Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
University of Technology




Chemical Engineering Department



PROJECT
Fourth Year


By
Dr. Riyadh Sadeq Al Muktar




Reference

1. Sinnott R. and Towler C; 2009 " chemical Engineering Design"
5
th
edition Butterworth-Heinemann
2. Coke,A.K ;2007"Ludwig s Applied Process Design of Chemical
and petrochemical Plant" vol. 1 4
th
edition Gulf professional
Publisher
3. Branan C. 2005 " rules of Thumbs for Chemical
Engi neer s" 4
t h
edi t i on Gul f professional
Publisher
4. Couper ,J.;Penny, W R ;Fair J and Walas 2010
"Chemical Process Equipment" 2
nd
edition
5. Peters,M; timmerhause k.D;and West R. 2003 "
plant Design and economics for Chemical
Engineers '5
th
edition McGraw-Hill
6. Perry R and Green D; 1997 " Perry s Chemical
Engineers Handbook " 7
th
edition MaGraw hill











Design Information and Data

Information on manufacturing processes, equipment parameters, materials of
construction, costs and the physical properties of process materials are
needed at all stages of design; from the initial screening of possible
processes, to the plant start-up and production

When a project is largely a repeat of a previous project, the data and
information required for the design will be available in the Company's
process files, if proper detailed records are kept. For a new project or
process, the design data will have to be obtained from the literature, or by
experiment (research laboratory and pilot plant), or purchased from other
companies. The information on manufacturing processes available in the
general literature can be of use in the initial stages of process design, for
screening potential process; but is usually mainly descriptive, and too
superficial to be of much use for detailed design and evaluation.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The chemical process industries are competitive, and the information that is
published on commercial processes is restricted. The articles on particular
processes published in the technical literature and in textbooks invariably
give only a superficial account of the chemistry and unit operations used.
They lack the detailed information needed on reaction kinetics, process
conditions, equipment parameters, and physical properties needed for
process design. The information that can be found in the general literature is,
however, useful in the early stages of a project, when searching for possible
process routes. It is often sufficient for a flow-sheet of the process to be
drawn up and a rough estimate of the capital and production costs made.
The most comprehensive collection of information on manufacturing
processes is probably the Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology edited by
Kirk and Othmer (1978, 1991 If), which covers the whole range of chemical
and associated products. Another encyclopedia covering manufacturing
processes is that edited by McKetta (1977). Several books have also been
published which give brief summaries of the production processes used for
the commercial chemicals and chemical products. The most well known of
these is probably Shreve's book on the chemical process industries, now
updated by Austin, Austin (1984). Others worth consulting are those by
Faith et al, (1965), Groggins (1958),
Stephenson (1966) and Weissermal and Arpe (1978). Cornyns (1993) lists
named chemical manufacturing processes, with references. The extensive
German reference work on industrial processes, Ullman's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Technology, is now available in an English translation, Ullman
(1984). Specialised texts have been published on some of the more
important bulk industrial chemicals, such as that by Miller (1969) on
ethylene and its derivatives; these are too numerous to list but should be
available in the larger reference libraries and can be found by reference to
the library catalogue

Books quickly become outdated, and many of the processes described are
obsolete, or at best obsolescent. More up-to-date descriptions of the
processes in current use can be found in the technical journals. The journal
Hydrocarbon Processing publishes an annual review of petrochemical
processes, which was entitled Petrochemical Developments and is now
called Petrochemicals Notebook', this gives flow-diagrams and brief process
descriptions of new process developments. Patents are a useful source of
information; but it should be remembered that the patentee will try to write
the patent in a way that protects his invention, whilst disclosing the least
amount of useful information to his competitors. The examples given in a
patent to support the claims often give an indication of the process
conditions used; though they are frequently examples of laboratory
preparations, rather than of the full-scale manufacturing processes. Several
short guides have been written to help engineers understand the use of
patents for the protection of inventions, and as sources of information; such
as those by Capsey (1963), Lieberry (1972) and HMSO (1970, 1971).

World Wide Web
It is worthwhile searching the Internet for information on processes,
equipment and products. Many manufacturers and government departments
maintain web sites. In particular, up-to-date information can be obtained on
the health and environmental effects of products.

GENERAL SOURCES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES


International Critical Tables (1933) is still probably the most
comprehensive compilation of physical properties, and is available in most
reference libraries. Though it was first published in 1933, physical properties
do not change, except in as much as experimental techniques improve, and
ICT is still a useful source of engineering data. Tables and graphs of
physical properties are given in many handbooks and textbooks on Chemical
Engineering and related subjects. Many of the data given are duplicated
from book to book, but the various handbooks do provide quick, easy access
to data on the more commonly used substances.
An extensive compilation of thermophysical data has been published by
Plenum Press, Touloukian (1970-77). This multiple-volume work covers
conductivity, specific heat, thermal expansion, viscosity and radiative
properties (emittance, reflectance, absorptance and transmittance),
Elsevier have published a series of volumes on physical property and
thermodynamic data. The Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) was set
up to provide authenticated data for engineering design. Its publications
include some physical property data, and other design data and methods of
interest to chemical engineering designers. They also cover data and
methods of use in the mechanical design of equipment.
Caution should be exercised when taking data from the literature, as
typographical errors often occur. If a value looks doubtful it should be cross-
checked in an independent reference, or by estimation.
The values of some properties will be dependent on the method of
measurement; for example, surface tension and flash point, and the method
used should be checked, by reference to the original paper if necessary, if an
accurate value is required.
The results of research work on physical properties are reported in the
general engineering and scientific literature. The Journal of Chemical
Engineering Data specialises in publishing physical property data for use in
chemical engineering design. A quick search of the literature for data can be
made by using the abstracting journals; such as Chemical Abstracts
(American Chemical Society) and Engineering Index (Engineering Index
Inc., New York). Computerised physical property data banks have been set
up by various organizations to provide a service to the design engineer. They
can be incorporated into computer aided design programs and are
increasingly being used to provide reliable, authenticated, design data. An
example of such a data bank is the Physical Property Data Service (PPDS)
available from the National Engineering Laboratory (NEL).







ACCURACY REQUIRED OF ENGINEERING DATA
The accuracy needed depends on the use to which the data will be put.
Before spending time and money searching for the most accurate value, or
arranging for special measurements to be made, the designer must decide
what accuracy is required; this will depend on several factors:
1. The level of design; less accuracy is obviously needed for rough scouting
calculations, made to sort out possible alternative designs, than in the final
stages of design; when money will be committed to purchase equipment, and
for construction,
2. The reliability of the design methods; if there is some uncertainty in the
techniques to be used, it is clearly a waste of time to search out highly
accurate physical property data that will add little or nothing to the reliability
of the final design.
3. The sensitivity to the particular property: how much will a small error in
the property affect the design calculation. For example, it was shown in
Chapter 4 that the estimation of the optimum pipe diameter is insensitive to
viscosity. The sensitivity of a design method to errors in physical properties,
and other data, can be checked by repeating the calculation using slightly
altered values.





















PREDICTION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Whenever possible, experimentally determined values of physical properties
should be used. If reliable values cannot be found in the literature and if
time, or facilities, are not available for their determination, then in order to
proceed with the design the designer must resort to estimation. Techniques
are available for the prediction of most physical properties with sufficient
accuracy for use in process and equipment design.
A detailed review of all the different methods available is beyond the scope
of this book; selected methods are given for the more commonly needed
properties. The criterion used for selecting a particular method for
presentation in this chapter was to choose the most easily used,
simplest, method that had sufficient accuracy for general use. If highly
accurate values are required, then specialised texts on physical property
estimation should be consulted; such as those by: Reid et al (1987),
Bretsznajder (1971) and Sterbacek et al. (1979), and AIChemE (1983)
(1985).


DENSITY
Liquids
Values for the density of pure liquids can usually be found in the handbooks.
It should be noted that the density of most organic liquids, other than those
containing a halogen or other "heavy atom", usually lies between 800 and
1000 kg/m3 An approximate estimate of the density at the normal boiling
point can be obtained from the molar volume






where, = density, kg/m3,
M = molecular mass,
Vm = molar volume, m3/kmol.
For mixtures, it is usually sufficient to take the specific volume of the
components as additive; even for non-ideal solutions,










Gas and vapour density (specific volume)
For general engineering purposes it is often sufficient to consider that real
gases, and vapours, behave ideally, and to use the gas law:

PV=nRT






VISCOSITY
Viscosity values will be needed for any design calculations involving the
transport of fluids or heat. Values for pure substances can usually be found
in the literature.. Methods for the estimation of viscosity are given below.


Liquids
A rough estimate of the viscosity of a pure liquid at its boiling point can be
obtained from the modified Arrhenius equation:



Where viscosity, mNs/,
pb density at boiling point, kg/m3.
A more accurate value can be obtained if reliable values of density are
available, or can be estimated with sufficient accuracy, from Souders'
equation, Souders (1938):









Gases
Reliable methods for the prediction of gas viscosities, and the effect of
temperature and pressure, are given by Bretsznajder (1971) and Reid et al.
(1987). Where an estimate of the viscosity is needed to calculate Prandtl
numbers (see Volume 1, Chapter 1) the methods developed for the direct
estimation of Prandtl numbers should be used.
For gases at low pressure Bromley (1952) has suggested the following
values:
Prandtl number
Monatomic gases (e.g. Ar, He) 0.67 5 per cent
Non-polar, linear molecules (e.g. C>2, C^) 0.73 15 per cent
Non-polar, non-linear molecules (e.g. CH4, CeHe) 0.79 15 per cent
Strongly polar molecules (e.g. CH3OH, SO2, HC1) 0.86 8 per cent
The Prandtl number for gases varies only slightly with temperature.







THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The experimental methods used for the determination of thermal
conductivity are described by Tsederberg (1965), who also lists values for
many substances. Ho et al. (1972) give values for the thermal conductivity
of the elements.


Solids
The thermal conductivity of a solid is determined by its form and structure,
as well as composition. Values for the commonly used engineering materials
are given in various handbooks.
8.8.2. Liquids
The data available in the literature up to 1973 have been reviewed by
J amieson et al, (1975). The Weber equation (Weber, 1880) can be used to
make a rough estimate of the thermal conductivity of organic liquids, for use
in heat-transfer calculations.




Gases
Approximate values for the thermal conductivity of pure gases, up to
moderate pressures, can be estimated from values of the gas viscosity, using
Eucken's equation, Eucken (1911):




SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The specific heats of the most common organic and inorganic materials can
usually be found in the handbooks.
. Solids and liquids
Approximate values can be calculated for solids, and liquids, by using a
modified form of Kopp's law, which is given by Werner (1941). The heat
capacity of a compound is taken as the sum of the heat capacities of the
individual elements of which it is composed. The values attributed to each
element, for liquids and solids, at room temperature,





Gases
For a gas in the ideal state the specific heat capacity at constant pressure
is given by:
Cp =a + bT +cT2 +dT3 (equation 3.19)
Values for the constants in this equation for the more common gases can be
found in the handbooks.
Several group contribution methods have been developed for the estimation
of the constants, such as that by Rihani and Doraiswamy (1965) for organic
compounds. Their values for each molecular group are given in Table 8.4,