Investigating the seed, seedling, flowers and roots of the mangrove

plants to survive in mangrove swamps.

1. Flowers
a)Bruguiera
Bruguiera cylindrica is a small tree growing up to 20 metres (66 ft) tall but often grows as a bush. The
bark is smooth and grey, with corky raised patches containing lenticels which are used in gas exchange
and the trunk is buttressed by roots. The aerial roots or pneumatophores project from the soil in knee-
shaped loops and have many lenticels which allow air into the interconnecting roots while excluding
water. The roots spread out widely to provide stability in the waterlogged soil. The glossy green leaves
are opposite, simple and elliptical with pointed ends. The flowers are in small bunches of 2-5 in the axils
of the leaves. They have 8 long green sepals and 8 smaller, greenish-white petals with several little
bristles on the tip. The flowers are pollinated by insects and release a cloud of pollen when probed at the
base by the insect's mouthparts. The seed does not detach itself from the flower stalk but germinates
where it is and is known as a propagule. It grows into a slightly curved cylinder up to 15 cm (6 in) long,
with the upturned calyx still attached, and looks rather like a slender, dangling cucumber. The propagules
later drop off and float horizontally at first. The roots (lower part) absorb water and become heavier and
after a few weeks the propagules float vertically and are ready to root into the substrate.
Bruguiera cylindrica can be confused with Bruguiera Gymnorhiza but that has larger, red flowers and red
sepals which remain attached to the propagule, which is a straight cylinder in shape rather than being
slightly curved.
b)Avicennia
Members of the genus are among the most salt tolerant mangroves and are often the first to colonise new
deposits of sediment. The sap is salty and excess salt is secreted through the leaves. The spreading root
system provides stability in shifting substrates. There are vertical roots called pneumatophores projecting
from the mud. These are used in gas exchange as there is very little oxygen available in the mud. The
flowers are fragrant and rich in nectar and are pollinated by insects. The embryos exhibit cryptovivipary,
a process where they start to develop before the seed is shed but do not break through the outside of the
fruit capsule






c)Rhizophora
Members of the genus are among the most salt tolerant mangroves and are often the first to colonise new
deposits of sediment. The sap is salty and excess salt is secreted through the leaves. The spreading root
system provides stability in shifting substrate. There are vertical roots called pneumatophores projecting
from the mud. These are used in gas exchange as there is very little oxygen available in the mud. The
flowers are fragrant and rich in nectar and are pollinated by insects. The embryos exhibit cryptovivipary,
a process where they start to develop before the seed is shed but do not break through the outside of the
fruit capsule.

2. Roots
a) Knee roots
Knee roots are developed by Bruguiera species.
Knee roots emerge as a root loop from the underground root system and allow the exchange of
gases in oxygen poor sediments. Each underground horizontally growing root develops several
knee roots at regular intervals.
Knee roots of an adult Bruguiera gymnorhiza for example extend in a radius of approximately 10
meters around the trunk and can reach a heigt of up to 60cm. The knee roots of the different
Bruguiera species differ in size, shape and frequency and can vary depending on the location and
growth conditions. Most knee roots have numerous lenticels with the ability to exchange gas.
b) Stilt roots
stilt roots prevent the tree from being uprooted. This happens often when the tree is outwashed
by rising sea level, tides, human influences or the like. Furthermore these stilt roots provide to
ensure the location the mangroves is growing at. Even single branches can develop these stilt
roots to support them. Bruguiera gymnorhiza as well as Avicennia marina with stilt roots are
normally found in riverine mangrove forests growing along rivers.
c) Pneumatophores
These specialized aerial roots enable plants to breathe air in habitats that have waterlogged soil.
The roots may grow down from the stem, or up from typical roots. Some botanists classify these
as aerating roots rather than aerial roots, if they come up from soil. The surface of these roots
are covered with lenticles which take up air into spongy tissue which in turn uses osmothic
pathways to spread oxygen throughout the plant as needed. The Black Mangrove and Grey
mangrove is differentiated from other mangrove species by its pneumatophores.Fishermen in
some areas of Southeast Asia make corks for fishing nets by shaping the pneumatophores
of Sonneratia caseolaris into small floats.Members of subfamily Taxodioideae produce woody
aboveground structures, known as cypress knees, that project upward from their roots. These
structures were initially thought to function as pneumatophores, but more recent experiments
have failed to find evidence for this hypothesis.