Personal development

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It has been suggested that Personal development planning be merged into this article.
(Discuss Proposed since December 2013.
Personal development includes activities that improve a!areness and identity, develop talents
and potential, build human capital and facilitate employability, enhance "uality of life and
contribute to the reali#ation of dreams and aspirations. $he concept is not limited to self%help but
includes formal and informal activities for developing others in roles such as teacher, guide,
counselor, manager, life coach or mentor. When personal development takes place in the conte&t
of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools, techni"ues, and assessment systems that
support human development at the individual level in organi#ations.
'()
*ersonal development includes the follo!ing activities:
improving self%a!areness
improving self%kno!ledge
improving or learning ne! skills
becoming a self%leader
'+)
building or rene!ing identity,self%esteem
developing strengths or talents
improving !ealth
spiritual development
identifying or improving potential
building employability or human capital
enhancing lifestyle or the "uality of life
improving health
fulfilling aspirations
initiating a life enterprise or personal autonomy
defining and e&ecuting personal development plans
improving social abilities
*ersonal development can also include developing other people. $his may take place through
roles such as those of a teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the skill
of certain managers in developing the potential of employees or a professional service (such as
providing training, assessment or coaching.
-eyond improving oneself and developing others, personal development is a field of practice and
research. .s a field of practice it includes personal development methods, learning programs,
assessment systems, tools and techni"ues. .s a field of research, personal development topics
increasingly appear in scientific /ournals, higher education revie!s, management /ournals and
business books.
.ny sort of development0!hether economic, political, biological, organi#ational or personal0
re"uires a frame!ork if one !ishes to kno! !hether change has actually occurred. In the case of
personal development, an individual often functions as the primary /udge of improvement, but
validation of ob/ective improvement re"uires assessment using standard criteria. *ersonal
development frame!orks may include goals or benchmarks that define the end%points, strategies
or plans for reaching goals, measurement and assessment of progress, levels or stages that define
milestones along a development path, and a feedback system to provide information on changes.
Contents
'hide)
( $he personal development industry
o (.( $he business%to%consumer market
o (.+ $he business%to%business market
+ 1rigins
o +.( 2outh .sian traditions
o +.+ .ristotle and the Western tradition
o +.3 4onfucius and the 5ast .sian tradition
3 4onte&ts
o 3.( *ersonal development in psychology
o 3.+ *ersonal development in higher education
o 3.3 *ersonal development in the !orkplace
6 4riticism
7 2ee also
8 9eferences
The personal development industry[edit]
*ersonal development as an industry
'3)
has several business relationship formats of operating. $he
main !ays are business%to%consumer and business%to%business. :o!ever, there are t!o ne!er
!ays increasing in prevalence: consumer%to%business and consumer%to%consumer.
The business-to-consumer market[edit]
$he business%to%consumer market involves selling books, courses and techni"ues to individuals,
such as:
ne!ly invented offerings such as:
o fitness
'citation needed)
o beauty enhancement
'citation needed)
o !eight loss
'citation needed)
traditional
'citation needed)
practices such as:
o yoga
o martial arts
o meditation
2ome programs are delivered online and many include tools sold !ith a program, such as
motivational books for self%help, recipes for !eight%loss or technical manuals for yoga and
martial%arts programs.
. partial list of personal development offerings on the business%to%individual market might
include:
books
motivational speaking
e%;earning programs
!orkshops
individual counseling
life coaching
$ime <anagement
The business-to-business market[edit]
$he business%to%business market also involves programs = in this case ones sold to companies
and to governments to assess potential, to improve effectiveness, to manage !ork%life balance or
to prepare some entity for a ne! role in an organi#ation. $he goals of these programs are
defined
'by whom?)
!ith the institution or by the institution and the results are assessed.
'by whom?)'citation needed)

With the acceptance of personal development as a legitimate field in higher education,
'citation needed)

universities and business schools also contract programs to e&ternal specialist firms or to
individuals.
'citation needed)
. partial list of business%to%business programs might include:
marketing and market development
$ime <anagement % <ini%Day,*o!er $hinking $eam
'6)
courses and assessment systems for higher education organi#ations for their students
management services to employees in organi#ations through:
o training
o training and development programs
o personal%development tools
o self%assessment
o feedback
o business coaching
o mentoring
2ome consulting firms speciali#e in personal development
'7)
but as of +>>? generalist firms
operating in the fields of human resources, recruitment and organi#ational strategy have entered
!hat they perceive as a gro!ing market,
'8)
not to mention smaller firms and self%employed
professionals !ho provide consulting, training and coaching.
.dditionally, the International .ssociation *ersonal Development *rofessionals, an international
trade group launched in +>(3 to support professionals in the self%help industry.
Origins[edit]
<a/or religions % such as the .brahamic and Indian religions % as !ell as @e! .ge philosophies
have used practices such as prayer, music, dance, singing, chanting, poetry, !riting, sports and
martial arts. $hese practices have various functions, such as health or aesthetic satisfaction, but
they may also link
'citation needed)
to Afinal goalsA of personal development such as discovering the
meaning of life or living the good life (compare philosophy.
<ichel Foucault describes in Care of the Self
'B)
the techni"ues of epimelia used in ancient Creece
and 9ome, !hich included dieting, e&ercise, se&ual abstinence, contemplation, prayer and
confession 0 some of !hich also became important practices !ithin different branches of
4hristianity.
In yoga, a discipline originating in India, possibly over 3>>> years ago, personal%development
techni"ues include meditation, rhythmic breathing, stretching and postures.
Wushu and $Dai chi chDuan utilise traditional 4hinese techni"ues, including breathing and energy
e&ercises, meditation, martial arts, as !ell as practices linked to traditional 4hinese medicine,
such as dieting, massage and acupuncture.
In Islam, !hich arose almost (7>> years ago in the <iddle 5ast, personal%development
techni"ues include ritual prayer, recitation of the EurDan, pilgrimage, fasting and ta!iyah
(purification of the soul.
'citation needed)
$!o individual ancient philosophers
'which?)
stand out as ma/or sources
'citation needed)
of !hat has become
personal development in the +(st century, representing a Western tradition and an 5ast .sian
tradition. 5lse!here anonymous founders of schools of self%development appear endemic % note
the traditions of the Indian sub%continent in this regard.
South Asian traditions[edit]
$his section re"uires e&pansion. "December 200#$
2ome ancient Indians aspired to Abeingness, !isdom and happinessA.
'F)
Aristotle and the Western tradition[edit]
$he Creek philosopher .ristotle (3F6 -4 = 3++ -4 influenced theories
'which?)
of personal
development in the West. In his %icomachean &thics, .ristotle defined personal development as
a category of phronesis or practical !isdom, !here the practice of virtues (ar'te leads to
e(daimonia,
'?)
commonly translated as AhappinessA but more accurately understood as Ghuman
flourishingH or Gliving !ellA.
'(>)
.ristotle continues to influence the Western concept of personal
development to this day, particularly in the economics of human development
'(()
and in positive
psychology.
'(+)
Conucius and the !ast Asian tradition[edit]
In 4hinese tradition, 4onfucius (around 77( -4 = 6B? -4 founded an ongoing philosophy. :is
ideas continue to influence family values, education and management in 4hina and 5ast .sia. In
his )reat *earning 4onfucius !rote:
$he ancients !ho !ished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered
!ell their o!n states. Wishing to order !ell their states, they first regulated their families.
Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their
persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be
sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first e&tended to the utmost
their kno!ledge. 2uch e&tension of kno!ledge lay in the investigation of things.
'(3)
Conte"ts[edit]
Personal development in psychology[edit]
*sychology became linked to personal development starting
'when?)
!ith .lfred .dler ((FB>=(?3B
and 4arl Jung ((FB7=(?8(.
.dler refused to limit psychology to analysis, making the important point that aspirations look
for!ard and do not limit themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood e&periences.
'(6)
:e
also originated the concepts of lifestyle ((?+? 0 he defined AlifestyleA as an individualDs
characteristic approach to life, in facing problems and of self image,
'citation needed)
a concept that
influenced management under the heading of !ork%life balance.
'clarification needed)
4arl Custav Jung made contributions to personal development !ith his concept of individuation,
!hich he sa! as the drive of the individual to achieve the !holeness and balance of the 2elf.
'(7)
Daniel ;evinson ((?+>=(??6 developed JungIs early concept of Alife stagesA and included a
sociological perspective. ;evinson proposed that personal development come under the influence
0 throughout life 0 of aspirations, !hich he called Athe DreamA:
Whatever the nature of his Dream, a young man has the developmental task of giving it greater
definition and finding !ays to live it out. It makes a great difference in his gro!th !hether his
initial life structure is consonant !ith and infused by the Dream, or opposed to it. If the Dream
remains unconnected to his life it may simply die, and !ith it his sense of aliveness and purpose.
'(8)
;evinsonIs model of seven life%stages has been considerably modified
'by whom?)
due to sociological
changes
'which?)
in the lifecycle.
'(B)
9esearch on success in reaching goals, as undertaken by .lbert -andura (born (?+7, suggested
that self%efficacy
'(F)
best e&plains !hy people !ith the same level of kno!ledge and skills get
very different results. .ccording to -andura self%confidence functions as a po!erful predictor of
success because:
'(?)
(. it makes you e&pect to succeed
+. it allo!s you take risks and set challenging goals
3. it helps you keep trying if at first you donIt succeed
6. it helps you control emotions and fears !hen the going gets rough
In (??F <artin 2eligman !on election to a one%year term as *resident of the .merican
*sychological .ssociation and proposed a ne! focus: on healthy individuals
'citation needed)
rather than
on pathology:
We have discovered that there is a set of human strengths that are the most likely buffers against
mental illness: courage, optimism, interpersonal skill, !ork ethic, hope, honesty and
perseverance. <uch of the task of prevention !ill be to create a science of human strength !hose
mission !ill be to foster these virtues in young people.
'+>)
Personal development in higher education[edit]
*ersonal development has been at the heart of education in the West
'citation needed)
in the form of the
Creek philosophersJ
'which?)
and in the 5ast
'citation needed)
!ith 4onfucius. 2ome people
'which?)
emphasi#e
personal development as a part of higher education. Wilhelm von :umboldt, !ho founded the
Kniversity of -erlin (since (?6?: :umboldt Kniversity of -erlin in (F(>, made a statement
interpretable
'by whom?)
as referring to personal development: + if there is one thing more than
another which absol(tely re,(ires free activity on the part of the individ(al- it is precisely
ed(cation- whose ob.ect it is to develop the individ(al.
'+()
During the (?8>s a large increase in the number of students on .merican campuses
'++)
led to
research on the personal development needs of undergraduate students. .rthur 4hickering
defined seven vectors of personal development
'+3)
for young adults during their undergraduate
years:
(. developing competence
+. managing emotions
3. achieving autonomy and interdependence
6. developing mature interpersonal relationships
7. establishing identity
8. developing purpose
B. developing integrity
In the KL, personal development took a central place in university policy
'citation needed)
in (??B !hen
the Dearing 9eport
'+6)
declared that universities should go beyond academic teaching to provide
students !ith personal development.
'citation needed)
In +>>( a Euality .ssessment .gency for KL
universities produced guidelines
'+7)
for universities to enhance personal development as:
/ a str(ct(red and s(pported process (nderta!en by an individ(al to reflect (pon their own
learning- performance and 0 or achievement and to plan for their personal- ed(cational and
career development1
/ ob.ectives related e2plicitly to st(dent development1 to improve the capacity of st(dents to
(nderstand what and how they are learning- and to review- plan and ta!e responsibility for their
own learning
In the (??>s, business schools began to set up specific personal%development programs for
leadership and career orientation and in (??F the 5uropean Foundation for <anagement
Development set up the 5"uis accreditation system
'+8)
!hich specified that personal development
must form part of the learning process through internships, !orking on team pro/ects and going
abroad for !ork or e&change programs.$emplate:5dlifpe4itation needed
$he first personal development certification re"uired for business school graduation originated in
+>>+ as a partnership bet!een <eti#o,
'+B)
a personal%development consulting firm, and the
5uromed <anagement 2chool
'+F)
in <arseilles: students must not only complete assignments but
also demonstrate self%a!areness and achievement of personal%development competencies.
.s an academic department personal development has become
'when?)
a specific discipline, usually
associated !ith business schools.
'+?)
.s an area of research, personal development dra!s on links
to other academic disciplines:
education for "uestions of learning and assessment
psychology for motivation and personality
sociology for identity and social net!orks
economics for human capital and economic value
philosophy for ethics and self%reflection
Personal development in the #orkplace[edit]
.braham <aslo! ((?>F=(?B>, proposed a hierarchy of needs !ith self actuali#ation at the top,
defined as:
'3>)
+ the desire to become more and more what one is- to become everything that one is capable of
becoming.
2ince <aslo! himself believed that only a small minority of people self%actuali#e 0 he
estimated one percent
'3()
0 his hierarchy of needs had the conse"uence that organi#ations came
to regard self%actuali#ation or personal development as occurring at the top of the organi#ational
pyramid, !hile /ob security and good !orking conditions !ould fulfill the needs of the mass of
employees.
'citation needed)
.s organi#ations and labor markets became more global, responsibility for development shifted
from the company to the individual.
'clarification needed)
In (??? management thinker *eter Drucker !rote
in the 3arvard 4(siness 5eview:
We live in an age of unprecedented opportunity: if youIve got ambition and smarts, you can rise
to the top of your chosen profession, regardless of !here you started out. -ut !ith opportunity
comes responsibility. 4ompanies today arenIt managing their employeesI careersJ kno!ledge
!orkers must, effectively, be their o!n chief e&ecutive officers. ItIs up to you to carve out your
place, to kno! !hen to change course, and to keep yourself engaged and productive during a
!ork life that may span some 7> years.
'3+)
<anagement professors 2umantra Choshal of the ;ondon -usiness 2chool and 4hristopher
-artlett of the :arvard -usiness 2chool !rote in (??B that companies must manage people
individually and establish a ne! !ork contract.
'33)
1n the one hand the company must allegedly
recogni#e that personal development creates economic value: Amarket performance flo!s not
from the omnipotent !isdom of top managers but from the initiative, creativity and skills of all
employeesA.
1n the other hand, employees should recogni#e that their !ork includes personal development
and A... embrace the invigorating force of continuous learning and personal developmentA.
$he (??B publication of ChoshalDs and -artlettDs 6ndivid(alied Corporation corresponded to a
change in career development from a system of predefined paths defined by companies, to a
strategy defined by the individual and matched to the needs of organi#ations in an open
landscape of possibilities.
'citation needed)
.nother contribution to the study of career development came
!ith the recognition that !omenIs careers sho! specific personal needs and different
development paths from men. $he +>>B study of !omenDs careers by 2ylvia .nn :e!lett 7ff8
5amps and 7n85amps
'36)
had a ma/or impact on the !ay companies vie! careers.
'citation needed)
Further
!ork on the career as a personal development process came from study by :erminia Ibarra in her
9or!ing 6dentity on the relationship !ith career change and identity change,
'37)
indicating that
priorities of !ork and lifestyle continually develop through life.
*ersonal development programs in companies fall into t!o categories: the provision of employee
benefits and the fostering of development strategies.
5mployee benefits have the purpose of improving satisfaction, motivation and loyalty.
'citation needed)

5mployee surveys may help organi#ations find out personal%development needs, preferences and
problems, and they use the results to design benefits programs.
'citation needed)
$ypical programs in this
category include:
!ork%life balance
time management
stress management
health programs
counseling
<any such programs resemble programs that some employees might conceivably pay for
themselves outside !ork: yoga, sports, martial arts, money%management, positive psychology,
@;*, etc.
'citation needed)
.s an investment, personal development programs have the goal of increasing human capital or
improving productivity, innovation or "uality. *roponents actually see such programs not as a
cost but as an investment !ith results linked to an organi#ationIs strategic development goals.
5mployees gain access to these investment%oriented programs by selection according to the value
and future potential of the employee, usually defined in a talent management architecture
including populations such as ne! hires, perceived high%potential employees, perceived key
employees, sales staff, research staff and perceived future leaders.
'citation needed)
1rgani#ations may
also offer other (non%investment%oriented programs to many or even all employees. $ypical
programs
'which?)
focus on career%development, personal effectiveness, team!ork, and competency%
development. *ersonal development also forms an element in management tools such as personal
development planning, assessing oneDs level of ability using a competency grid, or getting
feedback from a 38> "uestionnaire filled in by colleagues at different levels in the organi#ation.
Criticism[edit]
2cholars have targeted self%help claims as misleading and incorrect. In +>>7, 2teve 2alerno
portrayed the .merican self%help movement0he uses the acronym S3:;< =he Self83elp and
:ct(aliation ;ovement0not only as ineffective in achieving its goals, but also as socially
harmful. D2alerno says that F> percent of self%help and motivational customers are repeat
customers and they keep coming back !hether the program !orked for them or notD. 1thers
similarly point out that !ith self%help books Dsupply increases the demand...$he more people read
them, the more they think they need them...more like an addiction than an allianceD. 2elf%help
!riters have been described as !orking Din the area of the ideological, the imagined, the
narrativi#ed....although a veneer of scientism permeates the'ir) !ork, there is also an underlying
armature of morali#ingD.
See also[edit]
4oaching
5nd%of%history illusion
:olland 4odes
Lno! thyself
;ife planning
2elf%actuali#ation
2elf%help
$raining and development
:uman *otential <ovement
<icropsychoanalysis
$eerences[edit]
(. %ump up & -ob .ubrey, ;anaging >o(r :spirations< Developing Personal &nterprise in the
)lobal 9or!place <cCra!%:ill +>(> I2-@ ?BF%>%>B%(3((BF%8, page ?
+. %ump up & :amilton, <ark (January (, (??3. =h Self8*eader. .ma#on.com: @51%$54:
-11L2. I2-@ ?BF%>?((B7+8?6.
3. %ump up & 2ome sources recogni#e personal development as an AindustryA: see for e&ample
4ullen, John C. (+>>?. A:o! to sell your soul and still get into :eaven: 2teven 4oveyDs epiphany%inducing
technology of effective selfhoodA. 3(man 5elations (2.C5 *ublications '( (F: (+3(=(+76.
doi:(>.((BB,>>(FB+8B>?3366?3. I22@ >>(F%B+8B. 9etrieved +>(>%>6%+F. A$he gro!th of the personal
development industry and its gurus continues to be resisted across a number of genres.A and Crant, .nthony
<.J -lythe 1D:ara (@ovember +>>8. A$he self%presentation of commercial .ustralian life coaching
schools: 4ause for concernMA (*DF. 6nternational Coaching Psychology 5eview (;eicester: $he -ritish
*sychological 2ociety ) (+: +(=33 '+?). I22@ (B7>%+B86. 9etrieved +>(>%>6%+F. A'...) much of the
commercial life coaching and personal development industry is grounded more on hyperbole and rhetoric
than solid behavioural science (Crant, +>>( '...)A and Crant, .nthony <.J <ichael J. 4avanagh (December
+>>B. A5vidence%based coaching: Flourishing or languishingMA. :(stralian Psychologist (.ustralian
*sychological 2ociety *( (6: +3?=+76. doi:(>.(>F>,>>>7>>8>B>(86F(B7. I22@ (B6+%?766. 9etrieved
+>(>%>6%+F. A$o flourish, coaching psychology needs to remain clearly differentiated from the fre"uently
sensationalistic and pseudoscientific facets of the personal development industry !hile at the same time
engaging in the development of the !ider coaching industry.A
6. %ump up & :amilton, <ark (+>((. 6nner Circle Secrets. $he @eothinkN2ociety.
7. %ump up & Firms such as *DI, DDI, <eti#o, and Franklin4ovey e&emplify international
personal%development firms !orking !ith companies for consulting, assessment and training.
8. %ump up & :uman%resources firms such as :e!itt, <ercer, Watson Wyatt World!ide, the :ay
CroupJ <cLinsey and the -oston 4onsulting Croup offer consulting in talent%development, and
Lorn,Ferry offers e&ecutive coaching.
B. %ump up & Foucault, <ichel, ed. ((?F8. Care of the Self (. 9andom :ouse. $ranslated from the
French *e So(ci de Soi editions Callimard (?F6. *art $!o of FoucaultIs book describes the techni"ue of
caring for the soul falling in the category of epimelia from the Creek to the classic 9oman period and on
into the early stages of the age of 4hristianity.
F. %ump up & $emplate:9eference is dead link Oentegodt, 2PrenJ Joav <errickJ @iels JPrgen
.ndersen (1ct +>>3. AEuality of ;ife $heory III. <aslo! 9evisitedA. =he Scientific9orld?o(rnal
(Finland: 4orpus .lienum 1y (3: (>7>=(>7B. doi:(>.((>>,ts!.+>>3.F6. I22@ (73B%B66Q. 9etrieved
+>>?%(+%(7. AIn ancient India people talked about reaching the level of e&istence called Dsat%sit%anandaD:
beingness, !isdom and happiness as one.A
'dead lin!)
?. %ump up & %ichomachean &thics, translated by W.D.9oss, 4asic 9or!s of :ristotle, section ((6+.
1nline in A$he Internet 4lassics .rchive of <I$A: http:,,classics.mit.edu,,.ristotle,nicomachaen.html
(>. %ump up & <artha @ussbaum, =he @ragility of )oodness, 4ambridge Kniversity *ress, discusses
!hy the 5nglish !ord happiness does not describe .ristotleIs concept of e(daimonia, pages (%8
((. %ump up & @obel *ri#e !inner .martya 2en identifies economic development !ith .ristotleIs
concepts of individual development in his co%authored book !ritten !ith .ristotle scholar @ussbaum:
@ussbaum, <arthaJ 2en, .martya, eds. ((??3. =he A(ality of *ife. 1&ford: 4larendon *ress. I2-@ >%(?%
F+F3?7%6.J as !ell as in his general book published a year after receiving the @obel *ri#e in 5conomics in
(??F: 2en, .martya ((???. Development as @reedom. 1&ford: 1&ford Kniversity *ress.
(+. %ump up & Daniel 2eligman e&plicitly identifies the goals of positive psychology !ith .ristotleIs
idea of the ACood ;ifeA and e(daimonia in 2eligman, <artin 5. *. (+>>+. .uthentic :appiness: Ksing the
@e! *ositive *sychology to 9eali#e Rour *otential for ;asting Fulfillment.@e! Rork: Free *ress. I2-@ >%
B63+%++?B%> (*aperback edition, Free *ress, +>>6, I2-@ >%B63+%++?F%?.
(3. %ump up & 4onfucius, )reat *earning, translated by James ;egge. *rovided online in $he
Internet 4lassics .rchive of <I$.
(6. %ump up & :ein# .nsbacher and 9o!ena 9 .nsbacher ((?86 Individual *sychology of .lfred
.dler, -asic -ooks (?78. 2ee especially chapter 3 on Finalism and Fiction and chapter B on the 2tyle of
;ife.
(7. %ump up & Jung sa! individuation as a process of psychological differentiation, having for its
goal the development of the individual personality. 4.C. Jung. Psychological =ypes. Collected 9or!s,
Ool.8., par. B7B
(8. %ump up & Daniel ;evinson, 2easons of a <anIs ;ife, -allantine *ress, (?BF, page ?(%?+
(B. %ump up & Cail 2heehy, %ew Passages, 9andom :ouse (??7. 2heehy had !ritten an earlier best%
selling book, Passages populari#ing ;evinsonIs stagesJ her second book demonstrated ho! far society and
life stages had changed.
(F. %ump up & .lbert -andura ((??B. 2elf%efficacy: $he e&ercise of control. @e! Rork: Freeman
(?. %ump up & .lbert -andura, Self8&fficacy< =he &2ercise of Control, W.:. Freeman and 4ompany,
@e! Rork, (??F, page (F6.
+>. %ump up & <artin 2eligman, G-uilding :uman 2trength: *sychologyIs Forgotten <issionH
O1;K<5 +?, @K<-59 ( % January (??F
+(. %ump up & Wilhelm von :umboldt, Wilhelm von :umboldt, =he Sphere and D(ties of
)overnment. $ranslated from the Cerman of -aron Wilhelm von :umboldt, by Joseph 4oulthard, Jun.
(;ondon: John 4hapman, (F76. 4hapter 8. .ccessed from http:,,oll.libertyfund.org,title,7F? on +>>F%(+%
3>
++. %ump up & 2ee for e&ample the figures for 4uba: A5ducaciSn 2uperiorA. C(ban Statistics and
5elated P(blications. 4entro de 5studios de *oblaciSn y Desarrollo de la 1ficina @acional de 5stadTsticas.
9etrieved +>>?%>B%(B.
+3. %ump up & .rthur 4hickering, 5ducation and Identity (2an Francisco: Jossey%-ass, (?8?J second
edition updated !ith ;inda 9eisser, published in (??3 by Jossey%-ass.
+6. %ump up & $he Dearing 9eport of (??B:see the ;eeds Kniversity !ebsite:
http:,,!!!.leeds.ac.uk,educol,ncihe,
+7. %ump up & $hese definitions and guidelines appear on the KL .cademy of :igher 5ducation
!ebsite: http:,,!!!.heacademy.ac.uk,our!ork,learning,pdp
+8. %ump up & For the personal development re"uirement for 5"uis, see the 5uropean Foundation for
<anagement Development !ebsite http:,,!!!.openmindedlifepath.com
'dead lin!)
+B. %ump up & . description and re"uirements for <eti#oIs personal development certifications can
be found on the companyIs !ebsite: !!!.meti#o.com
+F. %ump up & $he components of 5uromed <anagement 2choolIs personal development programs
appear on the schoolIs !ebsite http:,,!!!.euromed%management.com,default.asp&MrubU7F+.
+?. %ump up & For e&ample, in +>(> 5uromed <anagement 2chool created a department grouping
leadership, entrepreneurship and personal development
3>. %ump up & .braham <aslo! G. $heory of :uman <otivationH originally published in the (?63
Psychological 5eview, number 7>, page F3F. <aslo!, .. :. ((??8. :igher
3(. %ump up & <aslo!, .. :. ((??8. :igher motivation and the ne! psychology. In 5. :offman
(5d., Future visions: $he unpublished papers of .braham <aslo!. $housands 1aks, 4.: 2age, page F?
3+. %ump up & *eter F. Drucker, G<anaging 1neselfH, -est of :-9 (???.
'page needed)
33. %ump up & Choshal, 2umantraJ -artlett 4hristopher .. ((??B $he Individuali#ed 4orporation: .
Fundamentally @e! .pproach to <anagement, :arper4ollins, page +F8
36. %ump up & :e!lett, 2ylvia .nn (+>>B, 1ff%9amps and 1n%9amps, :arvard -usiness 2chool
*ress. $his book sho!s ho! !omen have started to change the traditional career path and ho! companies
adapt to career,lifestyle issues for men as !ell as for !omen.
37. %ump up & Ibarra, :erminia (+>>3. A+A. 9or!ing identity < (nconventional strategies for
reinventing yo(r career. -oston, <ass.: :arvard -usiness 2chool *ress. p. (??. I2-@ (%7BF7(%BBF%F.
Ibarra discusses career%change based on a process moving from possible selves to AanchoringA a ne!
professional identity.