What Is Discourse

Universit Ca Foscari di Venezia Facolt di Economia
CdL: [EM9] SVILUPPO INTER-CULTURALE DEI SISTEMI TURISTICI

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Insegnamento di Lingua Inglese (6 CFU) English AND tourism. English FOR tourism [EM9015]
Prof.ssa Daniela CESIRI
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSES KEY CONCEPTS

1. What is Discourse?
The notion of discourse includes the use of spoken, written and visual/signed language and
multimodal/multimedia forms of communication. It is a mode of organizing human knowledge,
ideas, or experience(s) that is rooted in language and its concrete contexts (as history or
institutions). And, indeed, discourses are aspects of culture, interconnected vocabularies and
systems of meaning located in the social world (Merry 1990: 110).
Discourse is not restricted to non-fictional (e.g. stylistics) nor verbal (e.g. gesture and visual)
materials. Although early linguistic approaches judged the unit of discourse to be larger than the
sentence, phenomena of interest can range from silence, to a single utterance (such as "ok"), to a
novel, a set of newspaper articles or a conversation.
Approaches that are commonly included under the term 'discourse studies' (or have overlapping
concerns) include critical discourse analysis, critical linguistics, text linguistics, conversation
analysis, ethnomethodology, discursive psychology, stylistics, genre studies, mediated discourse
analysis, discourse theory, sociolinguistics, rhetorical analysis, argumentation theory, polyphony
theory.
A discourse is not individual and idiosyncratic but is part of a shared cultural world. Discourses
are rooted in particular institutions and embody their culture. The analysis of discourse is
necessarily the analysis of language in use. As such, it cannot be restricted to the description of
linguistic forms independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed to serve in
human affairs (Brown & Yule 1983: 1).
[Discourse analysis] has its intellectual roots not only in linguistics but in the social sciences
and in philosophy (Schiffrin 1988: 2). For this reason, discourse is seen as strictly linked and
embedded in the social network of the speakers as well as in the specific domains it is used, either
in written or in spoken form. It does not involve an ideal construction of linguistic features but deals
with language used in real-use and everyday situations.

2. The notion of Specialised Discourse
Specialised languages do NOT have a different grammar or lexis with respect to common language.
The only difference is the FREQUENCY of usage of grammar rules and lexis. Texts written in a
specialised language are in fact classified according to the similarities they have in common with
other texts, taking into consideration:
the setting where the text is produced or used (a written tourist text or a guided tour);
the communicative intention of the producer (e.g. promoting a particular destination);
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the addresser (the tourist operator or creator of a tourist text) and the addressee (perspective
tourists)
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;
the medium (the physical support such as a brochure, a travel guide, a promotional website,
etc.);
structural elements (surface elements, such as the right combination of colours, pictures and
text);
sometimes also content (what is described and how it is described, since it might have a direct
effect on the persuasive power of the tourist text).
Specialised discourse is then a discourse used in domain-specific languages which can involve
technical and scientific registers as well as case-specific contexts of use. Several contextual factors
contribute to the notion of specialised discourse (e.g. style, mode, level of formality, etc.).
This awareness has led to the identification for each specialised language of textual genres
linked to sets of consistent features. For example, in tourism discourse there are genres that
combine highly informal features (guided tours, brochures, the web, ads) with traits typical of the
written mode, such as guidebooks.
Finally, some guided tours contain highly formal traits (museums, etc.) but are considered
oral texts because they are performed orally. All share the characteristics of containing codified and
standardised language, predictable sentences such as FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS or
METAPHORS which are essential in a promotional context. The following picture (Figure 1)
illustrates the position of different genres of tourist texts along the Spontaneity-Formality
Continuum:

FIGURE 1.

Indeed, some textual genres can be seen as being positioned along a continuum line ranging
between high formal traits and the informality of a normal conversation. Some of these genres are
also less predictable since they allow a for a greater degree of spontaneity and variation, both in
content and expressiveness. They are usually oral and involve different levels of formality. In
Figure 1, we have guidebooks which involve a higher degree of formality because they are written
texts, have complex structures and deals with a variety of topics. This becomes lower in
brochures, the web which combine an informal register with the written mode. The lowest
degree of formality is found in guided tours because they are performed orally and are organised

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In this particular case, the creator of a tourist text must be aware that he/she starts a direct relationship with the
perspective tourist, for this reason particular attention must be paid to shaping the right language, e.g. avoiding
aggressive language (in Italian it is better to use the imperative form in the second person plural, such as visitate,
rather than visita as the latter might be perceived as an aggressive order and not as an invitation. In English, the use of
you is acceptable as there is no difference in the second persons, either singular or plural.
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in order to keep the tourists attention. In these cases, we have also oral conversations between the
professional guide and the tourists themselves.
Specialised discourse differs from general language not for its of special linguistic rules absent
from the latter but for its quantitatively greater and pragmatically more specific use of such
conventions. This stresses also the importance of the type of user, the domain of use AND the
special application of language in specialized contexts.
Specialised discourse can be considered as a restricted language but this definition is usually
applied to restricted codes that use certain sentences of general language in specialized
communication. In this case we are dealing with a restricted code rather than specialised
discourse (as for example the language used in flight control communication, or AIRSPEAK). In
addition, the definition of special language cannot be applied to the notion of specialised discourse
it denotes languages with special rules and symbols deviating from those of general language. Ex:
CODE Q used in the telecommunication sector where the code is non-linguistic. The term special
language could be applied to languages sharing the communicative conventions of a particular
language (either English or Italian) but that possesses other conventions which are not part of
these languages as in the case of SEASPEAK. Also the term microlanguage is not appropriate
substitute specialised discourse because it refers to microcosm which lack the expressive richness
of standard language.
The term specialised discourse reflects the specialist use of language in contexts which are
typical of a specialised community stretching across the academic, the professional, the technical
and the occupational area of knowledge and practice. Domain-specific languages, in fact, are
exposed to the pressures of intercultural variation, as not only the socio-cultural factors inherent in
a text but also interpretive culture-dependent sets of knowledge deeply affect its realization and
interpretation within the host professional community.
In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular
social setting. According to Halliday (1978) or Gregory/Carroll (1978) there are several registers
which subordinate the specificity of SD to their topic. They are:

MODE = channel and medium of communication;
FIELD = object of communication;
TENOR = relationship between participants.
In the field of tourism, all three registers are important in order to reach an effective, successful
communication that persuades the tourist to choose the advertised destination instead of a
competing one. The tenor, in particular, must be taken into account by a creator of a tourist text.
He/she must be aware that he/she is in a dominant position since he/she is guiding the tourist into a
particular choice, but the writer of a tourist text must also consider that this dominant position needs
not to be stressed or evident as the tourist has the power of choice, thus determining the success of
that destination AND of the tourist text which promoted the destination itself.
However, these are not the only factors which determine the choice of specialised discourse.
Other factors are involved such as the speakers profession and his/her knowledge of the discourse
involved. Appropriate analytical tools needed for each discourse especially when some features are
shared by more than one specialised language. In fact, several rules and features may coexist with
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specific ones and which separate one variety from the other. This is because SLs use features
present in general language.
The mere presence of a specialist does not ensure a specialised use of a language which cannot
be limited to peer-communication. In fact there are THREE situations in which a specialist may talk
about his/her profession:

1. Debate among other specialists (High level of specialisation in his/her language)
SCIENTIFIC EXPOSITION. In the tourism field, this is expressed at conferences or in
debates about theories for tourism development:
2. Conversation with non-specialists to explain the notions of the discipline such as during
lessons or in a textbook (medium level of use of specialised language) SCIENTIFIC
INSTRUCTION, for example in courses for tourism or course for English and tourism;
3. Everyday conversation in which the specialist deals with laypeople and has to use everyday
lexis in order to reach a wider audience (TV or newspapers and magazines) (Low degree of
specialised language) SCIENTIFIC JOURNALISM (usually tourist texts meant for the
wider public and promotional texts);
4. CONDENSATION INTO FORMULAE but it uses non-verbal language. Other specialised
languages use symbolic formulations but they are usually explained and accompanied by
general language (in the tourism field, this is especially true in the use of special acronyms,
such as B&B for bed and breakfast).
5. Accuracy in the conveyance of the message (the success of a tourist text lies in the use of the
right language, which must be appropriate to the kind of text used and to the type of tourist
for the advertised destination).

The dominant criteria of specialised discourse are economy (use a concise language to describe
your destination), precision (do not miss any important detail about that destination) and
appropriateness (use the right language for the right kind of tourist, e.g. families with children,
single travellers, groups, etc.) which should all be satisfied in order for a text to reach the
maximum communicative effectiveness (the tourist will choose the destination you advertised
instead of a competing one). They are common to general language but if they are balanced the
speaker ensures maximum efficiency within the specialised communicative process (that is,
promote the destination).
If they are in conflict (especially economy and precision) the criterion of appropriateness is
decisive for the communication to result successful, since it indicates and regulates the
psychological intention behind the message.

The community which uses the language of tourism (tourist operators, theorists of tourism,
tourists themselves) can be defined as a discourse community. Swales (1990) found that a
discourse community can be recognized according to some specific characteristics. It must:

have a broadly agreed set of common public goals (promoting and visiting a destination);
have mechanisms of intercommunication among its members (texts or multimedia tools);
use its participatory mechanisms primarily to provide information and feedback;
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utilize and hence possess one or more genres in the communicative utterance of its aims (the
different supports through which a destination can be advertised, e.g. the Web, travel guides,
brochures);
have acquired some specific lexis (specialized terminology, acronyms, metaphors and
semantic fields);
have a threshold level of members with a suitable degree of relevant content and discoursal
expertise (basically any perspective tourist and operators in the tourism industry).

4. English for Special Purposes (ESP), English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and the phenomenon
of Global English
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) consists of English language which is:
designed to meet specified needs;
related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and
activities;
centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics,
etc., and analysis of this discourse;
sometimes in contrast with General English because it modify language to serve its special
communicative purposes within the specific discourse community.
ESP includes: Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical
professionals, English for tourism, English for the Arts, etc. Aviation English as ESP is taught to
pilots, air traffic controllers and civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio
communications. ESP is also a part of languages for specific purposes.
We can identify different variables which help to define ESP in various contexts. These variables
can be divided in two different categories: absolute and variable characteristics.

Absolute characteristics:
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of a discourse community;
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline(s) it serves;
3. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres
appropriate to these activities.

Variable characteristics:
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
2. ESP may use, in specific situations, a different methodology from that of General English;
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation;
4. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres
appropriate to these activities.

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The international dimension of our contemporary society and an easier sharing of knowledge and
ideas in specialised contexts led to the need for a common language (lingua franca) which could
allow experts from different nationalities and languages to share and spread this knowledge. The
most useful language was English.
The concept of English as a Lingua Franca means that systematically used to communicate
between people who do not share a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct
from both mother tongues.
English as a Global Language entered into action when English was used as a lingua franca
and started to have a separate identity from the source language, either American or British English.
It became a global language when such role was recognised worldwide and in every country. To
reach this status English had to be taken up by other countries around the world as their working
language (sometimes even supra-national language).
But, why English? The explanation to this question might come from a quotation by the scholar
Crystal (2003), who argues that English was there at the right time in the right place. This means
that the emergence of English as a Global Language has some precise historical and cultural
reasons.
From the historical viewpoint, the spread of English from Britain to other territories was mostly
through colonization. The first groups of settlers from England came to the American continent in
search for a new land of religious freedom. The other groups of English-speaking people came to
the continent for trading. Starting from this point, English reached the American continent which
then also spread to the south, to the West Indies and to the southern part of the continent itself.
The English presence in Australia and New Zealand started when prisons in England were
overcrowded with convicts and the British rulers needed a new distant place for the freed prisoners.
Besides, English spread to other parts of the world through colonization sprouting from trading
between traders under the East Indies Company and native people in Asia and Africa. The trading
changed into colonization when the British rulers supported the traders by sending them soldiers.
The major parts of Africa (especially South Africa) and Asia (e.g. India, and Malaysia) were under
the direct rule of Britain making the people to become bilingual. English was taught to native
people in the territories they had occupied. Hence, it was taught not to educate but for the benefit of
the British rulers because they needed people in distant places to speak English so that soldiers
could understand their British officers and could maintain civil order under the leadership of British
administrators.
Similar to the propaganda spread by Great Britain, the US also plays an important role in
promoting English worldwide. After the World War II, many countries lost its power. The United
States, as an English-speaking country, was the only big Western power that remained undamaged
educationally, scientifically and politically. Therefore, the United States, helped by its allies, had
power in reorganizing the world through the creation of the United Nation. English was then one of
the four official languages spoken in the UN. This made English gain stronger status in the world. It
is a coincidence that when English gained better status in political world, the computer era came
into being. The first computer programs were then written in English-like language and the output
was also English or English-like. This, again, made English gain its status in science and
technology in which computer was of important use in it. Nowadays, about 80% or 85% of all the
scientific and technological information is written in English.
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The Indian scholar Braj Kachru has been a leading scholar in the field since the 1960s and, in
1985, he developed the model of the Three Concentric Circles of English to explain the
phenomenon of English as a Global Language. The model is illustrated in FIGURE 2 below.

FIGURE 2.
The model is composed of three circles:

The Inner Circle: English functions as a native language;
The Outer Circle: English is used as a second language besides native, national languages;
The Expanding Circle: English is used as a foreign language

5. Why The Language of Tourism?
As in other specialised contexts, English is used in the field of tourism as a lingua franca. Indeed, it
is the language of communication especially when a tourist text is meant for speakers of a minority
language.
The Language of Tourism (LoT) constitutes a special type of communication which uses verbal
descriptions AND displays of photographs, film footage, multimedia supports. It communicates the
language of the largest industry in the world: tourism itself. Every country in the world allocates
consistent shares of their budgets to tourism promotion.
The language of tourism has successfully combined together everyday language and specifically-
devised elements referring to the most specialised concepts. As any specialised discourse, it is a
subsystem of the general language; as such it has its own lexical, morpho-syntactic and textual
rules.
The LoT can be considered a kind of specialised discourse because it is used within a specific
professional domain and it is used by both experts and non-experts. In addition, it operates through
a conventional system of symbols and codes, including also dialect and colloquial registers,
especially when local culture and traditions are promoted.
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Its language mirrors the complexity of this field, which is unquestionably hybrid: geography, art,
history, architecture, sociology, business and economics, management, the law are among the
disciplines which influence the language of tourism.
The contemporary tourism industry is certainly globalised; for this reason, it needs a working
language which can be used and understood by most (if not all) perspective tourist. It uses English
as it is already the Lingua Franca and Global Language for many other fields
As already stated, it is easier to use English also to address customers who speak minority
languages. However, the current position of English as the main language used for international
communication means that it is an essential working language for people dealing with tourists of
any kind.

REFERENCES
Crystal, David. 1985. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 2nd edition. New York:
Blackwell.
Crystal, David. 2003. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dann, Graham. 1996. The Language of Tourism. A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford: CAB
International.
Gatehouse, Kristen. 2001. Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum
Development. The Internet TESL Journal, VII (10). Available at:
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Gatehouse-ESP.html.
Gotti, Maurizio. 2010. Investigating Specialized Discourse. Bern: Peter Lang.
Gregory, Michael, and Suzanne Carroll. 1978. Language and situation: Language varieties and
their social contexts. London: Routledge.
Halliday, M. A. K. 1978. Language as social semiotic. London: Edward Arnold.
Kachru, B.B. 1985. Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in
the outer circle. In R. Quirk and H. Widdowson (eds.). English in the world: Teaching and
learning the language and literatures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 11-36.
Searl, John. 1969. Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge Unviersity Press.
Swales, John. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Rohmah, Z. 2005. English as a Global Language: Its Historical Past And Its Future. Bahasa Dan
Seni, Tahun 33, Nomor 1, pp. 106-117.

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Universit Ca Foscari di Venezia Facolt di Economia

CdL: [EM9] SVILUPPO INTER-CULTURALE DEI SISTEMI TURISTICI

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