane stress loading. Bailey and Hicks results are based on accurate theoretical method hence these values are represented by a solid curve in Figure 40 and Figure 41 which show the values of effective Poissons ratio for plane stress loading. Since the effective elastic constants in bending are the same as those for in-plane loading, they have not been shown separately. (: 0.20 =: i 0.15 t 0 -o-BAILEY 6 HlCKSt201 A MEIJERS[lSI -.-SLOT 6ODONNELLt211 : o NUNO,FUJIE 6 OHKUMA t261: 0.001 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 40. Comparison of results for thick plate/square plate/in-plane loading. Thin perforated plates. Figures 42 and 43 show the values of effective Youngs modulus for bending loads applied in pitch and diagonal directions. Experimental results of ODonnell and theoretical results of Meijers have also been shown. Figures 44 and 45 show the variation of effective Poissons ratio for bending loads. 0.00 0.20 040 0.60 0.80 l-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 38. Comparison of results (thick plate/square pattern/in-plane loading) Comparison of stress concentration factors Figure 46 shows the ratio of the maximum local stress to the nominal stress in the equivalent solid 294 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. g 0.30 . . . NUNO,FUJlE AND :: OHKUMA1261 o M BAILEY AND HICKSI - o - BAILEY AND HICKSI A A A MEIJERS1191 A A A MEIJERS1191 00 - SLOT AND ODONNEL[Zl I- - SLOT AND ODONNELI21 I . . . NUNO,FUJlE AND OHKUMA1261 5 5 g 0.25 g 0.25 - \? \? f f s 0.20 s 0.20 - aa v) v) g 0.15 g 0.15 - ww > > u 0.10 u 0.10 - L E \ w 0.05 - \ \ \ \- 0 DONNELL [31] MElJERS c 91 O-00 O-00 OBO OBO o-co o-co 0.60 0.60 O-80 O-80 TOO TOO o-00 0.20 040 060 080 I-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 41. Comparison of results for thick plate/square pattern/in-plane loading. 1: 0.70 1,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1,,,,,,,,~ / +1 0 0 ODONNELL131J : -MC MEIJERS[lS] - 0.00 0.20 040 0.60 O-80 1.00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Rg. 42. Comparison of results for thin-plate/square pattern/bending. plate or the stress concentration factor for isotropic nominal stress field. Figures 47 and 48 show the same ratio for uniaxial and pure shear nominal stress fields respectively. Theoretical solutions obtained by Bailey and Hicks* and Hulbert** are plotted in these figures. Nuno, Fujie and Ohkuma have conducted26 photo-elastic tests using uniaxial tensile loads in both pitch and diagonal directions. Specimens having four different ligament efficiencies ranging Fig. 43. Comparison of results for thin plate/square pattern/bending. 9 f 0 .l 0 Y k w 0.05 0 0 0 ODONNELLt311 - MEIJERS [ 19 I 0 1./ 0 0 0.00 0.20 0.10 0.60 0.80 1.00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 44. Comparison of results for thin plate/square pattern/bending. between 15% and 50% were tested. The two-dimensional photo-elastic method using thin models at room temperature was used. Satio has published3 some series solutions for infinite rows of holes in an isotropic stress field. These results are included in Figure 46. Stepanek has reported results of some photoelastic work with uniaxial tension in pitch direction and with isotropic tension.38 These results are included in Figure 46 and 47. Review of analysis of tube sheets 295 L ;; 0.70 - H $ o*so - 9 2 o-50 - m -2 51 040 - In : 0.30 - w > 5 0.20 - W IL :: 0.10 - HZ1 P a 0 ODONNELL(30 - MEIJERS (19) o*oot~ 0.00 0.20 040 0.60 0-30 l-00 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 45. Comparison of results for thin plate/square pattern/bending. -BAILEY HICKS & - \ HUBERT THEORIES _ - . NUNO,FUGlEit OHKUMA \ 1 - & SAlfO _ e STEPANEK 0 I I I I .IlIIIII.lL 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 a546 08 10 $ LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fsg. 415. Maximum stress multipliers for equal biaxial (isotropic) tension. SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK Future work is proposed to be undertaken in the following three areas: Analytical, Numerical and Experimental. Analytical approach The method of solution proposed here is for a plate with square penetration pattern. The ---EiAILEV,HICKSANDHULBE - -PVRCAPPROXlYAlION NUN0 FUJIELOHKUMA _ EXPERIMENTS 0 DIAGONAL DIRECTION - l SQUARE DIRECTION o L EVEN EXPERIMENTAL - 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.50.6 0.6 180 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 47. Maximum stress multiplier for uniaxial tension. NUNO, FUJIE 6. OHKUMA EXPERIMENTS l DIAGONAL DIRECTION 0 SQUARE DIRECTION 36 I 1 II11111 SHEAR LOAD - BAILEY h HICKS AND HULBERT THEORIES --- PVRC APPROXIMATION LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY Fig. 48. Maximum stress multiplier for pure shear stress field conditions. solution is based on the Complex Variable technique and the results obtained from finite element analysis. Consider the infinite perforated plate as shown in Fig. 33. The dotted square portion in Fig. 33 shows the general square element with a hole. Stress boundary conditions are determined first at the boundaries of this square boundary with stress-free hole boundary by finite-element analysis for uniaxial tension in 296 V. G. Ukadgaonker et al. the pitch direction. For finite-element analysis the plate with a finite number of holes is taken. Then the unknown complex stress functions are found out which satisfy the edge boundary condition on this square boundary. Similarly the two complex stress functions can be found out for complex loading conditions such as biaxial tension, hydrostatic tension, bending, etc. Numerical approach 10. The entire tube sheet could be modelled with actual geometry details in three dimensions. The 11. actual boundary conditions can be simulated. Combined action of the in-plane loads and the bending due to the lateral fluid pressures can be considered. It is also possible to include the stiffening effect of the tubes and the temperatures at various locations to account for the thermal stresses. Solution may be found by finite-element or finite-difference method. Due to the enormous data in three dimensions a high speed super computer will have to be used. Experimental approach A loading frame may be devised to test a photo-elastic model in biaxial hydrostatic tension. The model may be tested for combined loading, i.e. in-plane and bending loads. Effects of pressurized holes may be simulated by introducing fluid at very high pressures in tubes by some hydraulic loading arrangement. All these tests may be carried out by stress freezing technique used for 3D photo-elasticity. REFERENCES 1. Osweiller, F., Evolution and synthesis of the effective elastic concept for the design of tubesheets, ASME Transaction of Pressure Vessel Technology, 111, (1989) 209-217. 2. Gardner, K. A., Heat-exchanger tubesheet design, ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, 70, (1948) 377-385. 3. Gardner, K. A., Heat-exchanger tubesheet design-2, ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, 74, (1952) 159-166. 4. Miller, K. A. G., The design of tube plates in heat-exchangers, Proceedings of Institution of Mechani- cal Engineers, 18, (1952) 215-231. 5. Malkin, T., Notes on a theoretical basis for the design of tubesheets of triangular layout, ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, 74, (1952) 389-396. 6. 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