859 Full

2014 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology, v. 109, pp. 859890

Isotope Geochemistry of the Northeast Zone, Mount Polley Alkalic Cu-Au-Ag
Porphyry Deposit, British Columbia: A Case for Carbonate Assimilation*
Heidi E. Pass,
1,,
** David R. Cooke,
1
Garry Davidson,
1
Roland Maas,
2
Greg Dipple,
3
Chris Rees,
4

Lee Ferreira,
4
Chris Taylor,
4
and Cari L. Deyell
1
1
CODES, ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart 7001, Australia
2
School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne, 200 McCoy Building, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
3
Mineral Deposit Research Unit (MDRU), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
4
Imperial Metals Corporation, 580 Hornby Street, Suite 200, Vancouver, British Columbia V6C 3B6, Canada
Abstract
Mount Polley is a Late Triassic (~205 Ma) alkalic porphyry Cu-Au-Ag deposit (226.3 thousand tonnes (t) Cu,
21.5 t Au, and 65.1 t Ag), hosted by silica-undersaturated to silica-saturated monzonitic intrusions of the Mount
Polley Complex, located in British Columbia, Canada. The Northeast ore zone at Mount Polley is hosted by
magmatic-hydrothermal breccia. Copper and precious metals occur in sulfde minerals primarily as coarse- to
fne-grained breccia cement. Local wall rocks include equigranular to porphyritic diorite, monzodiorite, and
monzonite.
Alteration, breccia cement, and veins of the Northeast ore zone formed in fve paragenetic stages: prebreccia
(stage 1), brecciation and main-stage mineralization (stage 2), late-stage mineralization (stage 3), unmineralized
postbreccia dikes and veins (stage 4), and epithermal-style veins (stage 5). Intense pervasive K and Fe meta-
somatism calcite and calc-silicate alteration occurred prior to brecciation caused by the intrusion of mega-
crystic K-feldspar-phyric monzonite. Stage 2 fuids were silica undersaturated, high temperature (>350C),
CO2 enriched, and of near-neutral to alkaline pH. Potassic, sodic, and calc-potassic assemblages precipitated
with mineralization during stage 2 with moderate temperatures at the deposit periphery and in stages 3 and 4.
Evidence for more acidic and lower-temperature conditions is preserved in stage 5 veins.
The
34
Ssulfde isotope compositions of stages 2 and 3 chalcopyrite, pyrite, and bornite range from 7.1 to
+1.4. Sulfur isotope compositions of anhydrite and gypsum are mostly between 6.2 and 9.8. These values,
together with the presence of hematite, are consistent with deposition from an oxidized, sulfate-dominant,
high-temperature magmatic-hydrothermal fuid. Limited sulfur isotope geothermometry indicates that Cu sul-
fdes precipitated at temperatures from ~480 to ~250C.
Hydrothermal calcite occurs in all paragenetic stages at Mount Polley. Calcite
13
C values range from 0.2 to
10.5, and
18
O values from 4.0 to 20.9. The enriched C-O isotope values are not consistent with simple
precipitation from an entirely magmatic source of hydrothermal fuid. Interaction of the fuid and/or magma
with limestone is considered a likely process to explain the C and O isotope signature.
Lead isotope data suggest mixing of mantle and crustal sources during mineralization. Main-stage chalcopy-
rite and pyrite as well as late-stage galena have
206/204
Pb values of 18.77 to 18.92,
207/204
Pb of 15.56 to 15.59, and
208/204
Pb of 38.22 to 38.32. Strontium isotope data (0.703310.70371) provide evidence of a strongly depleted
mantle source of Sr with minor crustal input. Epsilon Nd values for main-stage apatite range between 5.9 and
6.5, also indicating a depleted mantle source. Stage 5 carbonate
206/204
Pb values of 18.96 to 19.04,
207/204
Pb of
15.57 to 15.59, and
208/204
Pb of 38.26 to 38.36 suggest superposition of an epithermal system onto the Northeast
ore zone, potentially as late as ~100 m.y. after breccia formation.
The data presented are consistent with the hypothesis that the silica-undersaturated alkalic Mount Polley
Complex formed due to carbonate assimilation prior to mineralization. This process can explain the
13
C-
18
O isotope data, calcite precipitation concurrent with Cu-Au mineralization, and silica undersaturation of the
magma. The CO2 released during assimilation of carbonate also could have promoted magmatic-hydrothermal
brecciation. Silica-undersaturated alkalic porphyry systems may preferentially form in arc terranes built on a
carbonate-bearing substrate.
Introduction
Porphyry Cu-Au deposits can be classifed on the basis of
their associated igneous rocks into calc-alkalic and alkalic cat-
egories (Lang et al., 1995a, 1995c; Seedorff et al., 2005). Alka-
lic porphyries are uncommon worldwide, but well-studied
deposits are located in British Columbia, Canada (e.g., Barr
et al., 1976; Schroeter, 1995), and New South Wales in east-
ern Australia (Wilson et al., 2003; Cooke et al., 2007). Alkalic
deposits are also known from the Philippines (Dinkidi; Wolfe,
2001), Greece (Skouries; Kroll et al., 2002), and Colorado
(Allard Stock; Werle, 1984).
Alkalic magmas have a stronger affnity with Au mineraliza-
tion than their calc-alkalic counterparts (Mller and Groves,
1995; Jensen and Barton, 2000; Sillitoe, 2000). Approximately
20% of world-class Au deposits (as defned by Sillitoe, 1997,
after Laznicka, 1983) are associated with shoshonitic or alkalic
magmas, yet these rocks constitute less than 3% of igneous
0361-0128/14/4214/859-32 859

Corresponding author: e-mail, heidipass@hotmail.com
*A digital supplement to this paper is available at http://economicgeology.
org/ and at http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/.
**Current address: REFLEX Geochemistry (formerly ioGlobal), 369
Newcastle St., Perth, Western Australia 6003, Australia.
860 PASS ET AL.
rocks in circum-Pacifc arc terranes (Mller and Groves, 1993;
Sillitoe, 1997). The reasons for this preferential association of
alkalic magmatism with Au mineralization may be related to
postsubduction magmatism and melting of Au-rich residue
during second-stage melting events of subduction-modifed
lithosphere (Richards, 2009).
Alkalic porphyry deposits can be subdivided on the basis
of their associated igneous rocks. Lang et al. (1995a) subdi-
vided the alkalic porphyry deposits of British Columbia into
two groups: (1) silica-undersaturated deposits associated with
intrusions that contain >10% feldspathoid, such as Mount Pol-
ley and Galore Creek in British Columbia (Lang et al., 1993,
1995a), and (2) silica-saturated deposits in which intrusions
contain <5% quartz or <10% feldspathoid (i.e., quartz-free)
and, in late stages, may become weakly silica oversaturated
(Lang et al., 1993). Here we include silica-oversaturated depos-
its in the second group, where intrusions contain >5% mag-
matic and hydrothermal quartz (Streckeisen, 1976; LeMaitre
et al., 1989; Lang et al., 1993, 1995a; Lang and McClaren,
2003). Examples of silica-saturated alkalic deposits include
Mount Milligan and Copper Mountain in British Columbia.
Examples of silica-oversaturated alkalic systems include the
Cadia district in New South Wales and the Mars deposit in the
Yukon (Lang et al., 1993, 1995a; Lang and McClaren, 2003).
The silica-undersaturated alkalic porphyry Cu-Au deposits
of British Columbia are unusual when compared to calc-alka-
lic porphyries (Barr et al., 1976; Lang et al., 1995a, b). They
lack modal quartz in the associated intrusions as well as quartz
veins and contain abundant carbonate and garnet as altera-
tion and vein minerals in the core of the deposits. The lack of
quartz contrasts markedly with calc-alkalic porphyry Cu-Au
deposits, where quartz veins are abundant, carbonate miner-
als typically occur only in the outer propylitic halo, and garnet
is restricted to metasomatized limestone wall rocks (Jensen
and Barton, 2000).
Mount Polley is a silica-undersaturated to silica-saturated
alkalic porphyry Cu-Au-Ag deposit located northeast of Wil-
liams Lake, British Columbia (Fig. 1). This open-pit mining
operation is an ideal location to study the anatomy and fuid
chemistry of a relatively high grade, breccia-hosted porphyry
deposit. Earlier studies defned the distribution of alteration
and sulfde assemblages in alkalic-related ore-forming systems
(e.g., Lang et al., 1995b, c; Jensen and Barton, 2000), but iso-
topic studies are few. The Northeast zone is one of several ore
zones in the Mount Polley Complex (Fig. 2) and is the focus
of this study. It provides an excellent setting in which to inves-
tigate the nature of carbonate minerals found throughout the
paragenesis, including those associated with Cu sulfde ore.
The principal aim of this study is to elucidate the fuid
sources, composition, and evolution responsible for carbon-
ate- and sulfde-bearing breccia cement and veins by deter-
mining the isotopic and mineralogical zonation patterns
within the Northeast ore zone. Previous work at Mount Polley
has provided a geologic framework for alteration, mineraliza-
tion, and brecciation (Fraser et al., 1993, 1995; Fraser, 1994,
1995; Logan and Mihalynuk, 2005; Tosdal et al., 2008). This
historical work is expanded upon in this study and includes
information from recent Imperial Metals geological and drill-
ing reports. This paper presents new stable (S, C, O) and
radiogenic (Sr, Pb, Nd) isotopic data from hydrothermal
minerals of the Northeast ore zone. We show that the stable
isotope results indicate precipitation from an oxidized, high-
temperature (>400C) magmatic-hydrothermal fuid that
interacted with more than one source of C and O, with at least
one source being
13
C enriched. Radiogenic isotopes indicate a
mixture of depleted mantle and limited crustal sources. Pro-
cesses that led to silica undersaturation are considered as part
of a new genetic model for Mount Polley.
Geologic Setting
Regional setting
Mount Polley lies within the accreted island-arc terrane
of Quesnellia in the Canadian Cordillera (Fig. 1). Quesnel-
lia formed on continental margin assemblages in response to
subduction of the Cache Creek oceanic plate, now preserved
as the accretionary Cache Creek terrane (Mihalynuk et al.,
1994; Logan and Mihalynuk, 2014). The Paleozoic rocks of
Quesnellia are characterized by fne-grained epiclastic sedi-
mentary rocks with both oceanic and arc characteristics,
interpreted as basin fll (Bailey, 1990; McMillan et al., 1995;
Panteleyev et al., 1996). This includes the limestone-bearing
succession of the Harper Ranch subterrane and the basal
USA
USA
N
Canada
USA
Red Chris
Afton-Ajax
Copper Mountain
-Ingerbelle
Galore Creek
Lorraine
Mt. Polley
Afton-Ajax
Copper Mountain
-Ingerbelle
Zippa Mountain
Mt. Milligan
Stikine terrane
Quesnel terrane
Alkalic porphyry Cu-Au occurrence
Zippa Mountain alkalic pluton
Major alkalic deposits
Road City / town Lake
13000W 12000W
13000W 12000W
5
0
N
5
5
N
5
0
N
5
5
N
Vancouver
Hope
Quesnel
100 Mile House
Cache Creek
Williams Lake
Prince George
Kamloops
Bella Coola
Vanderhoof
Burns Lake
Hazelton
Dease Lake
Likely
Fig. 1. Location of Mount Polley and other alkalic porphyry Cu-Au
deposits (yellow stars) hosted in the Triassic and Early Jurassic Quesnellia and
Stikinia terranes of British Columbia, Canada (inset; modifed from Wheeler
and McFeely, 1991). Mineral prospects in these terranes are shown as red
circles. Location of the Zippa Mountain pluton is marked by a black circle.
Figure modifed from Tosdal et al. (2008).
ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE NORTHEAST ZONE, MOUNT POLLEY DEPOSIT, BC 861
black phyllite of the Nicola Group (Panteleyev et al., 1996;
Read and Okulitch, 1997).
The Triassic to Jurassic Nicola Group is the principal assem-
blage of Quesnellia in south-central British Columbia (Preto,
1979). Volcanic and intrusive rocks of the arc evolved from
basaltic to intermediate, marginally silica undersaturated,
shoshonitic compositions. Near Mount Polley, the Nicola
Group consists of carbonaceous, fne-grained sedimentary
rocks that were deposited in a restricted marginal basin, over-
lain by oceanic arc submarine pyroxene olivine plagio-
clase-phyric, alkalic, silica-saturated to silica-undersaturated
basaltic volcanic fows and breccias with minor intercalated
Early Jurassic (Nicola Group)
Late Triassic (Mount Polley Intrusive Complex)
Breccia, hydrothermal: Monomictic to polymictic breccia (or pseudobreccia texture) associated with significant alteration (K-fe ldspar,
albite, magnetite) and mineralization (expressed at surface ; outline of blind footwall mineralization ).
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Northeast Zone
Leak Zone
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K-feldspar porphyry: pale to deep pink, medium to coarse grained monzonite dikes and intrusions with small (<3 mm) to large (315
mm) or megacrystic (>15 mm) K-feldspar phenocrysts, some dikes trachytic.
Breccia, conglomerate: polylithic breccia and cobble conglomerate with monzonite porphyry and mixed volcanic clasts in grey or maroon
crystal-lithic matrix; minor bedded wacke-siltstone and trachyte-latite flows (?).
Monzonitic intrusions: Undivided monzonitic rocks - felsic, fine to medium grained, equigranular to sub-(plagioclase) porphyritic; lithic
and glomerocryst inclusions common; includes undifferentiated porphyry dikes, breccia; rare limestone in drill core.
pit outline fault / projection long-section / X-section
Logged DDH
on long-section
100 m
N
04-96
04-114
04-88
04-81 04-65
04-47
04-25
03-16
03-11
04-29
04-95
05-205
04-77
03-17
05-188
04-49
04-31
03-07
04-64
05-213
04-52
05-210
04-35
03-13 04-108
04-172
05-192
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04-111
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Hydrothermal breccia
Subvolcanic breccias,
intrusions
Monzonite
Diorite-monzonite
porphyries, breccia
Pyroxenite
Diorite
Basalt-andesite host rocks
Main Cu-Au ore zones
NEZ
N
1 km
Core Zone
SE
Zone
Pond Zone
(skarn)
Boundary
Zone
Fault
N
5 km
Paleozoic
meta-
sediments
Paleozoic
meta-
sediments
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Likely Likely
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Stock
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Maud Lake
Shiko
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Mount Polley
Complex
A. Regional geology B. Mount Polley Complex
C. NEZ deposit geology
E. JurassicTertiary rocks
(terrane overlap)
Intrusions
L. Triassic and E. Jurassic
felsic breccias,
sedimentary rocks
L. Triassic basaltsandesites
L. Triassic basaltic volcanic
rocks
M.L. Triassic argillites,
volcaniclastic rocks
Slide Mountain terrane
Mt. Polley Cu-Au deposits
Fault
Fig. 2. (A) Simplifed regional geology of Quesnellia surrounding Mount Polley, showing Triassic-Jurassic intrusions and
porphyry Cu-Au deposits. Figure modifed from Ministry of Energy and Mines, British Columbia Geological Survey (2008).
(B) Simplifed geology of the Mount Polley Complex, showing location of the main ore zones and major faults. Figure modi-
fed from Logan and Mihalynuk (2005). (C) Plan view of the Northeast ore zone (NEZ) geology.
862 PASS ET AL.
limestone lenses (Bailey, 1990; Panteleyev et al., 1996; Logan
and Mihalynuk, 2005). The silica-undersaturated to silica-sat-
urated Mount Polley Complex and the spatially and tempo-
rally associated, nepheline-normative Bootjack stock intruded
the Nicola Group at shallow-crustal levels late in the evolu-
tion of the Quesnellia arc (Fig. 2A; Logan and Mihalynuk,
2005; Bath and Logan, 2006). Geochronological U/Pb and
Ar/Ar studies have constrained intrusive activity to between
209.4 and 196.7Ma in the Mount Polley Complex (Bailey and
Archibald, 1990; Mortensen et al., 1995; Logan et al., 2007)
and between 203.5 and 201.1 Ma for the Bootjack stock (Bai-
ley and Archibald, 1990; Mortensen et al., 1995). Other alka-
lic deposits of similar age occur along the Quesnellia-Stikinia
oceanic arc terranes, including Galore Creek, Afton-Ajax, and
Copper Mountain (Fig. 1; Barr et al., 1976; Bath and Logan,
2006; Byrne et al., 2014; Logan and Mihalynuk, 2014; Micko
et al., 2014). Rocks of Central Quesnellia have been meta-
morphosed predominantly to zeolite facies assemblages (Pan-
teleyev, 1988; Panteleyev and Hancock, 1989; Bailey, 1990;
Panteleyev et al., 1996), with regional metamorphism reach-
ing greenschist facies to the east of Mount Polley (Panteleyev
and Hancock, 1989; Bailey, 1990; Gabrielse et al., 1992).
Local setting
The Mount Polley Complex is an NNW-trending composite
alkalic intrusive and breccia complex that consists of equigran-
ular to porphyritic monzonite and monzodiorite, with minor
pyroxenite, diorite, syenite, and abundant associated breccia
bodies (Fig. 2A, B; Fraser et al., 1993, 1995; Fraser, 1995;
Logan and Mihalynuk, 2005). Numerous small, elongate and
steeply dipping intrusions, including monzonite, plagioclase
porphyry to diorite, fne to megacrystic K-feldspar-phyric
monzonite, and augite-phyric and aphanitic mafc dikes, have
crosscut the monzonite-monzodiorite and breccias. Much of
the Mount Polley Complex consists of breccias that vary con-
siderably in composition, texture, and alteration (Hodgson et
al., 1976; Fraser et al., 1995; Jackson, 2008; Pass, 2010).
Faults in the Mount Polley Complex are generally oriented
subparallel to regional fault patterns (Fig. 2A, B; Logan and
Mihalynuk, 2005). Stratigraphic units within the region have
a symmetric distribution, forming a shallowly (~20) NNW
plunging single-phase cylindrical syncline (Logan and Mih-
alynuk, 2005). A bulk regional rotation of the Mount Polley
Complex, tilting the system by ~15 to the west-northwest, is
proposed on the basis of Imperial Metals Corporations inter-
nal structural analysis. Dominant structures in the mine area
include the steep, easterly dipping, N-striking Polley fault in
the Core zone and the northeasterly striking South Wishbone
fault (Fig. 2B).
There are several porphyry ore zones, prospects, and Cu
showings in the Mount Polley Complex (Fig. 2B). Since Mount
Polley mine opened in 1997 until 2013, it has produced more
than 226.3 thousand tonnes (t) Cu, 21.5 t Au, and 65.1 t Ag from
several ore zones. Most of the ore is breccia hosted, with lesser
Cu sulfde mineralization occurring in veins and disseminations.
The Pond zone is a limited area of skarn-style mineralization
(Fig. 2B). Across the Mount Polley Complex, porphyry-style
mineralization is associated dominantly with K-feldspar and
albite alteration and subordinate calc-potassic alteration. Pro-
pylitic alteration is widespread across the property whereas
argillic alteration is absent from Mount Polley. Mineralization
and alteration are constrained to a 5-m.y. window from approxi-
mately 209 to 204 Ma (Logan et al., 2007).
Geology of the Northeast ore zone
The Northeast ore zone is dominated by a monzonite-clast
breccia body that has cut the intrusive rocks of the Mount
Polley Complex. The igneous rock types in the Northeast ore
zone are very similar to the rest of the Mount Polley Complex
and consist dominantly of equigranular to porphyritic (augite
hornblende plagioclase K-feldspar) monzonite, with
lesser monzodiorite, diorite, and various mafc facies (Figs. 2,
3). Breccia clasts in the Northeast ore zone are dominated by
locally derived wall rock. There are also isolated intervals of
rafted, variably skarn altered limestone and marble (metaso-
matized limestone) intersected in drill core and in the open
pit, respectively. The original geometry and extent of the
Northeast ore zone breccia are poorly understood due to post-
mineral faulting and truncation of the breccia complex. The
Brown Wall and Green Giant faults have disrupted the North-
east ore zone breccia body into at least two major segments
(Figs. 2C, 3). Present-day dimensions of the >700-m-long
by >700-m-deep by ~400-m-wide breccia body indicate an
inverted cone shape (Jackson, 2008).
Magmatic-Hydrothermal Characteristics of
the Northeast Ore Zone
Five broad paragenetic stages have been defned for the
Northeast ore zone: stage 1: prebrecciation; stage 2: synbrec-
ciation (or main stage); and postbrecciation stages 3, 4, and 5
(Fig. 4, Table 1).
Stage 1: Prebrecciation
The Northeast ore zone contains evidence for considerable
hydrothermal activity prior to breccia formation. Early-stage
hydrothermal processes caused widespread hematite dusting
calcite alteration, and moderate to strong, pervasive K-feld-
spar-magnetite albite biotite augite epidote chlo-
rite alteration and associated veins (stage 1; Figs. 4, 5A-D).
Truncated stage 1 veins and associated alteration envelopes
are preserved in breccia clasts and in the monzonite wall rocks
to the breccia complex. Minor Cu sulfde mineralization may
have been introduced during this stage.
Stage 2: Brecciation and main-stage mineralization
Stage 2 is the most abundant, widespread, and economi-
cally important paragenetic stage (Figs. 3, 5A, C, F-I). It was
initiated by magmatic-hydrothermal brecciation of the mon-
zonitic host rocks by the intrusion of a megacrystic K-feldspar-
phyric monzonite porphyry unit (Logan and Mihalynuk, 2005;
Chamberlain et al., 2007; Logan et al., 2007; Jackson, 2008;
Tosdal et al., 2008; Pass, 2010). Hydrothermal cement and/
or altered matrix are ubiquitous throughout the breccia body.
The monogenetic Northeast ore zone breccia complex con-
tains three main breccia facies. In order of abundance, they
are cement and matrix-bearing breccia, cement-dominated
breccia, and matrix-dominated breccia (Fig. 3). The impor-
tance of discriminating domains of matrix-rich breccia from
cement-rich breccia from breccias with roughly equal amounts
of cement and matrix in hydrothermal breccia complexes was
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m
X-Section 18 A. Long-section
B. Section 18
?
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WB04-96
WB05-205
WB04-81
WB04-88
WB03-11
WB04-29
WB03-03
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WB04-33
WB04-40
WB04-31
WB05-188
WB04-111
WB04-35
WB04-52
WB04-49
WB04-47
WB04-25
WB03-07
WB04-65
WB03-16
WB03-17
WB04-77
WB04-114
WB04-152
WB04-150
WB04-131
WB04-223
WB04-156
WB04-141
WB05-192
WB04-122
WB04-115
WB05-210
WB05-213
WB04-95
Overburden
Matrix-dominated polymictic breccia
Cement-dominated polymictic breccia
Cement dominated jigsaw-fit monomictic breccia
Equigranular to sparsely K-feldspar phyric monzonite
Equigranular monzonite
Composite (equigranular, sparsely to crowded
K-feldspar-phyric) monzonite dikes; mineralized
Augite-phyric basaltic dikes
Equigranular monzonite (dikes?) - mineralized
Post-breccia features:
Syn-breccia features:
Pre-breccia features:
cement + matrix-dominated polymictic breccia
Major faults:
Pit outline
WB04-115
Drill hole logged /
reviewed in this study
Limit of
interpretation
NW SE
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
100m
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No drilling
No drilling No drilling
Leak Zone Northeast Zone
deep breccia-hosted zone deep coherent rock zone
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black outline:
areas of extremely
bimodal clast size
(625 cm + <2 mm)
to normal clast
distribution, angular
monolithic monzo-
nite, jigsaw-fit to
rotated arrange-
ment, cement >>
matrix infill
Long-section
Fig. 3. (A) Geology of the long section showing current structural interpretation. Postbreccia intrusions occur as multiple
dike swarms and abundant dikes too small to be shown at this scale. Question marks in faults indicate uncertainties in the
interpretation. The long section has been divided into three zones: (1) a shallow breccia-hosted zone above the Brown Wall
fault, (2) a deep breccia-hosted zone below the Brown Wall fault and north of the inferred location of the Gully fault, and (3)
host rock in the footwall to the Brown Wall fault and south of the Gully fault. (B) Geologic summary of section 18, modifed
from Jackson (2008). Postbreccia intrusions have been omitted for clarity. Contacts between breccia facies are gradational.
864 PASS ET AL.
1 . E a r l y - s t a g e
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866 PASS ET AL.
emphasized by Davies et al. (2008). Herein, matrix is defned
as interstitial clastic material <2 mm in diameter, which has
been referred to as rock four by many previous workers
(e.g., Sillitoe, 1985; Taylor and Pollard, 1993). Cement is
defned as a chemical precipitate, either mineral or crystalline
igneous rock (Davies et al., 2008). Clasts in the Northeast ore
zone correspond to wall rock as described above as well as
megacrystic K-feldspar-phyric monzonite porphyry.
Most of the Cu-Au-Ag mineralization in the Northeast
ore zone precipitated during the cementation of the hydro-
thermal breccia complex and in synbrecciation veins of
bornite and chalcopyrite pyrite (Figs. 3, 5C). The high-
est Cu-Au-Ag grades in the Northeast ore zone are associ-
ated with cement-dominant breccia, and with cement and
matrix-bearing breccia (Figs. 3, 6). Matrix-dominant breccia
is weakly mineralized to barren (Fig. 3). Assay results defne
two broad domains of Cu, Au, and Ag enrichment on the
long section, one in the hanging wall, and one in the footwall
of the Brown Wall fault (Fig. 6). These areas are coincident
with spatially restricted, bornite-rich, pyrite-defcient high-
grade (>1% Cu) zones of mineralization within broader chal-
copyrite-rich domains (0.31.0% Cu). Pyrite is the dominant
1 cm
cb altered
mx
px
mt
cp
ah/gp
af
px+cb
syn-breccia
altn rind
A
mt
ab
px
kf
1 cm
B
1 cm
mt
wisps
mt
kf
kf alteration
D
1 cm
bn
cc
kf
cp
F
ap
px
mt
cp
mt
E
1 cm
1 cm altn rind
mt
cp
py
cc
px
ab
G
1 cm
gt
H
cb altd matrix
1 cm
ah +cc
bn + cp
pr
Na-fd
I
1 cm
L
cc
cz
hm
ab
ze+cc+qz
1 cm
M
cc
cc + ab + pr
2.5 cm
sulfosalt
bn
cp
1 cm
cp
py
mt
J K
N
0.5 cm 1 cm
O
mt
kf
py
post
mineralization
(stage 4)
ah vein
1 cm
mt-cp
stage 2
veinlets
cp
C
stage 1
altered
clast
cp
Fig. 5. Examples of breccia cement, alteration, and veining from the Northeast ore zone. Stage 1 alteration: (A) Truncated
magnetite-clinopyroxene vein with lesser calcite and alkali feldspar in cement and matrix-bearing polymictic breccia. Matrix
has been altered by carbonate. The center clast exhibits stage 2 alteration in the form of a hematite alteration rind (WB05-
213 583.7 m). (B) Intense pervasive K-feldspar-albite-clinopyroxene-magnetite alteration in monzonite(?) host rock (WB05-
205 144.5 m, Leak zone). The veins are similar to the truncated vein in A. (C) Three stages of alteration: Stage 1 intensely
K-feldspar-albite altered clast (upper right) containing stage 2 magnetite-chalcopyrite veinlets. These veins have a mineralogy
similar to the stage 2 euhedral magnetite-K-feldspar-chalcopyrite and pyrite-calcite-chlorite cemented polymictic breccias.
A stage 4 anhydrite vein has crosscut the breccia (WB05-213 478.8 m). (D) Magnetite vein with intense K-feldspar halo and
magnetite wisps have cut texturally destructive potassic- and albitic-altered monzonite. Sampled from coherent rock beneath
the shallow mineralized zone at the southern end of the Northeast ore zone (WB05-188 519.5 m). Alteration is similar to that
observed in the upper right clast in C. Examples of stage 2 breccia cement: (E) Equigranular monzonite clast-rich breccia
with symmetrical open-space cement: chalcopyrite (+ bornite + apatite) has overgrown euhedral pyroxene, which has over-
grown euhedral magnetite (WB05-188 59.5 m). (F) Polymictic monzonite breccia with open-space cement infll: chalcopyrite
and bornite intergrown with calcite after K-feldspar (WB04-115 392.3 m). (G) Polymictic magnetite-clinopyroxene-albite-
calcite-chalcopyrite-pyritecemented breccia. Clasts exhibit albite-epidote alteration with hematite-dusted stage 2 alteration
rinds (WB05-210 491.5 m). (H) Polymictic matrix-dominated breccia with euhedral garnets (WB04-150 459.9 m). (I) Bornite,
chalcopyrite, albite, prehnite, calcite, and anhydrite cement in a polymictic breccia. Anhydrite crystals are tabular shaped
(WB04-122 334.1 m).
sulfde on the deposit periphery (up to 12% locally; Fig.
7). Shallow-level mineralization above the Brown Wall
fault (Fig. 6) was mined by open pit. Underground mining
of deeper mineralization beneath the fault has not started,
although it is currently underway in an area adjacent to the
Northeast ore zone.
Main-stage breccia cement evolved from early magnetite
K-feldspar albite chlorite to later Cu-Fe sulfdes asso-
ciated with K-feldspar, albite, biotite, apatite, clinopyroxene,
epidote, calcite, prehnite, actinolite, and garnet. Calcite and
anhydrite were the fnal breccia cement phases (Figs. 4, 5).
Main-stage veins with mineral assemblages similar to breccia
cement occur in the monzonite wall rocks as a halo to the min-
eralized breccia complex. Some main-stage minerals occur as
alteration rinds around breccia clasts and as halos to main-
stage veins. The spatial distribution of key main-stage miner-
als is shown in Figure 8.
Mineralizing fuids are interpreted to have migrated upward
through the breccia complex during stage 2, which formed
a complicated asymmetrical pattern of potassic (K-feldspar,
magnetite biotite epidote), sodic (albite), and calc-potassic
(garnet) alteration (Fig. 9). The magnetite-K-feldspar-albite
biotiterich zone at depth is interpreted to be the highest-
temperature portion of the breccia complex (i.e., proximal to
the fuid source). The periphery of the hydrothermal system is
defned by a lower-temperature alteration assemblage (chlo-
rite-pyrite-hematite epidote albite chalcopyrite, Fig. 9,
Table 1; Jackson, 2008; this study).
Stages 3, 4, and 5: Postbrecciation features
Magmatic and hydrothermal activity continued episodically
for an unconstrained period of time after brecciation. Three
stages of postbrecciation dikes and veins have been defned
based on crosscutting and overprinting relationships, assay
data, the presence or absence of Cu-Fe sulfdes, and the pres-
ence or absence of epithermal-like vein textures (stages 3, 4,
and 5; Figs. 4, 5).
Stage 3: Late-stage mineralization: Stage 3 hydrothermal-
magmatic activity was associated with the intrusion of K-feld-
spar-phyric to equigranular monzonite dikes that contain
minor disseminated Cu mineralization. The dikes both cross-
cut and are cut by stage 3 chalcopyrite albite calcite
pyrite galena veins (Fig. 5J). Locally high grade, typically
less than 15 cm wide, massive bornite-, chalcopyrite-, and
apatite-rich veins with shear textures have been interpreted
as mylonitized hydrothermal sulfdes (Fig. 5K). Stage 3 locally
upgraded Cu, Au, and Ag, but did not add a signifcant amount
of additional metal to the deposit.
Stage 4: Unmineralized intrusions and veins: The waning
stages of magmatic and hydrothermal activity in the North-
east ore zone produced abundant, steeply dipping, subverti-
cal, equigranular to porphyritic monzonite and lesser diorite
dikes with fne-grained margins, veins, and vein breccias that
have crosscut the breccias, resulting in a patchy distribution
of metals (Figs. 3, 4, 6). Numerous pyrite ( sericite carbon-
ate) shear veins associated with weak phyllic alteration, as well
1 cm
cb altered
mx
px
mt
cp
ah/gp
af
px+cb
syn-breccia
altn rind
A
mt
ab
px
kf
1 cm
B
1 cm
mt
wisps
mt
kf
kf alteration
D
1 cm
bn
cc
kf
cp
F
ap
px
mt
cp
mt
E
1 cm
1 cm altn rind
mt
cp
py
cc
px
ab
G
1 cm
gt
H
cb altd matrix
1 cm
ah +cc
bn + cp
pr
Na-fd
I
1 cm
L
cc
cz
hm
ab
ze+cc+qz
1 cm
M
cc
cc + ab + pr
2.5 cm
sulfosalt
bn
cp
1 cm
cp
py
mt
J K
N
0.5 cm 1 cm
O
mt
kf
py
post
mineralization
(stage 4)
ah vein
1 cm
mt-cp
stage 2
veinlets
cp
C
stage 1
altered
clast
cp
Fig. 5. (Cont.) Examples of stage 3 mineralization: (J) Chalcopyrite with minor pyrite vein has crosscut magnetite-
cemented monzonite clast-rich breccia and earlier calcite vein (WB05-213 487.7 m). (K) Bornite-chalcopyrite-apatite (
euhedral sulfosalts) vein with shear textures (pit sample). Examples of stage 4 veins and vein breccias: (L) Multiple open-
ings of calcite-albite-clinozoisite-zeolite-hematite vein breccia with traces of quartz have crosscut polymictic moderately
K-feldspar-phyric monzonite and equigranular monzonite breccia (WB04-26 68.1 m). (M) Vein breccia cemented by calcite-
albite-chlorite clays with trace quartz, prehnite, and datolite (borosilciate, visible via microscope) has been cut by multiply
reactivated calcite vein (WB04-26 221.8 m). Examples of veins from the Northeast ore zone exhibiting epithermal-style tex-
tures (stage 5): (N) Symmetrically banded crustiform chalcedony vein has crosscut an equigranular monzonite dike (WB04-
108 111.7 m). (O) Bladed quartz-anhydrite-calcite vein with sericitic halo has crosscut the breccia (WB03-07 81.0 m). See
Figure 4 for mineral abbreviations.
868 PASS ET AL.
Drill hole logged
in this study
Imperial Metals
drill hole
Limit of interpretation
Pit outline
Major faults:
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m
X-Section 18
s
h
a
l
l
o
w

b
r
e
c
c
i
a
-
h
o
s
t
e
d

z
o
n
e
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Overburden
Cement- and matrix-bearing polymictic breccia
Cement-dominated jigsaw-fit monomictic breccia
NW SE
100m
m
0
0
1
0.2 to <0.5% Cu
Contours:
0.5% Cu (high grade)
0.2 to <0.5 g/t Au
Contours:
0.5 g/t Au
0.2% Cu contour 0.2% Cu contour
A. Cu grade distribution
B. Au grade distribution
E N W S
C. Ag grade distribution
E N W S
1000m
800m
600m
400m
X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
1000m
800m
600m
400m
X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
10 to <50 ppm Ag
Contours:
50 ppm Ag
5 to <10 ppm Ag
100m
m
0
0
1
100m
m
0
0
1
Fig. 6. Copper (A), Au (B), and Ag (C) grade contours shown with the main geologic elements of the long section illustrate
these elements are breccia hosted. Contours determined from Imperial Metals Corporation whole-rock assay data taken from
all boreholes on section. Contours were produced with Surfer 7.0 (gridding method: minimum curvature with 1.1 and 0.83 x
and y spacing, respectively). The 0.2% Cu contour is outlined in solid black in B and C.
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m
X-Section 18
Long-section
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
NW SE
100m
m
0
0
1
No breccia
No drilling
deep breccia-hosted zone deep zone of coherent rock
s
h
a
l
l
o
w

b
r
e
c
c
i
a
-
h
o
s
t
e
d

z
o
n
e
A. Long-section
Drill hole logged
in this study
Imperial Metals
drill hole
Limit of
interpretation
Pit outline
breccia
Chalcopyrite ~ pyrite
Chalcopyrite > pyrite
Chalcopyrite > bornite >> pyrite
Bornite chalcopyrite
Pyrite > chalcopyrite
Coherent rocks
Overburden
Breccia cement sulfide mineral zones:
~
Major faults:
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
bornite chalcopyrite
chalcopyrite only
chalopyrite + pyrite
pyrite only
B. Section 18
1000m
900m
800m
700m
E N W S
W
B
0
4
-
2
8
W
B
0
4
-
2
7
W
B
0
4
-
2
6
W
B
0
4
-
3
0
W
B
0
4
-
2
9
W
B
0
3
-
1
4
W
B
0
4
-
3
2
50m
5
0
m
Fig. 7. Sulfde mineral distribution as stage 2 breccia cement on the long section (A) and section 18 (B). The sulfde min-
eral zonation pattern forms bornite cores, which transition outward to chalcopyrite- and then pyrite-dominant mineralization.
Chalcopyrite and bornite observations from this study have been augmented by data from Imperial Metals Corporation core
logs for all drill holes on section. Section 18 modifed from Deyell and Tosdal (2005) and Jackson (2008).
870 PASS ET AL.
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
300 m
18
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
(sulfate line)
900 m
800 m
700 m
600 m
500 m
400 m
300 m
18
A
C D
B
H
E F
G
e t i t e n g a M r a p s d l e f - K
Biotite
Anydrite-gypsum
Chlorite
Epidote
Garnet
Albite
400 m 400 m
host-rocks
0.2% Cu
outline
overburden
Fig. 8. Spatial distribution of eight stage 2 breccia cement minerals on a simplifed geology outline of the long section.
Line thickness indicates relative mineral proportion from minor (thin) to moderate to abundant (thick). See Figures 3 and 6
for detailed legend of general features.
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m 300m
X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
no sulfate
sulfate veins
and cement
NW SE
Calc-potassic (garnet actinolite) Sodic (albite)
Overburden
Potassic Strongly potassic
(K-feldspar, magnetite, biotite chalcopyrite
bornite epidote)
Propylitic (epidote-albite subfacies)
(epidote, albite, chlorite, pyrite)
Alteration and cement distribution (key minerals):
Propylitic (chlorite subfacies)
(pyrite, chlorite hematite* sericite)
Sulfate line
100m
m
0
0
1
WB04-115 Drill hole logged
in this study
0.2% Cu
contour
Limit of
interpretation
interval of
post-breccia
intrusions
s
h
a
l
l
o
w

b
r
e
c
c
i
a
-
h
o
s
t
e
d

z
o
n
e
Major faults:
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
breccia
Green Giant fault
B. Section 18
1000m
900m
800m
700m
E N W S
W
B
0
4
-
2
8
W
B
0
4
-
2
7
W
B
0
4
-
2
6
W
B
0
4
-
3
0
W
B
0
4
-
2
9
W
B
0
3
-
1
4
W
B
0
4
-
3
2
50m
5
0
m
?
Polley Lake
200 m
propylitic:
py, cc, ch, ab
propylitic:
ab, mt, ep, gt, px, cp, py
>1 % Cu:
cp, bn,
ap
in
fe
r
r
e
d
fa
u
lt
Green Giant fault
garnet
Hydrothermal breccia
N
G
u
lly
fa
u
lt
B
r
o
w
n
W
a
ll f
a
u
lt
A. Location map
<
1
%
C
u
:
c
p
, g
t
, m
t
Long-section
Fig. 9. Summary of alteration and cement distribution in the Northeast ore zone. (A) Map view of the Northeast ore zone
alteration, projected to surface. (B) Alteration distribution on section 18 (modifed from Jackson, 2008). (C) Summary of
alteration and cement distribution on the long section. Alteration in the deep coherent rock zone is shown schematically and
is interpreted to be lithologically controlled as abundant postbreccia dikes obscure contact relationships. Hematite dusting
and carbonate alteration are ubiquitous across the section, whereas hematite observed as cement or veins has been included
in the propylitic assemblage (chlorite subfacies*). The 0.2% Cu ore shells are outlined. Question marks in the faults high-
light uncertainty in the fault interpretations.
872 PASS ET AL.
as carbonate (calcite ankerite dolomite rhodochrosite),
sulfate, and lesser zeolite veins and vein breccias, also formed
at this time. Isolated examples contain rare euhedral quartz
cement (Fig. 5L, M). The greatest concentrations of stage 4
veins occur near the intersections of major faults at the south-
ern end of the Northeast ore zone breccia complex.
Stage 5: Epithermal overprint: A number of calcite-, chal-
cedony-, and amethyst-bearing veins display distinctive
banded, colloform, and locally bladed carbonate anhydrite
textures. These veins, which have sericitic (phyllic) alteration
halos, have cut the breccia complex and postbreccia dikes
including the youngest exposed augite-phyric basalt dikes
(Figs. 4, 5N, O). These vein textures and mineral assemblages
are consistent with low sulfdation epithermal-style features
(e.g., White and Hedenquist, 1990; Simmons and Christen-
son, 1994). Assay results show that these stage 5 veins contain
only crustal abundances of Au and Ag, but the vein textures
and mineralogy imply superposition of an epithermal environ-
ment (e.g., Sillitoe, 1994) at Mount Polley.
Stable Isotopes
Stable isotope compositions of S, C, and O have been ana-
lyzed in selected hydrothermal minerals at Mount Polley. Iso-
topic results are discussed with the aim of constraining the
source(s) and nature of ore-forming fuid(s), and providing
evidence of water-rock interaction and redox changes during
ore formation. Analytical methods for all isotopic techniques
are listed in Appendix A.
Sulfur isotopes
Sulfur isotope analyses of sulfdes and sulfates from Mount
Polley were conducted to assess the spatial variation in sulfde
isotopic compositions, establish potential source(s) of S, and
comment on the nature of the hydrothermal fuids (Ohmoto
and Rye, 1979).
Sulfur isotope compositions have been analyzed from 137
samples of chalcopyrite, bornite, and pyrite and 22 sulfate sam-
ples from the long section and section 18 of the Northeast ore
zone. Sulfur isotope analyses involved conventional and laser
ablation techniques (Appendix A). Sulfdes from the long sec-
tion have
34
S
sulfde
values between 7.1 and +1.4, with most
lying between 3 and 4 (Appendix B, Fig. 10A, B). These
are consistent with values of 7.1 to +0.6 obtained from sec-
tion 18 by this study and Deyell and Tosdal (2005; Fig. 10C,
Appendix C). Most of the lowest
34
S
sulfde
values were obtained
from chalcopyrite (Appendices B, C). The
34
S
sulfate
values
obtained from anhydrite and gypsum were mostly between
6.2 and 9.8, with two outliers (13.6 and 14.0, Fig. 10C,
Appendix D).
Sulfur isotope zoning for main-stage mineralization on the
long section is shown on Figure 11. The most negative
34
S
values (4 to 5) correspond to areas of moderate to intense
K-feldspar-magnetite albite garnet alteration (compare
Figs. 8, 11). Some low
34
S
sulfde
values correspond to bornite-
rich zones, whereas others are associated with chalcopyrite-
pyrite mineralization (compare Figs. 7, 11).
Carbon and oxygen isotopes
The presence of abundant carbonate as breccia cement,
veins, and alteration throughout the paragenetic sequence of
the Northeast ore zone provides an unusual opportunity to
investigate the isotopic evolution of carbonates in a porphyry
deposit throughout its formational history. Carbonate veins
typically form late in the paragenesis of porphyry deposits in
association with propylitic or phyllic alteration (Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975; Ohmoto, 1986; Seedorff et al., 2005). Carbon and
oxygen isotope compositions of hydrothermal carbonates from
the Northeast ore zone and limestones from the Mount Polley
0
10
20
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
chalcopyrite
pyrite
bornite
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
34
S
CDT
()
0
20
40
60
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
sulfate
chalcopyrite
pyrite
bornite
0
10
20
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
chalcopyrite
pyrite
bornite
Long-section: stage 2
(n = 67)
Long-section: stage 3
(n = 30)
All data for NEZ
(n
sulfide
= 209; n
sulfate
= 22)
B
A
C
Fig. 10. Histograms illustrating the range of S isotope values for sulfdes
and sulfates from the Northeast ore zone. (A) Stage 2 and (B) stage 3 sulfde
34
SCDT from the long section. (C) All sulfde and sulfate
34
SCDT data from
the Northeast ore zone, including section 18 data from Deyell and Tosdal
(2005). Sulfde data has a 10 range whereas sulfate data range is limited to
4 with two outliers. Sulfate includes both gypsum and anhydrite. Complete
data are presented in Appendices B, C, and D.
region have been analyzed in order to assess fuid sources,
fuid evolution, and processes of ore formation (e.g., Ohmoto,
1986; Campbell and Larson, 1998).
A total of 61 carbonate samples from stage 2 breccia cement
and stage 3 and 4 veins were analyzed for their
18
O and
13
C
isotope compositions. Three analyses were also completed
from samples of a 1-m-diameter marble clast (metasomatized
limestone) found in the breccia at the southern end of the
Northeast ore zone open pit. Nine regional limestone samples
were collected from two locations, one ~7 km northeast of the
Northeast ore zone in the town of Likely (Fig. 1), and another
~11 km northwest of the Northeast ore zone at the north-
west end of Morehead Lake (Fig. 2A). Electron microprobe
analyses of a subset of the Northeast ore zone samples (n =
16 samples, 382 point analyses; Pass, 2010) showed that the
carbonates in the Northeast ore zone are calcite. Analyzed
samples contain less than 2.1 wt % Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, or Ba.
All isotopic results for calcite have therefore been determined
using the method of Craig (1957). Summary statistics and his-
tograms of C and O isotope results are presented in Figure
12. The complete
13
C and
18
O isotope data set is presented
in Appendix E.
Hydrothermal calcite samples have
13
C
mineral
values from
0.2 to 10.5 and
18
O
mineral
values from 4.0 to 20.9
(Fig. 12). The marble clast has a similar isotopic composi-
tion, with an average
13
C value of 1.1 and
18
O value
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m
X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Overburden
Cement-dominated jigsaw-fit monomictic breccia
Pit outline
Drill hole logged
in this study
NW SE
100m
m
0
0
1
Major faults:
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
No drilling
No drilling No drilling
?????
???
???
??
???
???
????
???
0.2 to <0.5 % Cu
Cu grade contours:
0.5% Cu (high grade)
g
Sample location with value:
-5

-5
-4
-3
-3

-4

-2

-4

-2
-3
-3

-4

-4

-2

0
-5
-4
-4

-4

-3

-4
34
S chalcopyrite
34
S bornite
34
S pyrite
34
S contour ()
-3

-2.6
-3.6
-4.3
-3.1
-4.2
-3.2
-2.1
-3.2
-2.5
-3.5
-4.4
-2.4
-4.5
-5.3
-3.6
-3.1
-3.9
-2.2
-2.8
-2.8
-3.3
-5.6
-2.7
-3.7
-4.4
-3.4
-4.4
-3.8
-3.4
-3.3 1.4
-1.6
-1.5
-3.9
-3.1
-4.4
-3.7
-3.2 -4.2
-1.6 -3.8
-4.0
-3.2
-5.5
-5.1
-4.5
-2.9
-3.4 -4.3
-2.3
-1.7
-2.3
-4.7
-2.4
-1.9
-2.9
-3.8
-6.5
-4.0
-3.7
0.2
-2.7
-3.2
-2.9
Fig. 11. Contoured values (n = 44) of
34
Ssulfde () from stage 2 breccia cement on the Northeast ore zone long section.
Also shown are Cu grade contours and a summary of the main geologic elements on the section. The most negative
34
S
values are associated with areas of moderate to intense K-feldspar-magnetite albite garnet alteration (compare with Fig.
9). Where multiple
34
Ssulfde values were obtained from one sample, the most negative value was selected for contouring to
emphasize areas of oxidation.
874 PASS ET AL.
of 16.4. These values are consistent with C and O isotope
values of minor amounts of secondary calcite from basalts
in the Mount Polley area of
13
C
mineral
from 5.6 to +1.7
and
18
O
mineral
values of 8 to 22 (Bissig et al., 2011). The
regional limestone samples from this study have isotopic
compositions that range from 1.3 to +2.7 (
13
C) and 20.6
to 24.0 (
18
O).
Oxygen and carbon isotope zonation patterns for main-
stage carbonates are shown on Figure 13. The
18
O isotope
zonation patterns highlight that the lowest
18
O
Carbonate
values
occur near major faults (Fig. 13A). The
13
C isotope zonation
patterns show that the most negative
13
C values are generally
associated with high-grade ore zones, whereas elevated
13
C
values occur on the deposit periphery (Fig. 13B).
Radiogenic Isotopes
The Pb isotope data obtained from sulfdes and other Pb-
bearing minerals combined with Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope
data from gangue and ore minerals can provide important
constraints on the timing of mineralization and alteration,
metal and magma sources, fuid-rock interaction, and mix-
ing processes (Richards and Noble, 1998; Tosdal et al., 1999).
This section presents new U-Pb and Rb-Sr isotope data for
ore and gangue minerals from Mount Polley. The Pb and Sr
isotope ratios are used here to provide constraints on fuid
metal sources for stages 2 and 3 of the Northeast ore zone.
The Pb data add to the existing Pb isotope database for alka-
lic igneous rocks associated with Cu-Au mineralization in the
Cordillera (Bailey and Archibald, 1990; Mortensen et al.,
1995; Tosdal et al., 1999; Logan et al., 2007). Lead and Sr iso-
tope data were also obtained for two of the regional limestone
samples that were subjected to C and O isotope analysis. Neo-
dymium isotope data from Bath (2010) are included for stage
2 apatite to examine the impact, if any, of old, more evolved
Nd
sources on the hydrothermal fuids. All radiogenic isotope
data are listed in Appendices F and G.
Lead isotopes
Lead isotope compositions were determined for 17 samples,
including stage 2 breccia cement (chalcopyrite, pyrite, calcite,
K-feldspar, garnet, and anhydrite), stage 3 galena, stage 4
anhydrite, stage 5 carbonate, a marble clast, and a K-feldspar
phenocryst from a synbrecciation monzonite clast. A pseudo-
leucite phenocryst from the Bootjack stock syenite (Fig. 2A)
and two samples of limestone from the Mount Polley region
were also analyzed. Results are plotted in Figure 14.
Chalcopyrite and pyrite from Mount Polley have high Pb
and low U and Th concentrations (42604 ppm Pb, 0.18
0.34 ppm U, and 0.060.34 ppm Th; Appendix F). These
minerals, together with the stage 3 galena sample, provide the
most reliable indications of the original Pb isotope compo-
sition of the mineralizing fuids. The
206/204
Pb (18.7718.92),
207/204
Pb (15.5615.59), and
208/204
Pb (38.2238.32) values
for these samples are considered to be initial ratios, because
the samples have very low
238
U/
204
Pb and
232
Th/
204
Pb values
(Appendix F). The stage 3 galena yielded a model Pb age of
207.8 1.8 Ma (MSWD 1.7), which overlaps with the results
of previous U-Pb and Ar-Ar dating (Bailey and Archibald,
1990; Mortensen et al., 1995; Logan et al., 2007). The stage
5 carbonate with bladed textures has initial
206/204
Pb ratios
of 18.96 to 19.04,
207/204
Pb of 15.57 to 15.59, and
208/204
Pb of
38.26 to 38.36, assuming a 203 Ma age (Fig. 14, Appendix F).
Stage 2 K-feldspar contains 4.0 ppm Pb, 0.039 ppm U, and
0.035 ppm Th (Appendix F). Although the Pb content is low,
the
238
U/
204
Pb and
232
Th/
204
Pb values are also low (Appendix
F) and the isotopic data for this sample are considered reli-
able. Similarly, the marble clast has signifcantly higher Pb
contents relative to U and Th (0.730.92 ppm Pb, 0.02 ppm
U, <0.001 ppm Th), giving low
238
U/
204
Pb and
232
Th/
204
Pb val-
ues (Appendix F). Stage 4 anhydrite has low U/Pb and Th/Pb
and an elevated age-corrected
206/204
Pb value of 19.02 (Fig.
14, Appendix F). The pseudoleucite phenocryst from the
4 8 12 16 20
18
O
SMOW
()
0
4
8
12
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
4 8 12 16 20
18
O
SMOW
()
0
4
8
12
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
4 8 12 16 20
18
O
SMOW
()
0
4
8
12
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
18
O stage 2
(n=36)
18
O stage 3
(n=8)
18
O stage 4
(n=17)
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
13
C
VPDB
()
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
13
C
VPDB
()
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
13
C
VPDB
()
13
C stage 4
(n=17)
13
C stage 3
(n=8)
13
C stage 2
(n=36)
A
B
C
D
E
F

Fig. 12. Histograms illustrating the range of O and C isotope ratios for
carbonate infll and veins from the Northeast ore zone. The marble clast
samples from the pit have not been included. Values of
18
Omineral are shown
in (A) stage 2, (B) stage 3, and (C) stage 4. Values of
13
Cmineral are shown in
(D) stage 2, (E) stage 3, and (F) stage 4. Note: where duplicate data values
were available for a single mineral phase in an individual sample, the average
value was used. Where more than one value existed but represented different
phases in a sample, each value was treated as a separate data point. Complete
data presented in Appendix E.
B. Stage 2
13
C contours
1000m
900m
800m
700m
600m
500m
400m
300m
X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Pit outline
Drill hole logged
in this study
NW SE
100m
m
0
0
1
Major faults:
Green Giant fault
Brown Wall fault
Gully fault (?)
fault: definite
fault: inferred
No drilling
-3.5
Stage 2 calcite
sample location
13
C contour (

)
???
??
???
???
???
???
????
???
te
-2

-8
-1
-4

-4

-4

-6

-2

-2

-2

-2
-4

-2

-2

-2

-8
-5.8
-4.2
-3.7
-2.3
-1.8
-1.6
-8.3
-5.0
-2.8
-5.1
-1.3
-4.8
-2.0
-2.4
-2.3
-1.4
-4.4
-1.5
-9.6
-1.2
-2.9
-0.2
-1.2
-0.6
-3.8
-2.8
-4.9
-2.1
-2.9
-1.1
-0.4
-1.6
-4

Overburden
Cement dominated jigsaw-fit monomictic breccia
Cu grade contours:
0.2 to <0.5 % Cu
0.5% Cu
(high grade)
s
h
a
l
l
o
w

b
r
e
c
c
i
a
-
h
o
s
t
e
d

z
o
n
e
A. Stage 2
18
O contours X-Section 18
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
NW
SE
100m
m
0
0
1
No drilling
???????
????
?
?
???
???
??
?????
18.1
Stage 2 calcite
sample location
13
O contour ()
1000m
800m
600m
400m
13.1
14.8
13.8
14.2
15.3
12.1
17.7
14.0
15.1
15.5
14.5
14.2
14.8
14.9
16.8
15.0
15.2
19.3
15.4
14.5
17.2
11.6
19.1
15.5
17.8
14.4
13.2
14.4
15.1
14.2
20.7
13.6
20
18

16
14

12

16

14

16

14

14

18

14

16

16
18
Fig. 13. (A) Contour diagram of
18
OSMOW mineral values from stage 2 calcite. In general,
18
O values are more positive
distal to ore and/or faults. (B) Contour diagram of
13
CPDB mineral values from stage 2 calcite. With the exception of two
outlying negative values (9.6 and 8.3), the northern deep-level mineralized domain is associated with more negative
13
C
values (5 to 4). Values increase toward zero away from high grade and peripheral to ore. Trends are less distinct in the
shallow-level mineralized domain. Where more than one
13
C or
18
O value was analyzed per location (duplicate or zoned
infll), the most negative or paragenetically earliest value was used for contouring.
876 PASS ET AL.
+
+
200 Ma
0 Ma
400 Ma
200 Ma
0 Ma
400 Ma 0 Ma
B A Mount Polley (uncorrected) Mount Polley (age corrected)
orogene
1
bu
lk ea
rth
2
m
a
n
tle
1
upper crust
1
upper crust
1
orogene
1
bulk earth
2
m
a
n
tle
1
C
Lorraine:
sulfides:

galena
Copper Mountain:
sulfides:
K-feldspar:

galena chalcopyrite pyrite
samples:
sulfides:
K-feldspar:
carbonate:
anhdyrite:
galena stage 3
stage 2
stage 2
stage 2
chalcopyrite stage 2
juvenile clast phenocryst
marble clast
stage 4
pyrite stage 2
Bootjack Stock
1
stage 5
+ x +
Mt. Polley:
u
p
p
e
r c
ru
s
t
lo
w
er cru
st
o
c
e
a
n
ic
is
la
n
d
v
o
lc
a
n
ic
ro
c
k
s
m
a
tu
re
a
rc
p
rim
itiv
e
Mount Polley (sulfide minerals only) and other alkalic deposits in British Columbia
m
a
n
tle
1
upper crust
1
orogene
1
bulk earth
2
0 Ma
200 Ma
Mount Polley sulfide minerals
Triassic intrusive rocks of Quesnellia (mineralized)
400 Ma
0 Ma
Fig. 14. Lead isotope data from Mount Polley and other alkalic porphyry deposits. (A) Uncorrected
207
Pb/
204
Pb versus
206
Pb/
204
Pb for Northeast ore zone hydrothermal minerals and the marble clast. Values plot between the orogene/bulk earth
and mantle growth curves, implying that Pb in the Northeast ore zone is derived from a mixture of mantle and crustal sources.
Error ellipses are 2 for all samples. Error ellipses are very small for sulfdes due to high Pb concentration in the samples.
(B)
207
Pb/
204
Pb versus
206
Pb/
204
Pb for Northeast ore zone hydrothermal minerals other than sulfdes, showing the shift from
uncorrected values (points with error ellipses) to 203 Ma age-corrected values (points with no error ellipses). (C) Compari-
son of the Pb isotope values of Northeast ore zone sulfde minerals (white crosshatched area) with other alkalic deposits in
Quesnellia (Lorraine and Copper Mountain; Godwin et al., 1988), modern felds for upper crust, lower crust, mature arc, and
oceanic island volcanic rocks (Zartman and Doe, 1981), and a feld for age-corrected Triassic intrusive rock from Quesnellia
with limited samples of undifferentiated volcanic rocks of the Nicola Group (thin black hatching; Breitsprecher et al., 2008).
Northeast ore zone sulfde Pb isotope data are the most reliable data (see text). These data are consistent with other mineral-
ized Triassic Quesnellia intrusive rocks and are located in an area of overlap for modern upper curst, mature arc, and oceanic
island volcanic rocks signatures. Plots were created using Isoplot 3.1 (Ludwig, 2003; normal
207
Pb/
204
Pb-
206
Pb/
204
Pb isochron
and 0.8 error correlation). Growth curves are from (1) Zartman and Doe (1981) and (2) Stacey and Kramers (1975).
Bootjack syenite has an elevated U/Pb ratio (26.5; Appendix
F), which requires a sizable age correction. Nevertheless, cal-
culated initial ratios (
206/204
Pb 18.84,
207/204
Pb 15.59,
208/204
Pb
38.35) are very similar to stage 2 sulfdes (Fig. 14B).
Stage 2 garnet has very high U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios (Appen-
dix F), producing initial Pb ratios with large errors. The garnet
samples have therefore been rejected. Similarly, the regional
limestone samples are excluded from further discussion
as they have very high U/Pb ratios and contain signifcant
amounts of radiogenic
206
Pb (Appendix F).
Strontium and neodymium isotopes
Initial Sr ratios have been analyzed from stage 2 breccia
cement (pyrite, apatite, calcite, garnet, anhydrite, and K-feld-
spar; n = 13), stage 4 anhydrite (n = 2), a marble clast from
the Northeast ore zone breccia, a pseudoleucite phenocryst
from the Bootjack stock syenite, and two regional limestone
samples. As described above, many of these samples were also
analyzed for their Pb isotope compositions. The Rb/Sr ratios
for these samples are generally low compared to average
upper crust of greater than 0.2 to 0.4 (Rollinson, 1993), so that
the required age corrections to 203 Ma are small (Appendix
G). One
143
Nd/
144
Nd analysis of stage 2 apatite from Bath
(2010) is included here.
Most of the
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
results for stage 2 and 3 minerals
range from 0.70331 to 0.70353 (Fig. 15; Appendix G). One
analysis of stage 2 garnet yielded an
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
value of
0.70371. The Bootjack stock pseudoleucite and the massive
marble clast have
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
values within the range of the
main-stage minerals (
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
: 0.70342, 0.703460.70351,
respectively; Appendix G). Stage 4 anhydrite has higher
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
(0.703760.70377) and higher
206
Pb/
204
Pb values
than the stage 2 minerals (Appendix G). The limestone sam-
ples have low Rb/Sr values and their initial Sr ratios are higher
than the veins and breccia cement (
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
: 0.70622
0.70771, respectively; Appendix G). Variations obtained from
replicate analyses of the limestone samples (Appendix G)
probably relate to slight variations in the amount of clay that
was leached in each experiment.
Epsilon-Nd results for stage 2 apatite range between 5.9
and 6.5, assuming an age of 200 Ma (Fig. 16; Appendix G).
Epsilon-Nd values were calculated using the present-day
Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR; Lugmair et al., 1975)
reference value of 0.512638 (Skewes and Stern, 1996).
0.702 0.703 0.704 0.705 0.706 0.707 0.708 0.709 0.710 0.711
87/86
Sr
initial
Cadia District, NSW, Australia
North Parkes
District, NSW, Australia
Mt. Polley (NEZ), BC, Canada
Enriched mantle source
modified from Cooke et al., 2007
CarboniferousJurassic seawater
(Veizer et al., 1999)
Quesnellia and Stikinia
0.7033 0.0003
(Lang et al., 1995a)
Mt. Milligan, BC, Canada
Silica-undersaturated alkalic intrusions of BC
(Cassidy et al., 1995)
Lorraine, BC, Canada
Depleted mantle source
<

0
.
7
0
4

regional limestone marble clast
tennantite (epithermal?)
carbonate (epithermal?)
anhydrite (vein)
anhydrite cement
carbonate cement
pyrite cement
garnet cement
apatite cement
K-feldspar cement
pseudoleucite phenocryst-Bootjack Stock
apatite
diopside
epidote
actinolite
albite
E44 epidote
E27 epidote
monzonites-whole rock analyses
Big Cadia epidote
Cadia Hill epidote
monzonites-whole rock analyses
Mount Polley (NEZ), British Columbia
Canada
Lorraine, British Columbia
Canada
Mount Milligan, British Columbia
Canada
North Parkes District,
New South Wales, Australia
Cadia District,
New South Wales, Australia
Silica-undersaturated alkalic intrusions of British Columbia
Fig. 15. Initial
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotope data from Mount Polley and other alkalic porphyry deposits in British Columbia and
New South Wales, as well as the Quesnellia and Stikinia terranes (Lang et al., 1995a) and Carboniferous to Jurassic seawater
(Veizer et al., 1999). Results from Northeast ore zone minerals imply a predominance of mantle-derived Sr, with a minor
component of crustal contamination. Mantle source data ranges are from Sillitoe (1987); data from Lorraine, Mount Polley
apatite, and Bootjack stock are from Bath (2010); data from Mount Milligan are from Jago (2008); data from New South Wales
are from Cooke et al. (2007). Data from Canadian deposits are listed in Appendix G.
878 PASS ET AL.
Discussion
Sulfur isotope compositions
Previous S isotope studies of Australian alkalic porphyry
Cu-Au deposits documented systematic S isotope zonation
patterns around several mineralized complexes (e.g., Cadia
district: Harper, 2000; Wilson, 2003; Wilson et al., 2007;
North Parkes: Radclyffe, 1995; Lickfold et al., 2003). System-
atic S isotope zonation patterns have also been documented
from alkalic Cu-Au deposits in the Philippines (Wolfe, 2001)
and British Columbia (Lorraine, Mount Polley, Red Chris,
Galore Creek, Afton: Deyell and Tosdal, 2005; Micko, 2010).
Deyell and Tosdal (2005) reported 70
34
S values of chalcopy-
rite, pyrite, and bornite from section 18 of the Northeast ore
zone (Fig. 2). They identifed an isotopic zonation pattern in
the breccia complex defned by a core of depleted
34
S val-
ues (7) associated with high-grade Cu-Au mineralization,
and a change systematically upward and outward to higher
values (~1) associated with low-grade mineralization. A
narrower range of values was observed from the Cariboo pit in
the Core zone of Mount Polley (2.3+2.4; average 0.2;
n = 60; Deyell, 2005; Fig. 2B; Deyell and Tosdal, 2005).
The ranges of
34
S
sulfde
(7.1+1.4) and
34
S
sulfate
values
(6.314.0) from the Northeast ore zone are comparable to
those obtained from porphyry deposits worldwide (
34
S
sulfde

5+5;
34
S
sulfate
814; Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Ohmoto
and Goldhaber, 1997; Wilson et al., 2007). The wide range of
negative
34
S
sulfde
values and tight grouping of
34
S
sulfate
for
the Northeast ore zone (Fig. 10) are consistent with mineral
deposition from an oxidized (sulfate dominant), high-tem-
perature (>400C) magmatic-hydrothermal fuid (Ohmoto
and Rye, 1979; Rye, 1993; Wilson et al., 2007). This is consis-
tent with observations of anhydrite in the Northeast ore zone
and with Bath et al.s (2006) conclusion of sulfate saturation
observed in melt inclusions from stage 2 apatite in the North-
east ore zone.
Temperatures of sulfde precipitation for the Northeast ore
zone have been calculated using S isotope geothermometry.
Porphyry Cu deposits typically form at temperatures of 550
to 250C (Dunne et al., 1994; Lang et al., 1995a; Ulrich et al.,
1999; Wolfe, 2001; Lickfold et al., 2003; Wilson et al., 2003;
Jago, 2008; Micko, 2010). The pyrite-chalcopyrite S isotope
geothermometer of Kajiwra and Krouse (1971) is applicable
from 600 to 250C. The chalcopyrite-bornite geothermom-
eter of Li and Liu (2006) is applicable from 1,000 to 0C.
As both geothermometers have potential applications for por-
phyry systems, they were applied to 40 sulfde pairs from the
Northeast ore zone. Sulfde-sulfate pairs were not observed in
equilibrium in this study as these minerals precipitated at sep-
arate times in the paragenesis. Only six sulfde pairs yielded
results within applicable temperature ranges for each ther-
mometer, providing temperature estimates of 476 to 257C
(Appendix H). Either the Northeast ore zone sulfdes precipi-
tated over a wider temperature range than normal for por-
phyry deposits, or many of the sulfde pairs are not in isotopic
equilibrium. The latter interpretation is favored, as isotopic
disequilibrium is common for these sulfdes (Reed, 1997).
The increase in
34
S
sulfde
isotope values outward from oxi-
dized magmatic centers observed at Mount Polley (Fig. 11)
and at the alkalic porphyry deposits of the Cadia district
(Wilson et al., 2007) is at odds with what is expected from
a cooling magmatic fuid with a constant bulk S composition
(Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). If cooling were the only precipita-
tion mechanism, then
34
S
chalcopyrite
values would not change,
and the observed zonation patterns must therefore refect
other mechanisms. In addition to cooling, changes in the oxi-
dation state (i.e., H
2
S/SO
4
) and/or the bulk S composition of
the fuid must have occurred during sulfde deposition. Wil-
son et al. (2007) showed that sulfdes with distinctly negative
34
S
sulfde
values were precipitated from an SO
2
-rich magmatic
fuid. Specifcally, aqueous inorganic sulfate reduction involv-
ing the interaction of the fuid with ferrous iron-bearing min-
erals (e.g., clinopyroxene, magnetite) could have changed the
bulk
34
S
fuid
value and also resulted in widespread hematite
(red rock) alteration. Fluid mixing on the deposit periphery
8
4
0
- 4
-8
-12
0.703 0.705 0.707 0.709 0.711
MORB
O
I
B
Banda
L
e
s
s
e
r

A
n
t
i
l
l
e
s
Izu-Honshu
Marianas, New Britain
S
u
n
d
a
Apatite (NEZ, Mt. Polley)
Apatite (Lorraine)
Diopside (Lorraine)
Quesnellia and Stikinia
Silica-undersaturated alkalic intrusions
Nd
87
Sr/
86
Sr
initial
Fig. 16. Plot of Nd vs.

87
Sr/
86
Srinitial for stage 2 hydrothermal minerals and
intrusive rocks related to alkalic porphyry mineralization in British Columbia.
The Nd values are consistent with a depleted mantle source; however, Nd is
the least sensitive to crustal contamination and small amounts of recycled
crust mixed with large amounts of mantle component become isotopically
invisible. Fields of modern oceanic magmatic provinces after Arculus and
Powell (1986). Lorraine apatite and diopside data from Bath (2010). Meso-
zoic silica-undersaturated alkalic intrusions in British Columbia (Nd 47,
87
Sr/
86
Sr < 0.704) from Cassidy et al. (1995). Quesnellia and Stikinia saturated
and undersaturated alkalic igneous complexes (Nd 2.77.9,
87
Sr/
86
Sr 0.7033
0.0003) from Lang et al. (1995a). Figure modifed from Cooke et al. (2007).
NEZ = Northeast ore zone.
could also change the S isotope systematics (Wilson et al.,
2007). However, the presence of widespread hematite-dusted
K-feldspar throughout the Northeast ore zone and epi-
dote alteration on the deposit periphery support a model of
inorganic sulfate reduction during partial alteration of ferrous
iron-bearing minerals to hematite and epidote.
Samples of stage 3 chalcopyrite, bornite, and pyrite from the
Northeast ore zone long section had slightly higher
34
S val-
ues than stage 2 sulfdes (compare Fig. 10A and B). This may
indicate a shift toward less oxidizing conditions or increased
water-rock interaction with time.
The
34
S
sulfde
isotope zonation patterns observed on the long
section of the Northeast ore zone are not symmetrical com-
pared to those documented from section 18 (Deyell and Tosdal,
2005). This is most likely due to disruption of isotopic zonation
patterns on the long section by faulting and dike emplacement.
Overall, the
34
S values from sulfdes of the Northeast ore
zone are generally lower than those obtained from the Core
zone of Mount Polley (2.3+2.4; average 0.2; Fig. 2B;
Deyell and Tosdal, 2005). This may refect more oxidizing
conditions of mineralization in the Northeast ore zone com-
pared to the Core zone (Fig. 2B).
Carbon and oxygen isotope compositions
Previous whole-rock isotopic studies of hydrothermal sys-
tems have shown that a zone of depleted
18
O can refect
hydrothermal fuid pathways and zones of fuid mixing or
water-rock interaction (e.g., Taylor, 1971; Lynch et al., 1990;
Taylor and Holk, 2002). The observed decrease of
18
O val-
ues for stage 2 carbonates proximal to major faults in the
Northeast ore zone (Fig. 13A) implies either that the faults
were fuid conduits during main-stage mineralization or that
the isotopic compositions of carbonates were at least partially
reset during postmineralization faulting. The disruption of
metal zoning patterns by the faults (Figs. 6, 13) favors the lat-
ter interpretation.
High-grade Cu-Au-Ag mineralization in the Northeast ore
zone is associated with domains of
13
C depletion in stage 2
carbonates (Fig. 13B). The C isotope compositions of carbon-
ates are typically less strongly infuenced by isotopic exchange
with late-stage hydrothermal fuids than the corresponding
O isotope compositions (Davidson, 1997). In contrast to the
18
O isotope contours, the
13
C contours do not appear to
relate to fuid fow along the major faults (compare Fig. 13A
and B), which suggests that the
13
C data may better preserve
Northeast ore zone isotopic zonation. Together, the
18
O and
13
C zonation patterns suggest that the two largest areas of
mineralization in the Northeast ore zone may not have been
a contiguous body.
Fluid compositions
Isotopic compositions of the fuids that precipitated calcite
can be calculated using the calcite-H
2
O equilibrium equation
from Friedman and ONeil (1977, after ONeil et al., 1969)
for
18
O, and calcite-CO
2
from Ohmoto and Rye (1979, after
Bottinga, 1969) for
13
C, provided an independent temper-
ature estimate is available. Porphyry deposits are formed by
hydrothermal fuids, typically in the range of 600 to 300C
(Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980), with lower temperatures typ-
ical of late-stage hydrothermal activity. For the purpose of
C-O isotope modeling, the following temperatures have been
assumed: 550 to 450C (stage 2), 400 to 300C (stage 3),
and 250 to 200C (stage 4). These conservative temperature
estimates are required because it is not possible to constrain
temperatures of formation using fuid inclusion analyses
due to a lack of suitable material for analysis at Mount Pol-
ley. Alteration mineralogy and sulfde S isotope pairs provide
the only temperature constraints for mineralization (476
257C). Based on the assumed temperature ranges and the
measured isotopic compositions of calcite, the ranges of fuid
compositions are estimated to be 6.9 to +2.6 (
13
C) and 9.2
to 19.5 (
18
O) for stage 2, 3.0 to +1.7 (
13
C) and 8.1 to 13.3
(
18
O) for stage 3, and 10.3 to +0.4 (
13
C) and 5.6 to +13.6
(
18
O) for stage 4. These results partially overlap with mag-
matic
18
O
fuid
values, but mostly do not overlap with magmatic
13
C
fuid
values (Fig. 17), implying that more than one source
of C and O was involved in mineralization at Mount Polley.
Many of the calculated fuid
18
O
fuid
values for Mount Pol-
ley carbonates are extremely heavy (>10; Fig. 17). Such
heavy
18
O
fuid
values are rarely seen in hydrothermal ore
deposits apart from sediment-hosted massive sulfde deposits
(e.g., Large et al., 2001). These heavy values may be a product
of a low-T basinal brine, an incorrect choice of temperature
for calculation of fuid values for stage 2, a shift caused by
sulfate substitution into carbonate (Takano, 1985) or, possibly,
18
O resetting by a lower-temperature overprint. The latter
two options are considered to be the most likely.
The vertical spread in
13
C data may suggest that redox
changeseither the oxidation of CH
4
or the reduction of
CO
2
played an important role in the Northeast ore zone
(Fig. 17). If the CO
2
reservoir had a typical magmatic
13
C
value of 5 to 8 (Taylor, 1986), then all of the
13
C
Carbonate

values greater than 5 (i.e., most of the data) could refect
reduction of CO
2
to CH
4
somewhere in the system (Ohmoto,
1972). However, reduction of CO
2
would require a signifcant
quantity of reductant to be available at the site of precipitation,
which is inconsistent with the presence of widespread hema-
tite alteration throughout the mineralized intrusive complex
and the lack of pyrrhotite, graphite, or other signifcant reduc-
tants. Another mechanism is required to explain the high
13
C
values.
The
13
C
calcite
and
18
O
calcite
data from the Northeast ore zone
do not plot on simple cooling curves for calcite precipitated
from a mantle-derived magmatic-hydrothermal fuid (Fig. 17).
The anomalously high
13
C
calcite
values suggest that the miner-
alizing fuid must have interacted with a
13
C-enriched source
in order to shift
13
C values by up to approximately 5 (Fig.
17). Such interaction could have occurred if mineralizing fu-
ids interacted with lenses of limestone in the Nicola Group
volcanic rocks near the site of mineralization, or secondary
carbonate-bearing altered basalts of the Nicola Group (Bissig
et al., 2011). Alternatively, the Mount Polley igneous complex
may have undergone partial isotopic exchange, either by fuid-
rock interaction or by magmatic assimilation of the volcanic arc
and carbonate platform succession of the Harper Ranch sub-
terrane, units that underlie the Nicola Group (Monger, 1977).
Calcite precipitation processes
Calcite cannot precipitate simply by cooling of a hydrother-
mal fuid as it has retrograde solubility (Reed and Spycher,
880 PASS ET AL.
seawater
magmatic
fluids
A
l
b
a
n

H
i
l
l
s

1
3
C
C
O
2

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s
seawater
magmatic
fluids
M
t
.

V
e
s
u
v
i
u
s

1
3
C
C
O
2

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s
range of primary calcite
values from Hortavaer
igneous complex
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
1
3
C
P
D
B

(
)
Stage 2 (mineral value)
Ouline of fluid values
stage 2: 550C
stage 3: 400C
Outline of fluid values
stage 2: 450C
stage 3: 300C
Marble clast
Regional limestone
L. Triassic limestone
Average magmatic fluid
Modeled magmatic
signature for NEZ
Magmatic hydrothernal
cooling curve
Modeled cooling curve
for NEZ
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
18
O
SMOW
()
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
1
3
C
P
D
B

(
)
stage 4: 250C
Regional limestone
L. Triassic limestone
Stages 2 and 3
Stage 4
100C
450C
B
A
modeled fluid
from most
assimilated melt
Magmatic hydrothermal
cooling curve
Marble clast
Regional limestone
at 400C (stage 3) and
at 550C (stage 2)
at 300C (stage 3) and
at 450C (stage 2)
Modeled magmatic
signature for NEZ
Modeled cooling curve
for NEZ
Regional limestone
at 250C (stage 4)
A
B
Fig. 17. Plots of
13
CPDB vs.
18
OSMOW mineral data for stages 2, 3, and 4 from the Northeast ore zone (NEZ) as well as
regional limestone samples. (A) Overall, the
13
Cmineral values are enriched and are not consistent with simple precipitation
from a typical magmatic fuid (), as values would be expected to cluster around the magmatic equilibrium fractionation
cooling curve (solid black line with solid diamonds in A). Simple fractionation modeling of
13
C presents a what-if scenario
to approximate a
13
C isotope value of magmatic fuid responsible for the values observed in the Northeast ore zone data set.
A typical magmatic
13
C value () was increased by 5 to produce a modeled
13
C value of 1 () to capture most of the
data (modeled cooling curve: stippled black line with open diamonds in A). It is assumed that the C source has the dominant
vertical shift effect on fuid values while the effect of different temperatures on fuid values is illustrated by the outlined
areas in (A) and (B). Correction of stage 2 mineral values to 550C and stage 3 values to 400C shifts values to higher
13
C
with little effect on
18
O (area outlined by short black dashes in A). Correction of stage 2 values to 450C and stage 3 values
to 300 shifts values to higher
13
C and lower
18
O (area outlined by long black dashes in A). Correction of stage 4 mineral
values (B) to 250C shifts values to more depleted
18
O with a limited effect on
13
C (area outlined by short black dashes in
B). The range of magmatic values determined from the isotopic study of primary magmatic water, carbonatites, kimberlites,
and diamonds is outlined in the black box (
18
O 5 to 10,
13
C 5 to 10; Ohmoto, 1972, 1986; Taylor, 1974, 1979). Also
shown are isotopic values of volcanic emissions from Mount Vesuvius (Italy; Chiodini et al., 2001), Alban Hills (Italy; Chiodini
and Frondini, 2001), and primary calcite data from the Hortavaer igneous complex (Norway; Barnes et al., 2005), both areas
of known or inferred limestone assimilation. See text for discussion.
1985; Zheng and Hoefs, 1993). Calcite deposition can be
achieved either by boiling, which combines cooling with CO
2

degassing and pH increase, fuid mixing between CO
2
-rich
and Ca-rich hydrothermal fuids, water-rock interaction, or
heating (Holland and Malinin, 1979; Reed and Spycher, 1985;
Zheng and Hoefs, 1993).
Boiling is known to drive C and O isotopes toward heavier
values (Zheng, 1990), consistent with the Mount Polley C and
O isotope data set. Boiling may therefore have caused carbon-
ate precipitation in the Northeast ore zone. Bladed carbonates
are considered to be a favorable indicator of boiling in epi-
thermal systems, based on observations of their occurrences
from boiling zones in modern geothermal systems (Simmons
and Christenson, 1994). Bladed calcite occurs in stage 5 veins
from the Northeast ore zone, providing empirical evidence
for postbrecciation boiling at Mount Polley. The presence of
bladed stage 2 anhydrite crystals may be evidence for boiling
during main-stage mineralization. Bladed anhydrite has been
documented from young porphyry-related epithermal depos-
its where boiling is known to have occurred (e.g., Acupan,
Philippines: Cooke and Bloom, 1990; Cooke and McPhail,
2001; Lihir, PNG: Carman, 1994, 2003), adding support to
this hypothesis.
Under oxidizing, carbonate-stable conditions, the fraction-
ation of
13
C is redox independent but strongly pH dependent.
Specifcally, it is controlled by isotopic exchange between
aqueous carbonate species (i.e., H
2
CO
3
, HCO
3
; Ohmoto,
1972). The paucity of clay minerals (e.g., illite, kaolinite, pyro-
phyllite) and the abundance of secondary garnet, K-feldspar,
pyroxene, actinolite, and calcite in the Northeast ore zone
imply that pH conditions in the Northeast ore zone were near-
neutral to alkaline. Chemical reactions involving the aqueous
carbonate system (H
2
CO
3
, HCO
3
, CO
3
2
) may therefore have
strongly affected the
13
C compositions of carbonates in the
Northeast ore zone.
Enriched
18
O
fuid
values calculated for calcite from stages
2 and 3 discount the possibility of mixing with meteoric water
or seawater as important mechanisms for calcite precipita-
tion, because meteoric water typically has negative
18
O val-
ues and seawater has a value of 0 (Campbell and Larson,
1998). Mixing with either water type would therefore cause
18
O depletion. The
18
O data from stage 4 calcite is, however,
permissive of a component of mixing with an
18
O-depleted
fuid such as meteoric water or seawater (Fig. 17).
Very few processes can enrich
18
O
calcite
values as observed
in the Northeast ore zone other than Rayleigh fractionation
during open-system degassing or limestone-fuid interaction.
Rayleigh fractionation during open-system degassing can
occur in a system where CO
2
concentrations exceed H
2
O.
Under such conditions, signifcant
16
O-
18
O fractionation may
occur between H
2
O and CO
2
, with
18
O preferentially incor-
porated into CO
2
(Richet et al., 1977; Reed, 1997). There
is little or no evidence for carbonic fuids in the Northeast
ore zone other than the weak, pervasive carbonate altera-
tion. In contrast, there is abundant evidence for hydrous fuid
involvement throughout the Northeast ore zone paragen-
esis, with secondary hydrous minerals abundant in the veins,
altered rocks, and breccias. Water-rock interaction therefore
remains as the most likely process to account for the mea-
sured
18
O
calcite
values in the Northeast ore zone.
Carbon-oxygen isotope modeling
Because water-rock interaction can strongly infuence the
isotopic compositions of secondary carbonate minerals (Sver-
jensky, 1981; Shelton, 1983; Kitto, 1994), the effects of water-
rock interaction have been modeled to test whether it can
explain the array of C and O isotope data obtained from the
Northeast ore zone, using the techniques of Sverjensky (1981)
and Shelton (1983). Using two isotopic end-member compo-
sitions, mixing lines can be plotted on a
18
O vs.
13
C plot.
The shapes of the mixing lines will vary both as a function of
temperature and the mole fraction of carbonic acid (H
2
CO
3
)
in the fuid (e.g., Fig. 18), and can be used to interpret the
extent of mixing in a closed or open system, the temperature
of isotopic exchange, and the CO
2
concentration of the min-
eralizing fuid (Sverjensky, 1981; Shelton, 1983; Kitto, 1994).
The two end-member components used here to model
water-rock interaction are a magmatic-hydrothermal fuid
with an assumed composition of
13
C
fuid
= 6

and
18
O
fuid

= 5.7 and a Late Triassic marine carbonate (
13
C 1.8,
18
O 29.0; Veizer et al., 1999; Fig. 18). The Triassic carbon-
ate has been used as a proxy for unaltered limestone, which
could not be obtained from within the Mount Polley Com-
plex. H
2
CO
3
is assumed to have been the dominant C-bearing
species, and
13
C
H
2
CO
3

13
C
CO
2

13
C
fuid
(e.g., Ohmoto,
1986). Calculations were completed for magmatic fuid with
H
2
CO
3
mole fractions (X) from 0.1 to 0.01 molal (as in Kitto,
1994) using the equations of Shelton (1983, after Sverjensky,
1981), and
13
C
calcite-CO
2
and
18
O
calcite-H
2
O
values were calcu-
lated at the temperatures shown in Figure 18.
Three mixing lines were calculated that illustrate the iso-
topic compositions of carbonate produced by interaction of
magmatic-hydrothermal fuid with marine carbonate under
conditions of increasing X
H
2
CO
3
(0.01, 0.05, and 0.1) at 450C
(Fig. 18). Another three mixing lines at constant X
H
2
CO
3

(=
0.1) model the effects of decreasing temperatures (350, 250,
and 100C).
Figure 18 shows how varying X
H
2
CO
3

during water-rock
interaction at a constant temperature primarily causes an
increase in
13
C
calcite
values relative to the hydrothermal fuid,
whereas decreasing temperature causes
18
O
calcite
values to
increase markedly relative to
13
C
calcite
. Hydrothermal car-
bonates that precipitated directly from the magmatic fuid at
a range of temperatures without signifcant isotopic (and in
this case water-rock) interaction would plot on the magmatic
hydrothermal carbonate cooling curve (Fig. 18).
The modeling results show that fuid-rock (or melt-rock)
interaction between magmatic-hydrothermal fuids and lime-
stone could explain the elevated
13
C values of carbonate
gangue from the Northeast ore zone if enough limestone was
available. A decrease in temperature could explain the ele-
vated
18
O
calcite
values. The array of isotopic data for stage 2
and 3 carbonate samples plots between the end-member fuid
and rock compositions (Fig. 18). The regional limestone sam-
ples from the Mount Polley area are depleted in
18
O relative
to average Triassic limestone, possibly due to low-temper-
ature alteration (Fig. 18).
The amount of limestone that the Mount Polley mag-
mas and/or mineralizing fuids may have interacted with is
unknown. Limestone does not crop out in the Mount Polley
882 PASS ET AL.
Complex, but restricted intervals of altered limestone have
been observed as xenoliths, in addition to the large marble
clast observed in the Northeast ore zone breccia complex.
The limestone xenoliths are interpreted to be equivalent in
stratigraphic age and position to the Norian limestone units
of the Nicola Group by Imperial Metals geologists. Three
spatially restricted exposures of limestone are known to occur
within the region surrounding the Mount Polley Complex
(LSLikely, 7 km north-northwest; LSMorehead, 11 km
north-northwest; Fig. 2A).
Lead isotope compositions
The Pb isotope compositions of stage 2 pyrite and chal-
copyrite are similar to stage 3 galena (Fig. 14). Stage 2 and
4 anhydrite samples are more radiogenic than the stage 2
and 3 sulfdes (Fig. 14). The heterogeneous data set implies
that either (1) the Pb isotope composition of the mineraliz-
ing fuids changed with time or (2) there was more than one
source of Pb. The Northeast ore zone samples plot above
the mantle growth curve of Zartman and Doe (1981) and
below the bulk Earth growth curve of Stacey and Kramers
(1975) or orogene growth curve of Zartman and Doe (1981)
on Figure 14. This implies that Pb in the Northeast ore zone
was derived from a mixture of mantle and crustal sources.
An actual constraint on the Pb isotope signature of alkalic
intrusive rocks may be provided by our data for the Bootjack
stock pseudoleucite. After age correction, this composition
plots very close to the Mount Polley sulfdes (Fig. 14B). The
large marble clast from the Northeast ore zone breccia has
low U/Pb and Th/Pb, and initial Pb ratios similar to the stage
2 and 3 sulfde signature. If this clast is derived from Triassic
limestone, then it has been isotopically reset by the hydro-
thermal system.
Figure 14C compares Northeast ore zone Pb isotope data
with data from other alkalic deposits from Quesnellia
Lorraine (178.8176.5 Ma; Bath et al., 2014) and Copper
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
18
O
SMOW
()
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
1
3
C
P
D
B

(
)
Limestone
450C 400C
350C
300C
250C
100C
150C
10
2.4
1
0.7
2
1.1
5
1.8
50
3.9
100 4.6
500
6.2
C
l
o
s
e
d

s
y
s
t
e
m
O
p
e
n

s
y
s
t
e
m
X
H2CO3
= 0.01
X
H2CO3
= 0.05
X
H2CO3
= 0.1
M
a
g
m
a
tic
h
y
d
r
o
th
e
r
m
a
l c
a
r
b
o
n
a
te
200C
Pennsylvanian marine carbonate
Triassic/Jurassic
marine carbonate
Stage 2
Stage 3
Meta. limestone clast
Regional limestone
(n=9)
Average L. Triassic
limestone
1
Marble clast
B A
0
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
-6
1
1
3
C

f
l
u
i
d

(
)
87/86
Sr
initial
fluid
0
.
7
0
3
0
.
7
0
4
0
.
7
0
5
0
.
7
0
6
0
.
7
0
7
0
.
7
0
8
0
.
7
0
9
2
P
=
0
.
0
5
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
5
1
.
0
5
1
0
2
0
2
0.7035 B
A
Fig. 18. Modeling of magmatic fuid and limestone interaction. (A)
13
CPDB vs.
18
OSMOW plot for Northeast ore zone
stage 2 and stage 3 carbonates mineral values. Calculated curves from 450 to 150C for fuid-rock interaction encompass
the feld of isotopic data and provide a viable option to explain the shift to lighter
13
C isotope values for stages 2 and 3.
Superimposed on this diagram are an average magmatic fuid (), a carbonate equilibrium cooling curve (thick solid line) for
that magmatic fuid, a stippled line connecting these two features, values for regional limestone sampled near Mount Polley,
isothermal mixing curves for specifed X
H2CO3
(thin solid lines) for open and closed systems, and mixing curves at X
H2CO3
=
0.1 (thin dashed lines) for specifed temperatures, based on Shelton (1983) after Sverjensky (1981). An average Late Triassic
limestone value from Veizer et al. (1999) was used as the original starting material as interbedded limestone stratigraphically
underlies the host rocks to Mount Polley. Values for marine carbonate at the time of arc emergence (Pennsylvanian) and at
the time of deposit formation (Triassic-Jurassic) are also outlined from Veizer et al. (1999). (B) Fluid composition curves for
the mixing of two fuids in
13
C vs.
87/86
Srinitial space. Fluid A (e.g., from Triassic/Jurassic limestone) has
13
CPDB = 2 (similar to
A) and
87/86
Srinitial = 0.7090 (conservative estimate of Carboniferous-Jurassic seawater; Fig. 15). Fluid B (e.g., magmatic) has
13
CPDB = 6 and
87/86
Srinitial = 0.7033 (Quesnellia; Fig. 15; Lang et al., 1995a). P is the concentration ratio of total dissolved
carbon in fuid B to fuid A. The work of Iacono-Marziano et al. (2007, 2008) has shown that as little as 2 to 3 wt % carbonate
(0.240.36% C) assimilation can affect the magmatic system dramatically. These mixing curves suggest that a small shift in
87/86
Srinitial from 0.7033 to 0.7035 (data from this study) could coincide with a signifcant enrichment in
13
C, as observed in
this study. Figure modifed from Zheng and Hoefs (1993).
Mountain (204 6200.3 2.1 Ma, Fig. 1; Mortensen et al.,
1995). Resolvable differences in the data set are apparent;
however, most data from these two deposits coincide with the
feld of Triassic intrusive rocks of Quesnellia (Breitsprecher
et al., 2008). Copper Mountain galenas have slightly lower
206
Pb/
204
Pb than the Mount Polley sulfdes, although some
Northeast ore zone samples overlap with Copper Mountain,
suggesting similar Pb sources and/or processes. Lead isotope
results for Copper Mountain pyrite, chalcopyrite, and K-feld-
spar show a much greater range (
206
Pb/
204
Pb to ~20.8; Fig.
14C) and clearly contain an uncorrected radiogenic compo-
nent. Galena from Lorraine defnes a steep array closer to
the Zartman and Doe (1981) upper crustal growth curve. The
Lorraine data are notably more radiogenic than Mount Pol-
ley and Copper Mountain. This may relate, at least in part, to
Lorraine forming ~20 m.y. after Mount Polley, when tectonic
amalgamation of the Quesnellia arc to the North American
craton occurred (Nokleberg et al., 2000), possibly allowing for
more crustal Pb input into that system.
The clustering of isotopic Pb data from British Columbia
alkalic deposits around 0 Ma (Fig. 14) instead of the age of
formation (~205 Ma; Mortensen et al., 1995; Logan et al.,
2007) indicates that Pb was extracted from a reservoir charac-
terized by a long-term (at least Phanerozoic) high U/Pb source
at some point in its evolution, compared to the orogen or
bulk Earth models of Zartman and Doe (1981) or Stacey and
Kramers (1975), respectively. Comparing this data set to that
of the modern geologic environments of Zartman and Doe
(1981), the Northeast ore zone data plot within the mature
arc feld. This Pb isotope composition is typical of arcs built on
continental-derived crust or subduction of pelitic sediments
and assimilation into slab melts (Zartman and Doe, 1981).
This interpretation is supported by results from a study of
alkalic plutons in the Quesnellia and Stikinia terranes (Aver-
ill, Mount Polley, Whiterocks Mountain, Zippa Mountain), in
which U-Pb ages on xenocrystic zircons indicate a minor older
crustal component for some of these plutons (Cassidy et al.,
1995).
The stage 5 carbonate veins have higher age-corrected
206
Pb/
204
Pb values than do the stage 2 and 3 sulfdes (Fig. 14).
Two explanations are available. One is that they refect mixing
of the porphyry-derived Pb with Pb from a source character-
ized by more radiogenic
206
Pb/
204
Pb values. Evidence for such
a source is not known, but it cannot be excluded. Alternatively,
and more likely, the stage 5 carbonate veins plot on a time-
integrated Pb growth curve that passes through the sulfdes
(Fig. 14). This relationship suggests the potential for extrac-
tion of the carbonate Pb from an evolving reservoir. If this is
true, then formation of the stage 5 veins could be as much
as ~100 m.y. younger than stage 2 and 3 sulfdes (Appendix
F). The bladed textures and presence of chalcedony in stage
5 veins are consistent with epithermal conditions. The com-
bination of epithermal textures, minerals, and signifcantly
evolved Pb isotope compositions implies that an epithermal
system overprinted the Northeast ore zone ~100 m.y. after
breccia formation. This is consistent with an interpreted local
130.7 1.0 Ma thermal overprint in the Northeast ore zone
(Logan et al., 2007) as well as 130 Ma lamprophyre dikes
that crosscut Nicola Group rocks east of Kamloops, British
Columbia (Mortimer et al., 1990; Fig. 1).
Strontium and neodymium isotope compositions
The Northeast ore zone gangue minerals have low initial
Sr ratios, consistent with a predominance of mantle-derived
Sr and, by inference, calcium, sodium, and potassium (e.g.,
Kesler et al., 1975; Sillitoe, 1987; Fig. 15). All of the initial Sr
ratios for the Northeast ore zone gangue minerals are higher
than the average value estimated for Quesnellia and Stikinia
(Lang et al., 1995a) and lower than gangue minerals from
Lorraine, Mount Milligan, and the alkalic porphyry deposits
of New South Wales (Fig. 15; Cooke et al., 2007; Jago, 2008;
Bath, 2010). This implies that the Northeast ore zone gangue
minerals contain a predominance of mantle-derived Sr, with
a minor component of crustal contamination. The amount of
crustal contamination was less for the Northeast ore zone than
for the other alkalic porphyry deposits shown on Figure 15.
Initial Sr ratios for the Northeast ore zone gangue miner-
als are mostly well constrained between 0.70331 and 0.70353.
The limited variation in Sr ratios indicates that the fuid
sources and fuid fow remained confned within the same
rock types throughout stage 2. One stage 2 garnet and one
stage 3 anhydrite sample have slightly higher initial Sr ratios,
possibly indicating a greater component of crustally derived Sr
(Fig. 15, Appendix G). The marble clast from the Northeast
ore zone breccia has initial Sr ratios comparable to the North-
east ore zone gangue, implying complete isotopic resetting of
the limestone protolith. The regional limestone samples con-
tain more radiogenic Sr than the Northeast ore zone gangue
minerals, but one sample has a low initial Sr ratio (<0.7065)
compared to Phanerozoic marine limestones (~0.70670.709;
Veizer et al., 1999), implying that it has been altered.
The proportions of mantle-derived and crustally derived Sr
have been estimated for the Northeast ore zone gangue min-
erals (Appendix G). The initial Sr ratio of 0.7033 estimated
for Quesnellia and Stikinia (Lang et al., 1995a) is assumed to
be the most primitive composition possible for Mount Polley
(i.e., 100% magmatic). Seawater can be taken as the crustal
end-member (i.e., 100% seawater-derived Sr). Calculations
were done with two different intial Sr values: (1) 0.70775
(Veizer et al., 1999) at the time of mineralization in the North-
east ore zone and (2) 0.70824 (Veizer et al., 1999) at the ini-
tiation of the Quesnellia arc (320285 Ma; Nokleberg et al.,
2000, 2005). The hydrothermal mineral compositions from
the Northeast ore zone fall between these end-members and
indicate that, while Northeast ore zone minerals show a clear
mantle-derived initial Sr signature, there is evidence for a lim-
ited contribution of crustal Sr. The calculations suggest that
magmatically derived Sr in the Northeast ore zone minerals
constituted between 99.9 (pyrite) and 89.4% (anhydrite) of
the total Sr (Appendix G).
Figure 16 compares the initial ratios of
143
Nd/
144
Nd,
expressed as
Nd
, and initial Sr ratios for Mount Polley apatite
to selected modern oceanic magmatic provinces and to Tri-
assic-Jurassic alkalic systems from British Columbia. On this
diagram, crustal rocks will have negative
Nd
values whereas
mantle-derived rocks will have positive
Nd
values (Arculus
and Powell, 1986; Rollinson, 1993). Apatite from the North-
east ore zone has
Nd
values consistent with a depleted mantle
source, as do the other rocks from British Columbia and apa-
tite and diopside from Lorraine (Bath, 2010). It is important
884 PASS ET AL.
to note that, of the radiogenic isotopes, Nd is the least sensi-
tive to crustal contamination and small amounts of recycled
crust mixed with a large mantle component become isotopi-
cally invisible (Taylor et al., 1980; Rollinson, 1993). This dia-
gram therefore cannot be used to identify small degrees of
crustal contamination.
Implications for generation of silica-undersaturated magmas
Silica-undersaturated alkalic igneous rocks are among the
least understood igneous associations (Coulson et al., 1999)
and several mechanisms have been proposed for their for-
mation. Kamenetsky et al. (1995) studied scoria from the
Roman Comagmatic Province in Italy and found that mixing
between different primary magmas with similar potassium
content, produced from a heterogeneous mantle source, cre-
ated highly variable primary melts. Melt inclusion composi-
tions in the scoria were K enriched and silica depleted with 2
to 5 wt % K
2
O, 0.9 to 1.5 wt % Na
2
O, and 45 to 50 wt % SiO
2

(Kamenetsky et al., 1995). Partial melting of moderately alkali
rich quartz eclogite to produce monzonites characterized by
high Na
2
O + K
2
O (near 10 wt % total) with moderate SiO
2

contents of 53 to 63 wt % was proposed by Miller (1978). Most
monzonitic rocks from his study were slightly saturated in sil-
ica, but one pluton included both silica-undersaturated and
silica-saturated units, similar to the Mount Polley Complex.
Limestone assimilation has been experimentally shown to
affect the petrologic evolution of basaltic magmas to produce
silica-undersaturated rocks (Iacono-Marziano et al., 2007,
2008, 2009). Experimental studies used natural hydrated
basalts from Stromboli volcano and were compared with
natural samples from Alban Hills, Italy, a site of extensive
undersaturated intrusions. Results showed that calcite and
dolomite addition to a basaltic magma promoted the crystal-
lization of Ca-rich clinopyroxene at the expense of other mag-
matic phases (e.g., olivine and plagioclase). As a consequence
of massive clinopyroxene crystallization, the residual melt
became strongly silica depleted and nepheline normative.
The Late Triassic, silica-undersaturated Zippa Mountain
pluton (Fig. 1) shows the most complete range of features
characteristic of the silica-undersaturated alkalic igneous com-
plexes in British Columbia and exhibits evidence of carbon-
ate assimilation (Lueck and Russell, 1994; Lang et al., 1995a;
Coulson et al., 1999, 2007), in addition to having low initial
87/86
Sr values (<0.704; Cassidy et al., 1995). Zippa Mountain is
zoned from clinopyroxenite at its margins to a core of megac-
rystic K-feldspar-syenite. Zippa Mountain rocks contain 45 to
60 wt % SiO
2
and are subalkalic to strongly alkalic (Coulson
et al., 1999). The pluton intruded metamorphosed Paleozoic
carbonate units. The accessory calcite that is present in the
syenite may be a primary feature, but Coulson et al. (1999)
argued that evidence exists within the pluton that the cal-
cite could have resulted from the assimilation of the country
rock (i.e., the observation of marble xenoliths with reaction
rims). These authors concluded that generation of peralkaline
syenitic rocks of Zippa Mountain required interaction with
carbonate country rock, in addition to fractional crystallization
and crystal sorting. Furthermore, the interaction between
magma and carbonate forced a larger than typical magmatic
zonation, from alkalic and silica-undersaturated syenitic
magmas to peralkaline compositions (Coulson et al., 1999).
Processes similar to those inferred for Zippa Mountain may
also have occurred in the magma chamber that sourced the
Mount Polley Complex and Bootjack stock. If this hypothesis
is correct, then Zippa Mountain exhibits the characteristics
of a magma chamber that has undergone carbonate assimila-
tion, and Mount Polley represents the higher-level intrusions,
breccias, and mineralization that could emanate from that
type of a modifed, silica-undersaturated magma chamber.
Carbonate assimilation by a shallow magma chamber could
explain the enriched
13
C isotopic values observed in the
Northeast ore zone. Decarbonation is known to produce signif-
icant shifts in
13
C (Brown et al., 1985). The enriched
13
C
fuid

values calculated from this study (4 to +2.5) are similar to
13
C values of gases emitted from vents in the Alban Hills vol-
canic region (3.5 to +0.9; Chiodini and Frondini, 2001) and
Mount Vesuvius (+0.06 to +0.34; Chiodini et al., 2001; Fig.
17). Isotopic analyses of the very high volumes of CO
2
emit-
ted from Alban Hills and Mount Vesuvius provide evidence for
a predominance of CO
2
derived from decarbonation of sedi-
mentary carbonate beneath these volcanic regions (Chiodini
and Frondini, 2001; Iacono-Marziano et al., 2008, 2009). A
carbonate assimilation model was also proposed by Barnes et
al. (2005) at the monzonitic silica-saturated to syenitic silica-
undersaturated Hortavaer igneous complex in Norway based
on mineralogical, isotopic, and igneous composition data. Car-
bon and O isotope values of primary calcite from Hortavaer are
similar to those found in this study (
13
C: 3.97 to +2.94;
18
O: +11.51 to +21.15; Barnes et al., 2005; Fig. 17).
If carbonate assimilation contributed to silica-undersatu-
rated magmatism and the formation of the magmatic-hydro-
thermal breccia of the Northeast ore zone, then this might be
expected to be apparent in the Sr isotope data set. However,
hydrothermal carbonate from the Northeast ore zone and the
marble clast have low initial Sr isotope ratios (Fig. 15) and
modeling of the C and O isotope data suggests water-rock
ratios of 2 to 4. This would seem to preclude the incorpora-
tion of crustal Sr in the evolution of Mount Polley. However,
the ratio of
13
C
magma
:
13
C
limestone
would be expected to become
enriched, while
87/86
Sr
magma
:
87/86
Sr
limestone
would be expected to
remain depleted during the initial idealized mixing of a large
volume of magmatic fuid with smaller amounts of assimilated
limestone (Fig. 18B). Not until a certain volume of limestone
had been assimilated would the
87/86
Sr
magma
:
87/86
Sr
limestone
also
become enriched (Fig. 18B). Iacono-Marziano et al. (2007,
2008) have shown that as little as 2 to 3 wt % carbonate assimi-
lation can affect the magmatic system dramatically. Addition-
ally, shifts in the Sr isotope signature resulting from different
amounts of carbonate assimilation are relatively small for
most Italian volcanoes where carbonate assimilation has been
inferred to occur (Iacono-Marziano et al., 2008, and refer-
ences therein). Specifcally, the initial
87/86
Sr isotope ratio has
only increased by ~0.00025 during the addition of 8 to 9 wt
% calcite to the magma. Although it is noted that initial start-
ing compositions for the Italian volcanoes (0.7067) are much
higher than those of Mount Polley (0.7033), the absolute shift
in the initial
87/86
Sr isotope ratios would be similar (Fig. 15).
Field data are required to resolve this issue, but the hypothe-
sized limestone and precursor igneous rocks are currently not
exposed at Mount Polley. Melt inclusion studies may provide
useful information in future studies.
Magmatic carbonate assimilation liberates large quanti-
ties of CO
2
, which could potentially cause magmatic-hydro-
thermal brecciation. Mafc to intermediate magmas that are
associated with extensive hydrothermal activity, including
magmatic-hydrothermal breccia formation, typically contain
2 to 4 wt % water (Burnham, 1985, 1997). These magmas
also have low CO
2
solubilities, 0.075 to 0.25 wt % at 100 to
300MPa (Kamenetsky et al., 2007; Ganino et al., 2008), and
0.3 to 0.4 wt % at <300 MPa (Blank and Brooker, 1994). Due
to its low solubility in the melt, CO
2
partitions strongly into
the fuid phase, adding a signifcant component of CO
2
par-
tial pressure (Iacono-Marziano et al., 2007, 2009). High gas
concentrations are not sustainable in the shallow crust, and
so the gas will segregate and be expelled from the magma,
generating active hydrothermal systems at shallow depths
(Burnham, 1985; Iacono-Marziano et al., 2007; Menand and
Phillips, 2007). For example, Iacono-Marziano et al. (2008)
suggested that only 9 wt % carbonate assimilation would
liberate a CO
2
-rich fuid (90% CO
2
+ 10% H
2
O), thereby
increasing the volume of the magma by 20% at 200 MPa
and 1,150C. Critical to the carbonate assimilation model
of Barnes et al. (2005) for the Hortavaer igneous complex
was the requirement of an open system such that CO
2
could
escape after reaching critical saturation, and thus allow car-
bonate devolatization to occur over an extended period. The
repeated brecciation events that occurred in the Mount Polley
Complex could be such an escape mechanism. This open-sys-
tem behavior would promote Rayleigh isotopic fractionation
and could help to explain the enriched
18
O
calcite
values from
the Northeast ore zone. There will also be a depth control
on the amount of CO
2
generated by carbonate assimilation,
as the solubility of CO
2
in melts and water is directly pro-
portional to confning pressures and temperatures (Holland
and Malinin, 1979). Adding CO
2
to hydrothermal fuids has
the potential to promote aqueous phase separation at greater
depth and higher temperatures (e.g., Hedenquist and Hen-
ley, 1985), which may have also contributed to brecciation in
the Northeast ore zone.
If carbonate assimilation has played a part in the genesis
of the Mount Polley Complex, then this may have implica-
tions for parental magma composition(s). While the term
assimilation has been used to describe the incorporation of
carbonate into a magma, carbonate is not chemically assimi-
lated (i.e., it does not melt); rather, it decomposes via ther-
mal reaction(s). Limestone decomposition begins at 750 to
~700C (Malik et al., 1985; Kantiranis et al., 2005) with a
theoretical decomposition temperature of 848C (Gilchrist,
1989). Dolomite decomposition initiates at lower tempera-
tures (700550C; Engler et al., 1988; Gunasekaran and
Anbalagan, 2007). Using these temperature values for lime-
stone, dolomite, or a mixture, carbonate decomposition
implies that the parental magma must have been interme-
diate to mafc in composition based on the solidus and liq-
uidus temperatures of various types of magmas (Roberston
and Wyllie, 1971; Lambert and Wyllie, 1972; Mysen and
Boettcher, 1975).
The data presented herein are consistent with the hypoth-
esis that carbonate assimilation occurred during the formation
of the Mount Polley Complex. Carbonate assimilation can
explain the
13
C-
18
O isotope data and calcite precipitation
concurrent with Cu-Au mineralization and, in combination
with crystal fractionation, could have led to the silica-under-
saturated to silica-saturated nature of the magma and an
increase in P
CO
2
that promoted widespread magmatic-hydro-
thermal brecciation.
Genetic Model and Exploration Implications
The Quesnellia arc formed on a carbonate-bearing mar-
ginal basin substrate outboard from ancestral North America.
At approximately 205 Ma, silica-undersaturated to silica-sat-
urated alkalic magmas intruded the substrate and the overly-
ing Nicola Group, forming the Mount Polley Complex and
Bootjack stock (Fig. 19A, B). As magmas ascended through
the sedimentary substrate, they assimilated a component of
wall-rock carbonate. That assimilation caused CO
2
satura-
tion of the magmas, and drove them to silica-undersaturated
compositions through pyroxene crystallization in combina-
tion with crystal fractionation. The CO
2
exsolution helped to
drive magmatic-hydrothermal brecciation in the Mount Pol-
ley Complex (Fig. 19C). Oxidized (sulfate dominant), mag-
matic-hydrothermal fuids precipitated high-grade Cu-Au-Ag
mineralization in intimate association with brecciation, pro-
ducing high-temperature (>400C) breccia cement and
alteration features including K-feldspar-magnetite-garnet-
biotite-actinolite-augite-albite and Cu-Fe sulfdes. Changes
in redox conditions, cooling, and water-rock interaction were
important processes of ore formation and hydrothermal
alteration in the Northeast ore zone. Inorganic sulfate reduc-
tion produced widespread hematite dusting and generated
H
2
S, essential for the processes involved in Cu-Fe sulfde
precipitation, which occurred between ~480 and ~250C.
Several processes may have contributed to the precipitation
of calcite throughout the deposit formation, including boil-
ing, CO
2
degassing, pH increase, and water-rock interaction.
All of these mechanisms are consistent with the Northeast
ore zone data set.
Subsequent to main-stage brecciation, later intrusive activ-
ity produced only minor mineralization and barren veins.
During the waning stages of hydrothermal activity, external
meteoric water or seawater was incorporated into the North-
east ore zone. Telescoping of the epithermal environment
accompanied unroofng of the deposit, up to 100 m.y. after
porphyry formation. Deformation, possibly accompanied by
bulk rotation of the Mount Polley Complex, caused disrup-
tion of the Northeast ore zone and possible resetting of
18
O
isotope compositions of some hydrothermal carbonates (Fig.
19D).
Carbonate assimilation in the magma chamber that fed the
Mount Polley Complex played a key role in producing the
silica-undersaturated magma composition and widespread
magmatic-hydrothermal brecciation. Logan and Mihalynuk
(2014) propose a buoyancy-stalled subduction and slab-tear
model in British Columbia. This could allow large volumes of
carbonate to be subducted and/or involved in the production
of alkalic magmas (i.e., Cloos, 1993; Dominguez et al., 2000;
Gutscher et al., 2000). If carbonate assimilation is involved
in silica-undersaturated magma generation, then arc terranes
built on carbonate-bearing substrates are potentially favor-
able environments for silica-undersaturated alkalic porphyry
Cu-Au deposits.
886 PASS ET AL.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the ongoing intel-
lectual, geological, logistical, and fnancial support of Impe-
rial Metals Corporation. Thank you to everyone who helped
out on site and during feldwork, in particular Linda Bing-
ham, Leif Bjornson, Jacqueline Blackwell, Michelle Brereton,
Brenda Emerson, Natasha Gainer, Patrick McAndless, Steve
Roberston, Tim Stubbley, and Gary Roste. Additional funding
was provided by Amarc Resources Ltd., AngloGold-Ashanti,
u
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n

d
e
p
t
h
(
m
a
x
.

8
-
1
0

k
m
?
2
)
N
i
c
o
l
a

G
r
o
u
p
(
u
p

t
o

9

k
m

t
h
i
c
k
1
)
hemipelagic argillite, siltstone, to tuffaceous sediments
pre Mid-Triassic basement
?
magma chamber
?
u
n
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
(
m
a
x
.

8
-
1
0

????????
b
Harper Ranch limestone (?)
sulfur and metals
SO
4
-2

CO
2
A Quesnellia arc, pre Mount Polley Complex B Early Mount Polley Complex
C Brecciation and mineralization D Late arc tectonics, cover, erosion and faulting
sulfur and metals
SO
4
-2

CO
2
NEZ
vapor-rich
megacrystic
K-feldspar-phyric
porphyry
xenoliths
hematite
halo
pyroxenite
multi-phase
diorite to
monzonite
fault
1
Maximum thickness of Nicola Group from Panteleyev et al. (1996).
2
Magma chamber adapted from Iacono-Marziano et al. (2009).
Fig. 19. Conceptual genetic model for the Mount Polley Complex. (A) Pre-Mount Polley Complex: basaltic to inter-
mediate volcanic rocks intercalated with limestone lenses of the Nicola Group (Quesnellia) overlie a sedimentary carbon-
ate-bearing substrate. Depth of magma chamber is uncertain and has been placed at an estimated maximum depth as in
Iacono-Marziano et al. (2009). (B) Early Mount Polley Complex: intrusion of pyroxenite and multiple diorite bodies of the
Mount Polley Complex. Hydrothermal circulation is established with fuids from the intrusions interacting with regional wall
rock, including limestone. In the magma chamber, carbonate assimilation produces a CO2 vapor-rich hydrous melt. The CO2
partial pressure within the magma chamber increases. (C) The Mount Polley Complex is composed of silica-undersaturated
to silica-saturated dioritic to monzonitic ( porphyritic) intrusions with widespread hematite dusting and carbonate alteration.
Nicola Group xenoliths have been entrained in the Mount Polley Complex. Magmatic-hydrothermal brecciation is triggered
by intrusion of a silica-undersaturated megacrystic K-feldspar-phyric monzonite. Breccia cementation with cores of potas-
sic calc-potassic alteration surrounded by propylitic alteration halos follows. Sulfde mineralization is deposited as breccia
cement as a result of inorganic sulfate reduction and cooling during water-rock interaction. (D) Postbrecciation intrusions cut
the Mount Polley Complex and a cover sequence is deposited. Obduction of Quesnellia onto the margin of ancestral North
America and orogenesis during the latest stages of arc evolution cause the Mount Polley Complex to be uplifted, folded, and
faulted. Subsequent erosion removed a signifcant portion of the Mount Polley Complex.
Barrick Gold Corp., Lysander Minerals Corp., Newcrest Min-
ing Ltd., Newmont Mining Corp., NovaGold Resources Inc.,
Teck Ltd., NSERC Collaborative Research and Development
program, Geoscience British Columbia, and CODES. The
senior author was the recipient of Geoscience British Columbia
and SEG student grants, which are gratefully acknowledged.
We thank the alkalic research team members, especially
Thomas Bissig, Claire Chamberlain, Kirstie Simpson, Dick
Tosdal, Jacqueline Blackwell, Kevin Byrne, Amber Henry,
Meghan Jackson, Paul Jago, Janina Micko, and Woijtek
Zukowski. Christine Cook (UTas), Keith Harris (UTas), and
Janet Gabites (UBC) are thanked for generating stable iso-
topic data. Karin Orth (UTas) and Natalee Bonnici (UTas)
are thanked for assistance with several analytical techniques.
Sebastian Meffre (UTas) is thanked for discussing the Pb iso-
tope data. Jeff Foster (UTas) is thanked for assistance with
contouring data. Simon Stephens (UTas) is thanked for pol-
ished slab and thin section preparation. June Pongratz (UTas),
Paul George, and Keith Dobson (UTas) are thanked for their
assistance with graphics, design, and printing. This manu-
script benefted considerably from the detailed and insightful
reviews of Dr. James Lang and Dr. John Walshe.
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