WUA Manual

WATER USERS
ASSOCIATION MANUAL
MINISTRY OF IRRIGATION
AND WATER
DEVELOPMENT,
PRIVATE BAG 390
LILONGWE
March, 2009
MARKET CENTRE AND RURAL PIPED WATER
SUPPLY

MALAWI
GOVERNMENT
Ta!" #$ C#%&"%&'
Module 1: Water Users Organisation Institutional Framework 12
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 12
Objectives............................................................................................................ 13
ationale.............................................................................................................. 13
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................13
!kills..................................................................................................................... 13
&o'ic 1: &%'e o" Management Organisations........................................................13
Introduction...................................................................................................... 13
Objectives......................................................................................................... 13
(ctivit% 1........................................................................................................... 1)
(ctivit% 2........................................................................................................... 1)
(ctivit% 3........................................................................................................... 1*
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 1+
e"erences........................................................................................................ 1+
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. 1+
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 1.
/earning esources........................................................................................... 1.
(dditional in"ormation....................................................................................... 1.
Module 2: 0ommunit% 1ased Management 12
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 12
Objectives............................................................................................................ 13
!kills..................................................................................................................... 13
0ontents............................................................................................................... 13
&o'ic 1: 0ommunit% 1ased Management.............................................................13
Introduction...................................................................................................... 13
Objectives......................................................................................................... 24
5e6nition and 7rinci'les o" 01M.......................................................................24
(ctivit% 1........................................................................................................... 24
0ommunit% 1ased Management.......................................................................24
7rinci'les o" 01M.............................................................................................. 24
(ctivit% 2.............................................................................................................. 24
&$e im'ortance o" 01M..................................................................................... 21
(ctivit% 3........................................................................................................... 21
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 21
e"erences........................................................................................................ 21
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. 22
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 22
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... 22
&o'ic 1: 0ommunit% 1ased Management 0%cle....................................................22
Introduction...................................................................................................... 22
Objectives......................................................................................................... 23
0ommunit% 1ased Management c%cle..............................................................23
(ctivit% 1........................................................................................................... 23
7lanning '$ase................................................................................................. 23
0onstruction..................................................................................................... 2)
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 2)
e"erences........................................................................................................ 2)
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. 2)
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 2*
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... 2*
&o'ic 2: Facilit% Management 7lan.......................................................................2*
Introduction...................................................................................................... 2*
Objectives......................................................................................................... 2*
Facilit% Management 'lan................................................................................. 2*
(ctivit% 1........................................................................................................... 2*
5evelo'ing t$e Facilit% Management 7lan........................................................2+
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 2+
esources......................................................................................................... 2+
e"erences........................................................................................................ 2+
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. 2+
Module 3: 8rou' Organisation 2.
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 2.
!kills..................................................................................................................... 22
0ontents............................................................................................................... 22
&o'ic 1: /eaders$i'.............................................................................................. 22
Introduction...................................................................................................... 22
Objectives......................................................................................................... 23
5e6nition o" leaders$i'..................................................................................... 23
!te'1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e meaning o" leaders$i'. 23
/eaders$i':....................................................................................................... 23
9ualities and Functions o" a /eader..................................................................23
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e :ualities o" a good leader 23
/eaders$i' 9ualities......................................................................................... 23
/eaders$i' !t%les.............................................................................................. 34
!te' 1: !'lit t$e 'artici'ants into grou's and discuss di;erent leaders$i'
st%les t$e% know. 34
(dvantages 34
5isadvantages 34
(dvantages 31
5isadvantages 31
(dvantages 31
5isadvantages 31
&$is t%'e o" leaders$i' s$ould not be encouraged. 31
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 31
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 31
esources......................................................................................................... 31
e"erences........................................................................................................ 31
&o'ic 2: 0on<ict Management and 7roblem !olving.............................................32
Introduction...................................................................................................... 32
/earning Objectives.......................................................................................... 33
5e6nition o" 0on<ict......................................................................................... 33
Factors leading to 0on<icts and Wa%s o" resolving t$em..................................33
7roblem !olving................................................................................................ 3)
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 3)
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 3)
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... 3*
e"erences........................................................................................................ 3*
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. 3*
&o'ic 1: 0ommunit% Mobilisation and &eam 1uilding............................................3*
Introduction...................................................................................................... 3*
Objectives......................................................................................................... 3+
5e6nition o" 0ommunit% Mobilisation...............................................................3+
!te's in 0ommunit% Mobilisation and &eam 1uilding........................................3+
&eam 1uilding................................................................................................... 3.
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 3.
e"erences........................................................................................................ 32
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 32
esources......................................................................................................... 32
(dditional in"ormation....................................................................................... 32
&o'ic ): 0onducting meetings..............................................................................33
Introduction...................................................................................................... 33
/earning Objectives.......................................................................................... 33
5e6nition o" t$e term =meeting>......................................................................)4
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... )1
e"erences........................................................................................................ )2
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. )2
Module ): 7roject Management )2
Introduction.......................................................................................................... )2
Objectives............................................................................................................ )2
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................)3
!kills..................................................................................................................... )3
&o'ic 1: !te''ed (''roac$................................................................................... )3
Introduction...................................................................................................... )3
/earning Objectives.......................................................................................... )3
5e6nition o" !te''ed (''roac$........................................................................)3
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... ))
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... ))
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... ))
e"erences........................................................................................................ ))
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. ))
&ime re:uired.................................................................................................... )*
(dditional in"ormation....................................................................................... )*
&o'ic 2: 7roject c%cle............................................................................................ ).
Introduction...................................................................................................... ).
Objectives......................................................................................................... ).
0ontent............................................................................................................. )2
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... )2
e"erences........................................................................................................ )2
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... *1
esources......................................................................................................... *1
&o'ic 3: 7artici'ator% Monitoring? #valuation and e'orting................................*2
Introduction...................................................................................................... *2
Objectives......................................................................................................... *2
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... *2
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... *2
0ontent............................................................................................................. *2
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... *3
e"erences........................................................................................................ *3
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. *)
Module *: /egal and Institutional Framework *+
Introduction.......................................................................................................... *+
Objectives............................................................................................................ *.
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................*.
!kills..................................................................................................................... *.
&o'ic 1: 7olicies and /aws.................................................................................... *.
Introduction...................................................................................................... *.
Objectives......................................................................................................... *.
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... +4
e"erences........................................................................................................ +4
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. +1
&ime e:uired................................................................................................... +1
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... +1
/earning esources........................................................................................... +1
&o'ic 2: 1%@/aws................................................................................................... +2
Introduction...................................................................................................... +2
Objectives......................................................................................................... +2
0ontent............................................................................................................. +2
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... +)
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. +*
Module +: !anitation and $%giene 7romotion ++
Introduction.......................................................................................................... ++
Objectives............................................................................................................ ++
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................++
!kills..................................................................................................................... ++
0ontents............................................................................................................... ++
&o'ic 1: 7artici'ator% (''roac$ A&ec$ni:ues........................................................++
Objectives......................................................................................................... +.
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... +.
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... +.
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... +3
e"erences........................................................................................................ +3
&ime e:uired................................................................................................... +3
(dditional in"ormation....................................................................................... +3
&o'ic 2: !anitation 7romotion................................................................................+
Introduction...................................................................................................... .+
Objectives......................................................................................................... ..
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... ..
esources......................................................................................................... ..
0ontent............................................................................................................. ..
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 24
e"erences........................................................................................................ 24
&o'ic 3: B%giene 'romotion..............................................................................22
&o'ic ): !anitation and B%giene in Water.............................................................2*
Introduction...................................................................................................... 2*
Objectives......................................................................................................... 2*
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 2*
esources......................................................................................................... 2*
0ontent............................................................................................................. 2*
!ummar%............................................................................................................ 1
e"erences.......................................................................................................... 1
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................... 1
Module .: Water :ualit% and 7ollution 0ontrol *
Introduction............................................................................................................ *
Objectives.............................................................................................................. *
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic................................................................................ *
!kills....................................................................................................................... *
0ontents................................................................................................................. *
&o'ic 1: Water 9ualit% Monitoring and !urveillance...............................................+
Objectives........................................................................................................... .
Met$odolog%....................................................................................................... .
esources........................................................................................................... .
0ontent............................................................................................................... .
!ummar%............................................................................................................ 3
e"erences.......................................................................................................... 3
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................... 3
&o'ic 2: Water &esting and &reatment..................................................................11
Introduction...................................................................................................... 11
Objectives......................................................................................................... 12
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 12
0ontent............................................................................................................. 12
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 12
e"erences........................................................................................................ 12
&o'ic 3: Water 7ollution........................................................................................ 13
Introduction...................................................................................................... 13
Objectives......................................................................................................... 13
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 13
esources......................................................................................................... 13
0ontent............................................................................................................. 13
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 24
e"erences........................................................................................................ 24
(lan 0 &wort? 5on 5 atna%%aka C Malkom D 1randt? 2444? re'rinted b%
1utterwort$@Beinemann 244+? Water !u''l% *
t$
#d? OE"ord Uk? (rnold. 24
Waternet? egional Master 5egree 'rogramme in Integrated Water
esources Management FIWMG? Water 9ualit% Management Module IWM 2.1
24
Ministr% o" Bealt$? 244+? 5ra"t Water 9ualit% !urveillance &raining Manual "or
#Etension workers? U-I0#F /ilongwe 24
&o'ic ): Water 9ualit% guidelines and !tandards.................................................21
Introduction...................................................................................................... 21
Objectives......................................................................................................... 21
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 21
esources......................................................................................................... 21
0ontent............................................................................................................. 21
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 21
e"erences........................................................................................................ 22
&o'ic *: Water and Bealt$.................................................................................... 23
Introduction...................................................................................................... 23
Objectives......................................................................................................... 23
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 23
esources......................................................................................................... 23
0ontent............................................................................................................. 23
Module 2: 8ender Mainstreaming )2
Introduction.......................................................................................................... )2
Objectives............................................................................................................ )2
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................)2
!kills..................................................................................................................... )2
0ontents............................................................................................................... )3
&o'ic 1: 8ender 0once't...................................................................................... )3
Introduction...................................................................................................... )3
/earning Objectives.......................................................................................... )3
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... )3
Fli' c$arts? masking ta'e? 'ens? eEercise books? markers and $andouts.........)3
0ontent............................................................................................................. )3
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... )3
e"erences........................................................................................................ )3
&o'ic 2: 8ender Mainstreaming............................................................................*4
Introduction...................................................................................................... *4
Objectives......................................................................................................... *4
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... *4
esources......................................................................................................... *4
0ontent............................................................................................................. *4
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... *3
e"erences........................................................................................................ *3
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. *3
Module 3: BIH and (I5! Mainstreaming *)
Introduction.......................................................................................................... *)
Objectives............................................................................................................ *)
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................**
!kills..................................................................................................................... **
0ontents............................................................................................................... **
&o'ic 1: BIH C (I5! 7revention? 0are and !u''ort...............................................**
Introduction...................................................................................................... **
Objectives......................................................................................................... **
0ontent............................................................................................................. **
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... *2
e"erences........................................................................................................ *2
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. *3
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... *3
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... *3
&o'ic 2: BIH C (I5! Mainstreaming......................................................................+4
Introduction.......................................................................................................... +4
Objectives............................................................................................................ +4
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................+4
!kills..................................................................................................................... +4
0ontents............................................................................................................... +4
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. +)
&o'ic 1: BIH and (I5! Mainstreaming..................................................................+*
Introduction.......................................................................................................... +*
Objectives............................................................................................................ +*
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................+*
!kills..................................................................................................................... +*
0ontents............................................................................................................... ++
&o'ic 1: BIH C (I5! 7revention? 0are and !u''ort...............................................++
Introduction...................................................................................................... ++
Objectives......................................................................................................... ++
0ontent............................................................................................................. ++
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... +3
e"erences........................................................................................................ +3
/earner,s esources.......................................................................................... .4
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... .4
&o'ic 2: BIH C (I5! Mainstreaming.......................................................................1
Introduction.......................................................................................................... .1
Objectives............................................................................................................ .1
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic...............................................................................1
!kills..................................................................................................................... .1
0ontents............................................................................................................... .1
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. .*
Module 14: O'eration and Maintenance .+
&o'ic 1: O'eration and Maintenance.....................................................................+
Introduction...................................................................................................... .+
/earning Objectives.......................................................................................... .+
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... .+
esources......................................................................................................... .+
0ontent............................................................................................................. ..
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... ..
e"erences........................................................................................................ ..
Facilitator,s -otes............................................................................................. .2
&o'ic 2: &ec$nolog% O'tions................................................................................. 24
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 24
Objectives............................................................................................................ 24
!kills..................................................................................................................... 24
0ontents............................................................................................................... 24
!ummar%.......................................................................................................... 21
e"erences........................................................................................................ 21
Met$odolog%..................................................................................................... 22
Module 11: Financial and 0ontract Management 2)
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 2)
Objectives............................................................................................................ 2)
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................2)
!kills..................................................................................................................... 2)
0ontents............................................................................................................... 2)
&o'ic 1: 1usiness 7lan.......................................................................................... 2)
Introduction...................................................................................................... 2)
Objectives......................................................................................................... 2)
Module 12: 7rocurement and contract Management 2*
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 2*
Objectives............................................................................................................ 2*
!tructure o" #ac$ !tud% &o'ic..............................................................................2*
!kills..................................................................................................................... 2*
7rocurement o" goods works and services...........................................................2+
M#()!" *+ Wa&"r U'"r' Or,a%-'a&-#% I%'&-&)&-#%a!
Fra."/#r0
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module will 'rovide a general overview o" t$e Water Users (ssociation FWU(G
and its im'ortance to water su''l% and sanitation.
It will enable all local communities manage t$eir mini water boards. It will $el'
members o" WU( to know and understand t$e WU( as well as t$e "actors t$at $old
t$e WU( toget$er.
&$e module will e:ui' t$e 1oard o" &rustees F1o&G wit$ knowledge and skills to
eE'lain to local communities t$e im'ortance and $ow to strengt$en t$eir
organisation.
O1"c&-2"'
(t t$e end o" t$e lesson members o" t$e 1o& s$ould be able to:
1. #E'lain t$e meaning? 'ur'ose and advantages o" WU(.
2. #E'lain $ow t$e WU( "unctions.
3. #E'lain to t$e members o" t$e communit% t$e im'ortance o" 'artici'ating in
WU( activities.
). #E'lain t$e rig$ts and obligations o" communit% members towards t$eir WU(.
*. #E'lain to communit% members t$e im'ortance o" su''orting t$e organisation.
Ra&-#%a!"
In t$e 'ast? rural 'i'ed water su''l% sc$emes were managed b% sc$eme
management committees wit$ assistance "rom t$e government. &$is led to muc$
reliance on government in t$e running o" t$e sc$emes resulting in 'oor grou'
organisation and generall% 'oor 'er"ormance o" man% sc$emes.
It is necessar% "or water users o" water su''l% and sanitation sc$emes in t$e
market centres and surrounding rural communities are organised into "ormal and
legall%
recognised bod% "or o'eration and maintenance o" t$e s%stems as local water
boards.
It is im'ortant t$ere"ore? "or all t$e members o" t$e (ssociation to $ave an
understanding o" t$e WU( and its im'ortance so t$at t$e% can be able to activel%
'artici'ate in t$e activities o" t$e (ssociation. Members o" t$e 1o& s$ould also be
aware o" t$e rig$ts and obligations wit$ regard to t$eir WU( and be able to guide
and work wit$ t$e local communities and /ocal O'erator e;ectivel%.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ stud% to'ic contains an introduction? learning objectives? met$odolog%?
learning resources? content? summar%? re"erences? and "acilitator,s notes. &$e
stud% material "ollows wit$ activities w$ic$ are based on t$e stud% material and
comments on t$e activities.
S0-!!'
WU( Management.
C#%&"%&
T34"' #$ .a%a,"."%& #r,a%-'a&-#%'
T#4-c *+ T34"' #$ Ma%a,"."%& Or,a%-'a&-#%'
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will 'rovide a general overview o" t$e t%'es o" Water Users Organisations
wit$ s'ecial re"erence to Water Users (ssociations? &rust? and 0o@
o'eratives.
It will 'rovide detailed in"ormation on t$e "ormation o" bot$ (ssociations and 0o@
o'eratives
It will also address t$e advantages and disadvantages o" t$e two t%'es o"
organisations and give necessar% guidelines t$roug$ w$ic$ water users can c$oose
t$e most a''ro'riate organisation suitable "or t$eir sc$eme
O1"c&-2"'
1. (t t$e end o" t$e training session? t$e 'artici'ants will be able:
2. &o eE'lain t$e di;erent t%'es o" management organisations.
3. &o de6ne t$e term (ssociation and 0o@o'erative.
). &o describe 'rocedures "or "ormation o" bot$ (ssociations and 0o@o'eratives.
*. &o eE'lain t$e 'ur'ose o" establis$ing (ssociations or 0o@o'eratives.
+. &o discuss advantages and disadvantages o" eac$ t%'e o" management
organisations.
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e t%'es o" communit% organisations
t$at eEist in t$eir area. &$en "acilitator consolidates t$e discussion.
C#..#% T34"' #$ Or,a%-'a&-#%'
0lubs
(ssociations
0o@o'eratives
&rusts
0redit grou's
1usiness grou'
!ome o" t$ese organisations are registered and ot$ers are not.
&$e t%'es o" organisations w$ic$ are relevant "or water users are (ssociations and
0o@o'eratives.
Ac&-2-&3 2
Facilitator de6nes and eE'lains t$e two t%'es o" organisations.
A''#c-a&-#%
Defnition of an Association
(n (ssociation is a voluntar% civil organisation? legall% "ormed? controlled and run
b% members w$o $ave identi6ed a common "elt need.
(n (ssociation is establis$ed as a legal entit% according to t$e /aws o" Malawi.
In Malawi? (ssociations are non@'ro6t making organisations registered under t$e
&rustees Incor'oration (ct. &$e (ssociation must be "or t$e bene6t or wel"are o"
t$e in$abitants o" Malawi.
Water Users (ssociation is a grou'ing o" water users "or t$e 'ur'ose o" o'erating
and maintaining water su''l% and sanitation s%stem.
It is a social organisation "or t$e bene6t o" t$e members. &$e Water Users
(ssociation gives services to members w$ic$ include well o'erated and maintained
water su''l% and sanitation "acilities? communit% co$esion? and em'owerment in
wa%s t$at can s'read to ot$er develo'ment activities wit$in t$e area.
F#r.a&-#% #$ a% A''#c-a&-#%
It is "ormed w$en 'eo'le w$o $ave identi6ed a common need agree to "orm an
(ssociation. In t$e "ormation 'rocess? an interim committee is "ormed to "acilitate
t$e "ollowing:
Formulation o" b%@laws Fdra"ting? a''rovalGI
#lection o" oJce bearers. &$is is done t$roug$ voting Fone member one voteG.
&$e 'ositions t$at are voted "or include:
-0$air'erson and t$e Hice
-!ecretar% and vice
-&reasurer and #Eecutive 0ommittee membersI and
egistration
C#5#4"ra&-2"
Defnition of Co-operative
( co@o'erative is a 'rivate business organisation voluntaril% "ormed and run b%
members to cater "or t$eir economic and social needs.
&$e working ca'ital "or t$e co@o'erative is contributed b% t$e members t$roug$
bu%ing s$ares.
Members acce't a s$are o" t$e risks and bene6ts o" t$e undertaking in w$ic$
members activel% 'artici'ate.
It is not a government organisation? but one t$at is controlled b% t$e members
t$emselves t$roug$ a democratic 'rocess. It is $owever registered b% 8overnment?
w$ic$ gives legal status since its b%@laws are derived "rom t$e 0o@o'erative
!ocieties (ct o" 1332.
Formation of a Co-operative
It is "ormed w$en 'eo'le w$o $ave a common "elt need identi"% a business activit%
and agree to "orm a 0o@o'erative. (n interim committee is "ormed to "acilitate t$e:
Formulation o" b%@laws Fdra"ting? a''rovalGI
#lection o" oJce bearers. &$is is done t$roug$ voting Fone member one voteG.
&$e 'ositions t$at are voted "or include:
-0$air'erson and t$e Hice
-!ecretar% and vice
-&reasurer and eEecutive committee membersI and
egistration
&$e interim committee s$ould be elected b% all interested water users. &$e interim
committee will be dissolved u'on t$e election o" t$e #Eecutive 0ommittee.
&$e eEecutive bod% o" a 0o@o'erative is called t$e 1oard o" 5irectors w$ic$ ma%
em'lo% sta; "or t$e 0o@o'erative.
Ac&-2-&3 3
Facilitator divides 'artici'ants into grou's to discuss t$e advantages and
disadvantages o" (ssociations and 0oo'eratives and 'resent in t$e 'lenar%.
Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Associations and Co-operatives
A''#c-a&-#%' C#5#4"ra&-2"'
Advantages:
/ower cost o" registration t$an t$at o" a
0o@o'erative.
/ess com'leE management.
1uilds grou' co$esion K all members
e:ual.
Members 'a% annual "ee 'roviding a
sustainable source o" "unds "or o'eration
and maintenance.
(n% sur'lus is 'loug$ed back to t$e
(ssociation? allowing savings "or "uture
o'eration and maintenance.
&$e 1oard o" &rustees is voluntar%.
Wit$drawal o" some members will not
result in t$e dissolution o" t$e
(ssociation.
Members work as a grou'.
7ooling o" resources suc$ as materials?
mone% and labour.
Advantages:
Members work as a grou'.
( 0o@o'erative can make a 'ro6t and t$e
'ro6t goes to individual members.
7ooling o" resources suc$ as materials?
mone% and labour.
#:uitable distribution o" 'ro6t.
Disadvantages:
Income is not distributed amongst
members.
0ommon seal costs $ig$er Fma% be
'ro$ibitiveG.
Disadvantages:
0om'leE
1oard o" 5irectors ma% draw allowances
Members can wit$draw mone% s$ares t$us
a;ecting t$e sustainabilit% o" t$e 0o@
o'erative
Members bu% s$ares t$us restricting
access b% ver% 'oor members
Individualism. &$ere ma% be dominance
b% t$ose members wit$ greater s$ares
S)..ar3
&$ere are di;erent t%'es o" organisations commonl% used w$ic$ $ave been
discussed in t$e to'ic. Bowever? t$e relevant ones in t$e management o" water
su''l% and sanitation s%stems are (ssociations and 0o@o'eratives. 0onsidering t$e
com'leEit% o" t$e coo'erative? establis$ment o" associations is recommended.
R"$"r"%c"'
0o@o'erative !ocieties (ct -o. 3+ o" 1332
&rustees Incor'oration (ct o" 1323
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
0om'arison o" (ssociation and 0o@o'erative
(dvantages and disadvantages o" (ssociation and 0o@o'erative
K"3 W#r('
(ssociation
0o@o'erative
&rust
(ct
1%@/aws
0onstitution
Time Required
2 $ours
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
1rainstorming
8rou' 5iscussions
L"ar%-%, R"'#)rc"'
Fli'c$arts
Bandouts
Masking ta'es
() '$otoco'%ing 'a'er
Writing 'ens
File covers
!$ort$and note book
/05 'rojector
(udio visual e:ui'ment
A((-&-#%a! -%$#r.a&-#%
C#.4ar-'#% #$ A''#c-a&-#%' a%( C##4"ra&-2"'
N# Cr-&"r-a A''#c-a&-#% C#5#4"ra&-2"
1 8eneral (im Under t$e L&rustees o"
0$aritiesL must Lbene6t
t$e in$abitants o" MalawiL
Must L'romote economic
interests o" its membersL
2 Objectives Main objective is "or
association to take care o"
Main objective is "or co@
o'erative to make 'ro6t
common duties and give
servicesI an% sur'lus o"
income is 'loug$ed back
into t$e (ssociationI
individual "armers can
make a 'ro6t
based u'on a business
'lanI 'ro6ts are distributed
amongst members as a
dividend
3 egistration egistrar 8eneral? "rom t$e
Ministr% res'onsible "or
Dustice
egistrar o" 0oo'erative
!ocieties "rom t$e Ministr%
res'onsible 0ommerce
) -umber o"
members
-ot sti'ulated -ot less t$an ten
* 1asic
re:uirements "or
registration
(''lication "orm signed b%
all trustees
(''lication "orm signed b%
at least 14 members
2 co'ies o" constitution C
b%@laws certi6ed b%
!ecretar% C 0$air'erson
3 co'ies o" constitution C
b%@laws certi6ed b%
!ecretar% C 0$air'erson
!tatutor% declaration b%
eac$ &rustee
0o@o'erative member
education
Im'ression o" 'ro'osed
common seal
+ 0onstitution C 1%@
laws
e:uired "or registration e:uired "or registration
. 0ost o"
registration F%ear
2444G
MM 244 MM 2*4
2 Financial
commitments
-o s$ares !$are ca'ital Fnot more
t$an 24N b% an% memberG
Members$i' "ee Members$i' "ee
Members annual
contribution "ee
members annual
contribution "ee
dues to 5e't o"
0oo'eratives
3 0ommon seal
F%ear 2444G
0ost o" 'ro'osed seal
Fmore t$an MM 144G
0ost o" rubber stam'
Fmore t$an MM144G
0ost o" engraved seal
Fmore t$an MM 14?444G
14 /egal status /egal entit% /egal entit%
@ 'er'etual succession @ 'er'etual succession
@ ca'able o" suing and
being sued
@ ca'able o" suing and
being sued
@$old 'ro'ert% C water
rig$ts
@$old 'ro'ert% C water
rig$ts
11 #lection #ver% member is e:ual #:ual regardless o" s$are
12 Hoting One member? one vote One member? one vote
13 Management 0an be run b% t$e
members o" t$e
(ssociation
e:uires eE'erienced
'ersonnel to run com'leE
business
1) 1ookkee'er Holuntar% bookkee'ing #m'lo%ment o"
inde'endent bookkee'er
FrecommendedG
M#()!" 2+ C#..)%-&3 Ba'"( Ma%a,"."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e Ministr%,s long term develo'ment goal "or water and sanitation $as been to
ensure t$at all citiOens o" Malawi $ave convenient and sustainable access to water
in suJcient :uantit% and o" ade:uate :ualit% "or t$e basic domestic needs and to
$ave available ade:uate sanitation. FIm'lementation Manual? '.*G. Meanw$ile? t$e
overall national water 'olic% goal is sustainable management and utiliOation o"
water resources? in order to 'rovide water o" acce'table :ualit% and o" suJcient
:uantities? and ensure availabilit% o" eJcient and e;ective water and sanitation
services t$at satis"% t$e basic re:uirements o" ever% Malawian and "or t$e
en$ancement o" t$e countr%,s natural ecos%stems. F-ational Water 7olic%? 2
nd
edition '.)G. Bowever t$e sustainabilit% cannot be realised unless t$e end users K
t$e communit% are "ull% involved? take an active role and assume owners$i' and
res'onsibilit% o" t$e water "acilities.
&$is module t$ere"ore aims at introducing t$e conce't o" 0ommunit% 1ased
Management F01MG. It will e:ui' t$e 1o& members wit$ skills to make in"ormed
decisions in t$e 'rocess o" managing t$eir water and sanitation "acilities.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is module? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to:
1. 5escribe t$e 'rinci'les and im'ortance o" 01M in t$e conteEt o" Water Users
(ssociation.
2. 7lan? im'lement? monitor and evaluate t$eir own water and sanitation
'rogrammes t$roug$ t$e 01M 'roject c%cle
3. #Eercise res'onsibilit% and owners$i' over t$e water and water su''l% "acilities.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
&$is module $as t$ree to'ics. #ac$ to'ic $as an introduction? met$odologies?
learning resources? content? summar% and re"erences. &$e introduction 'rovides an
overview o" and justi6cation "or learning t$e to'ics. &$e met$odologies and
learning resources 'rovided will $el' to ac$ieve t$e learning objectives. &$e
content consists o" in"ormation and activities? w$ic$ are based on t$e learning
objectives. &$e summar% $ig$lig$ts t$e main 'oints learned in eac$ to'ic.
(t t$e end o" eac$ to'ic t$ere are notes "or t$e "acilitator to use. &$e notes contain
areas o" em'$asis and ke% words in t$e to'ic? t$e trainees, assumed 'rior
knowledge? and estimated time allocation "or t$e to'ic and additional in"ormation
"or re"erence b% t$e "acilitator.
S0-!!'
It is eE'ected t$at b% t$e end o" t$e module? 'artici'ants will ac:uire decision
making and management skills t$at will $el' t$em to run t$eir water and sanitation
'rogrammes sustainabl%.
C#%&"%&'
&$is module covers to'ics on t$e "ollowing areas:
&$e conce't and 'rinci'les o" 01M
&$e 01M 'roject c%cle
&$e im'ortance o" 01M in managing t$e WU(
Facilit% Management 7lanning
T#4-c *+ C#..)%-&3 Ba'"( Ma%a,"."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e management o" water resources does not entirel% de'end on t$e eE'ertise o"
government sta; and its allied 'artners? but it calls "or a collective e;ort? w$ic$
includes t$e 'artici'ation o" t$e end users o" t$e resource K t$e communit%.
!ustainabilit% o" develo'ment activities? including t$e management o" water
'rojects relies on $ow muc$ bene6ciar% 'artici'ation is involved? t$ereb% ensuring
t$at t$ere is owners$i'.
&$is to'ic t$ere"ore aims at introducing t$e conce't and basic 'rinci'les? as well as
t$e im'ortance o" 0ommunit% 1ased Management o" water resources and "acilities.
It will e:ui' t$e 1o& team wit$ knowledge and skills to 'lan? im'lement? monitor
and evaluate t$eir water and sanitation 'rogrammes in a sustainable manner.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is to'ic? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to:
1. 5e6ne t$e term =0ommunit% 1ased Management>
2. 5escribe t$e 'rinci'les o" 0ommunit% 1ased Management
3. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" involving t$e communit% in managing Water !u''l%
and !anitation FW!!G activities
D"7%-&-#% a%( Pr-%c-4!"' #$ CBM
Ac&-2-&3 *
!te' 1: Facilitator introduces t$e to'ic and tells t$e 'artici'ants t$at t$e% will
be given a stor% to read and answer :uestions on it.
!te' 2: Facilitator gets 'artici'ants into grou's and circulates co'ies o" t$e
"ollowing stor%:
Tamaona worked in a big cotton processing company in town. One day he
received a complaint from his uncle, r !alenga that he was facing
transport problems in the village and that he needed a bicycle to ease the
situation. Tamaona bought the bicycle and brought it to "ncle !alenga in the
village. After using it for #ve months, the tyres and chain were worn out and
the tubes got punctured. ost of the spokes were broken and the rims were
bent. The bicycle was grounded.
Then one day Tamaona paid a visit to the village. "ncle !alenga brought the
bicycle to Tamaona and said, $emember, you bought me this bicycle #ve
months ago and it helped me to transport my onions to the market, but it is
now broken down. % want you to repair it for me so that % can use it again.&

!te' 3: Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to discuss in t$eir grou's t$e "ollowing
:uestions on t$e stor%.
W$at $ave %ou observed in t$e stor%P
&o w$om does t$e bic%cle belongP
W$at is wrong wit$ uncle QalengaP
W$at would %ou do i" %ou were &amaonaP
W$at would %ou do i" %ou were uncle QalengaP
0an t$is $a''en in relation to management o" water "acilitiesP #E'lain.
W$at does t$e stor% teac$ %ou about $ow water "acilities s$ould be
managed
!te' ): Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses "rom t$e 'artici'ants and
eE'lains t$e meaning o" 01M
C#..)%-&3 Ba'"( Ma%a,"."%&
&$is is re"erred to as a 'rocess t$roug$ w$ic$ communities are em'owered to
make in"ormed decisions t$at will $el' t$em to manage t$eir water and sanitation
'rogrammes in a sustainable manner. &$e% activel% 'artici'ate in t$e 'lanning?
im'lementation? monitoring and evaluation o" t$e 'rogramme activities. Bence?
t$e% assume owners$i' over t$e "acilities and ensure t$at t$e% o'erate e;ectivel%.
Pr-%c-4!"' #$ CBM
Ac&-2-&3 2
!te' 1: Facilitator eE'lains t$e 'rinci'les o" 01M as "ollows:
E.4#/"r."%&
0ommunit% controls t$ings and makes t$eir own decisions
S"%'" #$ R"'4#%'--!-&3, C#..-&."%& a%( O/%"r'h-4
0ommunit% s$ow commitment? and assume res'onsibilit% and owners$i' o"
t$e "acilit%. &$e% make contributions in cas$ or kind towards o'eration and
maintenance. &$e% also take a leading role in t$e monitoring and evaluation o"
t$eir 'rogrammes.
I%-&-a&-2"
&$e communit% take action on t$eir own to solve t$eir own 'roblems.
D"c-'-#%5.a0-%,
0ommunit% makes decision to 'lan? organise? act and solve 'roblems.

!te' 2: Facilitator invites :uestions and comments on t$e 'resentation.
Th" -.4#r&a%c" #$ CBM
Ac&-2-&3 3
!te' 1: Facilitator asks t$em to discuss t$e im'ortance o" 01M in t$eir grou's.
!te' 2: Facilitator asks t$e 'artici'ants to 'resent t$eir work in 'lenar% "or
discussion
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses "rom 'artici'ants and eE'lains
t$e im'ortance o" 01M.
0ommunit% based management 'la%s an im'ortant role in t$e management o"
water and sanitation activities:
It ensures t$at t$e communit% demands "or t$e "acilities t$e% want ot$er t$an
being im'osed on t$em.
It ensures t$at communities 'artici'ate in 'lanning and decision@making.
It 'romotes owners$i' and management o" t$eir "acilit%.
It 'romotes maintenance culture. 0ommunit% takes care o" and maintains t$eir
"acilities 'rom'tl%.
It ensures t$at sa"e water is available to t$e communit% all %ear round.
It 'romotes t$e 'artici'ation o" women in decision@making? as t$e% are ke%
'la%ers in water issues.
It $el's t$e government to attend to more serious issues o" water su''l% and
sanitation? as it no longer im'lements t$e activities directl%.
It 'romotes 'artici'ation o" all ke% stake$olders K eEtension workers? district
assemblies and t$e 'rivate sector.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic and em'$asiOes t$e
'rinci'les and im'ortance o" 01M in t$e management o" Water Users (ssociation.
R"$"r"%c"'
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment F1333G. 0ommunit% 1ased ural
Water !u''l%? !anitation and B%giene #ducation Im'lementation Manual. /ilongwe:
MoIW5.
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment? F2442G. &rainer,s 8uide "or #Etension
Worker &raining. /ilongwe: MoIW5.
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment? F244.G. -ational Water 7olic%.
/ilongwe: MoIW5.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
&$e term 01M
7rinci'les and im'ortance o" 01M
K"3 W#r('
0ommunit% 1ased Management
Owners$i'
!ustainabilit%
#m'owerment
Pr"r"8)-'-&" K%#/!"(,"
&$e 'artici'ants must $ave 'revious eE'erience in working in communit% 'rojectsI
some o" t$em $ave seen eEisting non "unctional water "acilities.
Time Required
2 $ours
M"&h#(#!#,3
0ase stud%
8rou' discussion
1rainstorming
/ecturrette
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$art?
Marker 'ens?
Masking ta'e
T#4-c *+ C#..)%-&3 Ba'"( Ma%a,"."%& C3c!"
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e 'roject c%cle covers activities t$at are carried out during 'rojects. 7rojects are
carried out in '$ases or stages. 7roject c%cles $ave generic stages or '$ase? wit$
minor c$anges in ot$ers? de'ending on w$at t$e 'roject 'lanners c$oose.
0ommunit% 1ased Management F01MG "ollows t$e generic and basic 'roject c%cle
stages or '$ases. #ac$ '$ase o" t$e c%cle $as a number o" activities w$ic$
de'ends on t$e t%'e o" 'roject being carried out.
&$e 01M 'roject c%cle details activities o" t$e communit% and eEtension workers
wit$ t$e common agenda on "our to'ics K mone%? organiOation? $%giene and
sanitation and tec$nical issues.
&$is to'ic $ig$lig$ts t$e activities involved in t$e 01M c%cle stages. It will e:ui'
'artici'ants wit$ knowledge and skills t$at will enable t$em to im'lement t$eir
'lanned activities in a logical se:uence.
O1"c&-2"'
'y the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. 5escribe t$e '$ases and activities o" t$e 01M c%cle
C#..)%-&3 Ba'"( Ma%a,"."%& c3c!"
Ac&-2-&3 *
!te' 1: Facilitator gives a brie" 'resentation on t$e 'roject c%cle? describing
t$e activities in eac$ '$ase. Writes eac$ '$ase on a single s$eet o"
news'rint and uses t$is as a guide "or discussion.
&$e 01M c%cle com'rises "our '$ases. In eac$ '$ase t$ere are activities t$at
di;erent 'la%ers Fcommunities? eEtension workers and ot$ers alikeG carr% out. &$e
"ollowing are t$e '$ases o" t$e c%cle:
Mobilisation phase
&$is involves t$e "ollowing activities:
Promotion
7rotocol wit$ village leaders? "ollowed b% communit% meetings to eE'lain water
su''l% and sanitation 'rogramme? and w$at t$e communit% is su''osed to
contribute.
Communit response
0ommunit% meets to discuss and decide on $ow t$e% want to res'ond K com'lete
a''lication "orm.

Demand verifcation
Hisit and conduct communit% meeting to veri"% in"ormation in a''lication and
level o" commitment.
#Etension worker discusses wit$ communit% $ow to "orm water 'oint committee
FW70G or 'roject committee.
C#..)%-&3 r"'4#%'"
0ommunit% meets to elect W70.
P!a%%-%, 4ha'"
&$is '$ase involves t$e "ollowing activities
WPC 9 Pr#1"c& C#..-&&"" &ra-%-%,
First training to eE'ose t$e committees on t$eir roles? FM7 develo'ment? siting and
construction? mone% and maintenance? $%gieneAsanitation.

C#..)%-&3 r"'4#%'"
W70A7roject 0ommittee and communit% discuss on "acilit% management 'lan? $ow
to raise *N contribution towards t$e construction o" t$e "acilit%? siting and in'ut to
construction and $%giene and sanitation.
R"2-"/ #$ &h" Fac-!-&3 Ma%a,"."%& P!a% :FMP!
Meeting wit$ W70 A 7roject 0ommittee and communit% to review decisions on
mone% and maintenance? siting and in'ut to construction and $%giene and
sanitation.
C#%'&r)c&-#%
&$is '$ase involves t$e "ollowing activities:
0ommunit% in'ut and monitoring o" water 'oint siting? construction and civil
works construction.
0ommunit% 're'ares t$e O'eration and Maintenance 'lan
!u''ort "or and monitoring o" t$e contractors and t$e construction 'rocess.
0ommunit% organises communit% labour and materials "or construction.
Facilit% testing and certi6cation K Facilities are tested and commissioned.
W70A7roject 0ommittee signs certi6cate o" com'letion.
O4"ra&-#% a%( Ma-%&"%a%c"
Training of "PC # Pro$ect Committees and car"&a0"r'
&$e main agenda $ere includes management o" OCM K meetings? working wit$
communit%? women? managing mone%? book kee'ing? "acilit% useAcare? $%giene and
sanitation.
W70 or 7roject 0ommittee works wit$ communit% to manage "unds "or s'are
'arts AOCM? 'rovide su''ort "or caretakers and re'air teams? water 'oint
maintenance? $%giene and sanitation
Monitoring and 'roblem solving
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic and em'$asiOes t$e
main activities involved in t$e '$ases o" t$e 01M c%cle.
R"$"r"%c"'
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment? F2442G.
&rainer,s 8uide "or #Etension Worker &raining. /ilongwe: MoIW5.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
B
K"3 W#r('
B
Pr"r"8)-'-&" K%#/!"(,"
7artici'ants $ave knowledge in communit% based management 'rinci'les? and
$ave 'reviousl% been involved in communit% 'rojects.
Time Required
1 $our
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
8rou' discussion
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$art?
Marker 'ens
masking ta'e
T#4-c 2+ Fac-!-&3 Ma%a,"."%& P!a%
I%&r#()c&-#%
Facilit% Management 7lan FFM7G is a ver% im'ortant as'ect o" 0ommunit% based
management o" water su''l% "acilities. ( water 'oint communit% t$at does not
develo' a Facilit% Management 7lan cannot e;ectivel% manage t$eir water "acilit%.
It 'rovides guidance in t$e 'rocess o" mobilisation? 'lanning? construction and
o'eration and maintenance o" t$e "acilit%.
&$is to'ic t$ere"ore introduces t$e 'artici'ants to t$e Facilit% Management 7lan
and w$at issues are considered in develo'ing t$e 'lan. It will $el' t$em to 're'are
t$emselves "or t$e water "acilit% t$e% are going to $ave.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is unit? %ou s$ould be able to:
1. 5escribe a "acilit% management 'lan
2. #E'lain t$e 'rocess o" develo'ing a "acilit% management 'lan
Fac-!-&3 Ma%a,"."%& 4!a%
Ac&-2-&3 *
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to describe w$at is involved in a develo'ing a Facilit%
Management 7lan FFM7G.
!te' 2: Facilitator consolidates 'artici'ants, res'onses and eE'lains w$at is
involved in t$e 're'aration o" an FM7.
One o" t$e initial tasks o" t$e Water 7oint 0ommittee FW70G is to develo' a Facilit%
Management 7lan. &$is 'lan $el's t$em to strategise in advance on $ow t$e% are
going to run t$eir "acilit% t$at is to be constructed. In com'leting t$is 'lan? t$e W70
and t$e communit% will t$ink about all o" t$e issues t$at are involved in managing
t$e "acilit%. &$ese include:
0$oice o" tec$nolog% Fw$at t%'e o" "acilit% do t$e% wantG
!iting Fw$ere is t$e "acilit% going to be sitedG
Fundraising F$ow t$e communit% will raise mone% "or t$e "acilit%G
Maintenance F$ow t$e "acilit% will be maintainedG
0ommunit% contribution F$ow local resources will be mobilisedG
B%giene and !anitation F$ow $%giene and sanitation 'romotion will be ac$ievedG
D"2"!#4-%, &h" Fac-!-&3 Ma%a,"."%& P!a%
Activit %
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to be in grou's and discuss t$e ste's t$e% would
"ollow to develo' an FM7.
!te' 2: (sk 'artici'ants to 'resent t$eir res'onses in 'lenar% "or discussion
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses and eE'lains t$e FM7
develo'ment 'rocess.
&$e W70 cannot 're'are t$e FM7 on its own. It will re:uire in'ut "rom t$e ot$er
members o" t$e water 'oint. &$e W70 s$ould $old a meeting wit$ t$e communit%
to discuss and decide on eac$ o" t$e issues in t$e FM7. 1% discussing t$ese issues
wit$ t$e communit% and deciding toget$er? t$e% will build su''ort "or eac$ o" t$e
decisions suc$ as "undraising and communit% contributions.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic and
em'$asiOes t$e main issues involved in FM7 develo'ment.
M"&h#(#!#,3
(roup discussion
/ecturrette
1rainstorming
R"'#)rc"'
)lip chart,
arker pens,
asking tape
R"$"r"%c"'
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment? F2442G. &rainer,s 8uide "or #Etension
Worker &raining. /ilongweI MoIW5.
Ministr% o" Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment? F2442G. &rainer,s 8uide "or
W70AHBW0 &raining. /ilongweI MoIW5.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
Issues involved in develo'ing a Facilit% Management 7lan
K"3 W#r('
Facilit%
Management 7lan
Prerequisite &no'ledge
Time Required
34 minutes
Additional information
M#()!" 3+ Gr#)4 Or,a%-'a&-#%
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module is aimed at introducing conce'ts o" leaders$i'?
resolving an% arising con<icts? mobiliOing communities and
conducting meetings. It also 'resents essentials elements in
organisation structure. &$e module recognises t$e d%namism in
$uman be$aviour.
&$e module will e:ui' t$e 1o& team wit$ knowledge and skills to
'rovide sound leaders$i'? management o" con<icts and mobiliOation
o" communities. &$e knowledge and skills ac:uired will $el' t$em
carr% out t$eir res'onsibilities and "unctions e;ectivel%.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 7rovide e;ective leaders$i' in t$e management o" t$e WU( structure
2. esolve and manage con<icts amicabl%
3. 0onduct meetings in an orderl% and 'ro"essional manner.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
&$is module $as "our to'ics. #ac$ to'ic $as an introduction? met$odologies?
learning resources? content? summar% and re"erences. &$e introduction 'rovides an
overview o" and justi6cation "or learning t$e to'ics. &$e met$odologies and
(t t$e end o" eac$ to'ic t$ere are notes "or t$e "acilitator to use. &$e notes contain
areas o" em'$asis and ke% words in t$e to'ic? t$e trainees, assumed 'rior
S0-!!'
It is eE'ected t$at at t$e end o" t$e module? 'artici'ants will ac:uire t$e "ollowing
skills:
7roviding leaders$i'
Managing con<icts
Mobilising communities $
C#%&"%&'
&$e module covers t$e "ollowing to'ics:
/eaders$i'
0on<ict Management and 'roblem solving
0ommunit% Mobilisation and team building
0onduct o" meetings
C#%&"%&
T#4-c *+ L"a("r'h-4
I%&r#()c&-#%
/eaders$i' is growt$. /eaders w$o carr% leaders$i' res'onsibilit% grow in man%
wa%s as t$e% are trained and given am'le o''ortunit% to 'artici'ate or $el' in
'rogrammes. &$e% grow in t$ings t$e% can do? in understanding in doing w$at t$e%
undertake better? and in t$eir attitude? 'erce'tion and interest towards t$eir own
surrounding environment and t$e 'roblems in t$eir localit% or organisation.
5i;erent kinds o" leaders$i' abilit% are needed to carr% out tasks. It is o" vital
im'ortance t$at leaders s$ould understand t$eir leaders$i' roles in t$e set u' t$e%
are in.
7eo'le agree to take leaders$i' jobs "or di;erent reasons. !ome want to $el' ot$er
'eo'leI ot$ers "eel t$e% $ave a res'onsibilit%. !ome "eel it is a good wa% "or t$em
to learn. For w$atever reason t$e% become leaders? i" t$e% are to be success"ul in
t$eir leaders$i'? t$e% must be trained? recognised and t$anked.
In t$is to'ic? t$e 'artici'ants will be e:ui''ed wit$ knowledge and skills 'rovide
e;ective leaders$i' in t$e management o" t$eir Water Users (ssociation.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne leaders$i'
2. 5escribe :ualities o" a good leader
3. #E'lain "unctions o" a leader
). 5escribe leaders$i' st%les
*. #E'lain advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent leaders$i' st%les
D"7%-&-#% #$ !"a("r'h-4
Activit (
!te'1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e meaning o" leaders$i'.
!te'2: 5iscuss t$e meaning o" leaders$i'
!te'3:Facilitator consolidates t$e de6nition and 'rovides t$e meaning o"
leaders$i'.
L"a("r'h-4+
5i;erent 'eo'le de6ne leaders$i' di;erentl%. &$e "ollowing are some o" t$e
de6nitions:
( 'rocess in w$ic$ an individual takes initiative to assist a grou' to move towards
'roduction goals t$at are acce'table to maintain t$e grou'.
( 'rocess o" in<uencing t$e activities and be$aviours o" an individual or a grou'
in e;orts towards ac$ieving a goal.
(bilit% to make decisions t$at 'eo'le can listen to and act u'on.
es'onsibilit%? not 'ower.
;)a!-&-"' a%( F)%c&-#%' #$ a L"a("r
Activit %
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e :ualities o" a good leader
!te' 2: 5iscuss :ualities o" a good leader
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates t$e :ualities o" a good leader
L"a("r'h-4 ;)a!-&-"'
( leader must 'ossess certain :ualities? w$ic$ will enable $im to in<uence?
motivate? and direct ot$ers in order to ac$ieve t$e intended goals. !ome o" t$em
include t$e "ollowing:
( $ig$ sense o" dut% K dedicated to dut% and read% to work outside $ours
1eing im'artial K eEercise "airness and 6rmness to all grou' members? t$us
men? women? bo%s and girls? including t$e vulnerable and t$e marginaliOed.
/ove and interest "or $is A $er work.
!ound judgment and courage
Initiative and $ig$ 'ower o" insig$t
Firmness? sel" control and abilit% to command disci'line
(bilit% to get ot$ers to coo'erate wit$ $im or $er in 'er"orming a taskFsG.
1e committed to t$e 'ur'ose o" t$e association
5elegate duties "reel%
1e able to miE "reel% wit$ ot$er members o" t$e association and t$e general
'ublic.
L"a("r'h-4 S&3!"'
Activit )
!te' 1: !'lit t$e 'artici'ants into grou's and discuss di;erent leaders$i'
st%les t$e% know.
!te' 2: /et t$e 'artici'ants re'ort t$eir work in 'lenar% "or discussion.
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates t$e discussions and 'rovides a summar% o"
leaders$i' st%les.
&$ere are di;erent leaders$i' st%les t$at a leader can ado't. &$ere is no one st%le
t$at one can ado't because leaders$i' is situational. &$ere"ore t$e leaders$i' st%le
one ado'ts de'ends on t$e situation one is in. &$ese are t$e t%'es o" leaders$i'
st%les:
Dictatorial *eadership +tle
&$is is also re"erred to as (utocratic or (ut$oritarian leaders$i'. Wit$ t$is st%le t$e
leader makes decisions and im'oses t$em on t$e grou' members. Be or s$e allows
little or no discussions or contributions "rom t$e rest o" t$e grou' members.
(dvantages
5ecisions are made 'rom'tl% as no time is wasted in soliciting ot$er members,
views. &$is is most a''licable in crisis situations.
It is e;ective in 'roducing results since because subjects are "orced.
5isadvantages
&$e leader bene6ts more t$an t$e ot$er members.
It su''resses t$e grou' members "rom being initiative and creative.
It limits growt$ o" t$e members, con6dence and skills.
5ictatorial leaders$i' s$ould not be encouraged in t$e management o" t$e WU(s
as it creates $ostilit%? aggression and discontent t$at do not a''ear on t$e sur"ace.
Democratic *eadership +tle
&$is is also re"erred to as 7artici'ator% leaders$i'. It ensures t$at all grou'
members are involved in decision@making.
(dvantages
It 'romotes good relations$i's among grou' members.
8rou' members are em'owered to be mature and res'onsible.
It 'romotes resource"ulness? creativit% and res'onsibilit%.
It en$ances grou' members, 'artici'ation in decision@making.
5isadvantages
( lot o" time is s'ent on decision@making? and im'lementation o" activities is
dela%ed.
&$e 5emocratic leaders$i' st%le s$ould be encouraged.
*aisse,-Faire *eadership +tle
/aisseO@"aire is a Frenc$ term w$ic$? w$en translated literar%? means =/et 'eo'le
do w$at t$e% wis$>. It is also re"erred to as 7assive leaders$i'. &$ere is com'lete
"reedom "or individual or grou' decisions. &$is leaders$i' st%le does not lead to an%
ac$ievement o" intended goals or objectives o" an organisation.
(dvantages
It onl% satis6es t$e ego F'ersonalG needs o" t$e individual members and not "or
t$e organisation.
5isadvantages
&$ere is no sense o" direction
&asks are not accom'lis$ed eJcientl%
#Eistence o" t$e grou' cannot be sustained and in most cases t$e results are
c$aotic.
&$is t%'e o" leaders$i' s$ould not be encouraged.
&$ere are usuall% "ew leaders w$o 6t into onl% one o" t$ese categories. Most
leaders o"ten combine di;erent st%les de'ending on a given situation.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ics? invites :uestions "rom
t$e 'artici'ants and clari6es t$e 'oints? em'$asiOing on de6nition o" leaders$i'?
:ualities and "unctions a leader? di;erent leaders$i' st%les including t$e
advantages and disadvantages o" eac$ st%le.
R"$"r"%c"'
1isika? D.D. F133)G. *chool Organisation, administration and leadership: +hat head
teachers should know. 5omasi: Malawi Institute o" #ducation.
Ministr% o" 8ender Rout$ and 0ommunit% !ervices F2442G "mod,i ndi -hindu:
anual for Training .ntrepreneurs in .nterprise Development, *econd .dition.
/ilongwe: Ministr% o" 8ender Rout$ and 0ommunit% !ervices.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Methodolog
1rainstorming
/ecturette
8rou' discussions
ole 'la%
Resources
Fli' c$arts
Markers
Areas of -mphasis
/eaders$i' :ualities
/eaders$i' st%les re:uired "or an e;ective WU( o'eration.
&e "ords
/eader
/eaders$i'
/eaders$i' st%les
&$e 'artici'ants must $ave 'revious knowledge and eE'erience in working in
grou's? and $ow di;erent leaders $ave eEercised t$eir skills as leaders.
Time Required
2 $ours
T#4-c 2+ C#%<-c& Ma%a,"."%& a%( Pr#!". S#!2-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
0on<icts are said to be 'art o" $uman li"e. &$e% arise w$en t$ere are
disagreements between two 'eo'le? among several 'eo'le? or between grou's o"
'eo'le. 0on<icts bring bot$ 'ositive and negative conse:uences "or t$ose involved
and "or ot$ers w$o are not 'art o" t$e con<ict. Bowever? con<icts mostl% result I
sour relations$i's and in eEtreme cases in '$%sical and emotional $arm. &o avoid
t$e negative conse:uences t$at con<icts ma% bring? it is im'ortant to 'revent
t$em "rom occurring. W$ere t$e% arise? t$e% must be dealt wit$ immediatel%.
In t$is to'ic? 'artici'ants will be e:ui''ed wit$ knowledge and skills t$at t$e% will
need to manage an% con<icts? and solve 'roblems t$at ma% arise in t$e running o"
t$eir Water Users (ssociation
L"ar%-%, O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne a con<ict
2. Identi"% "actors leading to con<icts
3. #E'lain wa%s o" resolving con<icts
). /ist t$e conse:uences o" not resolving con<icts
*. #E'lain ste's in 'roblem solving
D"7%-&-#% #$ C#%<-c&
Activit (
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to buOO in 'airs and come u' wit$ t$eir de6nition o" t$e
term =0on<ict>.
!te' 2: (sk 'artici'ants to s$are A 'resent in 'lenar% t$eir discussions
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates t$e de6nitions o" t$e term =0on<ict>
( con<ict can be de6ned as a di;erence in goals? objectives? interests or
eE'ectations between individuals or grou's. It can arise w$en di;erent views are
not satis"actoril% resolved. 0on<ict is a use"ul 'art o" $uman activit% and can
t$ere"ore not be avoided in some cases. It must be noted t$at t$ese di;erences
can be $ealt$% as long as t$e% are eE'ressed in a 'ositive wa% t$at $el's to
ac$ieve t$e goals o" an organisation.
Fac&#r' !"a(-%, &# C#%<-c&' a%( Wa3' #$ r"'#!2-%, &h".
Activit %
!te' 1: 8et 'artici'ants into grou's and discuss cases w$ere t$e% witnessed or
eE'erienced a con<ict.
!te' 2: (sk t$e 'artici'ants to identi"% in t$eir grou's t$e "actors t$at lead to
con<icts? t$eir conse:uences and wa%s o" resolving t$em.
!te' 3: (sk t$e 'artici'ants to 'resent t$eir work in 'lenar% "or discussion.
!te' ): Facilitator consolidates t$e 'artici'ants, res'onses and 'rovides
in"ormation on t$e "actors leading to con<icts? t$eir conse:uences and wa%s
to resolve t$em.
&$ere are man% "actors t$at can lead to con<icts in an organisation. &$e "ollowing
are some o" t$em:
0om'etition "or resources
/ack o" res'ect and love "or one anot$er
0ontem't o" one anot$er
Dealous%
/ack o" tolerance and 'atience
/ack o" o'enness Fnot being trans'arentG
7oor communication
5issatis"action wit$ leaders$i' st%le
&$ere are several wa%s o" resolving con<icts. &$e% include negotiation? arbitration?
mediation? guidance and counselling? and tolerance.
Consequences of not resolving con.icts
I" con<icts are le"t unresolved t$e% ma% lead to serious conse:uences. !uc$
include:
5emoraliOed communit% and committee members
educed coo'eration among organisations members
Irres'onsible be$aviors like 6g$ting?
5is'utes
Pr#!". S#!2-%,
Activit )
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to list some o" t$e 'roblems t$e% $ave eE'erienced in
t$eir communities? and eE'lain $ow t$e% resolved t$em.
!te' 2: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e ste's involved to solve t$e
'roblems t$e% eE'erienced
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates 'artici'ants res'onses and t$en eE'lains t$e
ste's involved in 'roblem solving.
&$e "ollowing ste's are involved in t$e 'rocess o" solving 'roblems:
Identi"% t$e 'roblem
5e6ne t$e 'roblem Funderstand t$e 'roblem K state eEactl% w$at t$e 'roblem is?
"or w$ic$ a solution needs to be "oundG
Identi"% and consider all 'ossible alternatives F7roblem anal%sisG K list all t$e
'ossible outcomes? 'ositives and negatives o" eac$ o'tion? or eac$ course o"
action t$at could be taken. Make sure %ou $ave correct and "ull in"ormation at t$is
'oint.
0onsider 'ersonal and "amil% values in relation to t$e o'tion to be taken. Most o"
our values come "rom t$e training we receive at $ome. Ot$ers come "rom our
"riends and societ%. 0onsider w$et$er eac$ o'tion is consistent wit$ %our 'ersonal
and communit% values.
0onsider t$e im'act o" t$e o'tion on ot$er 'eo'le. F8etting organiOedG K Our
decisions a;ect man% 'eo'le w$o are im'ortant to us and t$ink about t$e e;ect
o" eac$ o'tion on t$ese 'eo'le.
0$oose one alternative F7lanning w$at to doG K ("ter care"ull% weig$ing eac$
o'tion? c$oose t$e one t$at seems most a''ro'riate based on %our knowledge?
values? morals? religious u'bringing? 'resent and "uture goals? and t$e im'act o"
t$ese o'tions on t$e 'eo'le.
Im'lement t$e decision F0arr% out t$e activit%G K &$e selected course o" action
s$ould be im'lemented as 'lanned
0arr% out an evaluation K discuss t$oroug$l% w$at $as been done? ac$ieved?
lessons learnt and "uture 'lans.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic? em'$asiOing on "actors
t$at lead to con<icts? conse:uences o" not resolving con<icts and wa%s o" resolving
t$em. It is also im'ortant t$at t$e "acilitator summarises t$e ste's involved in
'roblem solving. (sk 'artici'ants :uestions to test t$eir understanding o" t$e to'ic.
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
8rou' discussions
ole 'la%
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts
Markers
R"$"r"%c"'
hlanga, A.*. et al /01123. 4ife skills: Teacher5s (uide for forms 6 and 0.'lantyre:
acmillan alawi.
M$langa? (.!. et al F2442G. 4ife skills .ducation: *tudent5s 'ook 7 and 8.1lant%re:
Macmillan Malawi.
Ministr% o" 8ender Rout$ and 0ommunit% !ervices F2442G "mod,i ndi -hindu:
anual for Training .ntrepreneurs in .nterprise Development, *econd .dition.
/ilongwe: Ministr% o" 8ender Rout$ and 0ommunit% !ervices.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'"'
&$e "acilitator must em'$asiOe on:
Factors leading to con<icts and wa%s o" solving t$em.
&$e ste's involved 'roblem solving
K"3 W#r('
0on<ict
0on<ict management
7roblem solving
7artici'ants must $ave been involved in con<icts o" di;erent t%'es and
eE'erienced 'roblems in t$eir da% to da% lives.
Time Required
1 $our 34 minutes
T#4-c *+ C#..)%-&3 M#-!-'a&-#% a%( T"a. B)-!(-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
#E'erience $as s$own t$at at "oremost in t$e minds o" 'eo'le is t$e realisation o"
tangible results o" t$e develo'mental initiatives. Bowever? t$e im'ortant as'ect in
ac$ieving sustainable develo'ment is a $idden 'rocess o" communit% mobilisation
t$at ensures c$ange o" mindset and sustainable social trans"ormation. 0ommunit%
mobilisation t$ere"ore ensures en$ancement o" t$e teac$ing o" a range o" basic
skills to t$e communit% members so as to stimulate t$e continuous involvement in
t$e develo'ment 'rocess as well as im'rove contact between aut$orities and
communities.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne t$e term communit% mobilisation
2. #E'lain ste's to "ollow in communit% mobilisation
3. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" team building
D"7%-&-#% #$ C#..)%-&3 M#-!-'a&-#%
Activit (
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e term =0ommunit% Mobilisation>
!te' 2: Facilitator consolidates t$e 'artici'ants, res'onses b% giving t$e
de6nition o" =0ommunit% Mobilisation>
0ommunit% Mobilisation is a 'rocess w$ereb% communit% members t$emselves get
organised t$roug$ t$eir local structures and leaders "or a common goal. It begins
wit$ awareness creation o" 'eo'les, own social? 'olitical and economic situations
leading to communit% action. 0ommunities discuss t$eir 'roblems? 'rioritise t$em?
6nd t$eir root causes? anal%se causal relations$i's? decide to take grou' action?
'lan res'onsibilities? monitor and evaluate t$eir actions based on grou' objectives.
S&"4' -% C#..)%-&3 M#-!-'a&-#% a%( T"a. B)-!(-%,
Activit %
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to discuss in grou's t$e ste's t$e% "ollow to mobilise
communities
!te' 2: 7artici'ants 'resent t$eir grou' work "or discussion
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidates 'artici'ants, res'onses and eE'lain t$e ste's
in 0ommunit% Mobilisation
0ommunit% mobilisation involves t$e "ollowing ste's:
C#..)%-&3 E%&r3 K &$is is a 'rocess o" introducing t$e services o" an
organisation suc$ as t$e WU(. &$is "ormalises t$e 'rocess o" communit% entr%
and gaining aut$orit% and consensus to work wit$ t$e communit%. It sim'l%
means making a courtes% call to traditional c$ie"s and ot$er communit% leaders
w$ere t$e% are brie"ed about t$e mission? objectives and res'onsibilities.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 C#..)%-&3 A44ra-'a! K &$is is a 'rocess o" gat$ering baseline
in"ormation about t$e communit% like its $istor%? culture as well as social and
economic as'ects t$at in<uence its wellbeing.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 P!a%%-%, K &$is is w$ere 'roblems and o''ortunities o" a
communit% are re<ected on and strategies are develo'ed to address 'riorit%
'roblems. &$is is im'ortant because it ensures maEimum communit%
'artici'ation? owners$i' and sustainabilit% o" develo'ment activities.
I.4!"."%&a&-#% K &$is is w$ere 'lans are translated into action in order to
realise intended resultsA out'uts t$at will trans"orm t$e communit%. #;ective
im'lementation re:uires maEimum communit% 'artici'ation o" all stake$olders in
t$e mobilisation and 'ro'er use o" resources. &$is is w$ere "ull 'artici'ation o" all
members o" t$e communit% s$ould be encouraged in ac$ieving t$e 'roject
objectives. (t t$e same time? regular communit% meetings "or disseminating
in"ormation on t$e 'roject A activit% '$%sical and 6nancial 'rogress s$ould be
encouraged to avoid sus'icions and "or accountabilit% and trans'arenc%.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 M#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#% K 0ommunit% members s$ould take
a leading role in t$is 'rocess. &$is is "ollowing u' 'lanned activities against w$at
$as been ac$ieved. &$is 'rocess is im'ortant because it enables communit%
members to identi"% successes u'on w$ic$ t$e% can build u'on as well as
bottlenecks "or remedial action.
T"a. B)-!(-%,
Activit )
!te' 1: Facilitator eE'lains to t$e 'artici'ants t$at communit% mobilisation
involves team building.
!te' 2 Facilitator tells t$em t$at t$e% will observe a game related to team
building:
Identi"% 6ve c$airs and 'lace t$em at one 'lace
(sk one 'artici'ant to move t$e c$airs one b% one to anot$er 'lace
(sk anot$er 'artici'ant to record t$e time taken to com'lete t$e 'rocess
7ut t$e c$airs back to t$eir original 'osition
&$en ask 6ve 'artici'ants to take t$e c$airs one eac$? to t$e same 'lace
as t$e 6rst one.
(sk anot$er 'artici'ant to record t$e time taken to com'lete t$e 'rocess
0om'are t$e time taken in bot$ instances.
!te' 3: (sk 'artici'ants to discuss w$at t$e% $ave observed in t$e game? and
w$at it teac$es t$em about working as a team.
!te' ): Facilitator consolidates 'artici'ants, res'onses and eE'lains t$e
im'ortance o" team building and $ow team building can be ac$ieved
&eam building is a 'rocess o" taking a collection o" individuals wit$ di;erent needs?
backgrounds and eE'ertise and trans"orming t$e b% various met$ods into an
integrated? e;ective work unit. It is an organised e;ort wit$ t$e 'ur'ose and "ocus
to im'rove grou' e;ectiveness. &$ere"ore team work occurs w$en grou's are able
to work eJcientl% and e;ectivel% toget$er to ac$ieve organisational goals.
=#/ &# ach-"2" T"a. B)-!(-%,
&eam building can be ac$ieved t$roug$ t$e "ollowing wa%s:
&$ere s$ould be common sense o" 'ur'ose and clear understanding o" t$e team,s
objectives.
&$ere s$ould be mutual su''ort and $el'ing eac$ develo' and grow individual
strengt$s
Matc$ing individuals to t$e team activities "or w$ic$ t$e% are best suited
Identi"% ent$usiastic? committed team members? w$o are involved and
'artici'ative.
#ncourage "eedback w$en t$e team $as develo'ed some co$esion? and sto'
criticism at t$e earliest 'ossible time.
#nsure t$ere is e;ective communication t$roug$ regular meetings o" t$e team
wit$out an% disturbances.
es'ect "or eac$ ot$er among team members bot$ as individuals and "or t$e
contribution eac$ makes to t$e team,s 'er"ormance.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic. #m'$asis s$ould be
made on t$e ste's involved in communit% mobiliOation and wa%s o" ac$ieving team
building. It is also im'ortant to stress on t$e im'ortance o" team building in
managing a WU(.
R"$"r"%c"'
9 'isika, :: /6;;83. *chool Organisation, Administration and 4eadership: +hat 9eadteachers
should know. Domasi: alawi %nstitute of .ducation.
inistry of (ender, <hild +elfare and <ommunity *ervices /011=3. <ommunity obili,ation
(uidelines for .>tension +orkers. 4ilongwe: inistry of (ender, <hild +elfare and
<ommunity *ervices.
(overnment of alawi /undated3. Training anual for Team 'uilding and anagement in
4ocal Authorities. 4ilongwe: (overnment of alawi.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
0ommunit% mobiliOation and ste's involved
&eam building and its bene6ts
K"3 W#r('
0ommunit% mobiliOation
&eam building
7artici'ants $ave 'reviousl% been working in grou's or teams and $ave
eE'erienced w$at it "eels to work in a team.
Time Required
2 $ours
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrete
1rainstorming
8rou' discussion
R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts
Markers
A((-&-#%a! -%$#r.a&-#%
Th" "%"7&' #$ &"a. /#r0 -%c!)("+
&$e% bring toget$er com'lementar% skills and eE'eriences t$at b% de6nition
eEceed t$ose o" an% individual in t$e team.
#nables joint develo'ment o" goals and a''roac$es
7romote t$e establis$ment o" communication links t$at su''ort real time 'roblem
solving and initiative.
7rovide a uni:ue social dimension t$at en$ances t$e economic and
administrative as'ects o" work.
&$e likel% results o" e;ective team work include:
1etter solutions
Increased knowledge
1etter use o" resources
Increased 'roductivit%
UtiliOation o" collective wisdom? knowledge? eE'erience and in"ormation o" a
broad base o" 'eo'le.
W$en 'eo'le 'ool t$eir skills? knowledge and talents t$e% accom'lis$ more.
Barr-"r' &# T"a. B)-!(-%, ">#r&'
5i;ering outlooks? 'riorities? interests and judgments o" team members K &eam
members s$ould concentrate on w$at is good "or t$e 'roject above t$eir own
interest areas. Failure to do so? severe 'roblems develo' in building an e;ective
team.
ole 0on<ict K ole con<icts are most likel% to occur w$en t$ere is no clari6cation
on w$o does w$at wit$in t$e Organisation,s team and between t$e team and
eEternal su''ort team grou'. e.g. -8Os
/ack o" clarit% o" t$e Organisation,s objectives K I" objectives are not eE'licit it
becomes diJcult and im'ossible to clearl% de6ne role and res'onsibilities.
/ack o" team members, commitment
7oor communication K Unless t$ere is good communication among team
members? between t$e 'roject leader and team members and between t$e team
and su''ort grou's? t$ere cannot be an e;ective team building.
T#4-c ?+ C#%()c&-%, .""&-%,'
I%&r#()c&-#%
0onducting meetings is one o" t$e vital as'ects o" running an% organisation.
Meetings serve various 'ur'oses at all levels o" management. (s members o" t$e
1oard o" &rustees? it is eE'ected t$at t$e% will be involved in conducting and
'artici'ating in regular meetings. &$is to'ic t$ere"ore aims at introducing t$e
'artici'ants to t$e conce't and im'ortance o" conducting meetings. It will also
e:ui' t$em wit$ knowledge and skills t$e% will re:uire in order to conduct meetings
e;ectivel%.
L"ar%-%, O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne a meeting
2. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" meetings
3. !tate t$e "re:uenc% o" conducting meetings
). #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" taking minutes during meetings
*. 5escribe general conduct o" members during meetings
D"7%-&-#% #$ &h" &"r. @.""&-%,A
Activit (
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e meaning o" t$e term =meeting>.
!te' 2: Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses "rom t$e 'artici'ants and
'rovides t$e meaning o" t$e term =meeting>.
( meeting is t$e coming toget$er o" a number o" 'eo'le at a 'articular time and
'lace wit$ an aim to discuss issues 'ertaining to t$eir develo'ment goals.
I.4#r&a%c" #$ a .""&-%,
Ac&-2-&3 2
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to eE'lain w$at kind o" meetings t$e% $ave attended
be"ore and w$at eE'eriences t$e% $ave "rom t$e meetings t$e% attended. &$e
"ollowing guiding :uestions can be used:
W$at kind o" meeting did %ou attendP
W$at was t$e 'ur'ose o" t$e meetingP
Bow were %ou invitedP
Bow was t$e meeting conductedP
W$at observations did %ou make out o" t$e meetingP
!te' 2: (sk 'artici'ants to get into grou's and discuss t$e im'ortance o" a
meeting.
!te' 3: Facilitator consolidated t$e res'onses "rom 'artici'ants and eE'lains t$e
im'ortance o" a meeting.
Meetings are im'ortant "or t$e "ollowing reasons:
It is a means o" communication.
It gives ot$er members c$ance to 'artici'ate in decision making and working out
im'lementation 'rocedures.
It 'romotes unit% and co$esion o" grou' members.
It 'rovides immediate c$ecks on members, reaction to 'ro'osals.
It $el's to get ot$er members, o'inions.
Fr"8)"%c3 #$ C#%()c&-%, M""&-%,' a%( I.4#r&a%c" #$ &a0-%, M-%)&"'
Ac&-2-&3 2+
!te' 1: (sk 'artici'ants to brainstorm $ow regular meetings can be conducted.
!te' 2: (sk 'artici'ants to ole 7la% wit$ instructions as below:
Identi"% eig$t F2G 'eo'le to 're'are t$e role 'la%.
&$e role 'la% s$ould indicate a c$air'erson "acilitating a meeting t$at $as
no agenda w$ere s$eA$e looks not knowing w$at to do and t$ere are no
records o" t$e 'revious meeting. 1esides t$ere is no one to take down
minutes o" t$e meeting and some o" t$e members conduct t$emselves in
unbecoming manner.
!te' 3: (sk 'artici'ants to discuss t$e role 'la% using t$e "ollowing guiding
:uestions:
W$at were %our observationsP
5oes t$is $a''en during meetingsP
W$at can be done to im'rove t$e meeting 'rocedureP
!te' ): (sk 'artici'ants to discuss t$e im'ortance o" taking minutes during
meetings.
!te' *: Facilitator consolidates t$e res'onses "rom 'artici'ants and eE'lains t$e
wa%s o" conducting meeting 'roceedings and im'ortance o" taking minutes
during meetings.
Minutes are im'ortant "or t$e "ollowing reasons:
&$e% are re"erence materials and records "or w$at was discussed during t$e
'revious meeting.
&$e% are a guide "or 'ro'er decision making.
&$e% "orm a basis "or t$e neEt meeting.
&$e% 'rovide in"ormation "or management "ollow u'.
&$e c$air'erson s$ould make sure t$at t$e "ollowing are available be"ore
conducting a meeting:
Meeting (genda K an outline o" w$at is to be discussed and $ow it is to be done.
Members ma% contribute to t$e agenda. &$e agenda s$ould allowance "or an%
ot$er business F(O1G so t$at members ma% bring u' ot$er issues. &$e agenda
s$ould be known at@least t$ree to "our da%s be"ore t$e meeting to all member.
!ecretar% K &$e secretar% "or t$e meeting s$ould be known in advance so t$at
$eAs$e s$ould be 're'ared.
9uorum K Usuall% it is acce'table t$at i" two t$irds o" t$e members? including t$e
c$air'erson? are 'resent t$e meeting can take 'lace.
5uring t$e meeting? t$e c$air'erson $as to 6rst call t$e meeting to order b%
welcoming members? t$e da%s, agenda is 'resented and ado'ted wit$ additions? i"
an%? "rom members? making a roll call? announcing a'ologies? asking t$e secretar%
to read minutes o" t$e 'revious meeting and a''roval o" t$e 'revious minutes.
&$erea"ter? t$e items on t$e agenda are discussed. (ll matters t$at were not on
t$e agenda are discussed during an% ot$er business F(O1G. Finall%? members
agree on t$e date and venue "or t$e neEt meeting w$ic$ s$ould be recorded in t$e
minutes.
&$e c$air'erson s$ould make sure t$at t$e meeting is conducted in an orderl%
manner w$ere members are given a c$ance to contribute t$eir views. (n%
misconduct or unbecoming be$aviours s$ould be re'rimanded and be 'ut under
control "or "ruit"ul deliberations and decisions. It is o" vital im'ortance to
im'lement t$e decisions made at a meeting ot$erwise it ma% just be a useless
gat$ering. &$e c$air'erson s$ould ensure t$at decisions t$at are not im'lemented?
an eE'lanation s$ould be given. &$e secretar% s$ould be given time limit to
'roduce and circulate t$e minutes wit$ t$e guidance o" t$e c$air'erson.
S)..ar3
Facilitator summariOes t$e main 'oints covered in t$e to'ic and em'$asiOes wa%s
o" conducting meeting 'roceedings and im'ortance o" taking minutes during
meetings. It s$ould also be noted t$at t$e conduct o" t$e members during t$e
meeting $as an im'act on t$e results o" t$e meeting.
R"$"r"%c"'
'isika, :.:. /6;;83. *chool organisation, Administration and 4eadership: +hat 9eadteachers
should know. Domasi? alawi %nstitute of .ducation.
A*A) /011=3. Trainer5s (uide for <ommunity -ro@ect anagement Training. 4ilongwe:
A*A).
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
&$e "acilitator must em'$asiOe on:
Factors leading to con<icts and wa%s o" solving t$em.
&$e ste's involved 'roblem solving
K"3 W#r('
0on<ict
0on<ict management
7roblem solving
Pr"r"8)-'-&" K%#/!"(,"
7artici'ants must $ave been involved in con<icts o" di;erent t%'es and
eE'erienced 'roblems in t$eir da% to da% lives.
Time Required
1 $our 34 minutes
M#()!" ?+ Pr#1"c& Ma%a,"."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module is designed to $el' members o" 1o& to e;ectivel% design? 'lan and
eEecute 'rojects in t$e most e;ective and economical manner. &$e module will
$el' 1o& e;ectivel% im'lement water su''l% and sanitation 'rojects wit$in t$eir
communit%? and be able to conduct monitoring and evaluation in order to gauge
im'lementation 'rogress and t$e value o" t$e 'roject.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is module? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to 'lan? im'lement? monitor
and evaluate water su''l% and sanitation 'rojects and activities wit$in t$eir
communities.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction? rationale and learning objectives. &$e stud%
material "ollows wit$ activities w$ic$ are based on t$e stud% material and
comments on t$e activities. #ac$ to'ic ends wit$ a test %oursel" eEercise t$at
enables %ou to c$eck w$et$er %ou $ave ac$ieved t$e objectives w$ic$ we set at
t$e beginning o" t$e to'ic or not. #ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be used to
ac$ieve t$e intended outcomes and t$e material resources re:uired to ac$ieve t$e
learning objectives.
S0-!!'
(bilit% to identi"% and im'lement communit% 'rojects wit$in t$eir communities.
(bilit% to collect and anal%se and re'ort date
(bilit% to carr% out monitoring and evaluation eEercises $
T#4-c *+ S&"44"( A44r#ach
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic aims at introducing 'artici'ants to t$e ste''ed a''roac$ and $ow it can
be used to establis$ rural 'i'ed water su''l% and sanitation s%stems in market
centres. 0once'ts in t$is to'ic can be linked wit$ t$e 'roject c%cle? es'eciall%
during 'roject identi6cation. &$e to'ic is im'ortant because t$e ste''ed a''roac$
$as been 'ro'osed to be used in t$e 'rovision o" water and sanitation services in
t$e market centres. It also $el's to build ca'acities o" local communities in
develo'ing and managing water su''l% and sanitation s%stems.
L"ar%-%, O1"c&-2"'
'y the end of this topic, participants should be able to:
5e6ne ste''ed a''roac$
5escribe t$e ste''ed a''roac$ in 'roject im'lementation
#E'lain advantages and disadvantages o" ste''ed a''roac$
D"7%-&-#% #$ S&"44"( A44r#ach
Activit (
S&"4 *+ (sk t$e 'artici'ants w$at t$e% know about ste''ed a''roac$ to
develo'ment.
S&"4 2: !ummarise t$e 'artici'ant,s contributions.
S&"4 3+ &$e "acilitator s$ould 'rovide a detailed de6nition and 'ur'ose o"
t$e ste''ed a''roac$.
EB4!a%a&-#% #$ &h" S&"44"( A44r#ach
S&"4 *+ Facilitator s$ould 'rovide a lecturrete o" t$e ) ste's in t$e ste''ed
a''roac$ to 'roject im'lementation? and w$at is involved at eac$ stage.
S&"4 2+ 9uestion and (nswer session w$ere "acilitator asks t$e 'artici'ants
to eE'lain $ow muc$ t$e% $ave understood "rom t$e lecturrete? and
res'onds to t$eir :uestions "or clari6cation.
A(2a%&a,"' a%( D-'a(2a%&a,"' #$ &h" S&"44"( A44r#ach
S&"4 *+ Facilitator s$ould ask 'artici'ants to discuss t$e 'ossible
advantages and disadvantages o" t$e ste''ed a''roac$.
S)..ar3
In t$is to'ic? t$e conce't o" t$e ste''ed a''roac$ $as been introduced? wit$
s'eci6c attention to its de6nition? ste's and an eE'loration o" its advantages and
disadvantages.
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
8rou' discussions
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
)lip <harts
/05 7rojector
Band outs
Markers and 'ens
R"$"r"%c"'
o%+D /01123 -ro@ect Appraisal DocumentABational +ater Development -ro@ect %%.
4ilongwe. alawi. /"npublished3
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
&$e 'rocess o" enabling communities to develo' t$eir water su''l% and sanitation
"acilities in stages? moving a$ead as t$e% build t$eir management ca'acit%.
P)r4#'" #$ &h" '&"44"( a44r#ach
( ste''ed a''roac$ $as been ado'ted "or market centre and rural 'i'ed water
su''l% and sanitation in order to allow eac$ communit% to move at its own 'ace
and receive "urt$er assistance w$en read%. W1s? in consultation wit$ t$e district
assembl% and MIW5 will assist t$ese communities to 'lan? develo'? and o'erate
t$eir water su''l% and sanitation s%stems.
( ste''ed a''roac$ at communit% level $as t$ere"ore been ado'ted to ensure t$at
onl% t$ose communities t$at are willing to "ul6l t$eir res'onsibilities will bene6t
"rom a 'rogram. &$e a''roac$ ensures t$at scarce 6nancial resources are used
eJcientl% and sustainabl%. (n (''raisal 0ommittee consisting o" MIW5? W1s? and
t$e district assembl% will review and determine eligibilit% to go "rom one ste' to t$e
neEt.
EB4!a%a&-#% #$ &h" '&"4' -% &h" '&"44"( a44r#ach
F&$e trainer s$ould 're'are and distribute a $andout o" t$e !te''ed (''roac$G
&$e ste''ed a''roac$ $as t$e "ollowing ste's:
!&#7 4 egional Water 1oards 'rovide assistance to Market 0entres
!&#7 1 Initial 7lanning and 0a'acit% 1uilding
!&#7 2 1usiness 7lanning and 5esign
!&#7 3 &endering and 0onstruction
!&#7 ) #E'ansion
A(2a%&a,"' a%( D-'a(2a%&a,"' #$ &h" S&"44"( A44r#ach
F&$e trainer s$ould 'ut t$e 'artici'ants into grou's w$ere t$e% s$ould brain storm
on t$e advantages and disadvantages o" t$e ste''ed a''roac$. &$e suggestions
s$ould be matc$ed wit$ t$e "ollowingG
A(2a%&a,"'
It is demand driven in t$at it 'rovides services onl% to t$ose communities t$at are
willing.
#nsures t$at communities $ave develo'ed t$eir management ca'acities be"ore
'roceeding to t$e neEt stage? t$ereb% ensuring better ca'acit% to manage t$e
'rojects.
D-'a(2a%&a,"'
&$ose communities t$at are not organised into "unctional WU( are marginalised.
In a rural set u' it is diJcult to 6nalise all activities sti'ulated in one stage be"ore
moving on to t$e neEt stage.
K"3 /#r('
!te''ed a''roac$
Pr"r"8)-'-&" 0%#/!"(,"
'roject c%cle
T-." r"8)-r"(
2 $ours
A((-&-#%a! -%$#r.a&-#%
S&"4' -% S&"44"( A44r#ach
!&#7 4 egional Water 1oards 'rovide assistance to Market 0entres
!te' 4 involves t$e "ollowing activities:
7re@"easibilit% studies.
!election o" s$ortlisted communities.
(greement on 'roject conditions "or 'artici'ation.
#stablis$ment o" Water User (ssociation.
Biring o" local utilit% o'erator and core o'erating sta;.
!election o" consultant.
Ma-% Cr-&"r-a &# ;)a!-$3 $#r S&"4 *
#stablis$ment o" Water User,s (ssociation.
Biring o" local utilit% o'erator and core o'erating sta;.
!ubmission o" a''lication Fbusiness and investment 'lanG to 'artici'ate
in 'roject.
!&#7 1 Initial 7lanning and 0a'acit% 1uilding
&$e "ollowing activities will be done at !te' 1:
0onduct a baseline surve% and assessment.
0onsult wit$ stake$olders on conditions "or 'artici'ation.
7re'are a 'reliminar% design.
Identi"% immediate service im'rovements.
Ma-% Cr-&"r-a &# ;)a!-$3 $#r S&"4 2
(''lication 6led wit$ baseline surve% and assessment.
!take$older consultations $eld regarding 'rogram re:uirements:
management arrangements? tari;s? and design @ 'articularl% la%out o" t$e
distribution s%stem and t$e location o" individual connections and
communit% stand'i'es.
7reliminar% design com'leted and a''roved.
7ro'osed immediate service im'rovements wit$in 'er ca'ita ceiling and
according to 'ositive list.
!&#7 2 1usiness 7lanning and 5esign
&$e "ollowing activities will be done at !te' 2:
7re'are a business 'lan.
7re'are water su''l% "acilities design and tender documents.
7re'are o'erator 'er"ormance agreement.
7re'are sanitation investment 'lan.
Im'lement immediate im'rovement 'lan "or eEisting "acilities.
1uild t$e ca'acit% o" t$e Water User,s (ssociation and local utilit%
o'erator? introducing im'roved 6nancial management? billingAcollection?
o'erational and monitoring 'rocedures in eEisting s%stems.
Ma-% Cr-&"r-a &# ;)a!-$3 $#r S&"4 3
1e"ore going into !te' 3 t$e "ollowing s$ould $ave been ac$ieved:
- (''roved business 'lan.
- Water User,s (ssociation meeting on sc$edule and trained to manage
water su''l% "acilities.
- /ocal utilit% o'erator trained to manage t$e water su''l% "acilities wit$
o'erational? accounting? 6nancial management? billing and collection?
and monitoring and evaluation s%stems in 'lace.
- 0ost@e;ective? staged designs "or water su''l% "acilities.
- Financial 'rojection s$ows t$at o'erating cas$ revenue covers cas$
eE'enses.
- (greement "or 'rovision "or long term eEternal tec$nical assistance
signed.
- !take$older consultations com'leted.
- Immediate service im'rovements com'leted.
!&#7 3 &endering and 0onstruction
!te'3will $ave t$e "ollowing activities:
7re'are bid documents "or works.
#valuate t$e bids.
e$abilitate and eE'and "acilities.
!u'ervise construction.
1uild t$e ca'acit% o" t$e utilit% o'erator.
(rrange "or long term 'ro"essional su''ort.
0ontinue ca'acit% building o" t$e Water User,s (ssociations and utilit%
o'erator.
Ma-% Cr-&"r-a &# ;)a!-$3 $#r S&"4 ?
- 1usiness 'lan.
- O'erations? 6nancial management? billing and revenue collection C MC#
s%stems in 'lace and eJcient? as con6rmed b% inde'endent audit.
- 0ost recover% tari;s in 'lace "or eEisting s%stem "or recurrent?
re'lacement? and 'art o" eE'ansion costs.
- Utilit% o'erating eJcientl% wit$ ade:uatel% trained tec$nical and 6nancial
sta;? o'erator 'er"ormance contracts signed? and eEternal? $ig$er@level
tec$nical assistance secured.
- Water user (ssociations, 1oard meeting as sc$eduled and e;ectivel%
carr%ing out its oversig$t "unctions.
STEP ? 5 EB4a%'-#% :$#!!#/-%, NWDPIIC
0ombination o" grants? commercial loans and internall% generated "unds
"or staged eE'ansion
T#4-c 2+ Pr#1"c& c3c!"
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will 'rovide a general overview o" t$e 'roject c%cle. It will 'rovide t$e
'artici'ants wit$ knowledge o" t$e stages in 'roject c%cle? and t$e ke% "eatures o" a
'roject. 0ommunities in t$e market centres will be re:uired to "orm WU(s "or
'rovision o" water and sanitation services. It is t$ere"ore im'ortant t$at t$e 1o&
$ave t$e basic knowldge o" t$e 'roject c%cle in order to e;ectivel% im'lement
'rojects t$at will en$ance t$e sustainabilit% o" t$e establis$ed water su''l%
s%stem.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne w$at a 'roject is? including its major "eatures
2. 5e6ne t$e 'roject c%cle? its major stages and actors
3. 5escribe t$e linkage between t$e 'roject c%cle and t$e 'rocesses o" monitoring
and evaluation.
). Markers
*. /05 'rojector
+. 7re'are $andouts and <i' c$art 'resentations in advance
C#%&"%&
5e6nition o" a 'roject
Me% Features o" a 7roject
5e6nition o" a 'roject c%cle
5escri'tion o" stages o" 'roject c%cle
Major #lements o" 7roject 5esign
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as de6ned a 'roject and t$e 'roject c%cle. It $as "urt$er outlined t$e ke%
"eatures? as well as major elements o" a 'roject. (n attem't $as also been made to
describe t$e various stages o" t$e 'roject c%cle? and $ow it links wit$ MC#.
R"$"r"%c"'
MC# &raining Manual "or 5istrict MC# oJcers? M#75? Dune244+.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
D"7%-&-#% #$ a 4r#1"c&
( 'roject ma% be de6ned as a discrete 'ackage o" an investment? 'olicies and
institutions and ot$er actions designed to ac$ieve a s'eci6c develo'mental
objective or a set o" objectives wit$in a designated time 'eriod. ( 'roject can be
seen as a series o" activities and investments "or ac$ieving a set o" objectives t$at
are set in order to solve a s'eci6c 'roblem t$at is a;ecting a communit% wit$in a
given time "rame. &$ese investments include time? mone%? $uman and material
resources.
K"3 F"a&)r"' #$ a Pr#1"c&
( 'roject $as some ke% "eatures t$at distinguis$ it "rom ot$er activities. &$ese
include:
F-%-&"
&$is is in terms o" time "rame. ( 'roject $as a starting time and a 6nis$ing time? at
w$ic$ t$e 'roject is said to be com'lete. For eEam'le? a t$ree %ear 'roject running
"rom October 244+ to !e'tember 2443.
=#.#,"%#)'
( 'roject $as s'eci6c activities t$at can be identi6ed as belonging to it.
C#.4!"B
&o be wort$% o" a 'roject? a 'roject involves a miE o" o'erations and activities and
$as inter'la% o" $uman ca'acities and resources and a''roac$esAmet$odologies to
ac$ieve a desired set o" objectives.
N#% r"4"&-&-2"
( 'roject is viewed as a one@time e;ort and t$ere"ore in man% wa%s it is uni:ue.
Ma1#r E!"."%&' #$ Pr#1"c& D"'-,%
7rojects are "ormulated t$roug$ a 'rocess commonl% re"erred to as 'roject 'lanning
or 'roject 'lanning and designing? or 'roject a''raisal. ( t%'ical 'roject design
s$ould contain t$e "ollowing major elements.
Pr#1"c& G#a!
( 'roject goal is a general statement o" w$at s$ould be done to solve a 'roblem. It
de6nes broadl% w$at is eE'ected out o" a 'roject. It indicates t$e desired state
"rom t$e current situation. It re'resents t$e overall target or reason "or t$e 'roject?
"or eEam'le? to reduce 'overt%. !ometimes a 'roject goal can be s'eci6c suc$ as to
ac$ieve $ealt$ "or all b% t$e %ear 2444. Frevise? 'ut M58 target "or waterG
Pr#1"c& O1"c&-2"'
7roject objectives are 6nite sub sets o" a goal and s$ould be s'eci6c in order to be
ac$ievable. It must be sim'ler and more s'eci6c t$an a goal. &$e% contribute to
t$e 'roject goal. For eEam'le? i" %ou $ave a goal as Sto 'romote "ood securit%,? t$e
corres'onding objective can be Sto increase "ood 'roduction among 'roject
bene6ciaries b% t$e end o" t$e 'roject, t$e 'roject objective must be !M(&? i.e.
!'eci6c? Measurable? (c$ievable? ealistic? &ime bound.
+pecifc: be clear about w$at? w$ere? w$en and $ow t$e situation will be
c$anged.
Measurable: be able to :uanti"% t$e targets and bene6ts
Achievable: able to attain t$e objectives b% knowing t$e resources and
ca'abilities at t$e dis'osal o" t$e 'roject im'lementers. 5o not set u'
objectives w$ic$ %ou are not sure w$et$er t$e% will be ac$ievable b%
t$e 'roject.
Realistic: be able to obtain t$e level o" c$ange re<ected in t$e objective.
Time bound: be able to de6ne t$e time 'eriod in w$ic$ t$e% will eac$ be
accom'lis$ed.
8oals and objectives are benc$marks "or measuring t$e success or "ailure o" t$e
'roject. &$ere"ore? goals and objectives 'rovide t$e basis "or monitoring and
evaluating 'rojects and ot$er activities.
Pro$ect +trategies: 7roject strategies re'resent alternatives or a''roac$es
available to ac$ieve t$e objectives. &$e 'roject strateg% ma% include a''roac$es
to be used? including de6ning t$e s'ecial needs o" di;erent grou's or individuals
and s'eci6c interventions to assist t$em. 7roject strategies re'resent 'ractical
answers to t$e :uestions like =Bow do we get t$ereP> or =Bow do we ac$ieve t$e
'roject objectives and goalP> For instance? t$e objective to im'rove access to
'otable water can be ac$ieved t$roug$ t$e "ollowing strategies: increasing number
o" bore$oles? increasing number o" connections. One strateg% can be c$osen out o"
t$ese in order to ac$ieve t$e objective.
Pro$ect Activities: 7roject activities are s'eci6c tasks undertaken in t$e
im'lementation o" t$e 'roject. For instance? to $ave sa"e drinking water? %ou ma%
boil water? drill a bore$ole or c$lorinate t$e water. For eEam'le i" increasing t$e
number o" bore$oles is t$e c$osen strateg%? t$en bu%ing 'i'es? recruiting
tec$nicians and t$e actual drilling o" t$e bore$oles can be some o" t$e activities.
Pro$ects /nputs: 7roject in'uts include sta;? skills or "actors o" 'roduction t$at will
give results Fout'utsG. In 'ractice? $owever? t$ere are con"usions and overla's wit$
activities.
Pro$ect 0utput: 7roject out'uts re'resent results o" using in'uts. For eEam'le? an
in'ut can be training 'eo'le on management o" bore$oles and an out'ut can be
$aving a number o" 'eo'le trained.
Pro$ect 0utcomes: &$ese are actual or intended c$anges in develo'ment
conditions t$at t$e 'roject seeks to su''ort. Man% "actors in<uence 'roject
outcomes. In ot$er words? 'roject outcomes ma% not necessaril% be attributed to
one 'art% Fe.g. t$e im'lementing agenc% aloneG. W$en %ou c$lorinate %our
drinking water? %ou drink sa"e water and diarr$oea e'isodes are reduced. 0$lorine
is an in'ut to treat waterI sa"e drinking water re'resents an out'ut w$ile reduced
diarr$oea e'isodes re'resent t$e outcome. &$e reduced diarr$oea e'isodes
cannot be attributed to c$lorine alone. Ot$er "actors too suc$ as good sanitation
can 'la% a role.
Pro$ect /mpacts: 7roject im'acts are de6ned as t$e eE'ected e;ects o" a 'roject
on target 'o'ulation. &$e% "ocus on t$e broader e;ects o" t$e 'roject outcomes on
t$e communit%. Im'acts can be "urt$er classi6ed as "ollows:
!$ort term and long term de'ending on w$en t$e% occur and $ow long t$e% last.
Intermediate or 6nal de'ending on t$e objectives o" t$e 'roject.
Intended or unintended de'ending on w$et$er or not t$e% were 'lanned or
eE'ected.
7ositive or negative im'acts de'ending on w$et$er or not t$e% make t$e
bene6ciaries better o; or worse o; wit$ t$e 'roject.
#Eam'les o" 'roject im'acts are: Increased li"e eE'ectanc%I im'roved standard o"
living. In 'ractice? $owever? some 'eo'le re"er to 'roject im'acts as outcomes.
W$ilst increasing t$e number o" bore$oles? one o" t$e im'acts can be t$e creation
o" business o''ortunities to local entre'reneurs.
Pro$ect /mplementation Plan: ( 7roject Im'lementation 7lan describes t$e
necessar% activities in stages and t$e timelines "or im'lementing t$em. &$e
im'lementation 'lan serves as a guide to 'roject im'lementation and as a basis "or
'roject monitoring and evaluation. &$e im'lementation 'lan s'eci6call% $el's
im'lementers to:
5etermine w$en to start 'roject im'lementation
Finis$ t$e 'roject in time
5o t$e rig$t t$ings in t$e rig$t order
Identi"% w$o will be res'onsible "or w$at activit%
Pro$ect Monitoring and -valuation Frame'or12 ( 7roject Monitoring and
#valuation Framework describes $ow t$e success or "ailure o" t$e 'roject will be
measured. &$e "ramework describes w$at would be monitored FindicatorsG? $ow it
will be monitored and w$oAw$en it will be monitored. Man% 'roject documents
$ave /ogical Framework (nal%sis F/og"rameG t$at 'resents a ver% good summar% o"
t$e monitoring and evaluation "ramework.
Pro$ect 3udget: ( 7roject 1udget is a summar% o" $ow muc$ it will cost to
im'lement t$e 'roject. &$e budget ma% also 'resent:
&$e breakdown o" develo'ment costs and recurrentAo'erational costs.
&$e breakdown o" donor and local contribution.
&$e sources o" t$e 'roject "unds.
Th" 4r#1"c& c3c!"
7rojects generall% 'rogress t$roug$ main stages? t$e se:uence o" w$ic$ is re"erred
to as S7roject 0%cle,. 7roject c%cles 'rovide an o''ortunit% "or understanding $ow
'roject activities are linked and $ow to im'lement t$em? in terms o" t$eir
se:uence. &$ere are di;erent "ormats o" 'roject c%cles? and t$e number o" stages
in t$e c%cle also varies de'ending on institutions.
S&a,"' #$ 4r#1"c& c3c!"
1. 7roject Identi6cation
2. 7roject 5esigningA"ormulationA're'aration
3. 7roject (''raisal
). -egotiation and a''roval
*. 7roject Im'lementation and monitoring
+. 7roject #valuation
M"&h#(#!#,3
4ecturrette
9uestion and answer
Illustrations K diagram o" t$e 'roject c%cle
8rou' discussions@ 7artici'ants to discuss $ow some eEisting 'rojects in t$eir
areas were identi6ed and im'lemented.
1rainstorming
R"'#)rc"'
)lip charts
Masking ta'e
7ens
#Eercise books
Areas of -mphasis
&e "ords
Time Required
T#4-c 3+ Par&-c-4a&#r3 M#%-&#r-%,, E2a!)a&-#% a%( R"4#r&-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
This topic aims at introducing participants to the concept of participatory
monitoring and evaluation /-C.3, and how it relates to the traditional
understanding of C.. %t also aims at e>plaining why -C. is important for the
+"As, and how they can apply it in the day to day management of the water
supply schemes. This topic will enable the 'oT to assess progress, and identify
problems or constraints reDuiring management action.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne 'artici'ator% monitoring and evaluation
2. 5istinguis$ Monitoring "rom #valuation
3. #E'lain t$e "unctions o" Monitoring and #valuation
). 5escribe ste's in monitoring? evaluation and re'orting
*. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" 'artici'ator% monitoring and evaluation.
M"&h#(#!#,3
4ecturrette
Field tri's
1rainstorming
1uOO sessions
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
Fli' 0$arts?
Masking &a'e?
markers?
'ens?
#Eercise books
7re'are necessar% $andouts and <i'c$art 'resentations in advance.
C#%&"%&
5e6nition o" Monitoring
5e6nition o" #valuation
5i;erence between monitoring and #valuation
!te's in Monitoring
0ommonl% used data collection met$ods
0ommonl% used data collection toolsAinstruments
!te's in #valuation
5e6nition o" 7MC#.
0ore 'rinci'les o" 7MC# are:
Im'ortance o" 7MC#
S&"4 *+ eca' t$e 'revious to'ic on 'roject c%cle
D"7%-&-#%' #$ .#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#%
S&"4 *+1rainstorm on t$e 'artici'ants, understanding o" t$e terms monitoring and
evaluation.
S&"4 2+ &$e "acilitator s$ould 'resent t$e de6nitions o" monitoring and
evaluation and 'rovide a descri'tion o" $ow di;erent and related t$e% are
to eac$ ot$er a"ter t$e brainstorming eEercise.
S&"4' -% c#%()c&-%, .#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#%
S&"4 *+ 5ivide t$e 'artici'ants into small grou's "or brain storming on t$e
ste's involved in conducting monitoring and evaluation.
S&"4 2+ (llow grou's to brain storm on t$e di;erences between monitoring
and 'resent t$eir results 6rst be"ore t$e% start brainstorming on
evaluation. !ummarise t$e 'artici'ant,s ideas.
S&"4 3+ !$ow a <i'c$art t$at was 're'ared in advance to com'are and
contrast monitoring and evaluation.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 .#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#%
S&"4 *+ In a buOO session? ask t$e 'artici'ants to $ig$lig$t t$e ke%
stake$olders in 7MC#? t$en summarise b% justi"%ing t$e need "or including
t$e local communities in monitoring and evaluation.
S&"4 2+ (rrange a visit to an eEisting sc$eme "or t$e 'artici'ants to learn $ow
ot$er 'rojects are carr%ing out t$eir 7MC# activities.
S)..ar3
In t$is to'ic? we $ave de6ned t$e conce'ts o" monitoring and evaluation and
outlined t$e basic ste's in conducting monitoring and evaluation. 7artici'ator%
monitoring and evaluation was also eE'lained in relation to t$e role it 'la%s in an%
'roject.
R"$"r"%c"'
alawi (overnment /011E3. onitoring and .valuation. A Training anual for
onitoring and .valuation OFcers. .-D. 4ilongwe. alawi. /"npublished3.
(overnment of "ganda /011E3. *trategy on community score cards as a
participatory monitoring tool in B"*A). B"*A) C . "nit. /"npublished3
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
Im'ortance o" 'artici'ation in monitoring and evaluation.
&e "ords
7artici'ation?
Monitoring?
#valuation?
Im'act?
Indicators?
Objectives
7roject c%cle
Time Required
2 $ours 34 minutes
D"7%-&-#% #$ M#%-&#r-%,
Monitoring is t$e assessment o" t$e 'rogress in im'lementation o" de6ned
objectives Fo" a 'roject or a 'lanned activit%G wit$in a 'rescribed time"rame and
budget.
D"7%-&-#% #$ E2a!)a&-#%
#valuation is t$e assessment o" t$e eEtent to w$ic$ t$e 'roject or activit% $as
ac$ieved its objectives at one 'oint in time.
D->"r"%c" "&/""% .#%-&#r-%, a%( E2a!)a&-#%
In 'ractice? monitoring and evaluation are discussed as i" t$e% are one and t$e
same t$ing. &$ese are se'arate but related activities wit$in t$e conteEt o" t$e
'roject c%cle.
FInclude an illustration o" a table de'icting t$e di;erencesG
C#.4ar-'#% #$ .#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#%
Monitoring #valuation
Monitoring is a continuous activit% to
assess t$e 'rogress in
im'lementation o" de6ned objectives
wit$in a 'rescribed time "rame and
budget.
It is done to ensure t$at a 'roject is
#valuation assesses t$e eEtent to w$ic$ t$e
'roject $as ac$ieved its objectives
it is a 'rocess o" judging value on w$at a
'roject or 'rogramme $as ac$ieved
'articularl% in relation to activities t$at were
'lanned and overall objectives
im'lemented according to 'lan
It is a t%'e o" assessment w$ic$ is
'er"ormed w$ile a 'roject is being
im'lemented? wit$ t$e aim o"
im'roving t$e 'roject design and
"unctioning w$ile in action.
It studies t$e outcome o" a 'roject wit$ t$e
aim o" im'roving t$e design o" "uture
'rojects.
It assesses t$e eEtent to w$ic$ t$e 'roject
'roduced t$e intended im'acts or $ow muc$
t$e 'roject ac$ieved its objectives
It can assess t$e cost@e;ectiveness o" t$e
'roject as com'ared wit$ ot$er o'tions.
S&"4' -% M#%-&#r-%,
!te' 1: 5etermine t$e monitoring team Fe.g. t$e #W& in case o" t$e WU(G?
timetable and budget
!te' 2: 5evelo' a conce'tual "ramework wit$ re"erence to w$at is being monitored
!te' 3: 5etermining monitoring 'ur'ose? objectives and indicators
!te' ): 5etermine data re:uirements? sources and collection met$ods.
!te *: 5evelo' data collection toolsAinstruments
!te +: 0ollect 5ata
C#..#%!3 )'"( (a&a c#!!"c&-#% ."&h#('
ecords
Observations
!urve%s
5irect measurements
Me% in"ormant interviews
Focus grou' discussions
C#..#%!3 )'"( (a&a c#!!"c&-#% &##!'9-%'&r)."%&'
9uestionnaire
0$ecklist
!te' .: (nal%se t$e data and inter'ret t$e 6ndings
!te' 2: 7re'are a monitoring re'ort
!te' 3: Utilising t$e monitoring results
S&"4' -% E2a!)a&-#%
!te' 1: 5ecide on t%'e o" evaluation and develo' terms o" re"erences
!te' 2: 7lan t$e evaluation
!te' 3: 0ollect and anal%se t$e data
!te ): Write a re'ort
!te' *: 5isseminate t$e evaluation results
D"7%-&-#% #$ Par&-c-4a&#r3 .#%-&#r-%, a%( "2a!)a&-#%D
7artici'ator% monitoring C evaluation F7MC#G is a 'rocess t$roug$ w$ic$
stake$olders at various levels engage in monitoring or evaluating a 'articular
'roject? 'rogram or 'olic%? s$are control over t$e content? t$e 'rocess and t$e
results o" t$e MC# activit% and engage in taking or identi"%ing corrective actions.
7MC# "ocuses on t$e active engagement o" 'rimar% stake$olders Fbene6ciariesG.
0onventionall%? monitoring and evaluation $as involved eEternal eE'erts coming in
to measure 'er"ormance against 're@set indicators? using standardiOed 'rocedures
and tools. 7MC# di;ers "rom more conventional a''roac$es in t$at it seeks to
engage ke% 'roject stake$olders more activel% in re<ecting and assessing t$e
'rogress o" t$eir 'roject and in 'articular t$e ac$ievement o" results.
C#r" 4r-%c-4!"' #$ PMEE ar"+
T 7rimar% stake$olders are active 'artici'ants K not just sources o" in"ormation
T 1uilding ca'acit% o" local 'eo'le to anal%Oe? re<ect and take action
T Doint learning o" stake$olders at various levels
7romotes accountabilit%? owners$i' and sustainabilit%
T 0atal%Oes commitment to taking corrective actions
I.4#r&a%c" #$ Par&-c-4a&#r3 M#%-&#r-%, a%( E2a!)a&-#%
7artici'ation is increasingl% being recogniOed as an integral 'art o" t$e MC#
'rocess? since it o;ers new wa%s o" assessing and learning "rom c$ange t$at are
more inclusive and more res'onsive to t$e needs and as'irations o" t$ose most
directl% a;ected. 7MC# is geared towards not onl% measuring t$e e;ectiveness o" a
'roject? but also towards building owners$i' and em'owering bene6ciariesI
building accountabilit%? trans'arenc%? and taking corrective actions to im'rove
'er"ormance and outcomes.
M#()!" F+ L",a! a%( I%'&-&)&-#%a! Fra."/#r0
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e Module will eE'ose members o" Water Users (ssociation FWU(G to t$e eEisting
'olicies and laws t$at govern t$e management o" water resources. In an
organisation t$at is legall% bound it is im'ortant "or its members to be able to
inter'ret legal issues and be able to 'rovide in'ut into dra"ting o" an% relevant legal
documents "or t$eir organisation.
W$ile no one 'erson can be a jack o" all 'olicies? it is im'ortant to be aware o" t$eir
eEistence and to consult res'ective de'artments "or more in"ormation w$en need
arises.
&$e module t$ere"ore will $el' members o" WU( and 1oard o" &rustees in 'articular
to run t$e organisation 'ro'erl% wit$in t$e legal "ramework.
O1"c&-2"'
&$e main objectives o" t$is module are to enable members o" WU(:
1. &o know t$e eEisting 'olicies and laws relevant to management o" water
resources? sanitation and $%giene.
2. &o understand t$e 'olicies and b%@laws
3. &o contribute e;ectivel% to t$e "ormulation o" relevant 'olicies and laws.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction? rationale and learning objectives. &$e stud%
material "ollows wit$ activities w$ic$ are based on t$e stud% material and
comments on t$e activities. #ac$ stud% unit ends wit$ a test %oursel" eEercise t$at
enables %ou to c$eck w$et$er %ou $ave ac$ieved t$e objectives w$ic$ we set at
t$e beginning o" t$e unit or not. #ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be used to
ac$ieve t$e intended outcomes and t$e material resources re:uired to ac$ieve t$e
learning objectives
S0-!!'
1. Inter'reting issues in t$e legal documents
2. 5ra"ting o" 1%@laws
Ra&-#%a!"
0ommunit% members t$at 'lan to establis$ registered water users organisations
"or t$e o'eration and maintenance o" t$eir water and sanitation sc$eme? b%@laws
are re:uired "or registration. It is t$ere"ore necessar% "or t$e 1oard o" &rustees to
understand b%@laws? t$eir im'ortance and also be able to 're'are t$eir own b%@
laws.
T#4-c *+ P#!-c-"' a%( La/'
I%&r#()c&-#%
7olicies and laws are im'ortant to govern an% registered organisation suc$ as
Water Users (ssociation FWU(G in order to attain a common goal wit$in t$e
regulator% "ramework. &$is to'ic will e:ui' members o" WU( wit$ knowledge and
skills about 'olicies and laws.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 1% t$e end o" t$is unit? %ou s$ould be able to:
2. 5e6ne a 'olic% and law
3. Identi"% eEisting 'olicies? laws and (cts related to water and sanitation
D"7%-&-#% #$ P#!-c-"' a%( La/'
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator will ask 'artici'ants to brain storm t$e de6nition o" 'olic% and law
One 'artici'ant writes down all res'onses on a <i' c$art
EB4"c&"( A%'/"r
/egal instruments
8uiding 'rinci'les
ules
Facilitator summarises t$e discussion and 'rovides t$e de6nitions o" 'olic% and
law.
-olicies: 7olicies are instruments "or guiding t$e 'rocess o" management in
order to ac$ieve desired end result.
4aws: /aws are legal basis "or im'lementing 'olicies.
EB-'&-%, 4#!-c-"', !a/' a%( Ac&' r"!a&"( &# /a&"r a%( 'a%-&a&-#%
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to list down local 'olicies t$at govern t$eir
communit%.
EB4"c&"( A%'/"r'
(ccess to village grave%ard
Mourning o" t$e dead
Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to mention t$e wa%s in w$ic$ t$e% en"orce t$eir
'olicies
EB4"c&"( A%'/"r'
Fines
0reating awareness o" t$e eEisting local 'olicies
Facilitator in"orms 'artici'ants about t$e eEistence o" similar 'olicies related to
water and sanitation.
Na&-#%a! Wa&"r P#!-c3 :200FC
&$e 244* -ational Water 7olic% F-W7G 'laces 'rimar% em'$asis on water resources
develo'ment and management.
&$e overall 'olic% objective is to ensure t$at all 'ersons $ave convenient access to
suJcient :uantities o" water o" acce'table :ualit% and t$e associated water@related
'ublic $ealt$ and sanitation services at an% time and wit$in convenient distance. It
also 'laces muc$ em'$asis on:
7romoting t$e em'owerment o" user communities to own? manage and invest in
water resources develo'mentI
7romoting 'ublic and 'rivate sector 'artici'ation in water resources
management? develo'ment? su''l%? and conservationI
S&ra&",-"'
&$e above 'olic% objectives will be attained t$roug$ some o" t$e "ollowing ke%
strategies:
Facilitating t$e creation o" water management arrangements suc$ as water user
associations? coo'eratives and trusts to strengt$en demand res'onsive and
demand driven a''roac$esI
Undertaking re$abilitation and reduction o" unaccounted@"or@water o" eEisting
communit% water su''l% sc$emes Fgravit%@"ed water su''l% sc$emes and
bore$olesG as a 'riorit%I
Im'roving 'ublic $ealt$ t$roug$ integration o" rural water su''l% and
7artici'ator% B%giene and !anitation &rans"ormation F7B(!&GI
#ncouraging 'artici'ation o" women? %out$s? 'ersons wit$ disabilities and
vulnerable 'ersons in water and sanitation activitiesI
7romoting 'rivate sector 'artici'ation in t$e deliver% o" goods and services "or
rural water su''l% and sanitationI
#ncouraging 'rivate connections in rural water su''l% 'i'ed sc$emes at a "eeI
and
Na&-#%a! Sa%-&a&-#% P#!-c3 :200GC
&$e overall 'olic% objective is to ac$ieve universal access to im'roved sanitation?
and sa"e $%giene 'ractices w$ile ensuring sustainable environmental management
"or t$e economic growt$.
&$e 'olic% goal in t$e rural areas is to ac$ieve universal access to im'roved
sanitation and eE'osure to sa"e $%giene 'ractices? and 'ro'erl% manage waste to
'rotect t$e environment. Its objective is to increase access to im'roved sanitation?
'romote sa"e $%giene 'ractices? 'ro'er waste dis'osal and rec%cling o" wastes in
rural areas.
S&ra&",-"'
&$e above 'olic% goal and objective will be attained t$roug$ some o" t$e "ollowing
strategies:
5eliver structured $ealt$ and $%giene education using 'artici'ator% met$odsI
&rain artisans and sanitation 'romoters in t$e 'roduction and marketing o"
sanitation $ardware res'ectivel%I
7rovide and maintain im'roved sanitation "acilities? w$ic$ also cater "or 'eo'le
wit$ s'ecial needs in all 'ublic 'lacesI
7romote im'roved sanitation and $%giene education in all communit% water
su''l% 'rojects including $and was$ing wit$ running water and soa'I
Foster greater women 'artici'ation on im'roved sanitation and $%giene
'romotion in t$e small@scale irrigation sub@sectorI
Na&-#%a! D"c"%&ra!-'a&-#% P#!-c3 :*999C
&$e objectives o" t$e -ational 5ecentralisation 7olic% F1333G devolves
administration and 'olitical aut$orit% to t$e district level? integrates governmental
agencies at t$e district and local levels into one administrative unit? t$roug$ t$e
'rocess o" institutional integration? man'ower absor'tion? com'osite budgeting
and 'rovision o" "unds "or t$e decentraliOed services.
Wa&"r S"c&#r a%( O&h"r R"!a&"( L",-'!a&-#%'
&$ere are also some enabling legislations "or t$e im'lementation o" t$e 'olicies.
One o" t$e relevant legislations is t$e Water esources (ct F13+3G.
Wa&"r R"'#)rc"' Ac& :*9H9C
Under t$e Water esources (ct o" Malawi? owners$i' o" all 'ublic water in Malawi is
vested in t$e 7resident? and t$e control o" 'ublic water is vested in t$e Minister
res'onsible "or water a;airs.
It is necessar% "or an%one intending to divert? dam or store 'ublic water to obtain a
water rig$t. &$e rig$t sti'ulates source? :uantit%? and time 'eriod.
Water ig$ts can be con"erred on Water Users (ssociations i" 'rovided wit$ an
a''lication backed u' b% "ull details o" land owners$i'.
E%2-r#%."%& Ma%a,"."%& Ac&
&$e #nvironment Management (ct 'rovides "or t$e 'rotection and management o"
t$e environment and t$e conservation and sustainable utiliOation o" natural
resources.
&$e Minister res'onsible "or #nvironmental (;airs $as 'ower to re:uire an
environmental im'act assessment F#I(G to be carried out be"ore a 'roject is
im'lemented.
La%(' Ac&
In Malawi? t$e /ands (ct classi6es land into t$ree tenure categories? 7ublic land?
7rivate land and 0ustomar% land.
L#ca! G#2"r%."%& Ac&
/ocal 8overnment (ct establis$es (ssemblies? various committees and lists t$e
"unction o" t$e assembl% as "ollows:
to make 'olic% and decisions on local governance and develo'ment "or t$e local
government
to consolidate and 'romote localI democratic institutions and democratic
'artici'ation
to 'romote in"rastructural and economic develo'ment t$roug$ t$e "ormulation?
a''roval and eEecution o" district develo'ment 'lans
to mobiliOe resources wit$in t$e local government area "or government and
develo'ment
to maintain 'eace and securit% in t$e local government area in conjunction wit$
Malawi 7olice Force.
&o make b%e@laws "or t$e good governance o" local government area
S)..ar3
W$en establis$ing water users, organisations "or t$e o'eration and maintenance o"
t$e water and sanitation s%stems? it is im'ortant to understand t$e eEisting laws
and 'olicies to enable %ou 're'are a sound constitution and b%@laws.
R"$"r"%c"'
1. -ational Water 7olic% F244*G
2. -ational !anitation 7olic% F2442G
3. -ational 5ecentralisation 7olic% F1333G
). Water esources (ct F13+3G
*. #nvironment Management (ct
+. /ocal 8overnment (ct
.. /ands (ct
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
Im'ortance o" 'olic% and laws in an organisation
#Eisting 'olicies? laws and regulator% "rameworks related to water and sanitation
in Malawi
K"3 W#r('
7olic%
/aw
egulator% "ramework
Pr"r"8)-'-&" K%#/!"(,"
T-." R"8)-r"(
2 $ours
M"&h#(#!#,3
1rainstorming
8rou' discussion
/ecturrette
L"ar%-%, R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts? markers
Band outs
Masking ta'es
Writing 'ens
File covers
!$ort$and note book
&able 1: Meaning o" 7olic% and /aw
-olicies: 7olicies are instruments "or guiding t$e 'rocess o" management in order to
ac$ieve desired end result. &$e% 'rovide t$e good 'ractice and o"ten also identi"%
bad 'ractice to be avoided.
4aws: 7rovide legal basis "or im'lementing 'olicies. It em'owers t$e citiOens to
undertake acce'table 'ractices and also restricts t$e citiOen "rom bad 'ractices
and 'rescribes 'enalties "or not com'l%ing wit$ good 'ractice.
&able 2: /ist o" main 'oliciesA(cts relevant to environment management
P#!-c39Ac& E%2-r#%."%&9Na&)ra! R"'#)rc"'
Water esources (ct Water
#nvironment Management (ct
-ational #nvironment 7olic%
7rotection o" environment
8overns all natural resources
/and Use Management (ct /and
&rustee Incor'oration (ct egistration o" (ssociations etc.
Forests (ct &rees
-ational 7arks and Wildli"e (ct (nimals and endangered s'ecies
Fis$eries 0onservation and
Management (ct
Fis$
-ational Irrigation 7olic% and
5evelo'ment !trateg%
elated to irrigation resources
Water? land? 6s$? soil? etc
7ublic Bealt$ (ct Bumans
5ecentraliOation 7olic% 0ommunit% em'owerment
T#4-c 2+ B35La/'
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will 'rovide a general overview o" t$e 1%@laws "or Water Users
(ssociation FWU(G and t$eir im'ortance to t$e water su''l% and sanitation
sc$emes.
&$e module will e:ui' t$e members o" WU( and 1oard o" &rustees F1o&G wit$
knowledge and skills to eE'lain to water users t$e im'ortance o" t$e b%@laws and
assist t$em to 'lan "or t$e 're'aration o" t$e b%@laws.
O1"c&-2"'
(t t$e end o" t$e training session 'artici'ants will be able:
1. &o eE'lain w$at b%@laws are
2. &o eE'lain t$e im'ortance o" b%@laws
3. &o list down guidelines "or contents "ound in b%@laws
). &o assist t$e members o" WU(s t$e 'rocess o" $ow to 're'are t$e b%@laws
C#%&"%&
D"7%-&-#% #$ B35!a/'
Facilitator s$ould divide 'artici'ants in buss grou's o" t$ree and ask t$em to write
down t$eir de6nition o" b%@laws. 7artici'ants s$ould t$en 'resent t$eir de6nitions in
'lenar% and discuss t$em.
&able 1: 5e6nition o" 1%@/aw
'yA4aw: !et o" regulations governing t$e smoot$ running o" an organisation
suc$ as Water User (ssociation.
&$e b%@laws o" Water Users (ssociation can also be called charter, constitution or
articles of association.
I.4#r&a%c" #$ 35!a/'
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator s$ould ask 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e im'ortance o" b%@laws.
/et one 'artici'ant write down answers on a <i' c$art
EB4"c&"( A%'/"r'
For smoot$ running o" t$e grou'
It gives a guidance to reac$ a goal
7rovides sense o" direction
It 'rotects t$e members o" t$e organiOation
Members are able to work toget$er as a grou'
&$e organiOation runs smoot$l% "or t$e "ear o" breaking t$e rules
It en"orces disci'line amongst members
For e:uitable water distribution
It is eas% to control resources suc$ as water
It instils sense o" owners$i' and commitment to t$e water users
It gives water users an o''ortunit% to gain inde'endenceAcon6dence
For sustainabilit% to t$e organiOation
#ncourages e:ualit%
!ettling dis'utes among water users
&$e organiOation is 'rotected "rom an% violation
&o encourage sense o" owners$i'
It $el's getting o" loans "rom ot$er organiOation
egister "or securit% 'ur'oses
Water users are em'owered to make decisions on t$eir own
It is eas% "or an develo'ment 'artners suc$ as eEtension workers to work wit$ an
organiOation rat$er t$an individuals due to b%@laws
Ac&-2-&3 2
Facilitator consolidates t$e discussion and summarises t$e im'ortance o" b%@laws
in an organisation.
Th" I.4#r&a%c" #$ B35!a/'
7rotects t$e (ssociation and its activities
8uides (ssociation in da% to da% activities
7romotes trans'arenc%? eJcienc%? :ualit% and e;ectiveness
Maintain disci'line wit$in t$e (ssociation
7romotes unit%
7romotes grou' action
#ncourages democratic 'rinci'les
G)-("!-%"' $#r C#%&"%&' #$ B35!a/'
Ac&-2-&3 3
In small grou's? 'artici'ants s$ould discuss t$e contents o" b%@laws and later
'resent in t$e 'lenar%.
Facilitator summarises t$e contents o" t$e b%@laws.
C#%&"%&' #$ B35!a/'
-ame o" (ssociation and its objectives
Members$i'
Finances
Meetings
8eneral 'rovisions
Function and roles o" WU( and its sub@committees
O'eration and Maintenance
5uties o" sub@committees and oJce bearers
ules and egulations
Pr"4ara&-#% #$ B35!a/'
Ac&-2-&3 ?
In lecturrette? "acilitator in"orms t$e 'artici'ants t$at it necessar% "or members o"
Water Users (ssociation FWU(sG to 're'are a 'lan "or t$e 're'aration o" t$e 1%@
laws.
&$is s$ould include:
W$o s$ould 're'are t$e b%@laws. WU(s can c$oose to use a dra"ting committee o"
a constitution to be res'onsible "or t$e dra"ting o" t$e b%@laws.
( time "rame "or t$e 're'aration o" eac$ section o" t$e b%@laws s$ould be
develo'ed. Usuall% it takes one or two sessions 'er section. Bowever? diJcult
sections suc$ as roles and res'onsibilities ma% take a little longer.
#ac$ section s$ould be 'resented to t$e water users "or eE'lanation and
comments.
&$e b%@laws can be dra"ted in t$e local language. Bowever? t$e% will need to be
translated into #nglis$ "or a''lication to t$e Ministr% o" Dustice.
&$e dra"t b%@laws s$ould be 'resented to a meeting o" t$e 8eneral (ssembl% and
a vote taken "or t$eir a''roval.
S)..ar3
&o develo' b%@laws is "ound to be diJcult wit$ man% organisations since it re:uires
a lot o" time and consultation. Bowever? it is im'ortant "or members o" WU( to
"ormulate t$eir own b%@laws. &$e "acilitators including government or 'roject
eEtension sta; s$ould be able to assist and guide t$e WU(s w$enever necessar%.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
5e6nition o" b%@laws
Im'ortance o" b%@laws
0ontents o" b%@laws
7rocesses o" 're'aring b%@laws
&e "ords
1%@laws
7artici'ants must $ave better understanding o" t$e 'olicies and legal "ramework
related to water and sanitation covered in Module 2? &o'ic 1.
Methodolog
/ecturrette
1rainstorming
8rou' discussion
*earning Resources
Fli' c$arts
Markers
Band outs
Masking ta'es
Writing 'ens
File covers
!$ort$and note book
Time Required
3 $ours
B
M#()!" H+ Sa%-&a&-#% a%( h3,-"%" Pr#.#&-#%
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module will 'rovide a general overview o" t$e linkage between sanitation?
$%giene and $ealt$ w$ic$ $as been neglected "or so long.
It will enable all local communities a''l% 'artici'ator% a''roac$esA tec$ni:ues in
sanitation and $%giene. More im'ortantl%? t$e module will e:ui' members o"
1o& wit$ knowledge o" water and sanitation related diseases? $ow t$e% are
transmitted and $ow t$e% can be controlled or 'revented.
O1"c&-2"'
1. (bilit% to understand issues o" $ealt$ $%giene and sanitation
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ stud% unit begin wit$ an introduction? rationale and learning objectives. &$e
comments on t$e activities. #ac$ stud% unit ends wit$ a test %oursel" eEercise t$at
enables t$e 'artici'ant to c$eck w$et$er objectives $ave been ac$ieved as set at
t$e beginning o" t$e unit . #ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be used to ac$ieve
t$e intended outcomes and t$e material resources re:uired to ac$ieve t$e learning
objectives.
S0-!!'
(''l%ing 'artici'ator% a''roac$esAtec$ni:ues in sanitation and $%giene
C#%&"%&'
7artici'ator% a''roac$esAtec$ni:ues
7artici'ator% tools
7artici'ator% tec$ni:ues
0ommunit% led total sanitation F0/&!G
Sa%-&a&-#%
5e6nition
areas o" "ocus
"acilities and o'tions
solid and waste water management
B%giene
5e6nition
areas o" "ocus
sanitation and $%giene in water
relations$i' between water? sanitation and $%giene
water sanitation and $%giene related diseases
met$ods o" 'reventing water and sanitation related disease
T#4-c *+ Par&-c-4a&#r3 A44r#ach AT"ch%-8)"'
I%&r#()c&-#%
7artici'ator% (''roac$esA&ec$ni:ues are innovative wa%s used in 'romoting issues
o" $%giene? sanitation and communit% management. &$e a''roac$es $ave been
a''lied in a number o" countries in ("rica and be%ond.
7artici'ator% (''roac$esA&ec$ni:ues t$ere"ore? not onl% are t$e% available to teac$
$%giene and sanitation conce'ts but? more im'ortantl%? to enable 'eo'le
overcome constraints to c$ange. &$e aim is to do t$is b% involving all members o"
societ% K %oung and old? "emale and male? $ig$er and lower socio economic status
K in a 'artici'ator% 'rocess involving: assessing t$eir own knowledge baseI
investigating t$eir own environmental situationI visualiOing a "uture scenarioI
anal%Oing constraints to c$angeI 'lanning "or c$angeI and 6nall% im'lementing
c$ange.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5istinguis$ between 'artici'ator% tools and tec$ni:ues
2. 5e6ne 7B(!&
3. 5escribe 0ommunit% /ed &otal !anitation F0/&!G
). Identi"% 'artici'ator% tools
*. Identi"% 'artici'ator% tec$ni:ues
M"&h#(#!#,3
1uOO sessions
1rainstorming
5emonstration
/ecturrette
8rou' discussion
ole 'la%
0ase stud%
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
/05A7rojector? Fli' c$arts and Markers? 0$alkboard? Illustrations? 0ase scenarios?
Bandouts? !am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
Par&-c-4a&#r3 &"ch%-8)"'
7artici'ator% tec$ni:ues are "acilitation met$ods used b% a "acilitator to $el'
grou's work t$roug$ an activit%. &$ese ma% include 1uOO 8rou's? Focus 8rou'
5iscussions? 5emonstrations etc.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 &##!'
&$ese are materials w$ic$ include 7icture codes used to mainl% trigger discussion
"or a common understanding and in"ormed decisions. 7artici'ator% tools $el'
'eo'le "eel more con6dent about t$emselves and t$eir abilit% to take action and
make im'rovements in t$eir communities.
Par&-c-4a&#r3 &"ch%-8)"' a%( &##!'
7artici'ator% tec$ni:ues are used wit$out visual aids to introduce a learning area
$owever on t$eir own t$e% are not good enoug$ to trigger e;ective discussion and
'artici'ation. 7artici'ator% tec$ni:ues are more o" verbal discussions tr%ing to
make a learner visualiOe a scenario w$ereas 7artici'ator% tools are tangible
materials t$at are visible or $ands on to "acilitate e;ective understanding and
'artici'ation.
P=AST ("7%-&-#%
Partici'ator% =%giene And Sanitation Trans"ormation? 'o'ularl% known as P=AST?
is de6ned as an innovative a''roac$ designed to 'romote $%giene be$aviours?
sanitation im'rovements and communit% management o" water and sanitation
"acilities using s'eci6call% develo'ed 'artici'ator% tools
&$e aims o" 7B(!& are to:
Im'rove understanding o" water? sanitation? $%giene and $ealt$ relations$i's b%
using intra@active visual tools.
#n$ance c#..)%-&3 4ar&-c-4a&-#% and h3,-"%-c "ha2-#)r
Increase $%giene and sanitation c#2"ra," to t$e coverage o" water su''l% and
"ull coverage b% 2424.
(dvantages o" 7B(!&
&$e a''roac$ uses modern 'rinci'les o" $%giene and sanitation 'romotion
7B(!& $as universal em'owerment "or t$e communit% $ence $as longer
sustainabilit%
&argets be$avioural c$ange towards $%giene 'ractices
C#..)%-&3 L"( T#&a! Sa%-&a&-#% :CLTSC
0ommunit% /ed &otal !anitation F0/&!G is a 'artici'ator% tec$ni:ue used to trigger
action oriented discussion in a communit% to criticall% identi"% t$e 'roblem o" o'en
de"eacation in order to immediatel% ac$ieve an O'en 5e"ecation Free FO5FG
communit%
Par&-c-4a&#r3 &"ch%-8)"'
&$ese are:
1uOO 8rou's
1rainstorming session:
ound obin
/ecturrette
5emonstration
7eer 'ractice
ole 'la%:
0ase stud%:
#Ec$ange visits: Field 7racticals
Ins'ection
Focus 8rou' 5iscussions FF85G:
8rou' 5iscussion
9uestions and (nswers

Par&-c-4a&#r3 &##!'
&$ese are:
7icture code
!tor% wit$ a 8a'
Un@serialiOed 7ictures
!anitation /adder
-urse &anaka F5r Dos$uaG
&$ree 'ile sorting
&ransmission routes F0ontamination routesG
1locking t$e routes F1arrier MatriEA0$artG
8ender role anal%sis
7lanning 7osters
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as taken t$e 'artici'ants t$roug$: 5istinction between 'artici'ator%
tools and tec$ni:uesI 5e6nition o" 7B(!&I 5escri'tion o" 0ommunit% /ed &otal
!anitation F0/&!GI Identi6cation o" 'artici'ator% tec$ni:ues and Identi6cation o"
'artici'ator% tools.
R"$"r"%c"'
Ministr% o" Bealt$? -ovember 244.? 5ra"t 7B(!& &raining Manual "or #Etension
workers? /ilongwe
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Ar"a' #$ E.4ha'-'
&wo 'artici'ator% a''roac$es F7B(!& and 0/&!
&$e distinction between 'artici'ator% tec$ni:ues and tools FUse o" visual aids in
'artici'ator% toolsG
K"3 W#r('
7artici'ator% tec$ni:ues
7artici'ator% tools
7B(!&
0/&!
Pr"r"8)-'-&" K%#/!"(,"
Mnowledge o" issues on 8ender
T-." R"8)-r"(
2 $ours
A((-&-#%a! -%$#r.a&-#%
P=AST T##!'
I%&r#()c&-#%
7B(!& seeks to 'romote t$e use o" 'artici'ator% met$ods? w$ic$ encourage t$e
'artici'ation o" t$e individuals in a grou' 'rocess regardless o" age? seE? social
class or educational background. 7artici'ator% met$ods are designed to build sel"@
esteem and a sense o" res'onsibilit% "or ones decisions. &$e% tr% to make t$e
'rocess o" decision making eas% and interesting. &$e% are designed "or 'lanning at
communit% level. 7artici'ants learn "rom eac$ ot$er and develo' res'ect "or eac$
ot$er,s knowledge and skills. &o enable one e;ectivel% "acilitate a communit%
interaction? t$ere are a set o" 7B(!& tools commonl% used.
T##!' &ha& )'" P-c&)r"'
S&#r35/-&h5a5Ga4
&wo illustrations s$owing =bad and good> or a =be"ore and a"ter> situation are $eld
u' "or a grou'. &$e grou' is asked to suggest $ow it can move "rom t$e current
=bad> situation to t$e desired =good> situation t$ereb% 6lling in t$e ga'.
!imilarl%? a =be"ore> 'icture could s$ow someone de"ecating o'enl%? and t$e
=a"ter> 'icture s$ow someone using a well@cared "or latrine. (gain t$e grou' would
be asked to discuss $ow t$e =be"ore> situation can be c$anged to t$e =a"ter>
scene? t$ereb% closing t$e ga' between bad and good? moving towards t$e
'ositive be$avioural c$ange in relation to $%giene.
U%5'"r-a!-I"( P-c&)r"'
&$ese are drawings s$owing scenes o" ever%da% communit% li"e. !ome drawings
s$ould be o" dramatic but realistic as'ects o" ever%da% li"e suc$ as an illness? a
con<ict between two 'eo'le? a celebration or a woman drawing water. &$e
drawings s$ould not be numbered or ordered. &$is is w$% t$e% are called =un@
serialiOed 'osters>
Un@serialiOed 'icture codes are miEed toget$er at random. &$e bunc$ o" 'ictures is
given to a grou' to create t$e stories.
Sa%-&a&-#% La(("r
7icture codes and 'osters could be used b% grou's to list t$e sanitation o'tions
t$e% $ave or seen and to w$at sanitation o'tions t$e% would want. 1% 'lacing t$e
illustration o" t$e least desired For $ealt$%G o'tion at t$e bottom and t$e most
desired at t$e to'? a ladder is made. For instance? a 'romoter could go to t$e
communit% wit$ a 'ack o" di;erent sanitation 'icturesI t$e grou' could be asked to
construct a ladder b% 'lacing 'ictures "rom least desired to t$e most desired at t$e
to'. &$en? t$e grou' discusses t$e advantages and disadvantages o" eac$ o'tion
and selects an o'tion t$e% will a;ord. &$e activit% is taken one ste' "urt$er b%
identi"%ing 'ossible obstacles to im'lementing t$e desired sanitation
im'rovements caused b% attitude? be$aviour? a;ordabilit%? ada'tabilit%? durabilit%
and environmental "actors.
&$e same situation can be a''lied to make a water ladder. &$e activit% could be
a''lied in t$e same wa% as sanitation ladder. Water ladder could $ave "ewer
o'tions t$an sanitation ladder
N)r'" Ta%a0a :DrD J#'h)aC
Is t$e tool t$at allows members in a communit% to discover "or t$emselves
diseases t$at are locall% "ound in t$eir village or area. From t$ere? a discussion is
built u' to 6nd out t$e causes and 'ossible solutions to t$e occurrence o" t$e
stated diseases.
Thr""54-!" '#r&-%,
It 'rovides a set o" 'ictures or '$otogra'$s o" water su''l%? $%giene and
sanitation@related situations? w$ic$ are sorted according to w$et$er t$e% are
considered to be Sgood, Sbad, or Sin@between,.
In addition to stimulating a ver% $ig$ degree o" communit% involvement t$is
activit% $as 'roved 'articularl% use"ul in revealing t$e de't$ and breadt$ o" local
$ealt$@related knowledge and in 'roviding a conteEt "or arriving at consensus on
a''ro'riate be$aviour and sanitation tec$nolog% it demands.
Tra%'.-''-#% R#)&"' :C#%&a.-%a&-#% r#)&"'C
1ased on t$e F@diagram F6ngers? <ies? 6elds and <uidsG in Figure 2.1 below? t$is
activit% uses a set o" 'osters de'icting t$e di;erent ste's or carriers o" "aecal K oral
contamination? to $el' communities anal%Oe and organiOe t$eir knowledge o"
diarr$oeal diseases transmission. &$is activit% also 'rovides a "ramework "or
assimilating new ideas and conce'ts about "aecal K oral contamination.

F-,)r" *
B!#c0-%, &h" R#)&"' :Barr-"r .a&r-B9 Char&C
Following on "rom t$e contamination routes eEercise described above? t$is activit%
includes a set o" 'ictures o" common barriers Fbot$ tec$nological and be$aviouralG
t$at can be used to block an% o" t$e 'rinci'le transmission routes o" "aecal K oral
disease. &$e matriE includes two variables "or classi"%ing t$e barriers according to
t$eir e;ectiveness and 'racticalit% Ft$at is ease o" a''licationG. (t t$e communit%
an incremental 'rocess o" elimination can substitute level t$e matriE? b% 6rst
identi"%ing t$e most e;ective barriers and t$en 'rioritiOing t$ese according to t$eir
relative a''licabilit%.
G"%("r R#!" A%a!3'-'
VIP or flush latrine
Hand washing
fingers
Traditional
latrine
flies
fields
fluids
food
New host
faeces
Tra%'.-''-#% #$ (-'"a'"' $r#. "Bcr"&a -' -!!)'&ra&"( -% F
5(-a,ra. -% 7,)r" *
It $el's t$e grou' to identi"% tasks o" men and women in t$e communit%. &$is will
$el' to know w$o would be able to undertake additional tasks to enable c$anges
necessar% "or t$e 'revention o" water and sanitation related diseases. &$e tool
uses 'icture codes 'resenting roles and res'onsibilities "or men and women in t$e
communit%. Using t$e 'ictures t$e% s$are t$e roles and res'onsibilities.
P!a%%-%, P#'&"r'
Bel' t$e grou' to 're'are action ste's "or im'lementing t$e solutions it $as
decided on. It also $el's grou' to assign res'onsibilit% "or eac$ action ste'.
P=AST T##!' W-&h#)& P-c&)r"'
P#c0"& char&

&$e grou' uses 'ocket c$art to collect and anal%Oe data on actual 'ractices in t$e
communit%. W$at 'eo'le are actuall% doing can t$en be com'ared wit$ w$at t$e
grou' $as discovered to be good or bad "or $ealt$.
M#%-&#r-%, :Ch"c0-%,C Char&
In t$is activit% t$e grou' 6lls in a c$art "or monitoring Fc$eckingG its 'rogress
towards ac$ieving its 'rogress? $ow o"ten t$is needs to be done and w$o will be
res'onsible "or doing it.
;)"'&-#% B#B
8ives grou' members a c$ance to ask :uestions and obtain reliance o" t$e grou'.
&$is tool is used w$ere t$e individuals in t$e grou' are s$% to ask :uestions.
Pr#!". B#B
#nables t$e grou' to "oresee t$e 'ossible 'roblems and 'lan wa%s to overcome
t$em.

C#..)%-&3 .a44-%,+
&$is is a gra'$ic 'resentation o" main "eatures in a de6ned area. &$ere are t$ree
t%'es o" ma''ing:
!ocial ma' s$ows '$%sical "eatures e.g. $ouse$olds? water 'oints? toilets? roads?
market 'laces? sc$ools? recreation centers and $ealt$
esource ma' s$ows resources like land? water "orests? rivers and minerals.
O''ortunit% ma' s$ows availabilit% o" services t$at are not %et ta''ed. units.
G)-("( Wa!0
8uided walk is a learning 'rocess w$ereb% t$e members o" t$e communit% and
eEtension workers undergo a grou' ins'ection tour o" water su''l% and sanitation
"acilities and observe $%giene 'ractices. &$e grou' discusses on site? $ow 'ositive
issues will be rein"orced? and $ow negative 6ndings can be addressed.
t$e entire communit%. 5iscussions are based on 'ositive issues to rein"orce? and
negative 6ndings to be addressed.
C#..)%-&3 S&#r-"'
#Etension workers s$ould encourage and 'romote 'eo'le in t$e communit% to
create stories and ada't songs "or water su''l%? sanitation and $%giene 'ractices.
W$en communit% grou's substitute t$e words o" t$e 'o'ular song in t$e
communit% wit$ $ealt$ words? t$e w$ole village gets educated w$en t$e% sing t$e
modi6ed song. &$is is a ver% e;ective learning tool to 'romote $%giene among
communities.
O&h"r Par&-c-4a&#r3 T##!'
Pr#!". Tr""
Pr#!". Tr"" -' -!!)'&ra&"( -% 7,)r" 2
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Cholera outbreak
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Economic disruption
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Figure 2
W$en anal%Oing t$e 'roblems? t$e% are related to t$e tree t$at $as atrunk
re'resenting core F"ocalG 'roblem?I roots re'resenting causes o" t$e 'roblem and
branc$es t$e e;ects o" t$e 'roblem.
&$e met$od uses 'artici'ator% tools suc$ as transmission routes. It uses 0ausal@
#;ect relations$i' o" a 'roblem.
&$is met$od assists t$e communit% to identi"% t$e 'roblemI its causes? e;ects and
im'acts. It also $el's t$e communities to understand t$e root causes o" t$eir
'roblem and wa%s o" solving it t$roug$ 'artici'ator% communit% intervention
actions.
Pa-r W-'" Ra%0-%,
7air wise ranking is a met$od? w$ic$ is used to determine 'erceived order o"
im'ortance o" a 'roblem or issue in a communit%. &$is met$od involves
identi6cation o" 'roblems or issues? com'aring t$em and 'utting t$em in order o"
'riorit%. &$e 'air@wise ranking tool can be used wit$ all communities including low
literate communities.
Ma&r-B Ra%0-%,

&$e tool is similar to 'air@wise ranking. &$e onl% di;erence between t$e two is t$at
matriE ranking is used "or 'rioritiOing water and sanitar% "acilities to be 'romoted
according to t$eir im'act on disease 'revention and its social im'ortance w$ile
'air wise ranking is used to 'rioritiOe 'roblems according to t$eir magnitude.
&$e tool works b% listing all t$e water and sanitar% "acilities t$at need to be
'romoted. &$e "acilities are t$en given scores according to e;ectiveness in disease
control and its social im'ortance. &$is 'rocess will $el' to isolate most im'ortant
"acilities t$at need to be given more attention t$an ot$ers.
&able 1: MatriE anking
F(0I/I&R
IM7O&(-0#
7revention o"
5iarr$oeal 5iseases
!ocial
!tatus
!coresAanking
7it latrine EEEE EEEE 2
1at$ s$elter @@@@@@@@@@ E 1
!a"e water 'oints EEEE E *
e"use 'its EEE E )
Band was$ "acilit% EEE E )
&$ere are two t%'es o" matriE@ "ree scoring and 6Eed scoring. Under "ree scoring
members $ea' t$e objects on t$eir c$oice w$ere as on 6Eed scoring s'eci6c
number o" objects is used and members kee' on c$anging using t$e same objects.
Dudgement is made based on t$e $ig$ scores and siOe o" t$e $ea' "or t$e "ormer.
Fac-!-&a&-#%
Fac-!-&a&-#% S0-!!'
&o conduct an e;ective grou' discussion in t$e use o" t$e above tools and
tec$ni:ues? t$e "ollowing ten ti's are ver% im'ortant to observe and carr% out:
(sk O'en? !im'le and 0lear 9uestions. 1egin :uestions wit$ &+hy& +hat&
<ould one of you e>plainG& an eEam'le o" an o'en :uestion is +hy would we
wash our hands after visiting the toiletG& or =+hat is the health importance of
using borehole water over the stream waterG&. O'en :uestion 'rom't a sentence
as a "ull answer and not merel% =-o> or =Res> as is eE'ected "rom a =0losed
9uestion>.
+ait for response. give 'eo'le time to collect and re@collect t$eir t$oug$ts.
.ncourage everyone to contribute. !'ecial attention s$ould be given to women
w$o are o"ten :uite in big grou's w$ere men are 'resent. 0all "or res'onses wit$
e%e contact? $and gestures and call names o" t$ose w$o seem s$% or :uite.
1eware o" individuals w$o dominate conversations and restrict ot$ers
contributions. For t$e latter make deliberate attem't to 'olitel% ask t$em not to
take certain :uestions.
4isten and show that you are listening attentively, use e%e contact? be "riendl%
and integrate onesel" into t$e discussion o" t$e trainees.
"se encouragers like =Res? I see? and t$enP> or =Would %ou eE'lain a little bit
moreP>
$ephrase people5s answers "or t$e a''roval and to be sure t$e answer $as been
understood.
$edirect answers to t$e grou' "or a''roval o" ot$er members. For eEam'le =s$e
saidU5o %ou agree:>
-robe by asking followAup Duestions. For eEam'le? an answer would be =We was$
our $ands a"ter t$e toilet to 'revent c$olera?> "ollow@u' :uestion would be =Bow
is 0$olera transmitted b% t$e $andP> t$is will ensure sound understanding o"
in"ormation b% all grou' members.
Observe the group for Hital *igns. -ote w$et$er t$e discussions is going well b%
observing "acial eE'ressions Fe. g. smiles? bod% language and 'ositionsG. It is
im'ortant t$at i" t$e discussions are not going well F"rowned "aces? restlessnessG
t$at 'artici'ants are encouraged to state out t$eir 'roblems? worries and
concerns. 1reaks or warm@u' games or =buOO grou's> would bring back energ%
levels and interest.
*ummari,e the session and restate the health message derived by the
participants. #ven t$oug$ re'eating messages and increases retention levels? a
6nal summar% s$all ensure t$at t$e 'artici'ants take $ome t$e message "or t$e
'ur'ose o" t$e session
Fac-!-&a&-#% M"&h#('9T"ch%-8)"'
B)II Gr#)4' ar" used "or gat$ering in"ormation in a classroom setting or 'lenar%
session. &$e 'artici'ants are divided in small grou's o" two or t$ree to discuss a
subject and in t$e 'rocess t$e% make a buOOing sound like bees.
Bra-%'&#r.-%, '"''-#%+ is used "or gat$ering in"ormation in a classroom setting
or 'lenar% session b% 'artici'ants volunteering di;erent ideas or suggestions in
searc$ o" t$e most a''ro'riate answer or solution.
R#)%( R#-%+ &$is tec$ni:ue is used "or gat$ering in"ormation in a classroom
setting or 'lenar% session b% a "acilitator going round t$e grou' asking "or
contributions "rom eac$ 'artici'ant.
L"c&)rr"&&"+ is a s$ort 'resentation in terms o" time and material to introduce a
new to'ic orAand summariOe a session in 7B(!&
D".#%'&ra&-#%+ is a teac$ing met$od used in be$aviour modeling? and is usuall%
done in a "ace to "ace situation between an instructor and clientFsG. &$e instructor
does t$e 'ractical action in "ront o" t$e clientFsG in a ste' b% ste' "ormat. (t t$e end
t$e instructor allows clientFsG to re'eat t$e 'ractical. &$e instructor makes
clari6cations or additional in"ormation on t$e subject based on t$e clientFsG
'er"ormance. I" t$e clientFsG are convinced t$at t$e% are able to 'ractice t$e
demonstrated be$aviour? t$e% are more likel% to ado't it.
P""r 4rac&-c"+ ma% be de6ned as w$en colleagues s$are eE'eriences so t$at t$e%
can "reel% and o'enl% interact wit$ eac$ ot$er. MiE 'eo'le '" di;erent grou's will
result in ot$er grou's note eE'ressing t$eir views $ence im'lementation o"
sanitation 'rograms s$ould "ocus on using 'eers.
R#!" 4!a3: &$is met$od is used to demonstrate a certain true situation or scenario
t$at $a''ens in t$e communit% and it generates? s'arks discussion "rom t$e grou'
w$ere 'eo'le would eE'ound t$eir eE'eriences and knowledge about water and
sanitation issues.
Ca'" '&)(3+ &$is tec$ni:ue gives a scenario o" a certain communit% and
'eo'le are asked to anal%se t$e scenario and relate t$is scenario to t$eir real li"e
situation. Interventions are t$en drawn basing on t$eir eE'eriences and knowledge.
EBcha%," 2-'-&'+ &$is is a met$od t$at allows 'eo'le "rom one area to visit
anot$er area t$at is doing better in water and sanitation activities and in t$e
'rocess learning takes 'lace.
F-"!( Prac&-ca!': t$is tec$ni:ue allows 'eo'le to $ave $ands on eE'erience on
issues t$at were dealt in t$eoretical set u'.
I%'4"c&-#%'+ &$e met$od allows communit% re'resentatives and eEtension
workers to visit individual $ouse$olds and 'remises. &$ere are two t%'es o"
ins'ections namel%: Bouse$old@to@Bouse$old ins'ection and 'remises ins'ection.
F#c)' Gr#)4 D-'c)''-#%' :FGDC+ &$is is a tec$ni:ue t$at is used "or gat$ering
in"ormation "rom a s'eci6c grou'Asection o" t$e communit%. F85 uses :uestion and
answer sessions? redirecting answers "rom o'en@ended :uestions? 'robing? etc.
Gr#)4 D-'c)''-#%
&$is is a 'artici'ator% met$od t$at is used wit$ a small grou' o" 'eo'le in a class
o" 1*@)4 w$o are discussing issues in order to im'rove t$eir communit% in some
wa%. In selecting a grou' sel"@judgement is needed.
Ideall% big grou's will be divided into small grou's o" *@2 'ersons "or some o" t$e
activities? since t$e% 'rovide greater stimulus and o''ortunit% "or 'artici'ation.
I" t$is is done? t$e members o" small grou's s$ould be swa''ed around "or t$e
di;erent activities so t$at 'artici'ants $ave a c$ance to work wit$ one anot$er
!ome com'etition between grou's s$ould also be encouraged. 8uidance s$ould
be 'rovided in order "or t$e grou's to be "ocused on t$e issues at $and.
!mall grou's are invited to re'ort t$eir 6ndings to t$e w$ole grou' at t$e end o"
t$e activit%.
#nsure grou's com"ortabilit%? b% 're"erabl% seated in circular "orm
5istractions s$ould be minimiOed. e.g. c$ildcare
;)"'&-#%' a%( A%'/"r'
Facilitator 'oses a :uestion? 'artici'ant answers.
Facilitator 'asses along t$e answers to members "or discussion.
8uide t$em until trainees discover t$e rig$t answer or solution.
.
T#4-c 2+ Sa%-&a&-#% Pr#.#&-#%
I%&r#()c&-#%
( number o" communicable diseases are associated wit$ 'oor sanitation. 5isease@
causing organisms "ound in urine and "aeces s'read most o" t$e diseases t$at
result in diarr$oea. &$e "aecal Koral route eE'lains better t$e im'ortance o"
sanitation as a 'rimar% barrier mec$anism "or breaking t$is transmission route.
Bowever w$ere sanitation "acilities are 'oorl% 'lanned? constructed? maintained
and used wrongl% or not used at all? t$e e;ectiveness o" sanitation "acilities is
reduced and sanitar% "acilities ma% be a 'otential "or disease transmission.
O1"c&-2"'
5e6ne sanitation
/ist t$e areas o" "ocus in sanitation and sanitation "acilities involved
5escribe sanitation o'tions
5e6ne a sanitation ladder
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturette
8rou' discussion
Hoting b% "oot
Future,s w$eels
8rou' discussion
R"'#)rc"'
/05A7rojector?
Fli' c$arts and Markers?
0$alkboard?
Illustrations?
0ase scenarios?
Bandouts?
!am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
C#%&"%&
D"7%-&-#% #$ Sa%-&a&-#%
!anitation is a term a''lied to met$odsAtec$nologies used "or a''ro'riate
collection? trans'ortation and dis'osal o" $uman waste? communit% wastewaters
Note: Group discussion should form core of all tools and facilitation techniques in
participatory learning
and solid waste as well as 'rovision o" sa"e water in order to 'revent disease
transmission and create aest$etic environments.
!anitation t$ere"ore? involves 'rovision and maintenance o" "acilities t$at remove?
trans'ort and encloseAdis'ose wastes and waste water. !uc$ "acilitiesAstructures
are latrines? drains? bat$ s$elters? re"use 'its? sewers? sa"e water 'oints and related
structures.
Ar"a' #$ $#c)' -% 'a%-&a&-#% a%( 'a%-&a&-#% $ac-!-&-"' -%2#!2"(
&$ere are several areas o" "ocus in sanitation. &$e "ollowing are common in Malawi:
Wa&"r 4#-%& 'a%-&a&-#%
#Eam'les o" sa"e water 'oints in Malawi are as "ollows: bore$ole? 'rotected well?
ta'? and 'rotected s'ring. 8ood sanitation at water 'oints entails availabilit% o" t$e
"ollowing:
('ron
5rainage 0$annels
Was$ing !lab
!oak@ awa% 'it
Fence
=#)'"h#!( Sa%-&a&-#%
In Malawi a $ouse$old is de6ned as a "amil% com'osed o" 'arents? c$ildren and
relatives "eeding "rom t$e same 'ot. 8ood sanitation in a $ouse$old entails
availabilit% o" t$e "ollowing:
7it /atrine
1at$room
Band was$ing Facilit%
!tructures "or managing solid waste Fre"use 'its? com'ost $ea'sG
V-!!a," Sa%-&a&-#%
( village is a cluster o" $ouse$olds led b% a village $eadmanAwoman. 8ood village
sanitation entails availabilit% o" t$e "ollowing:
!a"e Water 7ointFsG
!olid Waste Management !tructures Fgrave%ard re"use 'its? com'ost
$ea'sG
Waste water management structures FIrrigation or 5rainage
0$annelsA!%stemG
Water catc$ment management s%stem
Sch##! Sa%-&a&-#%
8ood sc$ool sanitation entails availabilit% o" t$e "ollowing:
!c$ool &oilets
!c$ool urinals
!c$ool $and was$ing "acilities
!olid waste management "acilities
Water 'oints F1ore$oles? &a'sG

0$annelsA!%stemG
Mar0"& Sa%-&a&-#%
8ood market sanitation entails availabilit% o" t$e "ollowing:
&oilets
Urinals
Band was$ing "acilities
0$annelsA!%stemG
!a"e Water 'oints F1ore$oles? &a'sG
="a!&h Fac-!-&3 Sa%-&a&-#%
8ood $ealt$ "acilit% l sanitation entails availabilit% o" t$e "ollowing:
&oilets
Urinals
0$annelsA!%stemG
!olid waste management "acilities FIncinerator? 7lacenta 'it? re"use 'it
Mortuar%
B)''-%"'' a%( #&h"r 4)!-c 4r".-'"' 'a%-&a&-#%
8ood business and ot$er 'ublic 'remises sanitation entails availabilit% o" t$e
"ollowing:
&oilets
Urinals Fo'tionalG
0$annelsA!%stemG
Ac&-2-&3+ Bra-%'&#r.-%, '"''-#% $#r 4ar&-c-4a%&' &# ("2"!#4 a !-'& #$
ar"a' #$ $#c)' -% 'a%-&a&-#%
D"'cr-4&-#% #$ 'a%-&a&-#% #4&-#%'
&oilets
o &raditional
o Im'roved traditional Fwit$ san'lastG
o #cosan latrines
o Hentilated im'roved 'it latrines FHI7G
o 7our and <as$ latrines
o Water closet FW0G
Urinals
o &raditional
o 0onventional
o &raditional
o 0onventional
0$annelsA!%stemG
o !oak wa% 'it
o 0$annel V !oak wa% 'it
o !e'tic tank
o e"use 'its
o Incinerator
o 0ontrolled /and 6lling
!a"e Water 'oints
o 7rotected o'en well
o 7rotected s'ring
o 7rotected well wit$ $and 'um'
o 1ore$ole
o 1ore$ole wit$ motorised 'um'
o &a's
D"7%-&-#% #$ 'a%-&a&-#% !a(("r
!anitation ladder is a tool used "or 'rioritising sanitation o'tions desired b% t$e
communit% in stages as a''ro'riate Fattitude? be$aviour? a;ordabilit%? ada'tabilit%?
durabilit% ? environmental "actors? social and religious considerationsG.
!anitation ladder is ac$ieved b% 'lacing an illustration o" t$e least desired For
$ealt$%G o'tion at t$e bottom and t$e most desired at t$e to'.
Ac&-2-&3: ( "acilitator could s$ould give 'artici'ants a 'ack o" di;erent sanitation
'icturesI t$e grou' could be asked to construct a ladder b% 'lacing 'ictures "rom
least desired to t$e most desired at t$e to'. &$en? t$e grou' discusses t$e
advantages and disadvantages o" eac$ o'tion and selects an o'tion t$e% will desire
or a;ord. &$e activit% s$ould be taken one ste' "urt$er b% making 'artici'ants
identi"% 'ossible obstacles to im'lementing t$e desired sanitation im'rovements
caused b% attitude? be$aviour? a;ordabilit%? ada'tabilit%? durabilit% and
environmental "actors.
&$e same situation can be a''lied to make a water ladder. &$e activit% could be
a''lied in t$e same wa% as sanitation ladder. Water ladder could $ave "ewer
o'tions t$an sanitation ladder
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as de6ned sanitation? listed t$e areas o" "ocus in sanitation and
sanitation "acilities involved? listed sanitation o'tions and de6ned a sanitation
ladder among ot$er t$ings.
R"$"r"%c"'
workers? /ilongwe
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
5e6nition o" !anitation? areas o" "ocus in sanitation and t$e sanitation o'tions.
&e "ords
!anitation
!anitation "acilities
!anitation o'tions
!anitation ladder
1aseline data o" sanitation status in t$eir communities
#nvironmental and !ocial management
Time Required
2 $ours
T#4-c 3+ =3,-"%" 4r#.#&-#%
/ntroduction
B%giene is ke% element "or t$e control and 'revention o" water and sanitation
related diseases. One indicator "or $%gienic be$aviour is was$ing $ands wit$ soa'.
B%giene 'ractices suc$ as $and was$ing wit$ soa' at critical times e.g. a"ter using
t$e toilet or be"ore 're'aring "ood $ave s$own signi6cant im'act in reducing
diarr$oeal diseases in general 'o'ulation studies world wide. (ccording to MI0!
244+? $and@was$ing coverage wit$ soa' at critical times was at 3* in t$e countr%.
Band was$ing "acilities besides latrines at ?K /*elf pour3. Band was$ing "acilities
besides latrines at *HKFpot and cupG 7B(!& e'ort? 2441. Band was$ing 'ractices
wit$ soa' at "our critical times can reduce diarr$oeal disease b% 34 @ )4N . Band
was$ing can also $el' to reduce t$e 'revalence o" e%e in"ections suc$ as
conjunctivitis and trac$oma.
In"ant deat$s among under *,s "rom diarr$oea "or eEam'le reac$ed as $ig$ as
over )?444 deat$s during t$e 2443 K 244) re'orting 'eriods F5ra"t sanitation 'olic%?
244+G.
0b$ectives
5e6ne $%giene
/ist t$e areas o" "ocus in $%giene
5escribe advantages o" sa"e $%giene 'ractices
Methodolog
/ecturrettee
8rou' discussion
Halue Hoting
Future,s w$eels
ole 'la%
Illustration
Resources
/05A7rojector? Fli' c$arts and Markers? 0$alkboard? Illustrations? 0ase
scenarios? Bandouts? !am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
Content
D"7%-&-#% #$ h3,-"%"
B%giene is t$e consistent 'ro'er use o" sanitar% "acilities A structures in order to
'revent diseases.
Areas of focus in hgiene
&$e nine areas o" "ocus in $%giene are as "ollows:
Band was$ing wit$ soa' at "our critical times: a"ter visiting t$e toilet?
a"ter c$anging babies, na''ies? be"ore 're'aringAeating "ood? be"ore drawing
water
1at$ing C was$ing
5rinking sa"e water Fusing sa"e water could be more a''ro'riateG
Using 'it latrine
Using 'ro'er solid waste management s%stems suc$ as re"use 'its?
com'ost $ea'? grave%ard? incinerators? 'lacenta 'its
Using soak wa% 'it or irrigation c$annel F7ro'er waste water dis'osalG
Using bat$ s$elters "or bat$ing
Using was$ing slab at water 'oint "or was$ing
0overing 'it latrine s:uat $ole
A(2a%&a,"'9I.4#r&a%c" #$ Sa$" =3,-"%" Prac&-c"'
=3,-"%" Prac&-c" A(2a%&a,"'9I.4#r&a%c"
Band Was$ing
're"erabl% wit$ soa'
7revents transmission o" diarr$ea diseases e.g.
c$olera? t%'$oid? d%senter%
7romotes 'ersonal $%giene
7romotes social interaction
5rinking !a"e Water 7revents diarr$oeal diseases e.g. c$olera?
d%senter%? t%'$oid
7revents 7olio
0overing o" 'it latrine
s:uat $ole
7revents breeding o" disease vectors and vermins
e.g. <ies? cockroac$es and rats @ t$ere"ore
'revents transmission o" diarr$ea and ot$er
'arasitic diseases
educes smell "rom coming out o" t$e $ole
7ro'er dis'osal o"
waste water
7revents breeding o" mos:uitoes t$at cause
malaria
7rovides cleanliness o" t$e surrounding
7ro'er dis'osal o" solid
waste
7revents e%e in"ection b% reducing t$e breeding o"
<iesI and rat in"estations
7rovides clean surrounding
1at$ingA was$ing 7revents skin in"ections e.g. scabies? le'ros%
7romotes 'ersonal cleanliness
7revents e%e in"ections
7revents in"estations o" lice
Was$ing at was$ing
slabs
7revents in"ection "rom bil$arOia
7romotes cleanliness surrounding t$e water 'oint
Using 'it latrines 7revents diarr$oeal diseases e.g. c$olera? t%'$oid?
d%senter%
7rovides 'rivac%? social status and com"ort to t$e
users
0ontrols t$e breeding o" <ies
7revents in"ection "rom bil$arOia
7revents 7olio
Using bat$ s$elters 7revents in"ection "rom bil$arOias
7romotes 'ersonal $%giene
O;ers 'rivac%
+ummar
&$is to'ic $as de6ned $%giene? listed t$e areas o" "ocus in $%giene and "urt$er
described advantagesAim'ortance o" sa"e $%giene 'ractices
References
workers? /ilongwe
Areas of emphasis
5e6nition o" $%giene? t$e nine F3G areas o" "ocus in $%giene and t$e
advantagesAim'ortance o" consistent use o" sanitation "acilities
&e 'ords
B%giene
!anitation "acilities
0onsistent use
Prerequisite 1no'ledge
Understanding o" !anitation and sanitation "acilities
Time required
1 $our
T#4-c ?+ Sa%-&a&-#% a%( =3,-"%" -% Wa&"r
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e 'ur'ose o" t$e to'ic is to $el' 'artici'ants understand t$e relations$i'
between water and $ealt$. It introduces t$e 'artici'ants to understand $ow $uman
$ealt$ is a;ected b% :ualit% and :uantit% o" water.
Water is a natural $abitat o" man% micro organisms and vectors and its availabilit%
is not uni"orm. &$e :ualit% o" water to a greater eEtent determines t$e degrees o"
sa"et% o" water "or $uman consum'tion w$ile its :ualit% a;ects its usage "or $uman
activities. &$e ke%s to im'roved $ealt$ are 'rovision o" ade:uate :uantities o"
'otable water and ade:uate sanitation. &$ese two issues are im'licitl% linked? as
inade:uate sanitation ma% lead to t$e contamination o" drinking water.
O1"c&-2"'
#E'lain t$e relations$i' between water? sanitation and $%giene
/ist t$e water sanitation and $%giene related diseases
#E'lain t$e met$ods o" 'reventing water and sanitation related diseases
M"&h#(#!#,3
8rou' discussion
Halues clari6cation
/ecturrettee
Illustrations
R"'#)rc"'
/05A7rojector?
Fli' c$arts and Markers?
0$alkboard?
Illustrations?
0ase scenarios?
Bandouts?
!am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
0ontent
R"!a&-#%'h-4 "&/""% /a&"r, 'a%-&a&-#% a%( h3,-"%"
1G Wa&"r #r%" diseases suc$ as 0$olera are s'read t$roug$ drinking water
w$ic$ $as been contaminated wit$ "aeces due to unsa"e 'ractice o" not
using 'it latrines or o" not was$ing $ands wit$ soa' during critical times
suc$ as a"ter visiting a toilet.
&$e transmission route o" water borne diseases is illustrated in 6gure 1 below:
Figure 1
2G Wa&"r /a'h"( diseases suc$ as scabies are s'read w$en t$ere is lack o"
$%giene 'ractices suc$ as bat$ing and was$ing clot$es re:uiring
ade:uateA'lent% water su''l%.
Faec
es
Water Food
Mout$
3G Wa&"r Ba'"( diseases suc$ as bil$arOias are s'read w$en one is in
contact wit$ snail in"ested water during bat$ing and was$ing in t$e snail
in"ested water sources ot$er t$an bat$ing in bat$ s$elters and was$ing at
was$ing slabs using sa"e sources.
&$e transmission route "or bil$arOia is illustrated in 6gure 3 below:
Figure 3
)G Wa&"r r"!a&"( diseases suc$ as malaria s'read w$ere waste water
management 'ractices are 'oor allowing stagnant water to breed
mos:uitoes w$ic$ transmit Malaria.
Th" Tra%'.-''-#% r#)&" #$ .a!ar-a -' -!!)'&ra&"( -% 7,)r" ? "!#/+
Figure 4
*G Sa%-&a&-#% r"!a&"( diseases are s'read w$en one ste's on "aecal
contaminated soil as a result o" unsa"e dis'osal o" "aeces b% not
constructing and using 'it latrines
I% Ma%
:c"rcar-a
.a&)r"'
-%&# a()!&
/#r.C
Miracidia
in aquatic
snail
Cercariae out of
aquatic snail
0ercarie
a in
water
Cercariea
penetrates
mann
Ova in
Water
Malaria
'arasites in
man
7arasites
ingested b%
mos:uitoes
t$at breed in
water
Parasites
deelop in
mosquito
In"ected
mos:uito
bites man
&$e transmission route "or $ookworms is illustrated in 6gure * below:

F-,)r" F
Wa&"r 'a%-&a&-#% a%( h3,-"%" r"!a&"( (-'"a'"'
Wa&"r #r%"
0$olera
1lood% diarr$oea Fd%sentr%G
&%'$od
Wa&"r a'"(
1il$arOia
Wa&"r r"!a&"(
Malaria
Filariasis
Onc$ocerciasis Friver blindnessG
Wa&"r /a'h"(
&rac$oma
0onjunctivitis
!cabies
ingworms
Sa%-&a&-#% r"!a&"(
&rac$oma
0onjunctivitis
!cabies
ingworms
Lara deelops
into adult
worms in man
and lay eggs
#ggs in
"aeces
/arva
develo's in
warm moist
and s$ad% soil
/arva
'enetrates
man
M"&h#(' #$ 4r"2"%&-%, /a&"r a%( 'a%-&a&-#% r"!a&"( (-'"a'"'
D-'"a'" Ca&",#r3 D-'"a'"' Pr"2"%&-#% ."&h#('
Wa&"r #r%" 0$olera Use o" sa"e water
Observe 'ersonal and
"ood $%giene
Im'roved environmental
sanitation
1lood% diarr$oea
Fd%sentr%G
&%'$od
Wa&"r a'"( 1il$arOia Observe environmental
sanitation.
5rinking? was$ing and
bat$ing using sa"e
water
D-'"a'" Ca&",#r3 D-'"a'"' Pr"2"%&-#% ."&h#('
Wa&"r r"!a&"( Malaria 5estruction o"
mos:uito breeding
'laces
!'ra%ing wit$
recommended
insecticide
Filariasis
Onc$ocerciasis Friver
blindnessG
0learing bus$esI and
!'ra%ing wit$
recommended insecticides
along "ast <owing rivers
Wa&"r Wa'h"( &rac$oma Im'roved water and
sanitation.
Bealt$ education on
'ersonal $%giene
0onjunctivitis
!cabies
Im'rovement o" 'ersonal
$%giene ingworms
Sa%-&a&-#% r"!a&"( &rac$oma Im'roved sanitation
Bealt$ #ducation
on sanitation and
'ersonal $%giene
0onjunctivitis
!cabies
ingworms
S)..ar3
In t$is to'ic an eE'lanation $as been 'rovided "or t$e relations$i' between water?
sanitation and $%giene? t$e to'ic $as also a list o" t$e water sanitation and
$%giene related diseases. Finall% t$e to'ic $as eE'lained t$e met$ods o"
'reventing water and sanitation related diseases
R"$"r"%c"'
workers? /ilongwe
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e relations$i' between water? sanitation and $%giene
/ist o" water sanitation and $%giene related diseases
&$e met$ods o" 'reventing water and sanitation related diseases
&e "ords
Water borne
Water based
water related
Water was$ed and
1
Mnowledge on sanitation and $%giene
Mnowledge on sa"e water sources
Time Required
2 $ours
Wa&"r a%( 'a%-&a&-#% r"!a&"( (-'"a'"'
"ater-borne
&$ese are diseases t$at are transmitted w$en water contaminated
wit$ in"ectious disease organisms is consumed
#Eam'les o" suc$ diseases are c$olera? t%'$oid "ever? in"ectious
$e'atic? diarr$oea? blood% diarr$oea etc.
Im'roved water :ualit% suc$ as boiling? treatment wit$ c$emicals?
6ltration etc can reduce t$e s'read o" suc$ diseases.
&able 2: ( summar% o" water borne diseases common in Malawi
D-'"a'"
c!a''-7ca&-
#%
D-'"a'"' Ma1#r '-,%' 9
'3.4&#.'
M#(" #$
Tra%'.-''-
#%
C#%&r#!
Water borne 0$olera (cute water%
diarr$oea Frice waterG
5e$%dration
Homiting
Faecal K oral Use o" sa"e
water
Observe
'ersonal and
"ood $%giene
Im'roved
environmental
sanitation
1lood%
diarr$oea
FamoebiasisG
1lood% diarr$oea
wit$out "ever
Faecal K oral
1lood%
diarr$oea
Fs$igellosisG
1lood% diarr$oea wit$
"ever
Faecal K oral
&%'$oid "ever Fever? 5iarr$oea? Faecal K oral

"ater-based
&$ese are diseases w$ose causative agent must s'end a 'ortion o"
its li"e c%cle in an a:uatic animal be"ore develo'ing into in"ective
larvae.
&$ese are transmitted w$en in"ective larvae 'enetrate t$e $uman
skin.
#Eam'les o" suc$ diseases are sc$istosomiasis and guinea worm.
Im'roved sanitation is needed to eliminate t$ese organisms "rom
getting into water.
2
&able 3: ( summar% o" water based diseases common in Malawi
D-'"a'"
c!a''-7ca&-
#%
D-'"a'
"'
Ma1#r
'-,%' 9
'3.4&#.'
M#(" #$
Tra%'.-''-
#%
C#%&r#!
WaterKbased 1il$arOia
7assing urine
wit$ blood
F$eamaturia
G
7ain w$en
urinating
1arrowing t$e
$uman skin
Observe
environme
ntal
sanitation.
5rinking?
was$ing
and
bat$ing
using sa"e
water
7assing blood
stained
stools
(bnorminal
'ains
1arrowing t$e
$uman skin
"ater-related
&$ese are diseases in w$ic$ t$e causative organism is s'read b% t$e
bite o" insects? and 'art o" its li"e c%cle is s'ent in water.
#Eam'les o" suc$ diseases are malaria? 6lariasis and %ellow "ever.
5estro% t$e $abitats "or t$e vectors to control t$e diseases.
&able ): ( summar% o" water related diseases common in Malawi
D-'"a'"
c!a''-7ca&-
#%
D-'"a'"' Ma1#r
'-,%' 9
'3.4&#.'
M#(" #$
Tra%'.-''-
#%
C#%&r#!
WaterKrelated Malaria Fever
1od% 'ains
Beadac$e
(no'$eles
mos:uito bites
5estruction o" mos:uito
breeding 'laces
!'ra%ing wit$
recommended
insecticide
Filariasis B%droceale
Fin<ammation o"
scrotumG
#le'$antiasis
Fenlargement o"
limbsG
0uleE Mos:uito
bites
Onc$ocerciasi
s Friver
blindnessG
5e@coloration o"
t$e skin
1lindness
!imulium <ies
bite
0learing bus$esI and
!'ra%ing wit$
recommended
insecticides along "ast
<owing rivers
"ater-'ashed
&$ese are diseases t$at are s'read w$en water? w$ic$ is used "or
'ersonal and domestic $%giene? is inade:uate.
3
0ausative organisms are transmitted on dirt% 6ngers? dirt% linen?
towels etc.
(ggravated b% 'oor and inade:uate sanitar% "acilities.
#Eam'les o" suc$ diseases are e%e in"ections Ftrac$omaG? le'ros%?
scabies? and %aws.
Increased water su''l% and use can reduce transmission o" t$ese
diseases.
&able *: ( summar% o" water was$ed diseases common in Malawi
D-'"a'"
c!a''-7ca&-
#%
D-'"a'"' Ma1#r
'-,%' 9
'3.4&#.'
M#(" #$
Tra%'.-''-#
%
C#%&r#!
WaterKwas$ed &rac$oma Muco'urulent
e%e disc$argeI
B%'er'lasia
!caring and
de"ormit% o" t$e
e%elids
0ross in"ection
t$roug$
contaminated
6ngers? linen
and <ies
Im'roved water
and sanitation.
Bealt$ education
on 'ersonal
$%giene
0onjunctivitis 7urulent e%e
disc$arge
!cabies !kin ras$es wit$
small 'a'ules?
vescles and
'ustules wit$
intense 'ururitus
0ontact wit$ an
in"ected 'erson
and indirectl%
t$roug$ clot$ing
Im'rovement o"
'ersonal $%giene
ingworms 5i"used 'owder%
scaling o" t$e
sores
0ross in"ection
t$roug$
contaminated
linen and bat$
'laces
+anitation related
&$ese are diseases s'read w$en $uman eEcreta are dis'osed o"
indiscriminatel%. 0an be transmitted t$roug$ contaminated soil or
"ood .
0onsistent and 'ro'er use o" sanitation "acilities and good $%giene
'ractices reduces t$e s'read o" t$e in"estations.
#Eam'les are Book worms? W$i' Worms and ound Worms
&able +: ( summar% o" sanitar% related diseases common in Malawi
D-'"a'"
c!a''-7ca&-
#%
D-'"a'"' Ma1#r
'-,%' 9
'3.4&#.
'
M#(" #$
Tra%'.-''-
#%
C#%&r#!
!anitar%@
related
Bookworms (naemi
(bdominal
'ain
In"ective larvae
'enetrating t$e
skin
Im'roved
sanitation
Bealt$
#ducation
on
sanitation
and
'ersonal
$%giene
W$i' worms W7ersistent
diarr$oea
Wectal
'rola'se and
stunting in
c$ildren
Ingestion o" soil
contaminated
wit$ w$i' worm
ova
)
ound
worms
(bdominal
discom"ort
Homited or
'assed 'er
rectum
Ingestion o" soil
contaminated
wit$ round
worm ova
M#()!" L+ Wa&"r 8)a!-&3 a%( P#!!)&-#% C#%&r#!
I%&r#()c&-#%
Water :ualit% is t$e '$%sical? c$emical and biological c$aracteristics o" water
c$aracteriOed t$roug$ met$ods o" $%drometr%. &$e 'ollution o" rivers? lakes and
underground water "rom untreated or 'artiall% treated eXuents "rom munici'al?
industrial wastewater disc$arges? mining waste water disc$arges and runo;?
urban runo; F"rom storm waterG? agroc$emicals and ot$er sources suc$ as
$aOardous and toEic wastes is now a t$reat to water resources in most countries.
Water 'ollution $as a;ected water :ualit% and im'acted negativel% on 'ublic
$ealt$ and "unctioning o" t$e environment including t$e rising cost o" water
treatment. (ccording to Mo%o and Mtetwa? F2442G? water :ualit% is also im'acted
b% t$e c$anges in water :uantit% as eEcessive abstraction can reduce t$e
ca'acit% o" a water bod% to dilute incoming waste loads. Water :ualit% is also
a;ected b% natural "actors Fgeolog% o" t$e catc$mentG? geometr% o" t$e terrain
and t$e climate o" t$e region.
A-. #$ &h" M#()!"
Water :ualit% and 'ollution control are central to t$e su''l% o" sa"e drinking
water w$ic$ in turn determines t$e 'roductivit%. &$is module will 'rovide a
general overview o" Water testing and treatment.
&$is module will assist members o" WU( inter'ret water test results and re'ort
on basic water :ualit% indicators.
&$e module will e:ui' t$e 1o& team wit$ knowledge and skills in 'ollution
'revention and abatement. Members o" 1o& will become "amiliar wit$ isk
Management
O1"c&-2"'
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ stud% unit begin wit$ an introduction? rationale and learning objectives. &$e
comments on t$e activities. #ac$ stud% unit ends wit$ a test %oursel" eEercise
*
t$at enables %ou to c$eck w$et$er %ou $ave ac$ieved t$e objectives w$ic$ we
set at t$e beginning o" t$e unit or not. #ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be
used to ac$ieve t$e intended outcomes and t$e material resources re:uired to
ac$ieve t$e learning objectives.
S0-!!'
Inter'reting water test results
e'orting on basic water :ualit% indicators
C#%&"%&'
Water :ualit% monitoring and surveillance
Water testing
Water treatment
isk management
Water 'ollution
@ #;ects o" water 'ollution
@ !ources o" 7ollution
@ 7ollution 'revention and abatement
Water :ualit% guidelines and standards
T#4-c *+ Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 M#%-&#r-%, a%( S)r2"-!!a%c"
I%&r#()c&-#%
Water :ualit% surveillance is t$e continuous and vigilant 'ublic $ealt$ assessment
and review o" t$e sa"et% and acce'tabilit% o" drinking water su''lies FWBO?
13.+G. &$is surveillance contributes to t$e 'rotection o" 'ublic $ealt$ b%
'romoting im'rovement o" t$e :ualit%? :uantit%? accessibilit%? coverage?
a;ordabilit% and continuit% o" water su''lies Fknown as service indicatorsG and is
com'lementar% to t$e :ualit% control "unction o" t$e drinking water su''l%.
!urveillance is an im'ortant element in t$e develo'ment o" strategies "or
incremental
!urveillance eEtends be%ond drinking water su''lies o'erated b% a discreet
drinking water su''l% to include drinking water su''lies t$at are managed b%
communities and includes good $%giene in t$e collection and storage o"
$ouse$old water. &$e aut$orities res'onsible "or drinking water su''l%
surveillance ma% be Ministries o" Bealt$? and Irrigation and Water 5evelo'ment
or &$e 5istrict (ssembl%? and t$eir roles will encom'ass "our areas o" activities
+
7ublic $ealt$ oversig$t o" organised drinking water su''liesI
7ublic $ealt$ oversig$t and in"ormation su''ort to 'o'ulations wit$out
access to organised drinking water su''lies? including communities and
$ouse$oldsI
0onsolidation o" in"ormation "rom diverse sources to enable understanding
o" t$e drinking water su''l% situation "or a WU( or 5istrict or &ownAMarket
0entre as a w$ole as an in'ut to t$e develo'ment o" co$erent 'ublic
$ealt$@centred 'olicies and 'racticesI and
7artici'ation in t$e investigation? re'orting and com'ilation o" outbreaks o"
waterborne diseases.
&$e drinking water su''l% agenc% will $ave an interest o" t$e 'o'ulation at large
wit$ its interest eEtending be%ond water :ualit% to include all as'ects o" t$e
ade:uac% o" t$e drinking water su''l% "or t$e 'rotection o" 'ublic $ealt$. In
undertaking an assessment o" ade:uac% o" drinking water su''l%? t$e "ollowing
basic service 'arameters o" t$e drinking water su''l% will normall% be taken into
consideration:
9ualit%I w$et$er t$e su''l% $as an a''roved water su''l% 'rogramme t$at
$as bee validated and is subject to 'eriodic audit to demonstrate
com'liance
9uantit% Fservice levelGIt$e 'ro'ortion o" t$e 'o'ulation using water "rom
di;erent levels o" drinking water su''l% Fe.g.? no access? basic access?
intermediate access? and o'timal accessG
&$is to'ic t$ere"ore attem'ts to $el' 'artici'ants wit$ "undamental as'ects o"
water :ualit% monitoring and surveillance. Water :ualit% is assessed using
:uantitative and descri'tive 'arameters. Most indicators in water :ualit%
surveillance are onl% suggestive rat$er t$an concrete $ence t$eir inter'retation
must be used cautiousl%. &$is is so because laborator% anal%sis "or detection o"
actual diseases causing micro organisms and c$emicals is eE'ensive and re:uires
$ig$l% so'$isticated e:ui'ments and eE'ertise. &$is module eE'lains sim'le
laborator% tec$ni:ues suitable "or a''lication in 6eld conditions.
O1"c&-2"'
@ 5e6ne Water 9ualit%
@ Identi"% indicators o" water :ualit%
@ #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" conducting monitoring and surveillance
.
M"&h#(#!#,3
@ Field tri's
@ /ecturrette
@ 5emonstrations
R"'#)rc"'
@ /05A7rojector?
@ Fli' c$arts
@ Markers?
@ 0$alkboard?
@ Illustrations?
@ 0ase scenarios?
@ Bandouts?
@ !am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
C#%&"%&
D"7%-&-#% #$ Wa&"r ;)a!-&3
Water :ualit% is t$e term to eE'ress t$e suitabilit% o" water to sustain various
uses or 'rocesses. (n% 'articular use will $ave certain re:uirements "or '$%sical?
c$emical and biological c$aracteristics o" water.
5rinking water :ualit% is re:uired to be microbiologicall% sa"e i.e. no content o"
'at$ogenic bacteria? viruses? "ungi and 'rotoOoa.
It s$ould also be c$emicall% $%gienic i.e. no or low concentration o" toEic metals?
organics and in organics and a''ro'riate concentration o" iodide? <uoride?
$ardness? irons and tec$nicall% acce'table ie low content o" 'at$ogenic bacteria
and natural content o" calcium carbonate
It s$ould also be radio logicall% sa"e @ low content o" radial activit%
It s$ould also be organole'ticall% acce'table i.e. good taste? no smell? no colour?
turbidit%? 'resent low tem'erature
Water :ualit% is t$e '$%sical? c$emical and biological c$aracteristics o" water t$at
makes t$e water 6t "or an intended 'ur'ose Fdrinking? industrial use and ot$er
domestic usesG. &$at is to sa% t$at water :ualit% takes into consideration t%'e o"
contaminant? e;ect o" t$e contamination on $uman $ealt$ and lengt$ o" time
re:uired "or t$is e;ect to become clear.
2
I%(-ca&#r' #$ /a&"r 8)a!-&3
&$e table 1 below gives an overview o" t$e various indicators o" water :ualit%
T34" #$
C#%&a.-%a&-#%
I%(-ca&#r'
7$%sical &urbidit% matter
Fsus'ended matterG
&aste and
OdourAsmell
0olour
0$emical (cidit%
(lkalinit%
Bardness
0$emical OE%gen
5emand F0O5G
&oEicit%
0orrosivit%
esidual disin"ectants
7esticides
1iological 1iological OE%gen
5emand F1O5G
7resence o"
microbiological
elements F#coli?
coli"ormsG
5rinking water and water used "or "ood 'rocessing must be:
Free "rom organisms t$at are ca'able o" causing disease
Free "rom minerals and organic substance t$at could 'roduce adverse
'$%siological e;ects
Must be aest$eticall% acce'tableI "ree "rom obvious turbidit%? colour. Odour
and "rom objectionable taste
Bave a reasonable tem'erature.
3
I.4#r&a%c" #$ c#%()c&-%, .#%-&#r-%, a%( ')r2"-!!a%c"
Monitoring and surveillance is used to c$eck t$e :ualit% o" raw water and t$e 6nal
treated water as it leaves a water treatment works. &$is eEercise "acilitates:
7rovision o" earl% warning to 'rotect t$e intended water users in t$e event
o" an accidental 'ollution
&$e assessment o" t$e actual status o" water eit$er at source? storage and
distribution line
0om'liance wit$ various legal instruments
#arl% identi6cation o" water leakages
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as de6ned Water 9ualit%? Identi6ed indicators o" water :ualit% and
"urt$er eE'lained t$e im'ortance o" conducting monitoring and surveillance.
R"$"r"%c"'
t$
#d? OE"ord Uk? (rnold.
Waternet? egional Master 5egree 'rogramme in Integrated Water esources
Management FIWMG? Water 9ualit% Management Module IWM 2.1
#Etension workers? U-I0#F /ilongwe
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
water :ualit%
Water Monitoring
Water !urveillance
Water testing
&e "ords
Monitoring
!urveillance
9ualit%
#cos%stem
&urbidit%
(cidit%
14
(lkalinit%
Bardness
0O5
1O5
&aste and odour
&oEicit% and 0orrosivit%
#nvironmental and !ocial Management
Time Required
1 $our 34 minutes
Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 S)r2"-!!a%c"
&$is module attem'ts to $el' 'artici'ants wit$ "undamental as'ects o" water
:ualit% surveillance. Water :ualit% is assessed using :uantitative and descri'tive
'arameters. Most indicators in water :ualit% surveillance are onl% suggestive
rat$er t$an concrete $ence t$eir inter'retation must be used cautiousl%. &$is is so
because laborator% anal%sis "or detection o" actual diseases causing micro
organisms and c$emicals is eE'ensive and re:uires $ig$l% so'$isticated
e:ui'ments and eE'ertise. &$is module eE'lains sim'le laborator% tec$ni:ues
suitable "or a''lication in 6eld conditions
M-cr#-#!#,-ca! I%(-ca&#r'
S"!"c&-#% #$ 4ara."&"r'
&$e 6rst ste' in deciding w$et$er a 'articular 'arameter s$ould be included in a
monitoring 'rogramme is to ascertain w$et$er:
&$e substance is 'resent. I" so? at w$at level does it eEist and does it reac$
levels t$at are o" concern.
(n% $uman or ot$er activities currentl% eEist in t$e catc$ment t$at ma%
contribute to t$e substance to become 'resent in water.
In terms o" 'riorit%? 'arameters to be included could be categoriOed into t$ree:
Microbiological :ualit% and t$ose 'arameters t$at control microbiological :ualit%
Fdisinfectants residue, ph and turbidityG.
7arameters t$at cause rejection o" water FTurbidity, taste, colour and odourG.
0$emicals o" known $ealt$ risk.
Charac&"r-'&-c' #$ B-#!#,-ca! I%(-ca&#r'
&esting o" 'at$ogens in water is not "easible "or routine monitoring because o" t$e
"ollowing reasons:
11
i. &$e number o" di;erent 'at$ogens is large.
ii. &esting o" di;erent 'at$ogens is e5pensive.
iii. &esting o" di;erent 'at$ogens is di6cult.
Bowever? most 'at$ogens s$are t$e same source or $ave t$e same transmission
routes. Bence? microbiological indicators s$ould s$are similar c$aracteristics wit$
'at$ogenic organisms and basic c$aracteristics o" an ideal indicator are as
"ollows:
i. 7resent w$erever 'at$ogens are 'resent.
ii. 7resent in t$e same or $ig$er numbers t$an 'at$ogens.
iii. !'eci6c "or "aecal or sewage 'ollution.
iv. (t least as resistant as 'at$ogens to conditions in natural water
environments? and water 'uri6cation and disin"ection 'rocess.
v. -on@'at$ogenic.
vi. 5etectable b% sim'le? ra'id and ineE'ensive met$od.
-ote:
#sc$eric$ia coli F-7 ColiG $as been identi6ed to $ave t$e most o" t$e above
c$aracteristics? t$at is:
/ts presence in 'ater indicates higher possibilit of contamination b
faecal matter7 Its absence in water sim'l% indicates low risk o" 'ossible
contamination wit$ 'at$ogens rat$er t$an sa"e. (lso? #. 0oli ma% not 'rovide a
good indication o" 'resence o" viruses and 'rotoOoa.
S-.4!" ch"c0' a& '#)rc" /#r0'
&wice dail% c$ecks s$ould be carried on c$lorine dosage rate and t$e residue
c$lorine content o" water entering su''l%.
5ail% measurements on sam'les o" raw and treated water s$ould be carried out
"or turbidit%I colour? odour? conductivit% and 'B value.
W$ere coagulation? clari6cation and 6ltration are a''lied? dail% c$ecks s$ould
also be carried out on dosages o" coagulants? and t$e 'B and turbidit% o" t$e
water eE clari6ers and eE 6lters.
T#4-c 2+ Wa&"r T"'&-%, a%( Tr"a&."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e availabilit% o" well e:ui''ed laboratories and resources "ro water :ualit%
testing can be ver% limited "or man% water undertakings. &$e level o" testing in
suc$ circumstances must concentrate on t$e most essential 'arameters. (
suggested 'riorit% list o" water testing includes c$ecks on c$lorine dosage rate
and t$e residual c$lorine content o" water entering su''l%? turbidit%? colour?
odour? conductivit% and 'B value o" raw water and treated water? dosages o"
coagulants? water eE clari6ers and eE 6lters w$ere coagulation? clari6cation and
6ltration are a''lied. 1iological testing includes anal%sis "or total and "aecal coli
12
"orms "or treated water leaving a water treatment works and 6nall% c$emical
testing o" t$e most im'ortant 'arameters Fre"er to table 1 in to'ic 1 aboveG.
Water treatment is a 'rocess o" im'roving t$e :ualit% o" source water to t$e
levels t$at com'l% wit$ $uman needs. Water treatment deals wit$ 'rocesses like
sedimentation? 6ltration? c$emical treatment.
O1"c&-2"'
5escribe $ow water is tested
5escribe $ow water is treated
Inter'ret test results
5escribe di;erent met$ods o" water treatment
#E'lain advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent met$ods o" water treatment
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturette
8rou' discussion
0ase stud%
Field visits
Illustrations
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
@ /05A7rojector?
@ Fli' c$arts
@ Markers?
@ 0$alkboard?
@ Illustrations?
@ 0ase scenarios?
@ Bandouts?
@ !am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
C#%&"%&
Wa&"r &"'&-%,
&$e majorit% o" 'eo'le in Malawi leave in rural areas. In rural areas t$e main
sources o" water are rivers? bore$oles? wells and lakes w$ic$ ma% not be treated
at all. In some communities 'i'ed water is available w$ic$ regional water boards
ma% treat. Water testing is an activit% t$at involves sam'ling water at di;erent
'oints "or 'ur'oses o" determining t$e :ualit% o" water "or 'ossible consideration
o" water treatment.
W$en conducting water testing 'riorit% is given to residual c$lorine? 'B? turbidit%
and microbiological F1acteriologicalG testing o" water as eE'lained below.
13
&$e 6rst tests t$at must be carried out on drinking water using sam'les are t$e
determination o" r"'-()a! ch!#r-%" a%( &)r-(-&3.
&$e results o" t$ese two tests will $el' assess w$et$er .-cr#-#!#,-ca! &"'&
s$ould be taken or not.
T"'&-%, $#r R"'-()a! Ch!#r-%" a%( 4= :a'"( #% &h" OB$a. D"! A8)a K-&C
Ac&-2-&3
Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
5el (:ua Water &esting Mit
Water !am'les
Pr#c"()r"
Was$ t$e com'arator cells t$ree times wit$ water? w$ic$ is to be anal%sed and
6nall% 6ll all t$ree cells wit$ sam'le.
5ro' a 575 -o.1 tablet into t$e rig$t $and cell F0/2G (-5 ( '$enol ed tablet
into t$e le"t@ $and cell.
e'lace t$e lid o" t$e com'arator and 'us$ down 6rml% to seal.
Invert t$e com'arator re'eatedl% until t$e two tablets $ave been com'letel%
dissolved. Do not shake, as this will introduce air.
Immediatel% read "ree c$lorine residual and 'B concentration b% $olding u' t$e
com'arator to da% lig$t and matc$ing t$e colour develo'ment in t$e cells wit$
t$e standard colour scale in t$e central 'art o" t$e com'arator. I" t$e colour "alls
between t$e two standard colours? t$en it will be necessar% estimate t$e
concentration.
&o test "or total c$lorine residual? do not discard t$e li:uid in t$e com'arator?
but remove t$e lid and add a tablet o" 575 -o.3 t$e rig$t cell F0l2G.
(gain invert t$e com'arator re'eatedl% to dissolve t$e tablet. &$e colour
develo'ed a"ter 14 minutes re'resents t$e total c$lorine residual in mgAliter.
!ubtract t$e "ree c$lorine result "rom t$e total c$lorin result to obtain t$e
combined c$lorine concentration.
For residue "ree c$lorine greater t$an 4.2mgAl F4.2''mG and turbidit% less
t$an * &U? it is $ig$l% unlikel% t$at t$e sam'le will contain t$ermo tolerant
F"aecalG 0oli"orm.
In order to obtain c#.-%"( ch!#r-%" concentration
575 -o.1 UUUUUUUUUUUU.. YFree c$lorine residual
575 -o.1 V 575 -o.3UUUUUUU.Y &otal c$lorine residual
T#&a! ch!#r-%" M Fr"" ch!#r-%" NNNDDO C#.-%"( ch!#r-%"
1)
&urbidit% above * -&U ma% be noticeable to consumers. &$e WBO guidelines set
t$is as t$e maEimum level acce'table to consumers? but also set a treatment
standard o" less or e:ual to 1 -&U "or success"ul disin"ection.
I" t$e result "or r"'-()a! ch!#r-%" -' ,r"a&"r &ha% 0D2.,9!-&r" :0D244.C a%(
&)r-(-&3 !"'' &ha% FTU? $owever a turbidit% o" less t$an 1&U is recommended
at treatment works. Wit$in t$ese values it is ver% unlikel% t$at t$e sam'le will
contain $eat tolerant F"aecalG 0oli"orm. &$ere"ore it ma% not be necessar% to
conduct coli"orm anal%sis.
N#&": Use o" sterile e:ui'ment is essential "or microbiological anal%sis.
T)r-(-&3 &"'&-%,
&urbidit% is caused b% various materials Finorganic and organic s'ecies and
'articulatesG is sus'ension in water. &urbidit% is a sim'le use"ul indicator o" t$e
condition o" water.
&$ere are di;erent t%'es o" instruments used "or measuring turbidit% one o"
w$ic$ is recommended is t$e -e'$elometers w$ic$ use turbidit% tubes. &$e
turbidit% tubes cover t$e range * to 2?444 &U
Ac&-2-&3
Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
Water !am'les
Pr#c"()r"
emove t$e two turbidit% tubes "rom t$eir cli's in t$e lid o" t$e test kit case.
0are"ull% 'us$ t$e u''er tube Fo'en bot$ endsG s:uarel% into t$e lower tube.
/ook t$roug$ t$e o'en end o" t$e tube at t$e black circle 'rinted on t$e base o"
t$e tube. #nsure t$at t$ere is good illumination available. -ormal da%lig$t is
ade:uate "or t$is 'ur'ose.
7our t$e water sam'le into t$e tube "rom sam'le cu' until t$e black circle
just a''ears w$en viewed "rom t$e to' o" t$e tube. (void creating bubbles?
as t$ese ma% cause biased results.
ecord and inter'ret t$e result according to t$e in"ormation FclauseU..G
above
Bac&"r-#!#,-ca! &"'&-%, #$ /a&"r
&o anal%se water sam'les "rom $eat tolerant F"aecalG 0oli"orm a measured
:uantit% o" water is 'assed t$roug$ a sterile 6lter so t$at an% bacteria 'resent in
t$e water are caug$t in t$e 'ad.
Ac&-2-&3
Ma&"r-a!'
1*
Water !am'les
Th" 4r#c"()r" is as "ollows:
7lace a sterile 'ad in a sterile 'etri dis$ using sterile? blunt ended "orce's.
(dd2.4@2.*ml o" sterile membrane /aur%l !ul'$ate 1rot$ to eac$ 'ad
immediatel% be"ore testing t$e water sam'les. &$e 'ads will swell slig$tl% a"ter
adding t$e brot$.
Using sterile blunt ended "orce's? 'lace a sterile membrane 6lter on t$e 6lter
to' t$e membrane must overla' t$e 6lterable area so t$at all t$e sam'le will Zass
t$roug$ t$e membrane.
MiE t$oroug$l% t$e bottle o" water b% inverting t$e bottle several times.
emove t$e bottle ca' and cover. Flame t$e mout$ o" t$e bottle and 'our t$e
c$osen volume o" sam'le into t$e u''er container.
ecommended sam'le volumes Falternative volumes are s$own in bracketsG
"or t$ermo tolerant F"aecalG coli"orm anal%sis b% membrane 6ltration
tec$ni:ue are as "ollows:
/ake? 'onds and ot$er sur"ace waterUUUUUUUUU.14ml F1mlG
7rotected ground water e.g. wells and s'ringsUUUUU144mlF*4mlG
Un'rotected ground waters e.g. o'en dug wells and s'ringsU
*4mlF144A14mlG
Water in treated 'lants a"ter 'artial treatmentUUUUU*4mlF144A14ml
Water in treated 'lants a"ter "ull treatmentUUUUUUU.144ml
eservoirs? distribution networks and $ouse$old ta'sUU...144ml
-ote: Holumes indicated above can be diluted wit$ distilled water or
rainwater 'er 144mls.
T"'&-%, $#r R"'-()a! Ch!#r-%" a%( 4= :a'"( #% &h" OB$a. D"! A8)a K-&C
concentration.
1+
F"aecalG 0oli"orm.
I%&"r4r"&-%, /a&"r &"'&-%, r"')!&'
aC Ch".-ca! A%a!3'-'
0$lorine is one o" t$e disin"ectants used in water su''l% treatment.
1acteriologicall%? sa"e water "or $uman consum'tion s$ould be inter'reted w$en
c$lorine and turbidit% is as "ollows:
i7 A residue free chlorine greater than 87%mg#l 987%ppm! and
ii7 Turbidit less than :T;7
C Bac&"r-#!#,-ca! A%a!3'-'
0oli"orm F#.0oliG in water "or $uman consum'tion s$ould be PERO 4"r
*00.!' FG 'er 144mlG
I" 0oli"orm eEceed *4 colonies 'er 144mls? t$en t$e water is $eavil%
contaminated and re:uires immediate remedial action.
Ot$er water sources w$ere c$lorine is not used ma% $ave 24@244 colonies
'er 144ml.
M"&h#(' #$ /a&"r &r"a&."%&
Water treatment is a 'rocess o" im'roving t$e :ualit% o" source water to t$e
levels t$at com'l% wit$ $uman needs. Water treatment deals wit$ 'rocesses like
sedimentation F!torageG? 6ltration? aeration c$emical treatment Fc$lorinationG.
( "ew da%s storage o" a sur"ace water will im'rove its '$%sical and
microbiological c$aracteristics. &$is is t$e e;ect o" a combination o" actions
including sedimentation? natural coagulation and c$emical interactions ? t$e
bactericidal action o" ultraviolet radiation near t$e water sur"ace and numerous
biotic 'at$wa%s w$ic$ $el' to reduce enteric micro@organisms. !edimentation
ma% "urt$er be im'roved b% ot$er 'rocesses including clari6cation? c$emical
coagulation and <occulation and "ollowed b% 6ltration.
1.
(eration involves 'assing oE%gen in water and in t$e 'rocess water :ualit% is
"urt$er im'roved b% t$e oEidation o" unwanted c$emicals in water.
Filtration "urt$er im'roves t$e :ualit% o" water w$en sus'ended matter and some
c$emicals are sieved. Materials used in t$ese 6ltration 'lants are la%ers o"
var%ing siOes o" sand .&$ere are also var%ing t%'es o" sand 6lters de'ending u'on
t$e 6ltration media and 'ressure a''lied to water 'assing t$roug$ t$e bed o"
media.
0$lorination involves dosing water wit$ c$lorine in t$e rig$t amounts to reac$ a
level w$ere t$ere is residual or "ree c$lorine in t$e water u' to t$e time it reac$es
t$e consumer so t$at an% micro@organism entering t$e water s%stem on t$e wa%
to t$e consumer is able to be destro%ed .b% t$is residual c$lorine.(t $ouse$old
level? 'ot@to@'ot c$lorination can a''l% to disin"ect raw or 'artiall% treted water in
an emergenc% situation.
(not$er met$od o" water treatment w$ic$ can be a''lied at $ouse$old level?
es'eciall% to water drawn "rom un'rotected sources suc$ as sur"ace water
sources or un'rotected wellsAs'rings? is boiling.
A(2a%&a,"' a%( (-'a(2a%&a,"' #$ (->"r"%& ."&h#(' #$ /a&"r &r"a&."%&
M"&h#( #$ /a&"r
&r"a&."%&
A(2a%&a,"' D-'a(2a%&a,"'
1oiling Used at $ouse level
Water taste becomes <at
Used "or small :uantities
o" water
I" boiling time "ollowed?
kills all $arm"ul micro@
organisms
-atural gases eE'elled
"rom water
0oncentration o" minerals
increased
0$lorination I" 'ro'erl% done? kills all
$arm"ul micro@organisms
elativel% eE'ensive
5oes not work well in
turbid water
&aste and smell increase i"
overdosed
-ot ver% e;ective in
waters wit$ colloidal
matter
FiltrationA!creening emoves sus'ended 5oes not remove all
12
matter and im'roves
colour? taste and smell o"
t$e 6ltered water
Big$l% susce'tible to
turbid water Fclogs easil%G
!torageAsedimentation elativel% c$ea' at large
scale
educes colour? taste and
$eav% 'articles
5oes not remove all
0oagulation #n$ances 'reci'itation o"
$eav% materials
#E'ensive and re:uires
s'ecial treatment "acilities
and skills
0oagulant aids #n$ances eJcienc% and
e;ectiveness o"
coagulation
e:uires s'ecial treatment
"acilities and skills
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as described $ow water is tested and treated? $ow results are
inter'reted. It $as also described di;erent met$ods o" water treatment and it $as
eE'lained t$e Water 9ualit%? Identi6ed indicators o" water :ualit% and "urt$er
eE'lained t$e advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent met$ods o" water
treatment.
R"$"r"%c"'
t$
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
'rocesses involved in im'roving water :ualit%
'rocedures in water testing
Inter'reting test results
met$ods o" water treatment
advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent met$ods o" water treatment
&e "ords
residual c$lorine
#. 0oli
Filtration
OEidation
13
Time Required
3 $ours
T#4-c 3+ Wa&"r P#!!)&-#%
I%&r#()c&-#%
In a!! t$e 'ast t$ere was a 'eriod w$en water :ualit% was onl% a;ected b% natural
s%stems suc$ as volcanoes? <oods and "orest 6res due to lig$tening. &$en as time
'rogressed man began to degrade t$e :ualit% o" t$e water. &$us nature? man?
agriculture? and industr% contribute to t$e degradation o" our water :ualit% !ome
'ollutants are regarded as $aOardous or dangerous because t$e% re'resent a
major t$reat to t$e water environment as a result o" t$eir toEicit%? 'ersistence?
and ca'acit% "or bioaccumulation. &$ere"ore source reduction and rec%cling o"
'ollutants s$ould be alwa%s t$e main area o" "ocus so t$at t$e 'resent and "uture
t$reats to $uman $ealt$ and environment
O1"c&-2"'
@Identi"% sources o" water 'ollution
@5escribe e;ects o" water 'ollution
@Identi"% wa%s o" 'reventing and abating water 'ollution
M"&h#(#!#,3
@/ecturrette
@Future,s w$eels
@8rou' discussions
@ole 'la%
@Field visits
@5emonstrations
24
R"'#)rc"'
@/05A7rojector?
@ Fli' c$arts
@Markers?
@0$alkboard?
@Illustrations?
@0ase scenarios?
@ Bandouts?
@!am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
C#%&"%&
S#)rc"' #$ /a&"r 4#!!)&-#%
natural s%stems suc$ as animal dro''ings? <oods and "orest 6res due to
lig$tening
man t$roug$ $is activities suc$ as "arming in water catc$ment areas?
agricultural activities w$ere "ertiliOers? "arm c$emicals and animal c$emicals are
used? and
industrial activities w$ere industries disc$arge eXuent and solid wastes into
bodies o" water
E>"c&' #$ /a&"r 4#!!)&-#%
5isease due to $aOardous or dangerous s'ollutantss
Water environmental degradation as a result o" 'ollutants toEicit%? 'ersistence
and ca'acit% "or bioaccumulation
Pr"2"%&-%, a%( aa&-%, /a&"r 4#!!)&-#%
Formulation o" b%e@laws
Ins'ections
!ecurit% o" water catc$ment areas
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as identi6ed sources o" water 'ollution and wa%s o" abating water
'ollution. In addition? it $as described t$e e;ects o" water 'ollution.
R"$"r"%c"'
t$
21
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
sources o" water 'ollution
e;ects o" water 'ollution
'reventing and abating water 'ollution
&e "ords
7ollutants
5egradation
abating
7ollutants
5egradation
abating
Time Required
2 $ours 34 minutes
T#4-c ?+ Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 ,)-("!-%"' a%( S&a%(ar('
I%&r#()c&-#%
:ualit% guidelines and standards.
Water :ualit% standard is an objective t$at is recognised in en"orceable
environmental control laws o" a level o" government. It is a de6nite rule? 'rinci'le?
or measure establis$ed b% aut$orit%. !ince establis$ed b% aut$orit%? it is oJcial or
:uasi@legal. Bowever? because somet$ing is termed a standard does not mean
t$at it is rationall% based on t$e best scienti6c knowledge and engineering
'ractice. Use o" standard tends to eliminate im'rovement and sustain in<eEibilit%.
Water :ualit% guidelines are numerical concentration or narrative statements
recommended to su''ort and maintain a designated water use.
&$is module eE'lains sim'le :ualit% guidelines and standards suitable "or
a''lication in &own Market 0entres.
O1"c&-2"'
@!tate water :ualit% guidelines and standards
@5escribe 'rocedures "or veri"%ing com'liance to guidelines and standards
M"&h#(#!#,3
@/ecturrette
22
@#ducational visits
@5emonstrations
R"'#)rc"'
@/05A7rojector?
@ Fli' c$arts
@Markers?
@0$alkboard?
@Illustrations?
@0ase scenarios?
@ Bandouts?
@!am'le 'ublic in"ormation lea<ets and broc$ures
C#%&"%&
Water :ualit% guidelines
Water :ualit% standards
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as stated t$e water :ualit% guidelines and standards and $as also
described 'rocedures "or veri"%ing com'liance to guides and standards.
R"$"r"%c"'
t$
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Water :ualit% guidelines
Water :ualit% standards
Heri6cation o" com'liance to guidelines and standards
Areas of -mphasis
&e "ords
Time Required
1 $our 34 minutes
23
T#4-c F+ Wa&"r a%( ="a!&h
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e 'ur'ose o" t$e to'ic is to $el' 'artici'ants understand t$e relations$i'
between water and $ealt$. It introduces t$e 'artici'ants to understand $ow
$uman $ealt$ is a;ected b% :ualit% and :uantit% o" water.
Water is a natural $abitat o" man% micro organisms and vectors and its
availabilit% is not uni"orm. &$e :ualit% o" water to a greater eEtent determines t$e
degrees o" sa"et% o" water "or $uman consum'tion w$ile its :ualit% a;ects its
usage "or $uman activities. &$e ke%s to im'roved $ealt$ are 'rovision o"
ade:uate :uantities o" 'otable water and ade:uate sanitation. &$ese two issues
are im'licitl% linked? as inade:uate sanitation ma% lead to t$e contamination o"
drinking water.
O1"c&-2"'
U'on com'letion o" t$e module? t$e 'artici'ant s$ould be able to:
i. 5escribe good water :ualit% and ade:uate water :ualit%.
ii. Mention diseases associated wit$ water :ualit% and water :uantit%.
iii. #E'lain "actors t$at a;ect access to water :uantit%.
iv. 5escribe $ow sanitation a;ects water :uantit%.
elate $ow water :uantit% a;ects $%giene.
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecture
2)
1rainstorming
5iscussion
R"'#)rc"'
I. ealm o" 'a'er
II. &rans'arencies
III. Fli' c$art
IH. Masking ta'e
H. -otebooks
HI. 7enA'encils
HII. Magic markers and OB7 'ental 'ens
HIII. OB7 and screen
I[. Bandouts on water and $ealt$
C#%&"%&
Wa&"r ;)a!-&3
Water is essential "or $uman eEistence. Bowever? "or good $ealt$? water must be
o" good :ualit% and in ade:uate :uantities.
G##( /a&"r 8)a!-&3
#Eercise: list at least t$ree good :ualities o" water.
Water o" good :ualit% must be:
Free "rom disease causing organisms
Free "rom toEic c$emicals
!'arkling clear? odourless? tasteless and not smell%
0onsum'tion o" water t$at is contaminated b% disease@causing causing micro
organisms can lead to $ealt$ 'roblems.
Wa&"r ;)a%&-&3
Water must be available in ade:uate :uantities 'er ca'ita Fat least 2*
litersAca'itaAda%G. 1ut t$is is de'endent on:
(ccessibilit% K w$ere water is "ar "rom $ome? users ma% not access it. I" cost o"
water is $ig$ users ma% not a;ord.
0ost K w$ere t$e cost o" water is $ig$? users will tend to use less t$an t$e
water re:uired 'er ca'itaAda%.
eliabilit% K w$ere t$e su''l% is unreliable? insuJcient amounts o" water ma%
be collected or ot$er unsa"e sources o" water ma% be used.
M#()!" 2D0 Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 S)r2"-!!a%c"
2D* I%&r#()c&-#%
:ualit% surveillance. Water :ualit% is assessed using :uantitative and descri'tive
'arameters. Most indicators in water :ualit% surveillance are onl% suggestive
rat$er t$an concrete $ence t$eir inter'retation must be used cautiousl%. &$is is so
2*
because laborator% anal%sis "or detection o" actual diseases causing micro
organisms and c$emicals is eE'ensive and re:uires $ig$l% so'$isticated
e:ui'ments and eE'ertise. &$is module eE'lains sim'le laborator% tec$ni:ues
suitable "or a''lication in 6eld conditions.
2D*D2 L"ar%-%, O1"c&-2"'
(t t$e end o" t$is module? 'artici'ant s$ould be able to:
v. &o assess t$e ade:uac% o" water su''l%.
vi. &o identi"% t$e 'otential risks to $ealt$.
vii. &o 'rovide earl% warning o" 'ossible water contamination.
viii. &o assess w$et$er certain grou's are 'articularl% disadvantaged "rom
inade:uac% o" water su''l%.
iE. &o identi"% w$at actions would be linked to a 'rocess o" im'rovement in
water su''l%.
2D*D3 Ma&"r-a!' N""("(
Materials needed
ealm o" 'a'er
&rans'arencies
Fli' c$art
Masking ta'e
-otebooks
7enA'encils
Magic markers and OB7 'ental 'ens
OB7 and screen
Bandouts on water and $ealt$
#ssential lab. #:ui'ment FField Water &esting Mits 0om'onentsG
Bandouts on water :ualit% surveillance.
2D*D? T"ach-%, ."&h#(
8rou' 5iscussions
F85s
5emonstrations o" /ab. #:ui'ment
2D2D M-cr#-#!#,-ca! I%(-ca&#r'
2D2D* S"!"c&-#% #$ 4ara."&"r'
&$e 6rst ste' in deciding w$et$er a 'articular 'arameter s$ould be included in a
monitoring 'rogramme is to ascertain w$et$er:
i. &$e substance is 'resent. I" so? at w$at level does it eEist and
does it reac$ levels t$at are o" concern.
ii. (n% $uman or ot$er activities currentl% eEist in t$e catc$ment
t$at ma% contribute to t$e substance to become 'resent in water.
In terms o" 'riorit%? 'arameters to be included could be categoriOed into t$ree:
2+
iii. Microbiological :ualit% and t$ose 'arameters t$at control
microbiological :ualit% Fdisinfectants residue, ph and turbidityG.
iv. 7arameters t$at cause rejection o" water FTurbidity, taste, colour
and odourG.
v. 0$emicals o" known $ealt$ risk.
2D2D2 Charac&"r-'&-c' #$ B-#!#,-ca! I%(-ca&#r'
&esting o" 'at$ogens in water is not "easible "or routine monitoring because o" t$e
"ollowing reasons:
iv. &$e number o" di;erent 'at$ogens is large.
v. &esting o" di;erent 'at$ogens is e5pensive.
vi. &esting o" di;erent 'at$ogens is di6cult.
Bowever? most 'at$ogens s$are t$e same source or $ave t$e same transmission
routes. Bence? microbiological indicators s$ould s$are similar c$aracteristics wit$
'at$ogenic organisms and basic c$aracteristics o" an ideal indicator are as
"ollows:
vii. 7resent w$erever 'at$ogens are 'resent.
viii. 7resent in t$e same or $ig$er numbers t$an 'at$ogens.
iE. !'eci6c "or "aecal or sewage 'ollution.
E. (t least as resistant as 'at$ogens to conditions in natural water
environments? and water 'uri6cation and disin"ection 'rocess.
Ei. -on@'at$ogenic.
Eii. 5etectable b% sim'le? ra'id and ineE'ensive met$od.
-ote:
#sc$eric$ia coli F-7 ColiG $as been identi6ed to $ave t$e most o" t$e above
c$aracteristics? t$at is:
/ts presence in 'ater indicates higher possibilit of contamination b
faecal matter7
Its absence in water sim'l% indicates low risk o" 'ossible contamination wit$
'at$ogens rat$er t$an sa"e. (lso? #. 0oli ma% not 'rovide a good indication o"
'resence o" viruses and 'rotoOoa.
2.
M#()!" 3D0 M"&h#(#!#,-"' $#r c#!!"c&-%, /a&"r 'a.4!"'
3D* I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e majorit% o" 'eo'le in Malawi leave in rural areas. In rural areas t$e main
sources o" water are rivers? bore$oles? wells and lakes w$ic$ ma% not be treated
at all. In some communities 'i'ed water is available w$ic$ regional water boards
ma% treat. Bowever in all situations? it is im'ortant $ow eEtension workers will
collect water sam'les. It is recommended t$at sterile e:ui'ment must be used
es'eciall% "or microbiolological anal%sis suc$ as .sherichia coli and indeed an%
ot$er microorganisms. 0ommon microorganisms tested are .. <oli? streptococcus?
staphylococcus and salmonella.
For t$e 'ur'ose o" t$e 5el (gua e:ui'ment? #. 0oli is t$e microorganism c$osen
"or t$e test. &$e t%'e o" water 'oint being sam'led and t$e test used "or anal%sis
determines $ow eEtension workers will collect t$e sam'les and in w$at
:uantities. It is im'ortant to envisage $ow long t$e sam'les ma% take to reac$
t$e anal%sis 'oint. &$e 6eld@testing kit is convenient "or use outside "ormal
laborator% suc$ t$at tests can be carried out on site.
3D*D* O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is module t$e 'artici'ant s$ould be able to:
E. 0ollect water sam'les "rom a ta'.
Ei. 0ollect water sam'les "rom t$e lake? or an% sur"ace water.
Eii. 0ollect water sam'les "rom an o'en well or storage tank.
Eiii. 0ollect water sam'les "rom $ouse$old water storage containers.
22
Ma&"r-a!' N""("(
i. ( wet ta'
ii. !terile water sam'ling cu'
iii. !'irit lig$ter
iv. ( sam'ling cable
v. ( clean mat or clot$ F1 s: mG
T"ach-%, ."&h#(
5emonstration
7ractical in grou's
3D2 T"ch%-8)"' #$ /a&"r 'a.4!-%,
3D2D* Sa.4!-%, $r#. A &a4 #r #r"h#!"D
i. emove an% attac$ments "rom t$e ta'.
ii. 0are"ull% clean t$e mout$ o" t$e ta' wit$ a clean clot$ or tissue to remove
an% dirt or grease.
iii. O'en t$e ta' and leave it running "or at least one minute be"ore taking a
sam'le.
&$is ensures t$at an% de'osits in t$e 'i'es are was$ed out.
-ote: "or bacteriological anal%sis? a ta' s'out must be <amed or 2 or 3 minutes
be"ore taking a water sam'le.
iv. &ake a water sam'le "or c$emical anal%sis wit$ t$e non K sterile vacuum
cu' w$ile "or bacteriological anal%sis wit$ a sterile vacuum cu'.
3D2D2 Sa.4!-%, $r#. a !a0", r"'"r2#-r #r #&h"r ')r$ac" /a&"r '#)rc"'D
I. !ubmerge t$e cu' "or about 34 cm below t$e sur"ace o" t$e water and
scoo' u' t$e water sam'le.
II. /i"t t$e sam'le care"ull% and 'lace on a clear sur"ace.
III. &ake a water sam'le "or c$emical anal%sis wit$ a non@ sterile vacuum
cu' and bacteriological anal%sis wit$ a sterile vacuum cu'.
3D2D3 Sa.4!-%, $r#. a% #4"% /"!!, '&#ra," &a%0, #r h#)'"h#!( c#%&a-%"rD
I. Fasten t$e sam'ling cable to t$e $ole in t$e li' o" t$e sam'le cu' b%
means o" t$e c$i' on t$e end o" t$e cable.
II. /ower t$e sam'le cu' into t$e well? tank or $ouse$old container taking
care not to allow t$e cu' to a de't$ o" 34 cm.
III. !ubmerge t$e cu' to a de't$ o" 34 cm.
IH. /i"t t$e sam'le cu' care"ull% and 'lace on a clean sur"ace.
H. &ake a water sam'le "or c$emical anal%sis wit$ a non@ sterile vacuum cu'
and bacteriological anal%sis wit$ a sterile vacuum cu'.
23
M#()!" ?D0 I%&r#()c&-#% &# /a&"r &"'&-%, 0-&
?D* I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e OE"ord 5el (:ua 7ortable water testing kit is a robust and reliable tool
designed to 'rovide ra'id and reliable in"ormation about t$e microbiological
:ualit% o" drinking water. &$e 'ortable water testing kit is a case? w$ic$ $ouses
man% accessories wit$ t$e "ollowing main ones:
Incubator
&urbidit% tubes
0$lorine and 'B com'arator
Filtration a''aratus and com'onents
0$arger unit
Del Aqua components and their uses
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is module? t$e 'artici'ant s$ould be "ull% ac:uainted wit$ t$e
OE"ord 5el (:ua 7ortable Water &esting Mit.
Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
OE"am 5el (:ua 7otable Water &esting MitA
5el (:ua Manuals
T"ach-%, M"&h#('
5emonstration
34
F#!!#/ &h" -%'&r)c&-#%' a' 4r#2-("( -% &h" D"! A,)a Wa&"r T"'&-%,
Ma%)a!
M#()!" FD0 Pr"4ara&-#% #$ Wa&"r T"'&-%, K-&D
I%&r#()c&-#%
!etting u' o" t$e water testing kit involves 're'aration o" culture medium eit$er
in a laborator% or in t$e 6eld.
&$e 're'ared culture medium $as to be stored in a cool dark 'lace.
It also involves dis'osal o" contaminated materialI kee'ing absorbent 'ads and
dis'enser sa"e wit$out contaminationI and kee'ing o" met$anol dis'enser awa%
"rom naked <ame.
For detailed in"ormation? see OE"am 5el (gua 7ortable Water &esting Mit Users,
Manual F'ages 3 to 13G
O1"c&-2"'
1. 7re'are culture medium in t$e laborator%
2. 7re'are culture medium in t$e 6eld.
3. !tore culture medium.
). 5is'ose contaminated materials.
Ma&"r-a!' r"8)-r"(
5el (:ua Users, Manual
T"ach-%, ."&h#('
5emonstration.
F#!!#/ &h" -%'&r)c&-#%' a' 4r#2-("( -% &h" D"! A8)a Wa&"r T"'&-%,
Ma%)a!
M#()!" HD0 A%a!3'-' #$ /a&"r 'a.4!"'
HD* I%&r#()c&-#%
&$e 6rst tests t$at must be carried out on drinking water sam'le are t$e
determination o" r"'-()a! ch!#r-%" a%( &)r-(-&3.
&$e results o" t$ese two tests will $el' assess w$et$er .-cr#-#!#,-ca! &"'&
s$ould be taken or not.
I" t$e result "or r"'-()a! ch!#r-%" -' ,r"a&"r &ha% 0D2.,9!-&r":0D244.C a%(
&)r-(-&3 !"'' &ha% FTU? $owever less t$an 1&U is recommended at treatment
31
works. Wit$in t$ese values it is ver% unlikel% t$at t$e sam'le will contain t$ermo
tolerant F"aecalG 0oli"orm. &$ere"ore it ma% not be necessar% to conduct coli"orm
anal%sis.
Use o" sterile e:ui'ment is essential "or microbiological anal%sis.
HD*D*O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is session? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to :
(nal%se "or residual c$lorine and 'B
(nal%se "or turbidit%
(nal%se "or "aecal 0oli"orm.
ecord and re'ort results o" water anal%sis
HD*D2 Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
Water !am'les
HD*D3 &"ach-%, ."&h#('
5emonstration
7racticals
HD2 T34"' #$ a%a!3'-'D
+.2.1 (nal%sis "or esidual 0$lorine and 'BFbased on t$e OE"am 5el (:ua MitG
concentration.
32
F"aecalG 0oli"orm.
+.2.2 &urbidit% anal%sis.
Th" &)r-(-&3 &)"' c#2"r &h" ra%," F &# 2,000 TU
emove t$e two turbidit% tubes "rom t$eir cli's in t$e lid o" t$e test kit case.
0are"ull% 'us$ t$e u''er tube Fo'en bot$ endsG s:uarel% into t$e lower tube.
/ook t$roug$ t$e o'en end o" t$e tube at t$e black circle 'rinted on t$e base o"
t$e tube. #nsure t$at t$ere is good illumination available. -ormal da%lig$t is
ade:uate "or t$is 'ur'ose.
7our t$e water sam'le into t$e tube "rom sam'le cu' until t$e black circle just
a''ears w$en viewed "rom t$e to' o" t$e tube. (void creating bubbles? as t$ese
ma% cause biased results.
HD2D3 Bac&"r-#!#,-ca! A%a!3'-' #$ /a&"r
&o anal%se water sam'les "rom t$ermo tolerant F"aecalG 0oli"orm a measured
:uantit% o" water is 'assed t$roug$ a sterile 6lter so t$at an% bacteria 'resent in
t$e water are caug$t in t$e 'ad. &$e 'rocedure is as "ollows:
7lace a sterile 'ad in a sterile 'etri dis$ using sterile? blunt ended "orce's.
(dd2.4@2.*ml o" sterile membrane /aur%l !ul'$ate 1rot$ to eac$ 'ad
immediatel% be"ore testing t$e water sam'les. &$e 'ads will swell slig$tl% a"ter
adding t$e brot$.
Using sterile blunt ended "orce's? 'lace a sterile membrane 6lter on t$e 6lter
to' t$e membrane must overla' t$e 6lterable area so t$at all t$e sam'le will Zass
t$roug$ t$e membrane.
MiE t$oroug$l% t$e bottle o" water b% inverting t$e bottle several times.
emove t$e bottle ca' and cover. Flame t$e mout$ o" t$e bottle and 'our t$e
c$osen volume o" sam'le into t$e u''er container.
R"c#.."%("( 'a.4!" 2#!)."' Falternative volumes are s$own in
bracketsG "or t$ermo tolerant F"aecalG coli"orm anal%sis b% membrane
6ltration tec$ni:ue are as "ollows:
33
/ake? 'onds and ot$er sur"ace waterUUUUUUUUU.14ml F1mlG
7rotected ground water e.g. wells and s'ringsUUUUU144mlF*4mlG
Un'rotected ground waters e.g. o'en dug wells and s'ringsU
*4mlF144A14mlG
Water in treated 'lants a"ter 'artial treatmentUUUUU*4mlF144A14ml
Water in treated 'lants a"ter "ull treatmentUUUUUUU.144ml
eservoirs? distribution networks and $ouse$old ta'sUU...144ml
N#&"+ Holumes indicated above can be diluted wit$ distilled water or
rainwater 'er 144mls.
HD2D? R"c#r(-%, a%( R"4#r&-%, R"')!&'D
Once t$e incubation 'eriod is com'leted? remove t$e 7etri dis$es and t$eir
membranes "rom t$e incubator 'ot. emove t$e lid o" t$e 'etri dis$ and observe
t$e sur"ace o" t$e membrane in good incidental lig$t.
0ount all %ellow colonies t$at $ave a diameter o" between 1 and 3 mm. 5o not
count colonies t$at are trans'arent or redA'ink on cooling. &$ese are bacteria?
w$ic$ do not "erment and cannot be identi6ed wit$out "urt$er stud%. &$e% are not
t$ermo tolerant F"aecalG 0oli"orm.
0onvert t$e count into number o" t$ermo tolerant 0oli"orm 'er 144ml and
record t$e results on t$e re'ort s$eet. &$e calculation is made as "ollows:
Holume 6ltered 'er 144mls &$ermo tolerant F"aecalG
0oli"orm
144ml -umber o" colonies E 1
*4ml -umber o" colonies E 2
0alculate coli"orm densit%.
0om'ute bacterial densit% using t$e "ormula below:
1acteria 'er 144ml Y -o. o" colonies E144
Ml o" sam'le
For eEam'le? a colon% count o" )2 in a 24ml sam'le %ielded a ratio o" 2)4 'er
144ml K a $ig$ count. 1acteria 'er 144ml Y )2 E 144 or 2)4 'er 144ml and
24
record t$e results on t$e dail% re'ort s$eet.
Ot$er records on t$e dail% re'ort s$eet include source o" water? location b%
district? traditional aut$orit% F&(G? village? date sam'le was collected and tested?
t$e name and signature o" oJcer carr%ing out t$e tests.
M#()!" LD0 Sa%-&ar3 I%'4"c&-#%'
LD* I%&r#()c&-#%
!anitar% ins'ections are a "orm o" risk assessment and are designed to evaluate
t$e water su''l% to see w$et$er t$ere is a likeli$ood o" contamination occurring.
It is im'ortant t$at sanitar% ins'ections are done routinel% in order to ascertain
continuit% o" sanitar% measures around a water 'oint. B%giene 'ractices s$ould
3)
also be em'$asiOed to t$e users o" water 'oint. Water can become contaminated
at t$e water 'oint? during trans'ortation and storage.
LD*D2 O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is session? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to:
0onduct sanitar% ins'ection o" water 'oints be"ore water sam'ling.
5raw conclusions about t$e ongoing status o" t$e su''l% and 'otential
risks o" contamination
Identi"% interventions re:uired to a water source in order to im'rove t$e
water :ualit%.
8ive $ealt$ education to t$e communit% a"ter eac$ sanitar% ins'ection.
LD*D3 Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
Fli' c$arts
Magic markers
Fli' c$art stand
&rans'ort
7re K arranged water 'oints
LD*D? T"ach-%, ."&h#('
8rou' discussion
Field visit to water 'oints
LD2 Sa%-&ar3 I%'4"c&-#%' #$ Wa&"r P#-%&'
&$ere are t$ree main t%'es o" risk "actors t$at are included in sanitar% ins'ection.
&$ese include:
<a,ard factors K t$ese are a measure o" sources o" "aeces in t$e environment
e.g. 'it latrine? sewers? solid waste dum's and animal $usbandr% FkolasG.
Path'a factors K t$ese are "actors t$at allow microbiological contamination
to enter t$e water su''l%? but do not 'rovide t$e "aecal matter directl% e.g.
leaking 'i'es? eroded catc$ment areas and damaged 'rotection works.
/ndirect factors K t$ese are "actors t$at en$ance t$e develo'ment t$e
develo'ment o" 'at$wa% "actors? but do not eit$er directl% allow water into t$e
source or are a source o" "aeces e.g. lack o" "encing or "ault% sur"ace water
diversion drainage.
&$ese "actors can be incor'orated into sanitar% ins'ection "orms t$at are
'rovided in W9 "orms in (nneE 1
Th" 'a%-&ar3 -%'4"c&-#% $#r.' -% a%%"B * ha2" a '"r-"' #$ 8)"'&-#%' &ha&
a!! ha2" @Y"'9N#A a%'/"rD D"4"%(-%, #% &h" a%'/"r, a 4#-%& -' "-&h"r
a!!#ca&"( #r %#& a!!#ca&"(D B3 ')..-%, a!! 'c#r"', a 7%a! 'a%-&ar3 'c#r"
-' #&a-%"(D Th-' 4r#2-("' &h" #2"ra!! a''"''."%& #$ &h" '#)rc"D
E2"r3 &-." a 'a.4!" -' &a0"% $#r a%a!3'-' $#r /a&"r 8)a!-&3, -& -'
-.4#r&a%& &ha& 'a%-&ar3 -%'4"c&-#% " carr-"( #)& a& &h" 'a." &-."D
LD3 Sa$" Wa&"r Cha-%D
3*
!a"e water c$ain is good water 'ractices "rom a sa"e source t$roug$
trans'ortation and storage to t$e end user o" t$e sa"e water. It involves
identi"%ing areas o" 'ossible contamination and encouraging good $andling and
storage 'ractices. &$e surveillance data can be ver% use"ul in su''orting t$is. In
encouraging good $andling and storage 'ractices? t$ink care"ull% about t$e
content o" an% $%giene advice given and w$et$er t$e actions being advocated "or
$ouse$old are ac$ievable and realistic.
!urveillance in"ormation can be used to 'romote t$e use o" sources t$at are
known to be o" good :ualit%. &$e advice on sources selection s$ould be su''orted
b% in"ormation on $ow t$is can be 'rotected t$roug$ good $andling and storage
'ractices. &$e sanitar% ins'ection "orm "or $ouse$old water :ualit% $el's assess
w$et$er t$e storage container is likel% to cause contamination o" water or not.
LD? ="a!&h9E%2-r#%."%&a! E()ca&-#% a44r#ach"'
&$e im'rovements in water sources and water stored wit$in t$e $ome t$at $as
been described above re:uire $ealt$ and environmental education 'rogrammes
to be initiated wit$in t$e communit%. &$is will $el' communities sustain sa"e
sources and good $%giene be$aviours.
&$ere are man% a''roac$es and met$ods to $ealt$ education t$at $ave been
develo'ed and ma% be a''ro'riate under di;erent circumstances. 7artici'ator%
met$ods o" education are o"ten t$e most e;ective in 'romoting be$avioural
c$ange. &$ese ma% cover a wide variet% o" as'ects including $ouse$old $%giene
'ractices as well as 'a%ing tari;s "or water in order to sustain t$e water su''l%.
7artici'ator% B%giene and !anitation &rans"ormation F7B(!&G tools $ave been
used in several countries including Malawi to 'romote im'rovements in water
:ualit%. &$e 7B(!& a''roac$ em'$asiOes t$e role o" communities in decision@
making. &$e eEtension workers act as ="acilitators> rat$er t$an =teac$ers> in
$el'ing communities understand and discuss 'roblems and identi"% solutions. It is
be%ond t$e sco'e o" t$is s$ort Manual to describe 7B(!& met$odolog% in detail.
(t a local level? t$e use o" communit% meetings "or discussion and 'roblem
solving can be e;ective in initiating a 'rocess o" c$ange. I" t$is is su''orted b%
water surveillance data? t$en t$is can be ver% e;ective in encouraging
communit%@based solutions to local 'roblems. Ot$er met$ods o" $ealt$ education
include mass media? drama? song and stor% telling as well as deliver% o"
'articular messages t$roug$ meetings and 'osters. It is im'ortant to be clear as
to w$at %ou are tr%ing to ac$ieve and w$at t%'e o" message %ou wis$ to rela%
w$en using t$ese tec$ni:ues. (void making messages t$at are con"using and in
'articular make sure t$e% cannot be inter'reted in more t$an one wa%. For
instance? it is o"ten use"ul to s$ow 'eo'le bot$ good and bad eEam'les as t$is
o"ten makes t$e message clearer. Make sure t$at t$e wa% in w$ic$ $ealt$
education messages are 'resented is relevant to t$e target audience. For
eEam'le? t$ere ma% be little 'oint in develo'ing a 'oster on t$e bene6t o"
covering a cla% storage 'ot i" 'eo'le use jerr% cans to store t$eir water.
In all met$ods o" $ealt$ education? it is o"ten good idea to "ocus on t$e bene6ts to
t$e communit% t$at go be%ond $ealt$ gains.
M#()!" GD0 C#..)%-&3 $""( ac0
GD* I%&r#()c&-#%
3+
Water :ualit% surveillance is not sim'l% data and in"ormation collection eEercise
b% eEtension workers. It is essential t$at t$e data and in"ormation generated be
o" use to 'lanners? communities and water su''liers. &$ere"ore? one o" t$e most
im'ortant grou's o" 'eo'le w$o need access to surveillance results are t$e
communities w$ere sanitar% ins'ections were done and sam'les were taken.
&$ese 'eo'le will want to know? w$at risks are involved? w$et$er t$eir water is
sa"e and w$at t$e% can do to im'rove t$e water :ualit%.
GD*D2D O1"c&-2"'
i. 5escribe t$e t$ree a''roac$es "or 'roviding "eed back on surveillance
results
ii. Mention t$e im'ortance o" 'roviding "eed back o" surveillance
resultsF re"er to introductor% note aboveG
GD*D3D Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
i. ealms o" 'a'er
ii. &rans'arencies
iii. Fli' c$art
iv. Fli' c$art stand
v. Masking ta'e
vi. -ote books
vii. 7ensA 'encils
viii. Magic markers and OB7 'ental 'ens
iE. OB7 and screen
GD*D? T"ach-%, M"&h#('
i. 8rou' discussion
ii. Field visit to villagesAcommunities
GD2 A44r#ach"' T# F""(ac0
&$e t$ree a''roac$es o" giving "eed back to communit% are:
i. Use local communit% organisation t$at $ave regular meetings wit$ t$e
communit% e.g Hillage 5evelo'ment 0ommittees FH50G? Hillage Bealt$ and
Water 0ommittees FHBW0sG? Water 7oint 0ommittees FW70sG? etc.
ii. 7osted bulletins in centrall% or commonl% visited 'lace wit$in t$e
communit% e.g. Bealt$ 0entres? Mos:ues? 0$urc$es? !c$ools.
iii. 0ommunit% meetings. It is not a good idea to 'lan a communit% meeting
solel% to 'rovide in"ormation. 0ommunit% members will almost certainl%
want advice and seek direct su''ort. &$ere"ore w$en $olding a meeting?
t$e objective s$ould be to discuss t$e 6ndings wit$ t$e communit% so as to
initiate local action to im'rove t$e water su''l%.
&$e best wa% to 'rovide "eed back to t$e communities is to combine two o" t$e
above a''roac$es or even all t$ree. &$e wa% in w$ic$ t$e in"ormation is
'resented to t$e communit% will be im'ortant in determining $ow it will be
received and w$et$er communities will use t$e in"ormation to im'rove t$eir
water su''l%. Make sure to "acilitate im'rovements t$at are wit$in t$e 'ower o"
t$e communit% to address.
3.
M#()!" 9D O&h"r E''"%&-a! Ac&-2-&-"' I% Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 M#%-&#r-%,
9D* I%&r#()c&-#%
('art "rom t$e s'eci6c water :ualit% activities o" determining water 'arameters
and its :uantities? a number o" essential activities suc$ as use o" t$e surveillance
data? engineering interventions? communit% management? and drawing water
:ualit% 'lans? "orm an integral 'art o" a com're$ensive sa"e water management.
It is necessar% "or t$ose involved in water :ualit% to ensure t$at t$ese "orm 'art
o" t$eir core activities.
9D*D* O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is session? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to eE'lain:
i. &$e im'ortance o" using surveillance data
ii. Factors to consider in engineering interventions in water :ualit%
iii. Bow to engage t$e communit% in water :ualit% management
iv. ( sim'le water :ualit% sentinel 'lan
9D*D2 Ma&"r-a!' %""("(
i. Fli' c$arts
ii. Magic markers
iii. &rans'arencies i" necessar%
iv. OB7 'ens
9D*D3 T"ach-%, M"&h#('
i. 8rou' discussions
ii. 8rou' work
9D2 U'-%, S)r2"-!!a%c" Da&a
&$ere is little 'oint in collecting data unless it can be used to make im'rovements
in water su''l% or water $andling. !urveillance data can be used to direct t$e
im'rovement o" t$e water su''l% and water :ualit% t$roug$ a number o" wa%s.
For eEam'le? 'rotecting water sources? designing $ealt$ education messages and
increased monitoring at various levels b% communities? 'lanners? 'olic% makers
and water su''liers.
7olic% issues can be in<uenced b% surveillance data b% indicating w$ere
im'rovements to water su''l% s$ould be 'riotised? w$at t%'e o" water su''lies
s$ould be im'lemented and w$at additional needs are re:uired to su''ort
sustainabilit%. !urveillance data is also utilised in communit% management? $ealt$
and environmental education a''roac$es? engineering interventions at water
sources and in $ouse$old water and sa"e water c$ain. &$e ke% 'art o" t$is 'rocess
is to make sure t$at t$e data is reliable and com're$ensive. (s decisions made to
im'rove water su''l% usuall% involve commitment o" substantial sums o" mone%?
it is essential t$at t$is ma% be based on sound data.
9D3 E%,-%""r-%, I%&"r2"%&-#%'
#ngineering interventionsA im'rovements tr% to address t$e t$ree risk "actorsI
namel% $aOard? 'at$wa% and indirect "actors. &$ese interventionsA im'rovements
s$ould be based on t$e sanitar% ins'ection and water :ualit% data. &$e
deterioration in t$e basic sanitar% measures s$ows t$at t$e water source $as not
been well maintained and t$at t$e communit% $as not been to sustain t$e source.
32
&$e "ollowing could be t$e engineering interventions t$at could be considered on
s'eci6c water 'oints.
3.3.1 7rotected s'rings:
i. Im'rove catc$ment area b% la%ing new grass
ii. 1uild a "ence
iii. 1uild a diversion ditc$
3.3.2 1ore$oles:
i. Im'rove drainage
ii. /atrines K situated down $ill and at least 34m
iii. e'air leakages
iv. 1uild a "ence
9D3D3 D), /"!!'
i. 7rovide a 'um'
ii. 7rovide or im'rove drainage
iii. e'air leakages
iv. /atrines K situated down $ill and at least 34m
v. 1uild a "ence
9D3D? Ra-%/a&"r
i. 7rovide diverting s%stem to clean t$e roo" "or t$e 6rst <ow o" water
ii. !torage tanks s$ould be cleaned regularl% and at t$e start o" ever% rain%
season and 'rovided wit$ cover
iii. oo" to be clear o" trees or not close to "ood stores
3.3.* 7i'ed water:
i. Interventions be under taken at localA individual or larger levels suc$ as
su''l% mains re'air.
9D? C#..)%-&3 Ma%a,"."%&
In most cases? water :ualit% "ailures ma% $ave resulted "rom 'oor communit%
management. Bence? communit% management s$ould be ensured b% basicall%
building ca'acit% at a local level to o'erate? maintain and manage a water su''l%.
!urveillance data $el' to identi"% weakness in communit% management o" water
s%stems and allow t$e surveillance sta; to work wit$ communities to strengt$en
weak areas.
W$en assessing communit% management? sanitar% ins'ection data o"ten 'rovides
better insig$ts o" water :ualit% tests. &$e greater t$e number o" sanitar% risks
noted? t$e weaker t$e o'eration and maintenance and t$is ma% lead to
deteriorating water :ualit%.
Using surveillance data? t$e communit% and surveillance sta; can work towards a
consensus about w$at 'rovides eEit? w$% t$ese 'roblems $ave arisen and $ow
t$e% can be overcome. &$is allows a discussion o" w$at actions t$e communit%
can take t$emselves and w$at su''ort t$e% need K (ll w$at surveillance sta;
s$ould do is "acilitation to enable owners$i' and sustainabilit% o" t$e activities.
33
( major issue t$at s$ould be discussed in communit% management is w$et$er
water committees eEist and w$et$er t$e% are active. It ma% also be wort$
reviewing wit$ t$e communit% t$e make u' o" t$e committees and roles and
res'onsibilities o" di;erent individuals in t$e committee.
Weakness in o'eration and maintenance ma% be a result o" 'oor management
'ractices wit$in t$e communit% and addressing t$ese ma% o;er signi6cant
im'rovement in t$e su''l%.
It is also im'ortant to 6nd out w$et$er t$ere is a caretaker committee "or t$e
source. It s$ould be stressed t$at t$e communit% as a w$ole and t$e committee
in 'articular also $ave a res'onsibilit% to ensure t$e water su''l% remains in good
working order. &$e% must ensure t$at t$e caretaker $as access to tools and
resources needed to maintain t$e water su''l%.
0ommunit% members can also undertake sim'le assessment and monitoring o"
t$eir own water su''lies. &$e c$ecklist in (nneE 2 and 3 'rovides a sim'le
assessment "or water sources communities and o'erators to bot$ monitor and
maintain sources. I" t$ese "orms are used? or similar "orms are develo'ed "or
ot$er water su''lies? make sure t$at t$e% are clear about w$at in"ormation t$e%
can collect and $ow o"ten.
9DF Dra/-%, Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 S)r2"-!!a%c" P!a%'
it is im'ortant t$at water :ualit% surveillance activities are well 'lanned a$ead.
&$is will $el' to 'rovide continuous sam'ling at a''ro'riate intervals and time. It
is suggested t$at districts s$ould develo' Water 9ualit% !urveillance 'lans
including t$e "ollowing:
i. 5istricts s$ould select sentinel sites in w$ic$ t$e% will im'lement Water
9ualit% !urveillance. &$e sentinel sites s$ould be selected using t$ese
criteria:
a3 Diarrhoeal disease prone areas /<holera prone3
b3 "rban area setting
c3 -eriA urbanIrural area setting
ii. In t$ese sentinel sitesI districts will $ave to collect water sam'les "rom water
sources as well as $ouse$olds.
a3 +ater sources
1. For urban areas or areas wit$ 'i'ed water s%stem?
water sam'les will be collected "rom 6Eed strategic
'oints ever% mont$.
2. For ot$er sentinel sites wit$ water 'oints ot$er
t$an ta's? sam'les will be collected randoml% in
t$ese water 'oints ever% mont$.
bG 9ouseholds
For eac$ water source sam'le taken in urban areasAareas wit$ 'i'ed water
s%stem? at least * surrounding $ouse$olds, ta's will $ave to be sam'led ever%
mont$. Bowever? t$ese $ave to be randoml% selected.
)4
For eac$ water 'oint sam'le taken "rom ot$er sentinel site wit$ water 'oints? *
surrounding $ouse$olds water storage containers Fw$ere ta's are not available in
t$e $ouseG will $ave to be sam'led ever% mont$.
ii. In t$ese sentinel sitesI districts will $ave to conduct sanitar% ins'ections at
t$e water sources at least twice a %ear. &$e 6rst sanitar% ins'ections
s$ould be taken in rain% season "or eEam'le in Danuar% and t$e second in
dr% season "or eEam'le in (ugust.
A%%"B * Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 S)r2"-!!a%c" ;)ar&"r!3 R"4#r&-%, F#r.
Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 S)r2"-!!a%c" ;)ar&"r!3 R"4#r&-%, F#r.
="a!&hFac-!-&3+ District2 R",-#%+
Da&"+ ;)ar&"r+ Fiscal ear2 <ealth =one2
>ame of person submitting report2 Title2
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T34" #$ $ac-!-&3+ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
D-'&r-c&+NNNDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDNNNNNN
Tra(-&-#%a! A)&h#r-&3+NNNNNNNNNNNV-!!a,"+NNNNDDDDDDDDD
NNNNNNNND
Da&" #$ I%'4"c&-#%92-'-&+NNNNNDDDDNNNDD
Wa&"r 'a.4!" &a0"%+ Y"'9N# I$ Y"' Sa.4!" N#D+NNNDD FC9*00.!+
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I%$#r.a&-#% $#r A''"''."%& #$ /a&"r 4#-%&9$ac-!-&3+
1. Is t$ere a latrine wit$in 14 metres o" t$e "acilit%P
RA-
2. Is t$ere a latrine u'$ill o" t$e "acilit%P
RA-
3. (re t$ere an% ot$er sources o" 'ollution wit$in 14m o" t$e "acilit%P
Fe.g. animal k$ola? cultivation? road? industr% etcG
RA-
). Is t$e drainage missing or "ault% allowing 'onding wit$in 2m o" t$e "acilit%P
RA-
*. Is t$e drainage c$annel missing? cracked? broken or need cleaningP
RA-
+. Is t$e "ence missing or "ault%P
RA-
.. Is t$e a'ron missing or less t$an 1m in radiusP
RA-
2. 5oes s'ilt water collect in a'ron area or in t$e a'ron missing areaP
RA-
)2
3. Is a'ron missing? cracked or damagedP
RA-
14 Is t$e $and 'um'A'um' missing or loose at t$e 'oint o" attac$ment to a'ronP
RA-
T#&a! Sc#r"' #$ r-'0' :YC O DDDDDD9 *0
Ris1 score2 ?-(8@ver highA B-C@highA )-:@mediumA 8-)@lo'
R"')!&' a%( r"c#.."%(a&-#%+
&$e "ollowing im'ortant 'oints o" riskFsG were noted Fi.e. list -o.s 1@14 wit$ RG:
!ignature o" Ins'ector
C#.."%&'+
N#&"+ W$ere t$e "acilit% being described is missing? tick R
A%%"B 3 =#)'"h#!( Wa&"r ;)a!-&3 I%'4"c&-#% $#r.
=#)'"h#!( %)."r a%( %a."+QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
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Wa&"r 'a.4!" &a0"%+ Y"'9N# I$ Y"' Sa.4!" N#D+NNNDDFC9*00.!+
NNNNNN
I%$#r.a&-#% $#r A''"''."%& #$ =#)'"h#!( Wa&"r ;)a!-&3+
1. Is drinking water ke't in a se'arate container Fask to be s$own t$isGP
RA-
2. Is drinking water ke't above <oor level C awa% "rom contaminationP
RA-
3. 5o water containers $ave narrow mout$Ao'ening
RA-
). 5o containers $ave lids or coversP
RA-
*. (re t$ese in 'lace at t$e time o" t$e visitP
RA-
)3
+. Bow is water taken "rom t$e containerP aG is it 'oured out P
RA-
aG Use o" two@cu' s%stemP
RA-
2. Is t$e utensil used to draw water "rom t$e container cleanP
RA-
3. Is t$e utensil used to draw water "rom t$e container ke't above <oor level C
awa% "rom contaminationP
RA-
14.Is t$e water storage container "re:uentl% cleaned in less t$an .2$rsP
RA-
11.Bas t$e water storage container been cleaned wit$in t$e last )2$rsP
RA-
12.Is t$e water storage container clean inside at t$e time o" ins'ectionP
RA-
13.Is t$e outside o" t$e drawing container cleanP
RA-
1).Is t$e inside o" t$e drawing container cleanP
RA-
&otal !cores o" risks F-G YUA 1)
Ris1 score2 (8-(4@ver highA C-?@highA 4-B@mediumA 8-)@lo'
R"')!&' a%( r"c#.."%(a&-#%+
&$e "ollowing im'ortant 'oints o" riskFsG were noted Fi.e. list -os 1@14 wit$ -G:
!ignature o" Ins'ector
C#.."%&'+
N#&"+ W$ere t$e "acilit% being described is missing? tick -
M#()!" G+ G"%("r Ma-%'&r"a.-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module discusses gender as one o" t$e cross@cutting issues a;ecting t$e
deliver% o" water and sanitation services. &$e material in t$e module will en$ance
t$e understanding o" gender issues and will broaden t$e abilit% to address
develo'ment 'roblems in a gender res'onsive manner.
))
(lt$oug$ women are t$e 'rimar% collectors? trans'orters? users? and managers o"
domestic water and 'romoters o" $ome and communit%@based sanitation
activities? %et in man% societies women,s views are not s%stematicall%
re'resented in decision@making bodies. &$e success and sustainabilit% o" Water
su''l% and sanitation FW!!G 'rojects de'ends on a strong 'ositive link between a
"ocus on gender and women,s 'artici'ation.
&$is module will enable members o" t$e 1o& to carr% out gender anal%sis and
integrate gender issues in water su''l% and sanitation activities.
It is $o'ed t$at "ocusing on gender will lead to bene6ts t$at go be%ond good
Water su''l% and sanitation 'roject 'er"ormance and t$at will be mani"ested in
suc$ as'ects as better 'rocurement? o'eration and maintenance? cost recover%?
and $%giene awareness.
O1"c&-2"'
1. Understand t$e roles and res'onsibilities o" men? women? %out$ and ot$er
vulnerable grou's in t$e water su''l% and sanitation 'rogramme
2. Mainstream cross cutting issues o" gender a;ecting water su''l% and
sanitation develo'ment 'rograms.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction "ollowed b% learning objectives?
met$odolog% and learning resources. &$e content section contains in"ormation on
t$e to'ic and t$e activities w$ic$ will $el' 'artici'ants ac$ieve t$e intended
learning outcomes. #ac$ to'ic ends wit$ a summar% o" t$e main 'oints o" t$e
lesson. &$e to'ic also 'rovides "acilitators notes w$ic$ include areas o" em'$asis?
ke% words? 'rere:uisite knowledge? time re:uired and additional in"ormation.
S0-!!'
1% t$e end o" t$e lesson t$e 'artici'ants s$ould ac:uire t$e "ollowing skillsI
1. 0arr%ing out 8ender anal%sis
2. Mainstreaming gender
C#%&"%&'
Under t$is module two main to'ics will be covered and t$ese areI
@8ender conce'ts
@8ender mainstreaming
T#4-c *+ G"%("r C#%c"4&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic introduces t$e conce'ts and terminologies commonl% used in gender
as well as identi"%ing gender issues and concerns in water su''l% and sanitation.
)*
&$e conce'ts and terminologies are essential to t$e understanding o" gender
mainstreaming.
L"ar%-%, O1"c&-2"'
5e6ne gender conce't
5istinguis$ between gender and seE
#E'lain terminologies commonl% used in gender
Identi"% gender issues and concerns in water and sanitation
M"&h#(#!#,3
1uOO grou's
/ecturrette
ole 'la%
8rou' discussion
R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts? masking ta'e? 'ens? eEercise books? markers and $andouts.
C#%&"%&
B(7:7( Dender concepts
Ac&-2-&3 *
*tep 6.
&$e "acilitator introduces t$e to'ic and session objectives.
Introduce t$e to'ic b% asking 'artici'ants to de6ne gender and seE. &$e
"acilitator records t$e res'onses given b% 'artici'ants on <i' c$art or blackboard.
*tep 0.
7rocess t$e res'onses toget$er wit$ 'artici'ants to arrive at de6nitions similar to
t$ose in t$e eE'anded content.
*tep 7.
/ead 'artici'ants to brainstorm t$e di;erent c$aracteristics between males and
"emales in terms o" t$eir biological make u'? classi"% t$em to clearl% s$ow t$e
di;erences between t$e two.
*tep 8.
e'eat t$e 'rocess in ste' one and two "or seE and gender roles .
*tep =.
0onclude t$e sub@session using t$e diagram w$ic$ illustrates t$e di;erence
between seE and gender
Defnition of gender?
In most cases gender is misconceived to mean t$e biological di;erences between
male and "emale. 1ut gender is de6ned as t$e relations between men and women
bot$ 'erce'tual and material. 8ender is not determined biologicall%? as a result o"
)+
seEual c$aracteristics o" eit$er women or men but is constructed sociall%. It is a
central organising 'rinci'le o" societies? and o"ten governs 'rocess o" 'roduction
and re'roduction? consum'tion and distribution.
(7:7% Dender and +e5
S"B is biologicall% given b% birt$ t$ere"ore cannot be c$anged e.g. onl% women
can give birt$. Onl% men can 'roduce s'erms and im'regnate.
Dender is culturall% learned t$roug$ socialisation. &$ere"ore it can be c$anged
e.g. women and men can work as well sinkers? latrine builders? drillers and
'lanners etc. Women and men can also take care o" t$e sick? elderl% and c$ildren.
&able 1.1: 5i;erences between gender and seE
SER GENDER
1iological
8iven b% birt$
Universal
It can not be c$anged Fe.g. women
deliver babies? men
im'regnateG
0ultural
/earnt t$roug$ socialisation
Haries "rom culture to culture
0an be c$anged Fe.g. men and
women can be recruited as
soldiers? 'ilots and cooksG
(7:7) Dender terminologies
Activit %
"sing lecturette method the facilitator should e>plain various gender
terminologies
*e> roles:
!eE roles are universal and are s$a'ed b% eEistence o" di;erent genitalia and
re'roductive organs.
(ender $oles C $elations:
Wa%s in w$ic$ a culture or societ% de6nes rig$ts? res'onsibilities? and identities o"
men and women in relation to one anot$er.
(ender .Duality:
e"ers to an e:ual s$aring o" 'ower between women and men? e:ual access to
education? $ealt$? administrative and managerial 'osition? e:ual 'a% "or work o"
e:ual value and e:ual seats in 'arliament? among ot$ers t$e same status? rig$ts
and res'onsibilities "or women and men.
(ender eDuity:
).
Means being "air? sociall% just and im'artial t$roug$ "air distribution o" bene6ts?
resources and tasks.
(ender *ensitive+
1eing aware o" t$e di;erences between women,s and men,s needs? roles?
res'onsibilities? and constraints.
*e> Disaggregated Data:
Means in"ormation t$at is collected and anal%Oed se'aratel% "or men and
Women.
$eproductive +ork /$ole3+
&$e re'roductive role com'rises t$e c$ildbearingArearing res'onsibilities and
domestic tasks undertaken b% women? re:uired to guarantee t$e maintenance
and re'roduction o" t$e labour "orce. It includes not onl% biological re'roduction
but also t$e care and maintenance o" t$e work"orce F$usband and working
c$ildrenG and t$e "uture work"orce Fin"ants and sc$ool@going c$ildrenG.
-roductive +ork /$oles3:
&$e 'roductive role com'rises work done b% bot$ women and men "or 'a%ment in
cas$ or kind. It includes bot$ market 'roduction wit$ an eEc$ange value? and
subsistenceA $ome 'roduction wit$ an actual use@value? but also a 'otential
eEc$ange value. For women in agricultural 'roduction t$is includes work as
inde'endent "armers? 'easants, wives and wageworkers.
(ender *tereotype:
e"ers to acce'ted belie"s and 'erce'tions o" males and "emales w$ic$ are
generall% acce'ted as true. &$ere are negative attitudes and 'erce'tions o" an
individual or 'articular gender based on social constructed norms.
Access to and <ontrol over $esources:
e"ers to t$e wa% t$at individuals $ave access to resources "or carr%ing out t$eir
activities and t$e command t$at t$e% $ave over t$e bene6ts t$at are derived
"rom t$ese activities.
(ender 'lindness
e"ers to lack o" recognition o" t$e needs o" women or men
Failure to recognise t$at gender relations are im'ortant determinant o" li"e
c$oices available between men? women? bo%s and girls
(ender ainstreaming
Means to integrate gender dimensions FWomen,s men,s girls and bo%s concernsG
into develo'ment 'lans? 'rogrammes and develo'ment models.
(ender $esponsiveness
1eing able to res'ond to 'erceived needs o" men and women and consideration
o" t$e im'act o" 'olicies? legislation and 'rogrammes on women? men? bo%s and
girls.
(ender 'ias
e"ers to t$e tendenc% to make decisions or take actions based on one,s seE and
"avouring one seE overAagainst t$e ot$er.
)2
(ender Discrimination
e"ers to 'rejudiced treatment o" an individual based on a gender stereot%'e
Fsometimes this is referred to as se>ismG.

(ender Disaggregated Data
&$is is statistical in"ormation w$ic$ is collected se'aratel% "or women? men? bo%s
and girls in order to establis$ di;erences
(ender 'alance
e"ers to e:ual re'resentation and decision making 'ower o" women? men? bo%s
and girls in an% intervention o" develo'ment undertaking.
-ractical (ender Beeds
&$e% are immediate and material needs and can be addressed t$roug$ 'ractical
solutions suc$ as 'rovision o" "ood? water and $ousing.
*trategic (ender Beeds
(re long term needs o" women? men? bo%s and girlsI "or eEam'le literac% is a
strategic interest because as t$e number o" literate 'eo'le increase? t$ere is
more awareness and t$is would $el' to 6g$t disease and 'overt% among ot$ers
unlike 7ractical 8ender -eeds F78-sG. (re related to c$anging or im'roving
'ositions o" individuals in societ%.
.mpowerment is:
&$e 'rocess o" building ca'acities to enable women? men? bo%s and girls to
eEercise control over t$eir own lives. 8ives abilit% to an individual to gain sel"
con6dence and take control o" one,s li"e.
-ower Over
&$is 'ower is bull dosing? aut$oritative and dictatorial. It creates "ear to
subordinates at work? c$ildren? $usbands? wives and ot$ers. it brings results
t$roug$ "ear $ence it is not sustainable. 7ower over is not 'romoted w$et$er at
$ouse$old? institutional communit% 'roject and national levels because it kills t$e
s'irit o" democrac% and toget$erness.
-ower +ithin
&$is t%'e o" 'ower is in@born and innate. For eEam'le? talent in music is a good
eEam'le o" 'ower wit$in. &$is t%'e o" 'ower $as not been "ull% develo'ed and
utiliOed.
-ower +ith
It is interactive? collective? united and democratic 'ower? w$ic$ 'romotes 'eo'le
to work toget$er as a team in e;ecting c$ange. Ot$er 'eo'le work toget$er and
make decisions wit$ %ou. &$is t%'e o" 'ower builds con6dence and a sense o"
owners$i' b% all. It brings results t$roug$ consensus and is sustainable. &$is
t%'e o" 'ower is re:uired in develo'ment work as well as at $ouse$old?
communit% and work 'lace.
-ower to
)3
&$is re"ers to t$e abilit% to do somet$ing? it is 'ower ac:uired t$roug$ skills and
training. &$is can be ac$ieved t$roug$ education and ac:uisition o" knowledge.
(ender -lanning
e"ers to 'lanning t$at takes into consideration t$e im'act o" 'olicies and 'lans
on s'eci6c needs o" women? men. bo%s and girls.
(ender Analysis
Is s%stematic assessment or eEamination o" t$e current and 'otential roles? o"
women? men? bo%s and girls and t$eir access to and control o" resources and
bene6ts wit$in a 'articular s%stem? 'roject and $ouse$old.
(ender Division of 4abour
It is t$e allocation o" di;erent t%'es o" work w$ic$ men? women? bo%s and girls
carr% out as a conse:uence o" t$eir socialiOation or 'erceived ca'abilit%? "or
eEam'le women are eE'ected to 're'are "ood "or t$e "amil% and care "or c$ildren
w$ile men are not eE'ected to cook "or t$e "amil%.
(ender (ap
e"ers to t$e :uantitative or :ualitative di;erence between women and men?
bo%s and girls in terms o" access and control o" resources. (lso re"ers to
measures o" gender ine:ualit% on an% social economic indicator.
(ender Awareness
e"ers to a state o" knowledge o" t$e di;erence in roles and relations$i's o"
women and men and $ow t$is results in di;erences in 'ower relations? status?
'rivileges and needs. It is also t$e abilit% to identi"% ga's or dis'arities between
women? men? bo%s and girls in t$eir roles? relations$i' or status as well as needs.
(ender %ssues
e"ers to a situation w$en ine:ualit% and di;erences eEist between women? men?
bo%s and girls 'urel% on t$e basis o" being male or "emale.
(ender <oncern
(re dis'arities w$ic$ arise "rom di;erent situations due to ones gender and t$e
one a;ected does not o"ten recognise it as a 'roblem or talk about it.
(7:74 Dender /ssues and Concerns in "ater +uppl and +anitation
Activit )
4et participants discuss in groups some of the gender issues that impact
negatively on water and sanitation pro@ectsIactivities. -articipants report back.
<onsolidate participants presentation and arrive at a common understanding of
the issues.
%n a lecturrette, e>plain gender issues and concerns in water and sanitation
sector.
*4
Activit 4
4et participants discuss in groups some of the gender issues that impact
negatively on water and sanitation pro@ectsIactivities. -articipants report back.
<onsolidate participants presentation and arrive at a common understanding of
the issues.
%n a lecturrette, e>plain gender issues and concerns in water and sanitation
sector.
1. Inade:uate incor'oration o" gender issues in t$e 'rocess o" 'lanning C
im'lementation o" water resources management.
2. /ow involvement o" women in t$e develo'ment and management o" water
su''l% and sanitation activities. 7rovide women wit$ o''ortunities to 'la%
leaders$i' roles in communit% based develo'ment water su''l% and
sanitation.
3. /ack o" access to water and sanitation "acilities to reduce t$e im'act o" 'oor
environmental sanitation o" t$eir $ealt$.
). Women ma% $ave access to resources and bene6ts but mig$t not $ave
control over t$em due to t$eir subordinate 'osition in t$e communit% A
$ouse$old.
*. /ow education levels o" women on water? sanitation and $ealt$ situations so
t$at t$ose communit% $ealt$ situations can im'rove.
+. 8ender insensitive sanitation and water "acilities
.. 5evelo' mec$anisms to deal wit$ situations t$at $inder women "rom 'la%ing
im'ortant roles in management o" water su''l% and sanitation s%stems.
2. Me% decision making 'ositions are dominated b% men resulting in low
'artici'ation b% women.
3. In<uencing "actors suc$ as education levels and literac%? 0ultural in<uence?
religion? 'olitical crisesAc$ange over time
14.5iscrimination and eE'loitation.
11.8ender based violence.
12./ow 'artici'ation o" men in sanitation on water 'oints
13.es'onsibilit% "or collection o" water rests in $ands o" women and girls.
1).&raining "avours men.
1*./ack o" gender disaggregated data.
1+.#Eisting training manuals silent on gender mainstreaming.
Proposed +olutions to Dender issues and concerns
aG Involve women in t$e develo'ment and management o" water su''l% and
sanitation activities. 7rovide women wit$ o''ortunities to 'la% leaders$i'
roles in communit% based develo'ment water su''l% and sanitation.
bG !timulate women to 'artici'ate in water su''l% and sanitation activities to
ensure continuit% in service deliver% and t$ereb% sustainabilit%. !ensitiOe and
encourage women to 'artici'ate in t$e management o" water su''l% and
sanitation 'rojects.
cG #nable women to $ave in<uential roles in decision@making. Moreover? assist
women? to get out o" t$e crus$ing workload o" "etc$ing and carr%ing water "or
"amil% use.
*1
Im'rove situations w$ere women can easil% access to water and sanitation
"acilities to reduce t$e im'act o" 'oor environmental sanitation o" t$eir $ealt$.
#ducate women on water? sanitation and $ealt$ situations so t$at t$ose
communit% $ealt$ situations can im'rove.
#n$ance t$e o'eration and maintenance ca'acit% o" women t$roug$ tec$nical
and s%stems management training services. Im'rove t$e enabling environment
"or women to 'la% in<uential roles in water su''l% and sanitation sector
management.
5evelo' mec$anisms to deal wit$ situations t$at $inder women "rom 'la%ing
im'ortant roles in management o" water su''l% and sanitation s%stems.
S)..ar3
&$e "acilitator s$ould assess w$et$er t$e 'artici'ants $as gras'ed t$e conce'ts
and terminologies b% asking t$em to de6ne gender roles and various
terminologies commonl% used.
R"$"r"%c"'
1. OE"am 8ender &raining Manual
2. 8ender and 5evelo'ment 0#57( &raining Manual !eriesG Holume
3. 8ender #:uit%: 0once'ts and &ools "or 5evelo'ment F0#57(G
). 8ender (nal%sis in ural #nerg% 7lanning and #nvironment Management
F#!(MI &raining Materials? 133*? (rus$a? &anOania G
*. Mo8R0!? 1333 7rinci'al !ecretaries !ensitisation Works$o' 7a'ers? 0lub
Makokola 1333.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asise on gender issues and concerns a;ecting water
su''l% and sanitation services.
&e "ords
Rou will 6nd t$e "ollowing ke% words or '$rases in t$is to'ic. Watc$ out "or t$ese
and make sure t$at %ou understand w$at t$e% mean and $ow t$e% are used in
$e to'icI
gender?
gender conce'ts?
gender issues?
seE.
&$e to'ic will build on t$e local knowledge t$at t$e 'artici'ants $ave on gender
issues suc$ as $ow to s$are roles and res'onsibilities in t$eir communities.
*2
Time Required
1 $our
T#4-c 2+ G"%("r Ma-%'&r"a.-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic 'resents an overview o" gender mainstreaming in water su''l% and
sanitation. It introduces tools and met$ods used in gender mainstreaming.
7revious gender a''roac$es $ave not %ielded signi6cant results in terms o"
bringing c$anges in e:ualit% between men and women. &$us? t$e need "or
current gender mainstreaming 'ractice became a necessit% due to a general s$i"t
in understanding o" t$e 'roblem o" ine:ualit% between women and men.
&$e current gender mainstreaming a''roac$ considers t$at societ% and
institutions must c$ange ideas and 'ractices in su''ort o" e:ual c$oices and
o''ortunities. &$is to'ic? t$ere"ore? "ocuses on gender mainstreaming t$at brings
about im'rovement in e:ualit% o" o''ortunit% "or all 'eo'le in societ% and e:ual
o''ortunit% b% women and men to make c$oices.
O1"c&-2"'
5e6ne gender mainstreaming.
#E'lain gender mainstreaming strategies.
!$ould be able to develo' gender mainstreaming c$ecklist.
5iscuss gender mainstreaming in 'rogramme? 'roject c%cle and institutions.
M"&h#(#!#,3
8rou' discussion
ole 'la%
1rainstorming
/ecturrette
1uOO grou's
R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts?
masking ta'e?
'ens?
eEercise books?
markers and $andouts.
C#%&"%&
2.*.1 8ender mainstreaming
Ac&-2-&3 *D
#E'lain t$e 'ur'ose and objectives o" t$e session. Introduce t$e to'ic using
lecturrette met$od to eE'lain t$e conce't o" gender mainstreaming.
*3
Is t$e 'rocess o" integrated gender needs? issues and concerns in all 'rogramme
activities in order to 'romote e:ualit% in all develo'ment work. Mainstreaming
!trateg% calls "or t$e introduction o" gender anal%sis and 'lanning in all activities.
It integrates gender concerns in t$e "ormulation? im'lementation and monitoring
o" 'olicies? 'rogrammes? 'rojects? 'rocesses? budgets? legal instruments and
activities. It also involves c$anging institutional 'olicies? 'rogrammes and
'rocesses so t$at t$e% 'romote gender e:ualit% and not just $aving e:ual
numbers o" women and men.
&$e conce't o" gender mainstreaming arose "rom t$e recognition o" gender as
cross cutting issue w$ic$ must be addressed at all levels and in all sectors o"
develo'ment and w$ic$ is critical to t$e ac$ievement o" t$e goals o" democrac%?
social justice? 'overt% eradication and sustainable develo'ment w$ic$ are t$e
tenets o" national develo'ment.
%7:7% +trategies and Tools for Dender Mainstreaming
&able 2.1: !ummar% o" strategies and tools "or mainstreaming gender
STRATEGY9ACT
IVITY
TOOL9S TYPE OF INFROMATION TO EMERGE
S-&)a&-#%
a%a!3'-'
( @ geogra'$ical
conditions and
demogra'$%
0ommunit%
!ocial ma''ing

5isaggregated In"ormation on 8ender
roles in relation to water use and
management
Tar,"& ,r#)4
a%a!3'-'
@ 5ivision o"
labour
@ (ccess and
control over
resources
@ !ocial@
'olitical
'ositioning
Wel"are ranking
(ctivities and
income 'ro6le
(ccess and
control 'ro6le
7ro6ling o"
women,s socio@
'olitical
'ositioning
relative to men
5ecision making
'ro6le
'artici'ation in
institutional
'ro6le
0ollect in"ormation on t$e socio@
economic structure and resources o" t$e
target 'o'ulation
!ocial strati6cation o" t$e communit%
Income levels and sources o" t$e
income b% gender FIm'ortant in tari;
settingG
W$o $as control over w$at resourcesP
Fcritical "or targeting interventions and
e:uit% goalsG
W$at are t$e norms and values and $ow
t$e% im'act on menAwomen and t$e
'oor
W$at are t$e decision@making 'rocesses
W$o makes decisions over tec$nolog%
selection? location o" services? and
timing o" training
I%'&-&)&-#%a!
A%a!3'-'
Institutional
gender ca'acit%
'ro6le
In"ormation on institutions t$at eEist
and
0a'acities t$e% $ave "or mainstreaming
*)
as well as resources reallocated "or
gender mainstreaming
P#!-c3
Fra."/#r0
A%a!3'-'
Use WI5A8(5
a''roac$es
W$at is t$e 'olic% goalP Is it aiming at
8(5 or WI5P
S&ra&",3
'"!"c&-#% ,#a!'
Mainstreaming
gender wit$in
t$e overall
strateg% using
in"ormation and
data "rom
situation
anal%sis
5oes t$e strateg% address t$e 'ractical
and strategic needs o" 'oor men and
womenP Bas t$e strateg% considered
t$e BIH and (I5! in"ected and a;ectedP
I.4!"."%&a&-#
%
0a'acit%
building
/egal?
institutional
management
actions
Mainstream
gender in all t$e
im'lementation
activities
(lwa%s ask t$e :uestion $ow t$e
intervention is going to a;ectAbene6t
men and women? girls and bo%s?
in"ected and a;ected
M#%-&#r-%,
a%( E2a!)a&-#%
(ssessing
'rogress?
carr%ing out a
situation
anal%sis
8ender sensitive
monitoring and
evaluation
indicators
looking at bot$
:ualitative and
:uantitative
as'ects. Most o"
t$e tools used in
situation
anal%sis a''l%
"or monitoring
and evaluation.
(lso use
c$ecklists.
Bas t$ere been 'ositive im'act on men
and women ric$ and 'oorP
Bas t$e 'rocess led to 'ositive im'act
on BIH and (I5! 'andemicP
G"%("r R#!"
A%a!3'-' -%
Wa&"r E
Sa%-&a&-#% U'"
E
Ma%a,"."%&
Ac&-2-&3 a%(
D"c-'-#%5
.a0-%, 4r#7!"
,"%("r r#!"' in water source ?use and
management as well as sanitation at
$ouse$old level can $el' to 6nd out
w$at activities are carried out b%
women and men and w$o makes
decision on utiliOation o" t$e "acilities.
Dender Mainstreaming Chec1list
Activit %7
-articipants break into two groups. 4et them brainstorm on gender
mainstreaming checklist. Develop a checklist for mainstreaming gender.
**
-articipants report back. <onsolidate participants presentation and arrive at a
common understanding of the issues.
Will t$e 'roject in its 'lans state clear objectives and strategies to
integrate gender at eac$ '$aseP
Will t$e 'roject intend to integrate 'eriodic training and awareness
creation "orum "or 'roject 'ersonnel and bene6ciar% women and men on
gender issuesP
5id women and men among t$e bene6ciar% communit% 'artici'ate in
baseline in"ormation gat$ering and were t$e% consulted about t$eir
desires? situations? wants and needsP
Will t$e 7roject contribute to reduce women,s workloadP
(re women and men satis6ed wit$ t$e cost s$aring eE'enses incurred
during t$e 'roject im'lementationP
W$at measures are taken to address cultural and eEisting obstacles
'reventing women,s 'artici'ationP
S)..ar3
&$e "acilitator s$ould summariOe gender mainstreaming strategies and ask
'artici'ants to describe gender mainstreaming c$ecklist.
R"$"r"%c"'
1. OE"am 8ender &raining Manual
2. 8ender and 5evelo'ment 0#57( &raining Manual !eriesG Holume
3. 8ender #:uit%: 0once'ts and &ools "or 5evelo'ment F0#57(G
). 8ender (nal%sis in ural #nerg% 7lanning and #nvironment Management
F#!(MI &raining Materials? 133*? (rus$a? &anOania G
*. Mo8R0!? 1333 7rinci'al !ecretaries !ensitisation Works$o' 7a'ers? 0lub
Makokola 1333.
+. Mo8R0!? 2442: 8ender &raining Manual.
.. Mo8R0!? 2442: -ational es'onse to combat 8ender 1ased Hiolence.
2. U-#!0O? 2444: 8ender !ensitivit% Module? Qambia.
*+
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asiOe on de6ning gender mainstreaming? eE'laining
gender mainstreaming strategies and ste's involved in t$e develo'ment o"
gender mainstreaming c$ecklist.
&e "ords
Rou will 6nd t$e "ollowing ke% words or '$rases in t$is to'ic. Watc$ out "or t$ese
and make sure t$at %ou understand w$at t$e% mean and $ow t$e% are used in
$e to'icI
8ender mainstreaming
8ender mainstreaming c$ecklist
8ender mainstreaming strategies
8ender (nal%sis
!ituation (nal%sis
7artici'ants are "amiliar wit$ t$e de6nition o" gender and di;erences between
gender and seE. 7artici'ants are also conversant wit$ various terminologies
commonl% used in gender as outlined in to'ic 1.
Time Required
1 $our
M#()!" 9+ =IV a%( AIDS Ma-%'&r"a.-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
(ids is one o" t$e leading killer diseases in t$e world including Malawi? 0urrentl%?
t$ere is no vaccine to 'revent (I5! and t$ere is no medicine to cure it. 7eo'le
need to be educated about BIH and (I5! so t$at t$e% can ado't be$aviours t$at
will 'revent t$em "rom getting BIH and (I5!. &$is module discusses BIH and
(I5! as one o" t$e cross@cutting issues a;ecting t$e deliver% o" water su''l% and
*.
sanitation services. &$e material in t$e module will en$ance t$e understanding o"
BIH and (I5! issues and will broaden t$e abilit% to address develo'ment
'roblems in a res'onsive manner.
!ince BIH and (I5! $ave been identi6ed as a critical "actor a;ecting t$e
'er"ormance o" t$e water and sanitation sector? it is im'ortant "or t$e members
o" 1o& to understand $ow issues o" BIH and (I5s can be integrated in t$e
'lanning 'rocess o" Water !u''l% and !anitation FW!!G 'rogrammes.
&$is module will enable 'artici'ants to carr% out BIH and (I5! anal%sis and
integrate BIH and (I5! issues in water su''l% and sanitation activities. &$e
success and sustainabilit% o" W!! 'rojects de'ends on a clear understanding o"
t$e d%namics o" BIH and (I5!.
O1"c&-2"'
1. #E'lain wa%s t$roug$ w$ic$ BIH is transmitted.
2. 5escribe risk "actors and risk% be$aviours t$at contribute to t$e transmission
o" BIH.
3. (void be$aviours t$at ma% lead to t$e transmission o" BIH.
). Mainstream cross cutting issues o" BIH and (I5! in t$e Water and !anitation
!ector.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction "ollowed b% learning objectives?
met$odolog% and learning resources. &$e content section contains in"ormation on
t$e to'ic and t$e activities w$ic$ will $el' 'artici'ants ac$ieve t$e intended
learning outcomes. #ac$ to'ic ends wit$ a summar% o" t$e main 'oints o" t$e
lesson. &$e to'ic also 'rovides "acilitators notes w$ic$ include areas o" em'$asis?
ke% words? 'rere:uisite knowledge? time re:uired and additional in"ormation.
S0-!!'
1% t$e end o" t$e lesson t$e 'artici'ants s$ould ac:uire t$e "ollowing skillsI
Mainstreaming BIH and (I5!
C#%&"%&'
@BIH C (I5!? 7revention? 0are and su''ort
@BIH and (I5! mainstreaming
T#4-c *+ =IV E AIDS Pr"2"%&-#%, Car" a%( S)44#r&
*2
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will de6ne BIH and (I5!? 'resent modes o" transmission and t$e
im'acts o" t$e 'andemic in t$e water and sanitation sector. It will also discuss
risk "actors and be$aviour t$at "uel t$e e'idemic. &$e knowledge ac:uired will
$el' 'artici'ants carr% out BIH and (I5! mainstreaming in W!!.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is to'ic? 7artici'ants s$ould be able to:
!"5e6ne =BIH> and =(I5!>
#"5escribe modes o" BIH &ransmission
$"Identi"% met$ods o" BIH 7revention
%"#E'lain wa%s o" caring "or 7/WB(s
&"5escribe wa%s o" develo'ing BIH C (ids work'lace 'rogramme
C#%&"%&
D"7%" =IV a%( AIDS
Ac&-2-&3 *
Introduce t$e session title and objectives
Ac&-2-&3 2
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to de6ne BIH and (I5!
0onsolidate t$e answers
BIH stands "or =Buman Immunode6cienc% Hirus>. It is t$e virus t$at destro%s t$e
$uman immune Fde"enceG s%stem rendering t$e bod% vulnerable to ot$er
in"ections.
B K Buman. &$is virus is onl% "ound in $umans? not in animals or insects. &$e
wa% it s'reads is "rom one in"ected 'erson to anot$er.
I K Immunode6cienc%. &$is means t$e virus weakens t$e bod%,s abilit% to 6g$t
ot$er in"ections. In time? t$is weakness leads to t$e grou' o" illnesses called
(I5!.
H K Hirus. ( &in%: germ> t$at can onl% be seen under ver% 'ower"ul microsco'es.
Wha& -' AIDSS
(I5! F(c:uired Immune 5e6cienc% !%ndromeG is not one disease? but a set o"
diseases. -ot all 'eo'le w$o develo' (I5! su;er "rom t$e same disease? but
t$ere are certain unusual illnesses t$at occur ver% "re:uentl% in (I5!. &$at is w$%
it is called a =!%ndrome>. &$is s%ndrome is caused b% a virus w$ic$ a;ects t$e
bod%,s immune s%stem? making it liable to in"ections and cancers to w$ic$ it
would normall% be resistant.
*3
Ma-% .#("' #$ &ra%'.-''-#%
Ac&-2-&3 3
Use &(!O 8(M#
0ut small 'ieces o" 'a'er e:ual to t$e number o" 'artici'ants basing on t$e
national BIH and (I5! 'revalence rate. 0alculate t$e number o" 'artici'ants t$at
ma% 'ossibl% be BIH 'ositive. Write 'ositive sign FVG on t$e 'ieces o" 'a'er "or
t$ose t$at ma% be BIH 'ositive and negative sign F@G on t$e rest o" t$e 'ieces o"
'a'er.
Fold t$e 'ieces and miE t$em u'.
(sk eac$ 'artici'ant to 'ick a 'iece o" 'a'er but s$ould not un"old it.
/et t$e 'artici'ants socialise b% miEing around.
&$en t$e% s$ould un"old t$e 'a'ers and read w$at is written on it.
(sk t$e 'artici'ants wit$ 'a'ers marked 'ositive to stand on one side and t$ose
wit$ negative signs on t$e ot$er side.
(sk 'artici'ants t$at socialise wit$ t$ose wit$ 'ositive sign to join t$e grou' wit$
'ositive sign.
5iscuss t$e "eelings o" t$ose "ound 'ositive or negative but also t$ose w$o
became 'ositive a"ter socialising.
elate t$e eEercise to $ow BIH is s'read.
0ollect back all t$e 'a'ers "rom t$e 'artici'ant.
0onsolidate t$e answer b% $ig$lig$ting t$e "ollowing
o BeteroseEual intercourse remains t$e e'idemic a driving "orce in !ub !a$aran
("rica alt$oug$ recent e'idemiological evidence $as revealed t$e region,s
e'idemic to be more diverse t$an 'reviousl% t$oug$t
o !eE work is an im'ortant "actor
o Injecting drug use is an im'ortant "actor in #ast ("rica
o Use o" contaminated injected e:ui'ment
o !everal recent studies suggest t$at un'rotected seE between men is 'robabl%
more im'ortant "actor in !ub !a$aran ("rica
R-'0 Fac&#r -% =IV a%( AIDS Tra%'.-''-#%
Ac&-2-&3 ?
(sk 'artici'ants to be in grou's o" 3 'eo'le. W$ile seated t$e% s$ould discuss
some risk "actors in BIH and (I5! transmission.
Write t$eir answers on t$e <i' c$arts
(sk t$e grou's to 'resent t$eir work to t$e rest o" t$e grou'
0onsolidate t$eir answers using t$e note below
+4
&$ere are man% social@cultural 'ractices in certain "amilies and communities t$at
increase t$e risk o" BIH transmission. &$ese risk "actors include:
1. 7recocious seE ie $aving seEual intercourse ver% earl% in li"e.
2. Multi'le seE 'artners. &$e more 'eo'le %ou $ave un'rotected seE wit$? t$e
greater %our c$ances o" encountering an in"ected 'artner.
3. Wi"e in$eritanceI t$is is a traditional 'ractice in communities w$ere b% a wi"e is
'assed on to t$e neEt o" kin a"ter t$e $usband dies. &$e neEt o" kin is at risk o"
in"ection i" t$e $usband o" t$e women being in$erited died o" (I5!.
). 7rolonged se'aration o" s'ouses can easil% lead to eEtra marital a;airs.
*. oad side settlements es'eciall% along main trade routes.
+. Injection w$ere needles are used and ritual o'erations w$ere raOor blades and
knives are used.
.. Ot$er ke% determinants t$at "uel BIH and (I5! related risks? vulnerabilit% and
susce'tibilit% includedI 8ender relationsI 7overt%I MigrationI 0ivil and 'olitical
unrestI -atural disastersI Buman rig$ts violations@ vulnerabilit%Amarginalised
'o'ulationsI (ccess to resources and services
*DFD? =IV a%( AIDS 4r"2"%&-#%
Ac&-2-&3 H
1rainstorm wit$ 'artici'ants on 'revention o" BIH and (I5!.
Make an% clari6cations i" necessar%.
!"(bstinence be"ore marriage and com'lete "ait$"ulness wit$in marriage. !eEual
'urit% is t$e surest wa% o" avoiding (I5!. I" two unin"ected 'eo'le married
remain "ait$"ul? t$e% will not get BIH t$roug$ seEual intercourse. I" %ou 'ractice
abstinence and remain virgins? t$e% will not ac:uire (I5! unless it is t$roug$
trans"usion or drug injections.
#"&$e condom "rom a scienti6c 'oint o" view? w$en used 'ro'erl% and wit$ ever%
seEual act will greatl% reduce t$e risk o" BIH in"ection.
$"7rom't and com'lete treatment o" ot$er !&Is will reduce t$e s'read o" BIH.
%"BIH in"ection can also be 'revented b% ensuring t$at onl% sterile needles and
s%ringes are used "or injections.
&"(voiding unnecessar% blood trans"usions is essential "or BIH 'revention. (n%
blood necessar% to sustain li"e must be tested "or BIH
'"Using care in $andling blood. Bands s$ould be covered wit$ 'lastic bags or
gloves w$en touc$ing "res$ blood
Car" a%( ')44#r&
Ac&-2-&3 L
I% )II '"''-#% a'0 &h". h#/ &h"3 ca% car" a%( ')44#r& &h" a>"c&"(
a%( -%$"c&"(
C#%'#!-(a&" &h"-r r"'4#%'"'D
I" we can t$ink o" 'eo'le Sliving wit$ BIH in"ection, rat$er t$an Sd%ing o" (I5!, it
$el's to reduce "ear and makes 'eo'le more $o'e"ul about t$e "uture.
7eo'le wit$ BIH can live as long as 'ossible i" t$e%:
+1
1. 7ractice sa"er seE to avoid getting more BIH into t$eir bodies
2. 0arr% on working as normal
3. 8et love and care "rom 'eo'le around t$em
). &$e% can 'rotect ot$ers b% using condoms and no donating blood.
I$ 3#) ar" car-%, $#r '#."#%" /-&h AIDS+
1. Bel' t$em to sta% $ealt$% in t$e wa%s suggested above
2. #ncourage t$em to talk o'enl% about t$eir "eelings? listen and em'at$ise.
3. 0are "or t$em at $ome eEce't w$en t$e% $ave a bad in"ection. 5o not isolate
t$em because t$e virus is not s'read t$roug$ air to touc$
). 1oil bloodstained clot$es or soak t$em in bleac$. Use 'lastic gloves or bags
over %our $ands i" %ou are cleaning blood? wounds or blood% diarr$oea. Was$
%our $ands "re:uentl% and cover an% sores or cuts.
*. !eek advice "or s%m'toms and treat t$em earl%.
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as de6ned BIH and (I5!. It $as eE'lained modes o"
transmission and risk "actors and be$aviours t$at "uel t$e e'idemic.
&$e "acilitator s$ould let t$e 'artici'ants ask :uestions to w$at $as been
covered.
R"$"r"%c"'
Malawi !c$ool o" #ducation? 1332: ( student,s $andbook "or 7o'ulation #ducation
in Malawi.
8ill 8ordon? 1333: 0$oicesI ( 8uide "or Roung 7eo'le? MacMillan.
5omasi 0ollege o" #ducation? 2442: BIH and (I5! (wareness? 5omasi? Qomba
&abi"or Benr%? M5? 2442: &$e 5ignit% o" Buman !eEualit% and t$e (I5! 0$allenge?
(l'$a and Omega 7ublication.
Buman ig$ts and BIH and (I5!? 2442: ( 8uide "or 0ommunit% 1ased
!take$olders.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asise on t$e modes o" transmission and wa%s o"
'reventing t$e "urt$er s'reading o" t$e e'idemic? care and su''ort to t$e
a;ected and in"ected.
&e "ords
Rou will 6nd t$e "ollowing ke% words or '$rases in t$e to'ic.
BIH? (I5!? isk Factors? isk 1e$aviour
+2
/ocal knowledge o" t$e e'idemic "rom t$eir interaction wit$ bot$ a;ected and
in"ected and knowledge on care and su''ort to t$e a;ected.
Time Required
1 $our
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
1rainstorming
8rou' 5iscussions
ole 'la%
La&"'& E4-(".-#!#,-ca! &r"%('
S) Sahara% A$r-ca
!ub !a$aran ("rica remains t$e region most $eavil% a;ected b% BIH worldwide.
&$e region accounts "or t$e two t$irds F+.NG o" all 'eo'le living wit$ BIH and "or
t$e t$ree :uarters F.*NG o" all (I5! deat$s in 244.. It is estimated t$at 1.3
million 'eo'le were newl% in"ected wit$ BIH in !ub !a$aran ("rica in 244.?
bringing to 22million t$e number o" 'eo'le living wit$ BIH.
!ub !a$aran ("rica,s e'idemics var% signi6cantl% "rom countr% to countr% wit$
most a''earing to $ave stabilised? alt$oug$ o"ten at a ver% $ig$ levels?
'articularl% in !out$ern ("rica. In Malawi? t$e 6rst BIH and (ids case was
discovered in 132*. &$e 8overnment establis$ed -(07 in 1323 and anon%mous
centres were establis$ed in 1332. 0urrentl% 1?444? 444 'eo'le are estimated to
be in"ected wit$ BIH. (bout 1?244?444 c$ildren $ave been or'$aned b% BIH and
(I5!. 5es'ite awareness cam'aigns onl% "ew 'eo'le are aware o" t$eir BIH
status.
T#4-c 2+ =IV E AIDS Ma-%'&r"a.-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic discusses t$e 'rocess o" mainstreaming BIH and (I5! in Water and
sanitation 'rogrammes. It builds on t$e knowledge o" BIH and (I5! transmission?
care and su''ort covered in to'ic one. It 'resents an outline o" t$e im'acts o"
BIH and (ids in t$e sector. &$e to'ic concludes b% 'resenting "actors $indering
'eo'le "rom !eeking H0&? bene6ts o" H0& and wa%s 'romoting counselling and
testing.
O1"c&-2"'
+3
1. 0arr% out BIH and (I5! mainstreaming in t$e Water !u''l% and !anitation
7rograms
2. Outline t$e Im'act o" BIH C (I5! in water su''l% and sanitation
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
S0-!!'
C#%&"%&'
</E and A/D+ mainstreaming
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator introduces t$e session title and objectives
Using lecturrette met$ods t$e "acilitator eE'lains w$at BIH and (I5! mainstream
means
Main streaming BIH and (I5! $as been broadl% de6ned as a 'rocess t$at enables
all develo'ment actors to address t$e cause and e;ects o" (I5! in an e;ective
and sustained manner bot$ t$roug$ t$eir usual work and wit$in t$eir work'lace.
In water resources assessments and develo'ment? develo'ment o" management
instruments and creation o" t$e enabling environment? gender? BIH and (I5!
s$ould be a cross cutting issue
&$e 'rocess o" anal%sing $ow BIH and (I5! im'acts on all sectors now and in t$e
"uture? bot$ internall% and eEternall%? to determine $ow eac$ sector s$ould
res'ond based on its com'arative advantage. Integrated BIH and (I5! into wider
develo'ment.
e"ocusing t$e work o" t$e organisation to ensure t$ose in"ected and a;ected b%
t$e 'andemic are included and able to bene6t "rom t$eir activities. #nsuring t$at
t$e sector activities do not increase t$e vulnerabilit% o" t$e communities wit$
w$om t$e% work to BIHA!&Is? or undermine t$eir o'tions "or co'ing wit$ t$e
e;ects o" t$e e'indemic.
ERAMPLES
Bead oJce sta; organises BIH and (I5! talks during tea time
7lacing condoms in toiletsAvintage 'oints at t$e oJce to "acilitate access to
'revention services
&rans'ort sector $and out condoms to workers during road constructions
!ta; counselling sessions at t$e oJce
For a sector to trul% take on BIH and (I5! mainstreaming work? it ma% re:uire
eEtensive c$anges and re"ocusing wit$in t$e sector? as BIH and (I5!
mainstreaming does not mean business as usual
It is muc$ easier to do BIH and (I5! work t$an mainstreaming.
+)
S&ra&",-"' $#r .a-%'&r"a.-%,
Use o" researc$ and im'actA'redictive studies
Use o" BIH and (I5! "ocal 'oints
Use o" training
In<uencing strategies
1uilding structures "or enabling $ig$@level su''ort
A44r#ach"' &# .a-%'&r"a.-%,
1. 5evelo' work'lace interventions and 'olicies "or 'ublic sector sta;? 'ossibl%
t$roug$ subcontracting -8Os or 'rivate sector 'roviders
2. Incor'orate 'revention? care and im'act mitigation in Ministries, core business
again 'ossibl% t$oroug$ collaboration wit$ -8Os
I%&"r%a! .a-%'&r"a.-%, #r /#r04!ac" -%&"r2"%&-#%'
1. 0reating a "avourable environment? in terms o" 'olicies and structures t$at can
e;ectivel% $ost BIH and (I5! work'lace interventions.
2. Measuring t$e im'acts o" BIH and (I5! on an organisations and its sta;
3. &$e t$ird relates to BIH and (I5! in"ection and to su''ort 7/B(s. &$is includes
all areas o"I 'revention? care and su''ort.
). &$e "ourt$ relates to minimising im'acts Fim'act mitigationG o" (I5! on t$e
"unctioning o" t$e organisation.
D-'c!#')r"
1. 5isclosure o" BIH status is ver% im'ortant at "amil% level
2. 7artner noti6cation s$ould start "rom t$e beginning be"ore seeking H0&
services
3. 5isclosure at communit% and national level is im'ortant "or ot$er 'eo'le to
learn and c$ange t$eir be$aviour
). It is not good to start disclosing to t$e communit% w$ile %our 'artner o" "amil%
members are not aware

A(2a%&a,"' .a-%'&r"a.-%, =IV a%( AIDS
o Im'roved resilience against im'acts o" BIH and (I5! e'idemic
o &$is will result in res'onsible action and im'roved nutrition
o esulting in a dro' in o''ortunistic in"ections
/These will result in improved human development, viable livelihoods, enhanced
ecological integrity, and increased productivity3
K"3 -.4ac& Ar"a'
Me% im'act areas include t$e "ollowing
o 7o'ulation structure
o 7overt% and ine:ualit%
o 8overnance
o !ocial and traditional structures and networks
o Bouse$olds@ co'ing
+*
o World o" work
o (griculture? trans'ort? mining? education? 6s$eries? $ealt$ s%stems
I.4ac& #$ =IV E AIDS -% ,"%"ra!
Ac&-2-&3 2
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to be in 'airs and discuss t$e im'act o" BIH and (I5!.
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to discuss t$e im'act o" BIH and (I5! in water su''l% and
sanitation in t$eir sc$emes
Im'acts o" t$e e'idemic cannot be ignored. 0$ildren? women and elderl% are t$e
most a;ected b% t$e e'idemic. Interrelations$i' o" (I5! wit$ ot$er 'roblems o"
$uman develo'ment $as become clearer and $as resulted in t$e reserve o"
M58s. In Malawi (ids is undermining 'rogress towards t$e M85s 'articularl%
t$ose related wit$ 'overt% reduction? ac$ieving universal 'rimar% education?
'romoting gender e:ualit%? reducing c$ild mortalit% and im'roving $ealt$ o"
mot$ers.
&$e BIH and (I5! e'idemic a;ects t$e individual? "amil% and nation. (n
individual wit$ BIH and (I5! cannot take an active 'art in an% activit% w$ic$
a;ects $isA$er ever% da% li"e because t$e 'erson becomes weak. !uc$ a 'erson
$as to de'end on ot$er 'eo'le "or su''ort.
&$e BIH and (I5! e'idemic is a;ecting man% "amilies in Malawi. W$en 'arents o
guardians die? t$e c$ildren are sometimes le"t wit$out our to care "ro t$em.
/arge number o" or'$ans mean t$at individuals? 'rivate grou's suc$ as c$urc$es
and government must take res'onsibilit% o" suc$ c$ildren.
&$e individuals? 'rivate grou's and government ma% not co'e wit$ increasing
number o" or'$ans in terms o" 'rovisions "or "ood clot$ing s$elter education and
socialisation. &$e deat$ o" 'arents also means t$at c$ildren must sometimes
take on adult roles including leaving sc$ool earl% an taking u' jobs to earn mone%
to kee' t$e "amil% toget$er. W$en c$ildren leave sc$ool? it a;ects t$eir "uture
and can mean t$ere will be "ewer educated 'eo'le to $el' t$e nation develo'.
Malawi de'ends on 'eo'le wit$ man% skills and abilities. &$ese include teac$ers?
doctors? nurses? drivers? clerg% tec$nicians? and ot$ers. W$en t$ese 'eo'le die
because o" BIH and (I5!? t$e results can be social and economic disru'tion? and
even slow down o" national develo'ment.
BIH and (I5! is a;ecting t$e medical resources resulting in diversion o" resources
"rom ot$er sectors o" econom%.
I.4ac& #$ =IV E AIDS -% /a&"r ')44!3 a%( 'a%-&a&-#%
o Indigenous knowledge in water and ot$er natural resource management are lost
leading to ina''ro'riate wa%s o" utilisation
o (s $ouse$olds sink "urt$er into 'overt% due to BIHP(I5!? t$ere is over@
eE'loitation o" t$e natural resources leading to degraded water courses and a
++
"ailure in liveli$oods. ( vicious c%cle is t$en created w$ere 'overt% t$en leads to
t$e s'reading o" BIH and also leads to t$e over utilisation o" natural resources
o &ec$nolog% and service levels do not consider in"ected and a;ected
o Women carr% t$e care econom% o" BIH and (I5! im'osing serious constraints on
t$eir ca'acit% to 'artici'ate in water and sanitation 'rojects
o &$e BIH and (I5! 'andemic brings wit$ it im'overis$ment at t$e $ouse$old
level wit$ 'riorit% going to 'a%ing "or $ealt$ care. &$is $as an im'act on
$ouse$old abilit% to 'a% "or water services and even e;ectivel% demand "or water
o 7oor ca'acit% to 'artici'ate is com'ounded b% socio@economic im'act o" t$e
e'idemic
o !ocial co$esion is weakened and traditional 'artici'ator% c$annels become
d%s"unctional.
o 7erceived a;ected and in"ected "ace stigma and discrimination leading to a loss
o" sel" esteem
o Beig$tened time constraints on a;ected $ouse$olds
o (s liveli$oods "ail? 'overt% increases and t$e 'oor are less likel% to be
$ouse$olds
o (s liveli$oods "ail? 'overt% increases and t$e 'oor are less likel% to belong to
grou's organised "or 'artici'ation
I%$#r.a&-#%, "()ca&-#% a%( c#..)%-ca&-#% $#r "ha2-#)r cha%,"
Ac&-2-&3 3
1rainstorm wit$ 'artici'ants on "actors $indering 'eo'le "rom seeking H0&?
bene6ts o" H0& and wa%s o" 'romoting H0&.
Fac&#r' =-%("r-%, P"#4!" $r#. S""0-%, VCT
/ow 'artici'ation in volunteer &esting and 0ounselling is due to t$e "ollowing
"actors
Fear o" t$e unknown
Ignorance
!tigma and discrimination
/ack or inade:uate in"ormation
-ot able to 'erceive bene6ts
Unavailabilit% o" counselling and testing centres in some 'laces
Bow 0H& result in bene6ts w$ic$ directl% and indirectl% contributes to im'roved
'er"ormance o" t$e Water and !anitation !ector. 1ene6ts o" H0& include:
Bel's to 'revent BIH i" t$e results are negative
It 'romotes 'ositive living
Facilitate access to treatment
Bel's to 'lan "or t$e c$ildren
Facilitate "amil% 'lanning
(ccess to "amil% su''ort i" s$ared
=#/ &# 4r#.#&" C#)%'"!!-%, a%( T"'&-%,
#ducate 'eo'le on t$e im'ortance and bene6ts o" going "or counselling and
testing
+.
(dvocating "or establis$ment o" counselling and testing centres
FormAstrengt$en village (I5! committees
0onduct (nti (I5! cam'aign
0onduct eEc$ange visits
S)..ar3
&$e "acilitator s$ould summaries strategies used in BIH and (I5! mainstreaming.
Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to 'rovide $indrances to H0& and bene6ts o" H0&.
Facilitator s$ould let 'artici'ants ask :uestions in areas t$e% need "urt$er
clari6cation.

R"$"r"%c"'
in Malawi.
!take$olders.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asise on strategies used in BIH and (I5!
mainstreaming? advantages o" mainstreaming and bene6ts o" voluntar% testing
and counselling.
&e "ords
Holuntar%
0ounselling
&esting
BIH and I5! mainstreaming
7artici'ants are aware o" t$e modes o" transmission? wa%s o" caring and
su''orting t$e a;ected and t$e in"ected as discussed in to'ic one. 7artici'ants
are "amiliar wit$ wa%s o" 'reventing t$e "urt$er s'read o" t$e e'idemic.
+2
Time Required
3 $ours
T#4-c 3+ =IV E AIDS Pr"2"%&-#%, Car" a%( S)44#r&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will de6ne BIH and (I5!? 'resent modes o" transmission and t$e
im'acts o" t$e 'andemic in t$e water and sanitation sector. It will also discuss
risk "actors and be$aviour t$at "uel t$e e'idemic. &$e knowledge ac:uired will
$el' 'artici'ants carr% out BIH and (I5! mainstreaming in W!!.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is to'ic? 7artici'ants s$ould be able to:
'"5e6ne =BIH> and =(I5!>
("5escribe modes o" BIH &ransmission
)"Identi"% met$ods o" BIH 7revention
*"#E'lain wa%s o" caring "or 7/WB(s
!+" 5escribe wa%s o" develo'ing BIH C (ids work'lace 'rogramme
C#%&"%&
D"7%" =IV a%( AIDS
Ac&-2-&3 *
Introduce t$e session title and objectives
Ac&-2-&3 2
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to de6ne BIH and (I5!
0onsolidate t$e answers
BIH stands "or =Buman Immunode6cienc% Hirus>. It is t$e virus t$at destro%s t$e
$uman immune Fde"enceG s%stem rendering t$e bod% vulnerable to ot$er
in"ections.
B K Buman. &$is virus is onl% "ound in $umans? not in animals or insects. &$e
wa% it s'reads is "rom one in"ected 'erson to anot$er.
I K Immunode6cienc%. &$is means t$e virus weakens t$e bod%,s abilit% to 6g$t
ot$er in"ections. In time? t$is weakness leads to t$e grou' o" illnesses called
(I5!.
H K Hirus. ( &in%: germ> t$at can onl% be seen under ver% 'ower"ul microsco'es.
Wha& -' AIDSS
(I5! F(c:uired Immune 5e6cienc% !%ndromeG is not one disease? but a set o"
diseases. -ot all 'eo'le w$o develo' (I5! su;er "rom t$e same disease? but
+3
t$ere are certain unusual illnesses t$at occur ver% "re:uentl% in (I5!. &$at is w$%
it is called a =!%ndrome>. &$is s%ndrome is caused b% a virus w$ic$ a;ects t$e
bod%,s immune s%stem? making it liable to in"ections and cancers to w$ic$ it
would normall% be resistant.
Ma-% .#("' #$ &ra%'.-''-#%
Ac&-2-&3 3
Use &(!O 8(M#
0ut small 'ieces o" 'a'er e:ual to t$e number o" 'artici'ants basing on t$e
national BIH and (I5! 'revalence rate. 0alculate t$e number o" 'artici'ants t$at
ma% 'ossibl% be BIH 'ositive. Write 'ositive sign FVG on t$e 'ieces o" 'a'er "or
t$ose t$at ma% be BIH 'ositive and negative sign F@G on t$e rest o" t$e 'ieces o"
'a'er.
Fold t$e 'ieces and miE t$em u'.
(sk eac$ 'artici'ant to 'ick a 'iece o" 'a'er but s$ould not un"old it.
/et t$e 'artici'ants socialise b% miEing around.
&$en t$e% s$ould un"old t$e 'a'ers and read w$at is written on it.
(sk t$e 'artici'ants wit$ 'a'ers marked 'ositive to stand on one side and t$ose
wit$ negative signs on t$e ot$er side.
(sk 'artici'ants t$at socialise wit$ t$ose wit$ 'ositive sign to join t$e grou' wit$
'ositive sign.
5iscuss t$e "eelings o" t$ose "ound 'ositive or negative but also t$ose w$o
became 'ositive a"ter socialising.
elate t$e eEercise to $ow BIH is s'read.
0ollect back all t$e 'a'ers "rom t$e 'artici'ant.
0onsolidate t$e answer b% $ig$lig$ting t$e "ollowing
o BeteroseEual intercourse remains t$e e'idemic a driving "orce in !ub !a$aran
("rica alt$oug$ recent e'idemiological evidence $as revealed t$e region,s
e'idemic to be more diverse t$an 'reviousl% t$oug$t
o !eE work is an im'ortant "actor
o Injecting drug use is an im'ortant "actor in #ast ("rica
o Use o" contaminated injected e:ui'ment
o !everal recent studies suggest t$at un'rotected seE between men is 'robabl%
more im'ortant "actor in !ub !a$aran ("rica
R-'0 Fac&#r -% =IV a%( AIDS Tra%'.-''-#%
Ac&-2-&3 ?
(sk 'artici'ants to be in grou's o" 3 'eo'le. W$ile seated t$e% s$ould discuss
some risk "actors in BIH and (I5! transmission.
.4
Write t$eir answers on t$e <i' c$arts
(sk t$e grou's to 'resent t$eir work to t$e rest o" t$e grou'
0onsolidate t$eir answers using t$e note below
&$ere are man% social@cultural 'ractices in certain "amilies and communities t$at
increase t$e risk o" BIH transmission. &$ese risk "actors include:
2. 7recocious seE ie $aving seEual intercourse ver% earl% in li"e.
3. Multi'le seE 'artners. &$e more 'eo'le %ou $ave un'rotected seE wit$? t$e
greater %our c$ances o" encountering an in"ected 'artner.
14.Wi"e in$eritanceI t$is is a traditional 'ractice in communities w$ere b% a wi"e
is 'assed on to t$e neEt o" kin a"ter t$e $usband dies. &$e neEt o" kin is at risk o"
in"ection i" t$e $usband o" t$e women being in$erited died o" (I5!.
11.7rolonged se'aration o" s'ouses can easil% lead to eEtra marital a;airs.
12.oad side settlements es'eciall% along main trade routes.
13.Injection w$ere needles are used and ritual o'erations w$ere raOor blades and
knives are used.
1).Ot$er ke% determinants t$at "uel BIH and (I5! related risks? vulnerabilit% and
susce'tibilit% includedI 8ender relationsI 7overt%I MigrationI 0ivil and 'olitical
unrestI -atural disastersI Buman rig$ts violations@ vulnerabilit%Amarginalised
'o'ulationsI (ccess to resources and services
*DFD? =IV a%( AIDS 4r"2"%&-#%
Ac&-2-&3 H
1rainstorm wit$ 'artici'ants on 'revention o" BIH and (I5!.
!"(bstinence be"ore marriage and com'lete "ait$"ulness wit$in marriage. !eEual
'urit% is t$e surest wa% o" avoiding (I5!. I" two unin"ected 'eo'le married
remain "ait$"ul? t$e% will not get BIH t$roug$ seEual intercourse. I" %ou 'ractice
abstinence and remain virgins? t$e% will not ac:uire (I5! unless it is t$roug$
trans"usion or drug injections.
#"&$e condom "rom a scienti6c 'oint o" view? w$en used 'ro'erl% and wit$ ever%
seEual act will greatl% reduce t$e risk o" BIH in"ection.
$"7rom't and com'lete treatment o" ot$er !&Is will reduce t$e s'read o" BIH.
%"BIH in"ection can also be 'revented b% ensuring t$at onl% sterile needles and
s%ringes are used "or injections.
&"(voiding unnecessar% blood trans"usions is essential "or BIH 'revention. (n%
blood necessar% to sustain li"e must be tested "or BIH
'"Using care in $andling blood. Bands s$ould be covered wit$ 'lastic bags or
gloves w$en touc$ing "res$ blood
Car" a%( ')44#r&
Ac&-2-&3 L
I% )II '"''-#% a'0 &h". h#/ &h"3 ca% car" a%( ')44#r& &h" a>"c&"(
a%( -%$"c&"(
C#%'#!-(a&" &h"-r r"'4#%'"'D
.1
I" we can t$ink o" 'eo'le Sliving wit$ BIH in"ection, rat$er t$an Sd%ing o" (I5!, it
$el's to reduce "ear and makes 'eo'le more $o'e"ul about t$e "uture.
7eo'le wit$ BIH can live as long as 'ossible i" t$e%:
*. 7ractice sa"er seE to avoid getting more BIH into t$eir bodies
+. 0arr% on working as normal
.. 8et love and care "rom 'eo'le around t$em
2. &$e% can 'rotect ot$ers b% using condoms and no donating blood.
I$ 3#) ar" car-%, $#r '#."#%" /-&h AIDS+
+. Bel' t$em to sta% $ealt$% in t$e wa%s suggested above
.. #ncourage t$em to talk o'enl% about t$eir "eelings? listen and em'at$ise.
2. 0are "or t$em at $ome eEce't w$en t$e% $ave a bad in"ection. 5o not isolate
t$em because t$e virus is not s'read t$roug$ air to touc$
3. 1oil bloodstained clot$es or soak t$em in bleac$. Use 'lastic gloves or bags
over %our $ands i" %ou are cleaning blood? wounds or blood% diarr$oea. Was$
%our $ands "re:uentl% and cover an% sores or cuts.
14.!eek advice "or s%m'toms and treat t$em earl%.
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $as de6ned BIH and (I5!. It $as eE'lained modes o"
transmission and risk "actors and be$aviours t$at "uel t$e e'idemic.
&$e "acilitator s$ould let t$e 'artici'ants ask :uestions to w$at $as been
covered.
R"$"r"%c"'
in Malawi.
!take$olders.
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asise on t$e modes o" transmission and wa%s o"
'reventing t$e "urt$er s'reading o" t$e e'idemic? care and su''ort to t$e
a;ected and in"ected.
.2
&e "ords
BIH? (I5!? isk Factors? isk 1e$aviour
/ocal knowledge o" t$e e'idemic "rom t$eir interaction wit$ bot$ a;ected and
in"ected and knowledge on care and su''ort to t$e a;ected.
Time Required
1 $our
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
M"&h#(#!#,3
/ecturrette
1rainstorming
8rou' 5iscussions
ole 'la%
La&"'& E4-(".-#!#,-ca! &r"%('
S) Sahara% A$r-ca
!ub !a$aran ("rica remains t$e region most $eavil% a;ected b% BIH worldwide.
&$e region accounts "or t$e two t$irds F+.NG o" all 'eo'le living wit$ BIH and "or
t$e t$ree :uarters F.*NG o" all (I5! deat$s in 244.. It is estimated t$at 1.3
million 'eo'le were newl% in"ected wit$ BIH in !ub !a$aran ("rica in 244.?
bringing to 22million t$e number o" 'eo'le living wit$ BIH.
!ub !a$aran ("rica,s e'idemics var% signi6cantl% "rom countr% to countr% wit$
most a''earing to $ave stabilised? alt$oug$ o"ten at a ver% $ig$ levels?
'articularl% in !out$ern ("rica. In Malawi? t$e 6rst BIH and (ids case was
discovered in 132*. &$e 8overnment establis$ed -(07 in 1323 and anon%mous
centres were establis$ed in 1332. 0urrentl% 1?444? 444 'eo'le are estimated to
be in"ected wit$ BIH. (bout 1?244?444 c$ildren $ave been or'$aned b% BIH and
(I5!. 5es'ite awareness cam'aigns onl% "ew 'eo'le are aware o" t$eir BIH
status.
.3
T#4-c 2+ =IV E AIDS Ma-%'&r"a.-%,
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic discusses t$e 'rocess o" mainstreaming BIH and (I5! in Water and
sanitation 'rogrammes. It builds on t$e knowledge o" BIH and (I5! transmission?
care and su''ort covered in to'ic one. It 'resents an outline o" t$e im'acts o"
BIH and (ids in t$e sector. &$e to'ic concludes b% 'resenting "actors $indering
'eo'le "rom !eeking H0&? bene6ts o" H0& and wa%s 'romoting counselling and
testing.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 0arr% out BIH and (I5! mainstreaming in t$e Water !u''l% and !anitation
7rograms
2. Outline t$e Im'act o" BIH C (I5! in water su''l% and sanitation
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
S0-!!'
C#%&"%&'
</E and A/D+ mainstreaming
Ac&-2-&3 *
Facilitator introduces t$e session title and objectives
Using lecturrette met$ods t$e "acilitator eE'lains w$at BIH and (I5! mainstream
means
Main streaming BIH and (I5! $as been broadl% de6ned as a 'rocess t$at enables
all develo'ment actors to address t$e cause and e;ects o" (I5! in an e;ective
and sustained manner bot$ t$roug$ t$eir usual work and wit$in t$eir work'lace.
In water resources assessments and develo'ment? develo'ment o" management
instruments and creation o" t$e enabling environment? gender? BIH and (I5!
s$ould be a cross cutting issue
&$e 'rocess o" anal%sing $ow BIH and (I5! im'acts on all sectors now and in t$e
"uture? bot$ internall% and eEternall%? to determine $ow eac$ sector s$ould
res'ond based on its com'arative advantage. Integrated BIH and (I5! into wider
develo'ment.
.)
e"ocusing t$e work o" t$e organisation to ensure t$ose in"ected and a;ected b%
t$e 'andemic are included and able to bene6t "rom t$eir activities. #nsuring t$at
t$e sector activities do not increase t$e vulnerabilit% o" t$e communities wit$
w$om t$e% work to BIHA!&Is? or undermine t$eir o'tions "or co'ing wit$ t$e
e;ects o" t$e e'indemic.
ERAMPLES
Bead oJce sta; organises BIH and (I5! talks during tea time
7lacing condoms in toiletsAvintage 'oints at t$e oJce to "acilitate access to
'revention services
&rans'ort sector $and out condoms to workers during road constructions
!ta; counselling sessions at t$e oJce
For a sector to trul% take on BIH and (I5! mainstreaming work? it ma% re:uire
eEtensive c$anges and re"ocusing wit$in t$e sector? as BIH and (I5!
mainstreaming does not mean business as usual
It is muc$ easier to do BIH and (I5! work t$an mainstreaming.
S&ra&",-"' $#r .a-%'&r"a.-%,
Use o" researc$ and im'actA'redictive studies
Use o" BIH and (I5! "ocal 'oints
Use o" training
In<uencing strategies
1uilding structures "or enabling $ig$@level su''ort
A44r#ach"' &# .a-%'&r"a.-%,
5evelo' work'lace interventions and 'olicies "or 'ublic sector sta;? 'ossibl%
t$roug$ subcontracting -8Os or 'rivate sector 'roviders
Incor'orate 'revention? care and im'act mitigation in Ministries, core business
again 'ossibl% t$oroug$ collaboration wit$ -8Os
I%&"r%a! .a-%'&r"a.-%, #r /#r04!ac" -%&"r2"%&-#%'
0reating a "avourable environment? in terms o" 'olicies and structures t$at can
e;ectivel% $ost BIH and (I5! work'lace interventions.
Measuring t$e im'acts o" BIH and (I5! on an organisations and its sta;
&$e t$ird relates to BIH and (I5! in"ection and to su''ort 7/B(s. &$is includes
all areas o"I 'revention? care and su''ort.
&$e "ourt$ relates to minimising im'acts Fim'act mitigationG o" (I5! on t$e
"unctioning o" t$e organisation.
D-'c!#')r"
5isclosure o" BIH status is ver% im'ortant at "amil% level
7artner noti6cation s$ould start "rom t$e beginning be"ore seeking H0& services
5isclosure at communit% and national level is im'ortant "or ot$er 'eo'le to
learn and c$ange t$eir be$aviour
.*
It is not good to start disclosing to t$e communit% w$ile %our 'artner o" "amil%
members are not aware

A(2a%&a,"' .a-%'&r"a.-%, =IV a%( AIDS
o Im'roved resilience against im'acts o" BIH and (I5! e'idemic
o &$is will result in res'onsible action and im'roved nutrition
o esulting in a dro' in o''ortunistic in"ections
/These will result in improved human development, viable livelihoods, enhanced
ecological integrity, and increased productivity3
K"3 -.4ac& Ar"a'
Me% im'act areas include t$e "ollowing
o 7o'ulation structure
o 7overt% and ine:ualit%
o 8overnance
o !ocial and traditional structures and networks
o Bouse$olds@ co'ing
o World o" work
o (griculture? trans'ort? mining? education? 6s$eries? $ealt$ s%stems
I.4ac& #$ =IV E AIDS -% ,"%"ra!
Ac&-2-&3 2
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to be in 'airs and discuss t$e im'act o" BIH and (I5!.
(sk t$e 'artici'ants to discuss t$e im'act o" BIH and (I5! in water su''l% and
sanitation in t$eir sc$emes
Im'acts o" t$e e'idemic cannot be ignored. 0$ildren? women and elderl% are t$e
most a;ected b% t$e e'idemic. Interrelations$i' o" (I5! wit$ ot$er 'roblems o"
$uman develo'ment $as become clearer and $as resulted in t$e reserve o"
M58s. In Malawi (ids is undermining 'rogress towards t$e M85s 'articularl%
t$ose related wit$ 'overt% reduction? ac$ieving universal 'rimar% education?
'romoting gender e:ualit%? reducing c$ild mortalit% and im'roving $ealt$ o"
mot$ers.
&$e BIH and (I5! e'idemic a;ects t$e individual? "amil% and nation. (n
individual wit$ BIH and (I5! cannot take an active 'art in an% activit% w$ic$
a;ects $isA$er ever% da% li"e because t$e 'erson becomes weak. !uc$ a 'erson
$as to de'end on ot$er 'eo'le "or su''ort.
&$e BIH and (I5! e'idemic is a;ecting man% "amilies in Malawi. W$en 'arents o
guardians die? t$e c$ildren are sometimes le"t wit$out our to care "ro t$em.
/arge number o" or'$ans mean t$at individuals? 'rivate grou's suc$ as c$urc$es
and government must take res'onsibilit% o" suc$ c$ildren.
&$e individuals? 'rivate grou's and government ma% not co'e wit$ increasing
number o" or'$ans in terms o" 'rovisions "or "ood clot$ing s$elter education and
.+
socialisation. &$e deat$ o" 'arents also means t$at c$ildren must sometimes
take on adult roles including leaving sc$ool earl% an taking u' jobs to earn mone%
to kee' t$e "amil% toget$er. W$en c$ildren leave sc$ool? it a;ects t$eir "uture
and can mean t$ere will be "ewer educated 'eo'le to $el' t$e nation develo'.
Malawi de'ends on 'eo'le wit$ man% skills and abilities. &$ese include teac$ers?
doctors? nurses? drivers? clerg% tec$nicians? and ot$ers. W$en t$ese 'eo'le die
because o" BIH and (I5!? t$e results can be social and economic disru'tion? and
even slow down o" national develo'ment.
BIH and (I5! is a;ecting t$e medical resources resulting in diversion o" resources
"rom ot$er sectors o" econom%.
I.4ac& #$ =IV E AIDS -% /a&"r ')44!3 a%( 'a%-&a&-#%
o Indigenous knowledge in water and ot$er natural resource management are lost
leading to ina''ro'riate wa%s o" utilisation
o (s $ouse$olds sink "urt$er into 'overt% due to BIHP(I5!? t$ere is over@
eE'loitation o" t$e natural resources leading to degraded water courses and a
"ailure in liveli$oods. ( vicious c%cle is t$en created w$ere 'overt% t$en leads to
t$e s'reading o" BIH and also leads to t$e over utilisation o" natural resources
o &ec$nolog% and service levels do not consider in"ected and a;ected
o Women carr% t$e care econom% o" BIH and (I5! im'osing serious constraints on
t$eir ca'acit% to 'artici'ate in water and sanitation 'rojects
o &$e BIH and (I5! 'andemic brings wit$ it im'overis$ment at t$e $ouse$old
level wit$ 'riorit% going to 'a%ing "or $ealt$ care. &$is $as an im'act on
$ouse$old abilit% to 'a% "or water services and even e;ectivel% demand "or water
o 7oor ca'acit% to 'artici'ate is com'ounded b% socio@economic im'act o" t$e
e'idemic
o !ocial co$esion is weakened and traditional 'artici'ator% c$annels become
d%s"unctional.
o 7erceived a;ected and in"ected "ace stigma and discrimination leading to a loss
o" sel" esteem
o Beig$tened time constraints on a;ected $ouse$olds
o (s liveli$oods "ail? 'overt% increases and t$e 'oor are less likel% to be
$ouse$olds
o (s liveli$oods "ail? 'overt% increases and t$e 'oor are less likel% to belong to
grou's organised "or 'artici'ation
I%$#r.a&-#%, "()ca&-#% a%( c#..)%-ca&-#% $#r "ha2-#)r cha%,"
Ac&-2-&3 3
1rainstorm wit$ 'artici'ants on "actors $indering 'eo'le "rom seeking H0&?
bene6ts o" H0& and wa%s o" 'romoting H0&.
Fac&#r' =-%("r-%, P"#4!" $r#. S""0-%, VCT
/ow 'artici'ation in volunteer &esting and 0ounselling is due to t$e "ollowing
"actors
..
Fear o" t$e unknown
Ignorance
!tigma and discrimination
/ack or inade:uate in"ormation
-ot able to 'erceive bene6ts
Unavailabilit% o" counselling and testing centres in some 'laces
Bow 0H& result in bene6ts w$ic$ directl% and indirectl% contributes to im'roved
'er"ormance o" t$e Water and !anitation !ector. 1ene6ts o" H0& include:
Bel's to 'revent BIH i" t$e results are negative
It 'romotes 'ositive living
Facilitate access to treatment
Bel's to 'lan "or t$e c$ildren
Facilitate "amil% 'lanning
(ccess to "amil% su''ort i" s$ared
=#/ &# 4r#.#&" C#)%'"!!-%, a%( T"'&-%,
#ducate 'eo'le on t$e im'ortance and bene6ts o" going "or counselling and
testing
(dvocating "or establis$ment o" counselling and testing centres
FormAstrengt$en village (I5! committees
0onduct (nti (I5! cam'aign
0onduct eEc$ange visits
S)..ar3
&$e "acilitator s$ould summaries strategies used in BIH and (I5! mainstreaming.
Facilitator asks 'artici'ants to 'rovide $indrances to H0& and bene6ts o" H0&.
Facilitator s$ould let 'artici'ants ask :uestions in areas t$e% need "urt$er
clari6cation.

R"$"r"%c"'
in Malawi.
!take$olders.
.2
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Areas of -mphasis
&$e "acilitator s$ould em'$asise on strategies used in BIH and (I5!
mainstreaming? advantages o" mainstreaming and bene6ts o" voluntar% testing
and counselling.
&e "ords
Holuntar%
0ounselling
&esting
BIH and I5! mainstreaming
7artici'ants are aware o" t$e modes o" transmission? wa%s o" caring and
su''orting t$e a;ected and t$e in"ected as discussed in to'ic one. 7artici'ants
are "amiliar wit$ wa%s o" 'reventing t$e "urt$er s'read o" t$e e'idemic.
Time Required
3 $ours
.3
24
M#()!" *0+ O4"ra&-#% a%( Ma-%&"%a%c"
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic is aimed at im'arting knowledge on o'eration and maintenance to
members o" t$e 1o& so t$at t$e% understand $ow water su''l% sc$emes are
o'erated and maintained in order to ensure long@term sustainabilit% and access
o" water su''lies b% all Malawians.
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne O C M
2. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" O C M
3. 5escribe activities involved in 'reventive maintenance
). 5escribe o'erational 'rocedures
*. !tate t$e '$%sical com'onents o" a water su''l% sc$eme
+. #E'lain w$at is involved in ins'ection o" re'air works
.. 5raw a sam'le maintenance 'lan
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
&$is module $as two to'ics. #ac$ to'ic $as an introduction? met$odologies?
learning resources? content? summar% and re"erences. &$e introduction 'rovides
an overview o" and justi6cation "or learning t$e to'ics. &$e met$odologies and
(t t$e end o" eac$ to'ic t$ere are notes "or t$e "acilitator,s use. &$e notes contain
areas o" em'$asis and ke% words in t$e to'ic? t$e trainee,s assumed 'rior
S0-!!' &# " ("2"!#4"(
It is eE'ected t$at at t$e end o" t$e module? 'artici'ants will ac:uire t$e "ollowing
skills:
8uiding t$e water service o'erator in o'eration and maintenance
7roviding advisor% services on OC M activities
0ontents
O'eration and Maintenance
&ec$nolog% O'tions
T#4-c *+ O4"ra&-#% a%( Ma-%&"%a%c"
21
O'eration and maintenance FOCMG is vital "or an% sc$eme,s long@term
sustainabilit% and access to 'otable water su''lies. Members o" t$e 1oard o"
&rustees s$ould ac:uire knowledge on $ow to draw u' a maintenance 'lan and
advise on its im'lementation so t$at routine o'erations and maintenance b% t$e
water services o'erator are 'ro'erl% guided.
/earning Objectives
1. 5e6ne O C M
2. #E'lain t$e im'ortance o" O C M
3. 5escribe activities involved in 'reventive maintenance
). 5escribe o'erational 'rocedures
*. !tate t$e '$%sical com'onents o" a water su''l% sc$eme
C#%&"%&
5e6nition o" t$e &erms O'eration and Maintenance
Im'ortance o" OCM
0om'onents o" a Water !u''l% !c$eme
Field (ctivit%
D"7%-&-#% #$ &h" T"r.' O4"ra&-#% a%( Ma-%&"%a%c"
Ac&-2-&3 *
S&"4 *+ &$e "acilitator asks 'artici'ants to "orm grou's in w$ic$ t$e% will de6ne
t$e terms So'eration,
and Smaintenance,.
S&"4 2: 5iscuss t$e meaning o" o'eration and maintenance
S&"4 3+ Fac-!-&a&#r c#%'#!-(a&"' &h" ."a%-%, #$ &h" ("7%-&-#%'
I.4#r&a%c" #$ OEM
S&"4 *+ Facilitate a brainstorming session w$ere 'artici'ants discuss t$e
im'ortance O C M.
S&"4 2: Facilitator s$ould list t$e main 'oints "rom t$e discussion and 'resent a
summar%.
C#.4#%"%&' #$ Wa&"r S)44!3 Sch"."
S&"4 *+ Interactive 'resentation on com'onents o" a water su''l% sc$eme. Using
own eE'eriences? 'artici'ants s$ould be asked to describe com'onents o" t$eir
water su''l% sc$eme
S&"4 2+ 5emonstration on 'i'e siOes and $ow t$e% are joined. andoml%? :uiO
t$e 'artici'ants to identi"% t$e di;erent 'i'e t%'es and siOes.
Ac&-2-&-"' I%2#!2"( -% Pr"2"%&-2" a%( Cr-'-' Ma-%&"%a%c"
S&"4 *+ Facilitator s$ould eE'lain t$e di;erence between crisis and 'reventive
maintenance.
S&"4 2: Involve t$e 'artici'ants in a buOO session to list activities t$at can be
involved 'reventive and crisis maintenance o" water su''l% "acilities.
S&"4 3+ !ummarise t$e list and com'are wit$ t$e list in t$e notes.
22
F-"!( Tr-4
S&"4 *+ 7re arrange a 6eld tri' to an eEisting water su''l% sc$eme be"ore t$e
session
S&"4 2+ &ake t$e 'artici'ants on t$e 6eld tri' to see '$%sical com'onents o" a
water su''l% sc$eme Faided b% ma's and drawingsG
M"&h#(#!#,3
8rou' eEercise
Field tri'
/ecturrete
Focus grou' discussion
Interactive 'resentation
5emonstration
R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts
Masking ta'e
Markers and 'ens
!am'le o" 'i'es? bends and ada'ters o" di;erent t%'es and siOes
&ool boE Fi.e. containing valves? solvent cement? Backsaw? s'anners? mutton
clot$ etcG
Ma's Fs%stem la% outG
Bandouts F5rawingsA'ictures o" sc$eme com'onentsG s$ould be 're'ared in
advance
S)..ar3
&$e to'ic $el's 'artici'ants to understand t$e im'ortance o" O C MI to become
"amiliar wit$ t$eir water su''l% s%stem and work out a maintenance 'lan t$at
would ensure s%stem sustainabilit%
R"$"r"%c"'
0o@Water International F244)G. L&raining 8uide "or Main or !c$eme 0ommitteeL.
0ommunit% Water? !anitation and Bealt$ 7roject? &$%olo Malawi FUn'ublis$edG
I0 International Water and !anitation 0entre and World Bealt$ Organisation
F2444G. LO'eration and Maintenance o" ural Water !u''l% and !anitation
!%stems@ ( 7ackage "or Managers and 7lannersL. Malta
Farle% M. and &row !. F244.G. L/osses in Water 5istribution -etworks@(
7ractitioner\s 8uide to (ssessment? Monitoring and 0ontrolL. IW( 7ublis$ing.
United Mingdom
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
&$e to'ic assumes t$at t$e 'artici'ants will not be t$e ones carr%ing out t$e
actual o'eration and maintenance o" t$e water su''l% sc$eme. &$is will be t$e
res'onsibilit% o" t$e Water !u''l% O'erator.
O4"ra&-#% a%( Ma-%&"%a%c"+ &$is is a sum@total o" activities re:uired to
ac$ieve smoot$ running and continuous sustenance o" a water "acilit%.
23
O4"ra&-#%+ 5eals wit$ t$e actual running and $andling o" a water su''l%. &$e
activities involve deliver% o" a service i.e. control o" water intakeI storage?
transmission? distribution and collection unitsI and also t$e 'rovision o" resources
"or carr%ing out re'airs.
Ma-%&"%a%c"+ 5eals wit$ activities t$at kee' a water s%stem in 'ro'er working
condition. &$ese activities include management? cost recover%? re'airs and
'reventive maintenance. &$ere are two main t%'es o" maintenance:
aC Cr-'-' Ma-%&"%a%c"+ &$is is undertaken onl% in res'onse to breakdowns
andAor 'ublic com'laints. &$is leads to 'oor service level? $ig$ O C M costs? "aster
wear and tear o" e:ui'ment and user\s dissatis"action.
C Pr"2"%&-2" Ma-%&"%a%c"+ &$is is undertaken in res'onse to a 're@sc$eduled
s%stematic ins'ection? re'air and re'lacement. &$is leads to continuit% in service
level? O C M costs s'reading over time? eEtension o" li"e s'an o" e:ui'ment user\s
satis"action and willingness to 'a%.
O4"ra&-#%a! Pr#c"()r"'+ &$ese consists o" 'ur'ose "or w$ic$ a water s%stem
is runI command structureAaut$orit%I $ow a s%stem is se:uentiall% o'erated?
controlled and regulated Fi.e. control o" gate valves? standard $%giene 'ractices?
b%@lawsGI alternative water sources Fto serve in times o" low <ows? droug$ts?
s%stem disru'tions? emergenciesGI and? monitoring and evaluation.
Me% "actors w$ic$ $ave been "ound to contribute to inade:uate o'erational
'rocedures include: low 'ro6le o" O C M? inade:uate access to in"ormation?
insuJcient "unds and misuse o" "unds? ina''ro'riate design? 'oor management
and overla''ing res'onsibilit%? and lack o" 'olicies and legal "rameworks.
Ph3'-ca! C#.4#%"%&' #$ a Wa&"r S)44!3 S3'&".+ (mong ot$ers? t$ese
include: catc$ment? intake? screening tank? !edimentationAstorage tanks? break
'ressure tanks? airAwas$@out valves? treatment 'lant? transmission lines?
distribution lines? water 'oints and soak@wa%s.
I%'4"c&-#% #$ R"4a-r W#r0'+
Ca&ch."%&+ 5egraded catc$ment areas negativel% a;ect t$e :uantit% and
:ualit% o" water. 5egraded catc$ment areas s$ould be re$abilitated? conserved
and 'rotected
I%&a0"+ &$e intake area must be ke't tid% all t$e time to avoid blockages. Intake
'i'e s$ould alwa%s be installed below t$e average annual water level and s$ould
be covered wit$ a strainer.
Ta%0'+ !$ould be cleaned regularl% to avoid siltation and contamination. /eaks
s$ould be sealed o;. Man$ole covers s$ould be tig$t enoug$ to avoid ingress o"
"oreign materials. !torage tanks s$ould alwa%s be not less t$an one@t$ird "ull.
Tr"a&."%& 4!a%&+ &$e :ualit% o" water s$ould be o" acce'table standard as
outlined in t$e LWater 9ualit% and 7ollution 0ontrol ModuleL o" t$is Manual
Ga&" Va!2"'+ &$e ke%@valve s$ould $ave "ree@turning "or closing and o'ening o"
t$e 'i'eline during o'eration and maintenance.
Tra%'.-''-#%9(-'&r-)&-#% !-%"'+ !$ould be "ree "rom blockage. /eakages
s$ould be avoided in 'i'es and 6ttings. 7H0 'i'es s$ould be laid and back6lled in
t$e ground. 8alvanised 'i'es s$ould be laid on all eE'osed sur"aces Fi.e. gullies?
crossingsG. U'on carr%ing out re'airs? t$e 'i'eline s$ould be <us$ed t$roug$ to
remove dirt.
2)
A-r9Wa'h5#)& Va!2"'+ (ir valves s$ould be installed at $ig$est 'oints o" t$e
'ro6le to remove air $ence 'reventing water $ammers in t$e 'i'eline. Was$@out
valves s$ould be installed at lowest 'oints o" t$e 'ro6le to <us$@out silts and dirt.
Wa&"r 4#-%&'+ Water 'oints s$ould alwa%s be ke't tid%. (void unattended@to
water <ows "rom ta's. ('rons and was$ing slabs s$ould not $ave cracks.
S#a05/a3'+ !$ould allow sa"e and $%gienic dis'osal o" wastewater. &$e soak@
wa% s$ould be 6lled wit$ rocks to avoid 'onding.
Sa.4!" .a-%&"%a%c" 4!a%
( maintenance 'lan contains t$e "ollowing com'onents:
aC D"'cr-4&-#% #$ a /a&"r $ac-!-&3
&$is section includes name o" t$e sc$eme? location and condition o" source? its
la%out Fincluding geogra'$ical 'ositionG? t%'e o" tec$nolog% and com'onents o"
t$e "acilit%
C Ma%a,"."%& S&r)c&)r"
&$is section includes details o" users and t$eir institutional governance Fi.e. a
WU(G.
cC D"'cr-4&-#% #$ .a-%&"%a%c" ac&-2-&-"'
&$is section includes t%'e and "re:uenc% o" occurrenceI re:uirements to 'er"orm
t$e activities Ftools? materials? s'are 'arts? skills? $uman resourcesGI strategies
"or users\ 'artici'ation in maintenance activities Fusuall% stated in a WU(
constitutionGI W$ere and $ow to access utilit% o'erators and s'are 'artsI W$ere
and $ow to access eEtension workersA5istrict 0oordinating &eam "or training and
"ollow@u' su''ort
(C Ma-%&"%a%c" B)(,"&
&$is section includes activities? eE'ected income and sources? and also eE'ected
costs.
"C R",)!a&#r3 I'')"'
&$is section includes b%@laws and agreements as outlined in t$e L/egal and
Institutional Framework ModuleL o" t$is Manual.
$C E%2-r#%."%&a! :Ca&ch."%&C I'')"'
Issues in t$is section are alread% covered in t$e L#nvironmental and !ocial
Management ModuleL o" t$is Manual
Areas of -mphasis
Im'ortance o" O C M? identi6cation o" s%stem com'onents
&e "ords
O'eration? Maintenance
&$e 'artici'ants s$ould 'ossess knowledge on WU(? environment Fcatc$mentG
and !ocial Management? Water 9ualit% and 7ollution 0ontrol? 'rocurement and
contract management? communit% based management? grou' d%namics? gender?
6nancial management.
Time Required
) $ours
2*
T#4-c 2+ T"ch%#!#,3 O4&-#%'
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is to'ic will allow 'artici'ants to understand and be "amiliar wit$ t$e various
tec$nolog% o'tions w$ic$ are used in 'i'ed water su''l% sc$emes.
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is unit? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to:
1. 5escribe various tec$nological o'tions available
2. !tate advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent tec$nolog% o'tions
!tate a''ro'riate selection criteria "or a tec$nolog%
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
S0-!!'
C#%&"%&'
5e6nition o" &ec$nolog%.
&%'es o" tec$nologies being used.
(dvantages and 5isadvantages o" di;erent tec$nolog% o'tions.
!election criteria o" a tec$nolog%.
D"7%-&-#% a%( T34"' #$ T"ch%#!#,3 -% Wa&"r S)44!3
S&"4 *+ Facilitator s$ould eE'lain t$e meaning o" tec$nolog% to t$e 'artici'ants?
wit$ eEam'les "rom water su''l%.
S&"4 2D In "ocussed discussions? t$e "acilitator s$ould ask 'artici'ants to list
ot$er t%'e o" tec$nologies w$ic$ are being 'romoted in rural water su''l%
'rojects.
S&"4 3+ Facilitator s$ould list t$e answers on a <i' c$art? and com'are t$ese wit$
t$e "acilitator\s notes.
A(2a%&a,"' a%( D-'a(2a%&a,"' #$ D->"r"%& T"ch%#!#,3 O4&-#%'
S&"4 *+ In grou's? t$e "acilitator s$ould ask 'artici'ants to write down w$at t$e%
t$ink are t$e advantages and disadvantages o" di;erent tec$nolog% o'tions.
S"!"c&-#% Cr-&"r-a #$ a T"ch%#!#,3
2+
S&"4 *D In "ocussed discussions? t$e "acilitator s$ould ask 'artici'ants to
brainstorm on "actors t$at determine t$e c$oice o" a 'articular tec$nolog%. &$ese
s$ould be listed on a <i' c$art.
F-"!( V-'-&
S&"4 *+ Facilitator s$ould 're arrange a 6eld visit be"ore t$e to'ic is covered.
S&"4 2+ &$e 'artici'ants s$ould be taken to t$e 6eld to conduct '$%sical
identi6cation o" di;erent tec$nolog% o'tions.
S)..ar3
&$is to'ic $as covered various tec$nolog% o'tions available in all stages o" water
su''l%? and $ow t$e c$oice o" a tec$nolog% is linked wit$ o'eration and
maintenance? as a ke% "actor "or sustainable water su''l% sc$emes. It $as also
eE'lained t$at t$e c$oice o" an a''ro'riate tec$nolog% de'ends on $ow well t$e
selection criteria is set.
R"$"r"%c"'
0o@Water International F244)G. L&raining 8uide "or Main or !c$eme
0ommitteeL. 0ommunit% Water? !anitation and Bealt$ 7roject? &$%olo Malawi
FUn'ublis$edG
I0 International Water and !anitation 0entre and World Bealt$
Organisation F2444G. LO'eration and Maintenance o" ural Water !u''l% and
!anitation !%stems@ ( 7ackage "or Managers and 7lannersL. Malta
Farle% M. and &row !. F244.G. L/osses in Water 5istribution -etworks@(
7ractitioner\s 8uide to (ssessment? Monitoring and 0ontrolL. IW( 7ublis$ing.
United Mingdom
Fac-!-&a&#r6' N#&"'
Wa&"r S#)rc"' T"ch%#!#,-"'
aC Ra-%/a&"r
oo"to' water $arvesting
0atc$ment and storage dams
C Gr#)%(/a&"r
!'ring water ca'itation
5ug well
5rilled well
!ub@sur"ace $arvesting
cC S)r$ac" Wa&"r
7rotected side intake
1ottom river intake
Floating intake
!um' intake
Wa&"r L-$&-%, T"ch%#!#,-"'
2.
o'e and bucket
1ucketAro'e 'um'
!uction 'lunger $and 'um'
5irect action 'um'
5ee' well 'iston 'um'
5ee' well dia'$ragm 'um'
0entri"ugal 'um'
#lectrical submersible 'um'
(Eial <ow 'um'
B%draulic ram
P#/"r S3'&".'
Buman 'ower
(nimal traction
8ravitational "orce
Windmill
7$otovoltaic
5ieselAelectric #ngines
Wa&"r Tr"a&."%& D"2-c"'
aC =#)'"h#!( !"2"!
Beating
!olar disin"ection
!low sand 6lter
5omestic c$lorination
C C#..)%-&3 L"2"!
7ot c$lorination in a well
!edimentation and storage
U'@<ow roug$ing 6lters
!low sand 6ltration
0$lorination in 'i'e water s%stems
S"!"c&-#% Cr-&"r-a
&$e selection criteria o" a tec$nolog% includes tec$nical considerations Fi.e.
tec$nical standards? com'leEit% o" O C MG? communit% as'ects Fi.e. res'onsibilit%
and owners$i' "eelings? desired level o" serviceG? environmental as'ectsF 9ualit%
o" water source? necessit% "or 'rotecting water sourceG and legal and institutional
as'ects Flegal "ramework? training ca'acit% and "ollow@u'G.

M"&h#(#!#,3
Focused discussions
8rou' #Eercises
Field tri's
lecturrette
L"ar%"r6' R"'#)rc"'
Fli' c$arts
Masking ta'e
Markers and 'ens
Bandouts F5rawingsA'ictures o" di;erent tec$nologiesG
22
Areas of -mphasis
&%'es o" tec$nologiesI selection criteria "or a tec$nolog%
&e "ords
&ec$nolog%I !election criteria
&$e 'artici'ants s$ould 'ossess knowledge on environment Fcatc$mentG and
!ocial Management? Water 9ualit% and 7ollution 0ontrol? 0communit% 1ased
Management? 8rou' 5%namics? 8ender and F6nancial Management.
Time Required
2 $ours
R##$&#4 /a&"r har2"'&-%,+ 8at$ers rainwater caug$t on roo"to's o" buildings
and leads it to a storage tank w$ere it can be reticulated. &iled or metal roo"s
give t$e cleanest water. &$e tec$nolog% re:uires "re:uent <us$ing and
disin"ection to avoid water contamination. &$e collected water ma% not satis"%
domestic demands.
S4r-%, /a&"r ca4-&a&-#%+ (bducts and 'rotect groundwater <ows at a 'oint
w$ere t$e water arrives at t$e ground sur"ace. Water s$ould be allowed to <ow
out "reel% "rom t$e s'ring all t$e time to avoid diversion. 7revent contamination
at t$e 'oint t$e water see's into t$e ground Fi" 'ossibleG and t$e immediate
surroundings o" t$e s'ring. egular water :ualit% tests s$ould be undertaken to
c$eck "aecal contamination. emove accumulated silts regularl%. !'rings ma% not
deliver enoug$ water and can become less 'roductive during t$e dr% season o"
t$e %ear.
Dr-!!"( /"!! :B#r"h#!"C+ &$ese give access to groundwater contained in an
a:ui"er and "acilitate its abstraction. 0onstruction o" a well de'ends on t$e $%dro@
geological conditions. W$en develo'ing a well "or water su''l%? consider all t$e
eE'ected uses.
R#4" a%( B)c0"&+ Mostl% used on $and@dug wells. 5eterioration o" t$e ro'e
s$ould be antici'ated to 'revent t$e bucket "rom "alling into t$e well. 0$ances o"
contamination are $ig$ t$roug$ t$e $andling o" t$e ro'e and t$e eE'osed bucket.
D-r"c& Ac&-#% P).4'+ &$ese are mostl% made o" 7H0 'i'es and installed on
wells o limited de't$. &$e 'um's com'rise a &@bar $andle. O'eration o" t$e 'um'
is relativel% sim'le. Bowever? t$e 'um' $as "ast@wearing 'arts. &$e maEimum li"t
is limited to 12 metres.
D""45/"!! 4-'&#% ha%( 4).4+ &$e 'iston is 'laced in a c%linder. &$e water
level is in t$e range o" 1*@)* metres below ground level. #Eam'les include
("ridevA(:uadev? 1us$ 'um'? 1lair 'um'? and India Mark II and III. &$e 'um's are
mostl% too eE'ensive "or "amil% use. e'lacement o" 'lunger is t$e most common
re'air t$at is needed. &$e maEimum li"t di;ers b% brand? var%ing between )*@144
metres.
D-"'"! E%,-%"+ &$ese are o"ten used as stationar% 'ower sources. &$e engine
s$ould be o'erated b% trained 'ersonnel. 0lean t$e outside o" t$e engine dail%.
23
W$en "uel and s'are 'arts are scarce? t$e costs ma% be about *4N o" t$e ca'ital
cost.
M#()!" **+ F-%a%c-a! a%( C#%&rac& Ma%a,"."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module will 'rovide basics in 6nancial management. 7rudent 6nancial
management is a ke% com'onent to eJcient and e;ective o'eration o" a s%stem.
&$e modules will 'rovide an overview o" 6nancial re'orts? develo'ment o"
6nancial 'lans? management o" accounts and inter'retation o" audit re'orts.
It will enable all local communities manage t$eir mini water boards. It will $el'
members o" WU( to know and understand $ow to set tari;s? kee' records? carr%
out audit? and 're'are budgets and business 'lans.
&$e module will also e:ui' t$e 1o& team wit$ knowledge and skills in
accountabilit% and trans'arenc%.
O1"c&-2"'
1. (bilit% to 'lan develo' and im'lement :ualit% assurance s%stems
Ain"rastructure
2. (bilit% to solicit and manage "unds
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction and learning objectives. &$e stud% material
is contained in t$e "acilitator,s notes. (ctivities w$ic$ are based on t$e stud%
material and comments on t$e activities are tabulated at t$e start o" eac$ to'ic.
#ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be used to ac$ieve t$e intended outcomes
and t$e material resources re:uired to ac$ieve t$e learning objectives. &$e table
also contains "acilitator,s ste's w$ic$ outline $ow t$e "acilitator will conduct t$e
training in terms o" training met$odologies.
S0-!!'
8enerating e'orts
5evelo'ing 6nancial 7lans
Managing accounts
Inter'reting audit re'orts
34
C#%&"%&'
T#4-c *+ B)'-%"'' P!a%
I%&r#()c&-#%
Introduce t$e to'ic as business 'lan
O1"c&-2"'
1. 5e6ne a business 'lan
2. 7re'are a sam'le business 'lan
3. #E'lain im'ortance o" a business 'lan
M#()!" *2+ Pr#c)r"."%& a%( c#%&rac& Ma%a,"."%&
I%&r#()c&-#%
&$is module will 'rovide a general overview o" 'rocedures involved in
'rocurement and contract management and good 'ractices in stores
management. Members o" 1oard o" &rustees F1o&G will be res'onsible "or t$e
'rocurement o" goods? works and services and management o" contracts $ence it
is im'ortant t$at t$e% are e:ui''ed wit$ knowledge o" 'ractices advocated b%
t$e government.
&$e aim o" t$is module is to enable all members o" WU( to manage contracts
'ro'erl%I manage storesI and a''l% a''ro'riate decision making skills.
More im'ortantl%? t$e module will e:ui' t$e 1o& wit$ knowledge o" legal
im'lications o" contracts and im'ortance o" trans'arenc% and accountabilit% in
t$e awarding o" contracts
O1"c&-2"'
1% t$e end o" t$is module? 'artici'ants are eE'ected to:
1. Understand $ow contracts are managed
2. Manage di;erent t%'es o" contracts
3. (''l% negotiation skills in contract negotiations
). Manage stores
*. 7rocure goods? works or services.
+. Understand t$e legal im'lications o" contracts.
S&r)c&)r" #$ Each S&)(3 T#4-c
#ac$ to'ic begins wit$ an introduction and learning objectives. &$e stud% material
is contained in t$e "acilitator,s notes. (ctivities w$ic$ are based on t$e stud%
31
material and comments on t$e activities are tabulated at t$e start o" eac$ to'ic.
#ac$ to'ic 'rovides t$e met$ods to be used to ac$ieve t$e intended outcomes
and t$e material resources re:uired to ac$ieve t$e learning objectives. &$e table
also contains "acilitator,s ste's w$ic$ outline $ow t$e "acilitator will conduct t$e
training in terms o" training met$odologies.
S0-!!'
1% t$e end o" t$is module? 'artici'ants s$ould be able to understand and a''l%
skills in t$e "ollowing areas?
Managing 0ontracts
Managing stores
5ecision making
5is'la%ing negotiation skills
Pr#c)r"."%& #$ ,##(' /#r0' a%( '"r2-c"'D
32

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