8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

Chapter 8b
AC Bridges
and the measurement of L&C
(Revision 1.0, 17/5/2007)

8b.1 Introduction
AC bridges are used for measuring the values of inductors and capacitors or
for converting the signals measured from inductive or capacitive into a
suitable form such as a voltage. Inductors and capacitors can also be
measured using an approximate method of voltage division. These methods
are discussed in this Chapter.

8b.2 General condition for balance in AC bridges

In an AC bridge in general, at balance conditions, the following is true:

Z X ⋅ Z4 = Z2 ⋅ Z3
Where the value of Zx is unknown and the values of the other three
impedances are known. The arrangement of this null AC bridge is shown
Figure 1.

ZX Z2

Vi G
Null detector

Z3 Z4

Figure 1: General diagram of an AC Bridge.

The null condition equation to be true, it has to satisfy both the magnitude
criterion and the phase angle criterion, as follows [2]:

Z X ⋅ Z4 = Z2 ⋅ Z3

∠θ X + ∠θ 4 = ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3
Note that the capacitive reactance has a negative phase angle, and the
inductive reactance has a position phase angle. Resistors have a zero phase
angle.

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

Using the criterion above can help decide whether a bridge can
achieve balance conditions or not just by examining the components in the
bridge.

General Rule for a.c. bridges

As a general rule in AC bridges in order to achieve balance conditions, similar
reactive components should be placed on adjacent limbs of the bridge, and
different reactive components should be placed on opposite limbs of the
bridge. For example, if only capacitors are to be used in an a.c. bridge, then
they should be placed on adjacent limbs (e.g., the Wien Bridge). If a
capacitor and an inductor are to be used in a bridge, then they should be
placed on opposite limbs of the bridge (e.g., the Maxwell Bridge).

aide-mémoire
Similar[C & C; L&L]↔Adjacent Different [C & L]↔Opposite
Acronym: SADO

8b.3 Quality Factor for Inductors and Capacitors

The Q factor (Quality factor) for an inductor or capacitor is the ratio of the
value of its reactance to its resistance. For an inductor:

XL ω ⋅L
QL = =
R R
For a capacitor:

XC 1
QL = =
R ω ⋅C ⋅ R
8b.4 Maxwell Bridge
The Maxwell Bridge is used to measure inductors with low to medium values
of Q. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 2 below [1].

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

RX
R2
LX

Vi
V
Vo

R3 R4
C4

Figure 2: Maxwell Bridge.

At Balance,

Z X = Y4 ⋅ Z 2 ⋅ Z 3
This gives:
 1 
RX + j ⋅ ω ⋅ LX = R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅  + j ⋅ ω ⋅ C4 
 R4 
R ⋅R
RX + j ⋅ ω ⋅ LX = 2 3 + j ⋅ ω ⋅ R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4
R4
Equating real parts of both sides gives:

R2 ⋅ R3
RX =
R4
And equating imaginary parts of both sides gives:

LX = R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4
8b.5 Hay Bridge
The Hay Bridge (shown in Figure 3 below) is used to measure the value of
inductors that have a high Q factor [2]. A Q factor is considered high for value
of 10 or more. At balance conditions, we have the following:

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

RX
R2
LX

Vi
V
Vo

R3 R4

C4

Figure 3: Hay Bridge.

 1 
(R + j ⋅ ω ⋅ LX ) ⋅  R4 +  = R2 ⋅ R3
X
 j ⋅ ω ⋅ C 4 

RX L
RX ⋅ R4 + j ⋅ ω ⋅ LX ⋅ R4 + + X = R2 ⋅ R3
j ⋅ ω ⋅ C4 C4
Equating the real parts on both sides gives:

LX
RX ⋅ R4 + = R2 ⋅ R3
C4
R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4 LX R ⋅ R ⋅ C − LX
RX = − = 2 3 4
R4 ⋅ C4 R4 ⋅ C4 R4 ⋅ C4
Equating the imaginary parts on both sides gives:

RX
ω ⋅ LX ⋅ R4 =
ω ⋅ C4
RX
LX =
ω 2 ⋅ R4 ⋅ C4

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

The problem in this case is that we have ended up with two equations with
two unknowns (as opposed to the previous cases which gave the value of Rx
and Lx directly from the real and imaginary part equations). So we have to
solve the two simultaneous equations, giving:

RX R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4 − LX
LX = =
ω 2 ⋅ R4 ⋅ C4 ω 2 ⋅ R42 ⋅ C42
ω 2 ⋅ R42 ⋅ C42 ⋅L X + LX = R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4
R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4
LX =
(ω 2 ⋅ R42 ⋅ C42 + 1)
Using this to find the formula for Rx gives:

ω 2 ⋅ R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ R4 ⋅ C42
RX =
(ω 2 ⋅ R42 ⋅ C42 + 1)
If we remember that the inductor has a high Q value, then if follows from the
phase angle balance equation that capacitor will have a high Q value as well
(C4, R4). This is because at balance conditions the phase angle for Z4 should
equal the angle for Zx (as Z2 and Z3 are resistors). As the capacitor has a
high Q, then it follows that:

1
QC = >> 1
ω ⋅ R4 ⋅ C4
1
⇒ ω 2 ⋅ R42 ⋅ C42 = ≈0
Q2C

Using this approximation we can now find the values of LX and Rx for high Q
as follows:

RX = ω 2 ⋅ R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ R4 ⋅ C42
LX = R2 ⋅ R3 ⋅ C4
8b.6 Schering Bridge
The Schering Bridge (Figure 4) is used to measure the value of capacitors
(especially their insulating properties) [2]. The values of Cx and Rx are
unknown.

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

Rx
R2

Cx
Vi
V
Vo

C3

R4
C4

Figure 4: Schering Bridge.

At balance conditions (it is easier in this case to use the admittance Y4 and
multiply it by the other side, as it is a parallel combination of a capacitor and
resistor, as follows):

Z X = Y4 ⋅ Z 2 ⋅ Z 3
Which gives:

 1   1   1 
 RX +  =  + j ⋅ ω ⋅ C4  ⋅ R2 ⋅  
 j ⋅ω ⋅ CX   4 R   j ⋅ ω ⋅ C 3 

 1   R2   R ⋅C 
 RX +  = ⋅  +  2 4 
 j ⋅ω ⋅ CX   j ⋅ ω ⋅ C3 ⋅ R4   C3 
Equating real and imaginary parts in both sides of the equation, gives:

R2 ⋅ C4
RX =
C3
C3 ⋅ R4
CX =
R2
Note that the each of the resulting equations solves for one of the unknowns
without the need to solve two simultaneous equations. Also note that the
result in this case does not depend on the value of the frequency.

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

8b.7 Wien Bridge

One of the four methods for measuring the frequency of a signal is the Wien
Bridge. The Wien Bridge is named after Max Wien1. The source of unknown
frequency is used to excite the a.c. bridge as shown in Figure 5. The variable
resistors R3 and R4 are varied until balance conditions are achieved (as
indicated by the lack of signal in the null detector). If the frequency is known
to be in the audio range, the null detector used could be a pair of
headphones.

C3

R1 R3
Unknown
frequency
source
Null
Detector

R2 R4 C4

Figure 5: The Wien Bridge.

At balance conditions:

R1 Z 3
= = Z 3 × Y4
R2 Z 4

Developing this, gives:

R1  1   1  R C 1
=  R3 +  ×  + jωC4  = 3 + 4 + jωR3C4 +
R2  jωC3   R4  R4 C3 jωR4C3

Equating real parts from both sides gives:

1
Max Wien (1866 – 1938) a German physicist and the director of the Institute of Physics at the University of Jena. In
1891. Wien invented the Wien Bridge oscillator but did not have a means of developing electronic gain so a workable
oscillator could not be achieved.

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

R1 R3 C4
= +
R2 R4 C3

Equating imaginary parts from both sides gives:

1
jωR3C4 + =0
jωR4C3
1
jωR3C4 = −
jωR4C3
1 1
ω= ⇒ f =
R3 R4C3C4 2π R3 R4C3C4

In practice, R3 is set as equal to R4, and C3 is set as equal to C4. Thus the
unknown frequency is found as:

1
f =
2πR3C3

This also results in the following:

R1 = 2 R2

In order to make balancing the bridge easier, the variable resistors R3 and R4
are by a common shaft (i.e., ganged) such that they are always equal as the
arm is rotated to achieve balance conditions. This is shown in Figure 6. The
dashed line on electrical diagrams indicates a mechanical connection
between electrical components.

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

C3

R1 R3
Unknown
frequency
source
Null
Detector

R2 R4 C4

Figure 6: The mechanical link between the two resistors (ganged).

The Problem of Harmonics in the Wien Bridge

Due to the sensitivity of this bridge, it might be difficult to balance it unless the
source waveform is a pure sinusoid. A distorted sinusoid will contain
harmonics and these will not be balanced by the bridge at the true balance
point.

8b.8 Approximate Methods for Measuring L and C

Simpler methods of measuring L and C are also available, although they do
not yield the same accuracy as the AC bridge methods.
It is possible to measure the value of Lx as shown in Figure 7 below [1].
Rx represents the resistance of the inductor. The value of Rx is first measured
by one of the resistance measurement methods discussed earlier. Then
using the circuit shown below, the value of R1 is changed until the voltage
across it is equal to the voltage across Zx (Rx and Lx).

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

R1 VR

Vi

RX

VX
LX

Figure 7: Approximate Method of measuring Inductance.

Once the two voltages are equal, the following equation can be used to find
the value of Lx:

Z X = R1
RX2 + ω 2 ⋅ L2X = R1
R12 − RX2 R12 − RX2
LX = =
ω 2 ⋅π ⋅ f
So the finding the value of Lx depends on the values of R1, Rx as well as the
frequency, f. Achieving the balance depends on reading two voltages. For
these reasons this method is less accurate than the null type bridge methods,
as all the tolerances/errors in these quantities will accumulate in the final
reading.

A similar method can be used to measure the value of an unknown capacitor,

as shown in Figure 8 [1]. The voltages across the known resistor and the
capacitor are measured. Their values are then used to find the unknown
capacitor as follows:

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8b AC Bridges Measurements & Instrumentation

R1 VR

Vi

CX
VC

Figure 8: Approximate Method of measuring capacitance.

VR VC
=
R1 X C
VR VC
=
R1 1
ω ⋅ CX
VR
CX =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ f ⋅ VC ⋅ R1 ⋅
Note that the capacitor value depends on the frequency, the value of the two
voltages and the value of the resistor. This leads to low accuracy with this
method, due to the accumulation of the error in these quantities.

Another approximate method of measuring the capacitor is measure the time

constant of the capacitor with a known resistor. By knowing the time constant
and the value of the resistor, the value of the capacitor can be calculated.

References & Bibliography

[1] “Measurement & Instrumentation Principles”, Alan S. Morris, Elsevier,
2001.
[2] “Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques”,
Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper, Prentice Hall International
Editions, 1990.

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