Ferguson 1

Andrew Ferguson
Dr. L. Guillow
Hist 144
December 10, 2008
Final Eam ! "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement
"i#il rig%ts %a#e alwa's been a dominant issue t%roug%out muc% o( )nited *tates %istor',
but un+uestionabl', t%e most in(luential ,eriod (or t%e matter were t%e 'ears (ollowing -orld
-ar ../ some e#en considered it t%e *econd $econstruction. 0%is ,eriod became t%e de(ining
image o( t%e American "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement wit% more A(rican Americans t%an e#er be(ore
ta1ing a stand (or t%eir rig%ts. A number o( e#ents and reali2ations caused blac1 citi2ens to
+uestion %ow (ree t%e' reall' were, (rom war #eterans w%o reali2ed t%at t%e' %ad (oug%t abroad
(or (reedoms t%at t%e' t%emsel#es did not %a#e at %ome, to t%e success(ul u,rising o( numerous
nati#e tribes against (oreign colonies in A(rica. E#en e#ents as sim,le as 3ac1ie $obinson4s
ma5or league baseball debut in 1647 led to (urt%er su,,ort (or t%e cause. .n t%e end, %undreds o(
t%ousands o( blac1s, and e#en a number o( s'm,at%etic w%ites, 5oined t%e mo#ement nationwide,
but b' no means were t%ese ,eo,le t%e (irst to ma1e suc% a stand. 0%e (ounding o( se#eral ci#il
rig%ts organi2ations suc% as t%e 8ational Association (or t%e Ad#ancement o( "olored 9eo,le
:8AA"9; and 8ational )rban League :8)L; came as earl' as 1610, but ,rior to t%e mo#ement,
t%ese organi2ations %ad little success in gaining ground on t%e issue. A(ter t%e *econd -orld
-ar t%oug%, t%e' (inall' began to gain t%e momentum t%e' needed to ac%ie#e t%eir goals o(
national desegregation and racial e+ualit'.
<ne o( t%e central ob5ecti#es o( t%e "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement was t%e desegregation o( t%e
nation4s sc%ools/ (or t%e most ,art t%is battle too1 ,lace in t%e courts wit% little outside action.
Ferguson 2
*e#eral di((erent cases made it to t%e )nited *tates *u,reme "ourt (or a,,eals a(ter state courts
ruled against t%em, but usuall' to unglamorous results. 0wo o( t%ese cases, namel' Sipuel v.
Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla. in 1648 and Sweatt v. Painter in 16=0, allowed blac1 students
to enroll in t%eir states4 ,re#iousl' all>w%ite uni#ersities, but t%is was onl' because t%ere were no
e+ui#alent (acilities e,ressl' (or t%em. .n anot%er 16=0 case o( McLaurin v. Oklahoma State
Regents, t%e court declared t%at institutions o( %ig%er learning could not treat students di((erentl'
due to race. E#en t%oug% all t%ree o( t%ese cases ruled in (a#or o( desegregation, none o( t%em
%ad a broad enoug% sco,e to be o( in(luence across t%e entire countr'. Finall', in 16=4 t%e
#erdict t%at man' %ad %o,ed (or came in t%e (orm o( t%e case Brown v. Board of Ed. of opeka
!ansas. 0%e ,lainti((s, led b' t%e 8AA"9, consisted o( t%irteen ,arents o( c%ildren attending
0o,e1a sc%ools. 0%e ,arents claimed t%at e#en t%oug% t%e intent o( segregated sc%ools was to be
e+ual, t%e' were not, instead allowing lower standards (or A(rican Americans. .n t%e end, t%e
court agreed and declared t%e 186? decision o( Pless" v. #erguson in#alid, a((irming t%at being
se,arate but e+ual was im,ossible because se,aration itsel( (undamentall' indicated ine+ualit'.
0%e case o( Brown v. Board of Ed. resulted in man' mied reactions t%roug%out t%e
countr'/ in 0o,e1a (or eam,le, t%e communit' acce,ted integration wit% no notewort%'
resistance, but in ot%er areas o( t%e *out%, o,,osition was strong. &an' sout%ern legislators
banded toget%er and began a ,olic' o( @&assi#e $esistanceA in w%ic% t%e' attem,ted to a#oid or
de(' t%e *u,reme "ourt4s decision. <ne suc% attem,t came in t%e (orm o( t%e *out%ern
&ani(esto, a document t%at directl' o,,osed t%e *u,reme "ourt 5udgment and accused it o(
abusing its aut%orit'. 16 *enators and 81 $e,resentati#es (rom across 11 di((erent states ended
u, signing t%e mani(esto, but its aut%orit' was ne#er o((iciall' recogni2ed. &an' ot%er sout%ern
grou,s %eld ,rotests as well/ a number o( ,ro>segregation citi2en4s grou,s in Ar1ansas, (or
Ferguson B
eam,le, %eld ,rotests to ,re#ent nine blac1 students (rom entering t%e recentl' integrated Little
$oc1 "entral Hig% *c%ool. 0%e Go#ernor o( t%e state, <r#al Faubus, ordered t%e state4s 8ational
Guard not to sto, t%e ,rotesters, but actuall' to su,,ort t%em instead. 9resident Dwig%t
Eisen%ower, %earing o( t%e situation, too1 control o( t%e Ar1ansas 8ational Guard and de,lo'ed
members o( t%e 101
st
Airborne to escort t%e students into t%e sc%ool. .n man' cases, reactions
did more to ,ublici2e t%e mo#ement t%en t%e new laws did.
Anot%er im,ortant goal o( t%e "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement was t%e grassroots desire (or racial
e+ualit' in e#er'da' li(e. "om,ared to t%ose attem,ting to desegregate t%e sc%ools, members o(
t%e mo#ement (or com,lete racial e+ualit' were +uite a bit more radical, rel'ing largel' on
,eace(ul ,rotest instead o( legal ,roceedings. 42>'ear>old 8AA"9 member $osa 9ar1s was a
,rime eam,le o( t%is and ,er,etrated one o( t%e more notable actions o( t%e mo#ement at
&ontgomer', Alabama in December o( 16==. A(ter ta1ing a seat on a bus customaril' reser#ed
(or w%ites, t%e bus dri#er ordered 9ar1s to mo#e to t%e bac1 o( t%e bus, but s%e re(used instead
allowing t%e bus dri#er to call t%e ,olice w%o t%en arrested %er on c%arges o( #iolating racial
segregation laws. 9ar1s4 de(iance gained ,ublicit' t%roug%out t%e cit', and e#entuall' &artin
Lut%er Cing 3r. %eard o( t%e e#ent. Cing, t%e leader o( an anti>segregation grou, called t%e
&ontgomer' .m,ro#ement Association :&.A;, called a meeting and organi2ed a bo'cott o( t%e
&ontgomer' bus s'stem t%at lasted (or o#er an entire 'ear. E#entuall', t%e bo'cott gained
national attention a(ter t%e arrest o( se#eral acti#ists, including Cing, (or obstructing a bus. 0%e
resulting ,ublic ,ressure %el,ed contribute to t%e *u,reme "ourt ruling t%at bus segregation was
unconstitutional. Finall', a(ter a loss o( =0,000 A(rican American customers and t%e resulting
?=D o( its re#enue (or t%e 'ear, t%e &ontgomer' 0ransit Aut%orit' desegregated its busses and
ended t%e bo'cott.
Ferguson 4
&an' ot%er acti#ities t%roug%out t%e mo#ement (ollowed t%e non#iolent ,rotest tec%ni+ue
(irst demonstrated b' $osa 9ar1s/ and t%e newl' (ormed organi2ation o( t%e *tudent 8on#iolent
"oordinating "ommittee :*8""; s,onsored se#eral o( t%e most ,rominent. <ne o( t%e ,rime
eam,les o( a *8"" ,rotest was in t%e -oolwort%4s sit>ins o( 16?0. *8"" was not in#ol#ed in
t%e sit>ins (rom t%e outset as (our blac1 students initiall' started t%em on t%eir own, but
e#entuall' t%e' became closel' in#ol#ed. ),set t%at t%e store re(used to ser#e t%em i( t%e' too1
a seat, t%e students decided t%e' would not lea#e until t%e' recei#ed ser#ice. -%en t%e students
came bac1 t%e net da', 24 additional students %ad 5oined t%em, and b' t%e t%ird da', t%ere were
around B00 students in t%e store. .n turn, eac% da' a(ter t%at t%e students returned t%eir numbers
increased until t%e' were o#er one t%ousand strong. 8ews about t%e sit>in s,read +uic1l', and
w%en members o( *8"" caug%t word, t%e' aided in t%e s,read o( t%e mo#ement to se#ent'
t%ousand ,eo,le across (i(teen stores in nine di((erent states.
*%ortl' a(ter t%e -oolwort%4s ,rotests, *8"", along wit% t%e older "ongress o( $acial
E+ualit' :"<$E;, ,romoted 'et anot%er ,rotest action in t%e (orm o( t%e Freedom $iders. 0%e
riders consisted o( student #olunteers w%o began testing t%e new anti>segregation laws b' riding
interstate busses around t%e *out%. .n man' cases, t%e riders encountered #iolence or
im,risonment, but t%e' e,ected t%is and alwa's reacted non#iolentl' to %el, bring attention to
t%eir cause. 0%e riders4 e((orts ,ublici2ed t%e *out%4s disregard (or (ederal law and resulted in
t%e .nterstate "ommerce "ommission crac1ing down on its trans,ortation (reedom laws.
Anot%er im,ortant organi2ation o( t%e grassroots mo#ement (or ci#il rig%ts was t%e
*out%ern "%ristian Leaders%i, "on(erence :*"L";. &artin Lut%er Cing 3r., "%arles C. *teele,
and Fred L *%uttleswort%, all ci#il rig%ts acti#ists w%o met during t%e &ontgomer' Eus Eo'cott,
(ounded t%e *"L" in 16=7 to su,,ort t%e "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement. .nitiall' t%e *"L" onl' %ad
Ferguson =
t%e su,,ort o( a (ew member c%urc%es and communit' organi2ations and restricted its actions to
local issues, but it +uic1l' grew and became more nationall' in#ol#ed. E#entuall', t%e
organi2ation enacted a cam,aign targeting Eirming%am, Alabama in 16?B (or its un'ielding use
o( segregation t%roug%out t%e cit'. 0%e grou, ,lanned an entire series o( ,rotests and marc%es
wit% t%e sim,le ob5ecti#e o( getting as man' ,eo,le arrested as ,ossible to draw attention to t%eir
cause. 0%e crusade was a success wit% o#er 2,=00 ,rotesters arrested, including Cing %imsel(.
.n se#eral cases, t%e cit' ,olice met t%e marc%ers wit% brutalit' b' using (ire %oses and ,olice
dogs to subdue t%e crowds, but (ortunatel', t%is actuall' wor1ed in t%e grou,s (a#or b' creating a
larger amount o( ,ublicit' o( t%e e#ent. E#entuall', t%e (ederal go#ernment %ad to send t%ree
t%ousand (ederal troo,s to t%e cit' to sto, t%e c%aos. 0%e news media broadcast images o( t%e
mo#ement around t%e world and awa1ened countless ,eo,le to t%e ,roblems o( segregation (or
'ears to come.
Later in 16?B, t%e *"L" also s,onsored anot%er in(luential demonstration in a &arc% on
-as%ington (or 3obs and Freedom. As man' as B00 t%ousand ,eo,le s%owed u, to t%e e#ent,
ma1ing it t%e largest marc% in ).*. %istor' and one o( t%e (irst to recei#e national media
attention. 0%e marc% embodied an alliance o( all o( t%e ma5or ci#il rig%ts organi2ations o( t%e
mo#ement including t%e 8AA"9, "<$E, 8)L, *"L", and *8"" w%o toget%er demanded laws
ensuring racial e+ualit' and t%e abolis%ment o( segregation. &artin Lut%er Cing4s $ have a
dream s,eec% made at t%e marc% continues to be one o( t%e most memorable o( t%e mo#ement
and ,ossibl' e#en American %istor'.
<#erall, t%e t%ousands o( ,rotests organi2ed around t%e countr' in t%e decades (rom 164=
to 167= created some o( t%e most turbulent times in our nation, but in return, it also resulted in
some o( t%e most ,ositi#e c%anges as well. 9rotests e#entuall' led to t%e signing o( t%e "i#il
Ferguson ?
$ig%ts Acts o( 16?4 and 16?8 b' 9resident 3o%nson and Foting $ig%ts Act o( 16?= b' congress,
w%ic% toget%er ,ro%ibited discrimination o( man' 1inds. .n trut%, discrimination %as ne#er trul'
ended, but recent e#ents suc% as t%e "i#il $ig%ts $estoration Act o( 1688 and "i#il $ig%ts act o(
1661 ,ro#e t%at e#en toda' t%e "i#il $ig%ts &o#ement is still ali#e and gaining ground, and is
li1el' to continue doing so (or some time.