Underground Construction

Underground Construction
Technology
Course Lectures
Part 3 Ground Improvement and Support
Professor ZHAO Jian
Charg de Cours ROJAS Rafael
Technology
Laboratoire de Mcanique des Roches LMR
g
Introduction Introduction
1. Ground treatment and improvement during tunnelling
2. Groundwater control and waterproofing techniques
3. Temporary and permanent support methods
4. Instrumentation and monitoring
Technology
Ground Treatment and Improvement
In order to improve the construction process when tunnelling
through poor ground, a double philosophy exists: g p g p p y
Improvement and adaption of the technology used for excavation and
support to the conditions of the ground support to the conditions of the ground
or
Improvement of the ground to be excavated with the main goal of
waterproofing and consolidating voids, cracks and porosity, by means
of different techniques: Grouting, Freezing, Dewatering, Forepoling,
etc.
Technology
Grouting
Grouting is the introduction of a hardening fluid or
mortar into the ground to improve its stiffness mortar into the ground to improve its stiffness,
strength and/or impermeability
Technology
Grouting
There are different patterns of the propagation of the
t ithi th d grout within the ground:
L ti Low pressure grouting
Compensation grouting Compensation grouting
Jet grouting g g
Technology
Grouting
Low pressure grouting
The grout is introduced into the
ground with a movable double
packer by means of a pressure packer, by means of a pressure
high enough to push the ground
into the pores but low enough not to
crack the ground
Technology
Grouting
Compensation grouting
- The objective is to fracture the
ground, with increased grouting
pressure in order to swell the pressure, in order to swell the
ground.
-Used for compensation of surface
settlements by heaving the settlements, by heaving the
surface.
-Also called grout-jacking
-Caution must be taken as new
loads might be exerted on the lining
Technology
Grouting
Jet grouting
-A high pressure (300 to 600 bar) is
applied to a cement suspension
which is pumped through a pipe which is pumped through a pipe
with a lateral nozzle at its bottom
end
-The jet erodes the surrounding -The jet erodes the surrounding
soil. When the pipe is pulled out
and rotated simultaneously, a
cylindrical body of soil and cement
is formed
-Different techniques of jet grouting
exist: Single fluid, double fluid, triple
f
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fluid, etc
Grouting
Jet grouting: Single Grout
Technology
Grouting
Jet grouting: Double Grout
Technology
Grouting
Jet grouting: Triple Grout
Technology
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application
Grouting is used in tunnelling to improve the quality of the
ground around the future tunnel and to seal the tunnel g
against groundwater and thus prevent heading inrushes
Staggered boreholes with lenghts of around 20 m are
driven from the face and grouted with a good overlapping,
obtaining a kind of protective umbrella on the tunnel. g p
Technology
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Example
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Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Example
Technology
Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Scheme
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Grouting
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Grouting
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Grouting
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Grouting
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Grouting
Grouting: Tunnelling Application Scheme TBM
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Grouting
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Grouting
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Grouting
Grouting: Grouts commonly used
Cement Grouts: With cement content between 100 and 500 kg per m3 Cement Grouts: With cement content between 100 and 500 kg per m3,
and bentonite (to reduce sedimentation, permeability and strenght). A
sufficient time of several hours must be awaited for setting before any
blasting and drilling into the grouted area.
Micro Cements Micro Cements
Colloidal silica suspensions
Chemical Grouts: Sodium silicate in most of the cases. The setting
time is more reduced (30 to 60 minutes). The mechanical properties can
be tailored be tailored.
Polyurethanes: They react with water and produce foam, which
remains ductile after hardening.
Acrylic Grouts: Liquids of low viscosity until the polymerisation sets on
(around an hour) (around an hour).
Epoxy Resins: Less used, because of difficulties in handling.
Thermoplastic materials: Asphalt or melt polyamides pumped with fast
flowing water
Technology
Grouting
Grouting: Particularities of Rock Grouting
Rock has a much smaller pore volume than soil, so
that it is difficult to uniformly grout all voids of rock y g
In order to avoid grout escaping through large joints:
Thicker grouts must be used
A limit for the grout volume V must be imposed (to avoid
filling of too large and not needed areas) g g )
A limit for the grouting pressure P must be imposed (to avoid
hydrofracturing of the rock and fracture opening)
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Grouting
Grouting: Moment of intervention
According to when the grouting is executed, we can
talk about:
Pre-injections
Post-injections
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Grouting
Pre-injections
They can be performed from the face of the advancing tunnel (what
normally affects the excavation process) or from the surface (what
gives extra-flexibility). g y)
They are preferible to post-injections, as they are easier to perform,
cheaper, more effective and treat the ground before water starts
moving and leaking into the tunnel.
The present a marginal risk of uncontrolled water in-rush
They provide dry working conditions in the tunnel
There is marginal influence on the surroundings
Technology
Grouting
Post-injections
These injections are not preferible to pre-injections as: These injections are not preferible to pre injections, as:
Not ideal, as it chases the water from place to
place
Normally relatively expensive chemical resins are
used
Specialized teams are necessary
Time consuming and difficult to achieve success Time consuming and difficult to achieve success
They work better when applied on pre-injected
ground
Technology
Ground Freezing
Principle of Ground Freezing
Ground freezing is a technique used extensively for
groundwater control and ground control in the
underground construction underground construction.
The process involves the circulation of a refrigerated
coolant through a series of subsurface pipes to convert g p p
soil water to ice, creating a strong and watertight
material.
Technology
Ground Freezing
Formation of freeze wall
Freeze zone/wall Freeze pipe/point
In tunnelling freeze zone or wall around tunnel can be In tunnelling, freeze zone or wall around tunnel can be
formed for excavation
Technology
Ground Freezing
The design of a frozen earth barrier is governed by the
th l ti f th d l i il d l t d thermal properties of the underlying soils and related
response to the freezing system. Formation of frozen
earth barrier develops at different rates depending on
the thermal and hydraulic properties of each stratum
Typically, rock and coarse-
grained soils freeze faster
than clays and silts than clays and silts
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Ground Freezing
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Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing in Tunnelling
Provides stable shoring to allow tunnelling in wet, loose
soils or highly fractured rock.
Effective for cutting off ground water into tunnel
excavation.
Frozen soil/rock can be used as shoring around Frozen soil/rock can be used as shoring around
unfrozen soil or the entire soil/rock mass can be frozen
(similar to hard-rock tunnelling).
Frozen soil shoring can also be used to stabilize ground
entrance and exit access shafts
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Ground Freezing
Properties of Frozen Ground Properties of Frozen Ground
Frozen material Compressive strength at -10C, MPa
Pure ice 1.5
Sand 10
Silt 4
Clay 2
C h d k d l 2 Crushed rock and gravel 2
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Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System
Most ground freezing systems are quite similar in
principal. The single most important component of a
ground freezing system is the subsurface refrigeration ground freezing system is the subsurface refrigeration
system, consisting of a series of refrigeration pipes
installed with various drilling techniques. The coolant
b b ht t t t ll b l f i b can be brought to temperatures well below freezing, by
using either a large portable refrigeration plant or liquid
nitrogen. After the initial freezing and the frozen barrier g g
is in place, the required refrigeration capacity is
significantly reduced to maintain the frozen barrier.
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Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System Conventional System
It consists of a primary refrigerate gas, usually
ammonia, being compressed and conducting its
cold energy on evaporation to a secondary coolant cold energy on evaporation to a secondary coolant,
usually calcium chloride brine which is circulated
through the freeze tube system to cool the strata.
Th f i ti l t ll lf t i d The refrigeration plants are usually self contained.
The conventional system can operate at as low as -
40C and are suitable for the larger projects where g p j
freezing will be carried on for several weeks.
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Ground Freezing
A portable twin 60-ton brine refrigeration unit
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p g
Ground Freezing
Ground Freezing System Cryogenic System
It uses an expendable refrigerant usually liquid nitrogen
that is applied directly to the freeze tubes where it
evaporates at -196C and the resultant gas is exhausted evaporates at -196 C and the resultant gas is exhausted
to atmosphere. It is used in cases where remedial action
is urgent and for small compact projects where time is of
t i t Th f ll f ti paramount importance. The freeze wall formation can
be completed in typically 3-7 days. It may also be used
where water movement or saline condition (e.g., up to ( g p
1000 m below river). A comprehensive monitoring
system is used to ensure a safe operation.
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Ground Freezing
LN
2
tank
Release
in air
R l Release
in ground
Liquid nitrogen freezing system
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q g g y
Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (i)
(a) Strength Soil strength is increased many times and
frequently excavations are rendered stable without any
further temporary support. Frozen soil is similar to a
weak concrete or rock therefore complete stability can
be assured be assured.
(b) Impermeability Impermeability is common to all
f il t th th i t f d t i frozen soil types thus the requirement for dewatering or
pumping is eliminated.
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Ground Freezing
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Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (ii)
(c) Stability Settlement associated with vibration
during piling and removal of fines due to pumping are
eliminated.
(d) Non-pollution Freezing does not pollute the ground (d) Non pollution Freezing does not pollute the ground
water or affect its level in any way.
( ) V tilit F i ti f t il t bili d (e) Versatility Freezing satisfactorily stabilises and
excludes ground water in all types of ground from fine
micro-grain to fissured rock structures.
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Ground Freezing
Metro tunnel in Metro tunnel in
Berlin
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Ground Freezing
Advantages of Ground Freezing (iii)
(f) Safety A safe working environment is provided
eliminating hazards associated with toxic chemicals
compressed air working excessive noise and the
possibility of pumping contaminated groundwater.
(g) Cost effectiveness Ground freezing is a very cost
effective and time saving process. In all too many cases
th li t h l li d thi h h h itt d the client has only realised this when he has committed
to another stabilisation technique that has failed to give
the performance expected.
Technology
Forepoling
If the strenght of the ground is so low that the excavated space is unstable
for a short time a pre-driven support is applied for a short time, a pre-driven support is applied
In this way, the excavation increments occur under the protection of a
previously driven canopy
It can be used when tunnelling with low overburden and wanting to prevent It can be used when tunnelling with low overburden and wanting to prevent
large surface settlements, or when tunnelling through poor ground
N d f li i hi d b ili i f i ti Nowadays, forepoling is achieved by spiling, pipe roof, pre-sawing, grouting
and freezing
Technology
Forepoling
Spiling
- This method consists of drilling
a canopy of steel rods or pipes of a canopy of steel rods or pipes of
80-200 mm diameter into the face
- The typical lenght is 4 m
- The surrounding soil is grouted
throught the steel pipes or sealed
with shotcrete, in order to form a
protective arch over the protective arch over the
excavated space
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Forepoling
Spiling
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Forepoling
Pipe Roof
- Similar to spiling, but with larger
diameter (<200mm) steel or concrete
tubes.
- The tubes are jacked into the soil
above the space to be excavated.
-Sometimes, the tubes are filled with
concrete
-The steel tubes only act as beams
and do not form an arch
-Pipe roofs do not protect the
overburden soil from considerable
settlements
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Forepoling
Pre-sawing
-Also called Perforex-method or
Peripherical slot pre-cutting method
-A peripherical slot is cut using a -A peripherical slot is cut using a
movable chainsaw mouted on a rig
-The individual slots have a depth up
to 5 m and a thickness between 19
and 35 cm
-The slots are filled with shotcrete,
forming a vault that protects the space
to be excavated to be excavated
-The slots are staggered with an
overlapping
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Forepoling
Ground Freezing
-Already commented when dealing
with freezing techniques
Jet Grouting
-Already commented when dealing y g
with jet grouting techniques
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Dewatering
Groundwater in Tunnelling and Dewatering
High groundwater pressure, often associated with
high water flow usually makes excavation difficult.
Dewatering is a technique that takes water away
from the ground by:
S t d d diti f ti Set dry ground condition for excavation
Lower groundwater pressure in the ground
Reduce the quantity of water flow at excavation
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Dewatering
Ground
Pumping
well
Ground
Original groundwater table
Tunnel
Lowered groundwater table
Technology
Dewatering
Ground
Pumping
well
Ground
Tunnel
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Dewatering
Groundwater Flow to Well
When water is pumped out from a well, the
groundwater level nearby in the aquifer is lowered
(drawdown).
The greatest drawdown occurs immediately near the
ll D d i l t f th di t well. Drawdown is less at further distances away
from the well. At some distance away, the
groundwater level remains unchanged. g g
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Dewatering
Groundwater Flow to Well
The lower groundwater table forms a cone of
depression around the well. Cones of depressions
can occur for both unconfined and confined
aquifers.
Th d th d h i t l t i f th f The depth and horizontal extension of the cone of
depression depends on the pumping rate and the
permeability of the aquifer. p y q
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Well Dry well
Former water table
Cone of depression
Lowered water table
Unconfined aquifer
At some distance away
Well
At some distance away,
the groundwater level
will be at the original
level.
Former water pressure table
Lowered water pressure table
Confined aquifer
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Dewatering
Drawdown in Unconfined Aquifer
General equation relating pumping rate (q),
permeability (k), drawdown and distance.
q = [k (h
2
2
-h
1
2
)]/ [ln(r
2
/r
1
)]
q
Fully penetrating well in Fully penetrating well in
an unconfined aquifer
overlying impervious layer,
with observation wells
h
0
h
2 h
1
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r
1
r
2
Dewatering
Drawdown in Unconfined Aquifer
Equation to calculate drawdown from q, k, distance
(r), and radius of pumping well (r
w
).
w
q = [k (h
2
-h
w
2
)]/ [ln(r/r
w
)]
q
r
w
h
w
h
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r
Dewatering
Drawdown in Confined Aquifer
Equation relating pumping rate (q), permeability (k),
drawdown, aquifer thickness (D) and distance.
q
q = [2Dk (h
2
-h
1
)]/ [ln(r
2
/r
1
)]
Fully penetrating well in Fully penetrating well in
a confined aquifer
overlying impervious layer,
with observation wells
h
0
h
2 h
1
D
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r
1
r
2
Dewatering
Drawdown in Confined Aquifer
Equation to calculate drawdown from q, k, thickness
of the confined aquifer (D), distance (r), and radius
of pumping well (r
w
).
q = [2Dk(h-h
w
)]/ [ln(r/r
w
)] q [ (
w
)] [ (
w
)]
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Dewatering
Example Tunnel in Weathered Granite
A tunnel of 4.9 m diameter by EPB TBM
with roller cutters, at depth up to 50 m,
in granite interfacing with residual soil.
High groundwater pressure
(5 bars) and high permeability (5 bars) and high permeability.
Recommendation is to operate
in 3 bars allowing frequent g q
cutter changes.
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Dewatering
Suggestions
Temporarily lowering down groundwater table to
reduce water pressure and water inflow.
Jet grouting in completely weathered granite and
permeation grouting in grades weathered granite.
Adopted Solutions
Temporarily lower down of groundwater table at face Temporarily lower down of groundwater table at face
by dewatering from surface boreholes.
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Dewatering
Ground
Pumping
well
Ground
Tunnel
Groundwater
pressure
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Dewatering
Hydrogeological Consideration
Lowering groundwater pressure in the ground is a
function of:
Permeability of the ground material, more
effective in sandy ground with high permeability.
Well size and depth, govern the area of water
inflow.
Pumping rate and duration, govern total water
pumped out.
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Applicability of dewatering in various grounds
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Applicability of dewatering in various grounds
Dewatering
Geo-environmental Consideration
Lowering of groundwater may have many
environmental implications:
Ground settlement (due to change of effective
stress).
Effects on local hydrogeology setting.
Effects on vegetations.
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Dewatering
Geo-environmental Consideration
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Introduction
1. Ground treatment and improvement during tunnelling 1. Ground treatment and improvement during tunnelling
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Groundwater control and Waterproofing
Porosity of rock
1. Primary porosity
Unjointed rock is porous, but usually it has a much smaller
porosity than soils. Some porosity values are:
-Magmatic and Metamorphic rocks: 2% g p
-Sandstones: 1-5%
-Sediment slates: 5-20%
-Soft limestones: 20-50%
The pores can be conected or unconected. The existence of
conected pores will enable water to flow through the rock mass
2. Secondary porosity
It represents the volume of the open joints, and will provide
large channels for the water to flow through the rock mass
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Permeability of the Rock: Basic concepts
-In rock, the principle of effective stresses also applies
= + p
-In rock, the Darcys law also applies, and therefore, the
permeability of the rock mass can be identified by the so-called
hydraulic conductivity K
v = K . I
-In rock, most of the hydraulic conductivity is due to the secondary
porosity (joints and fractures within the rock mass) the primary porosity (joints and fractures within the rock mass), the primary
porosity playing a minor role
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Permeability of the Rock: Measurements
-In order to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass K,
different methods exist:
-Lugeon tests
-Double Packer tests
-Pumping tests
Technology
Double packer-test
Injection cap
Installation
tubing
Data Acquisition
Borehole cable
T t t bi
Shut-in valve
Annulus
(P3)
Computer
System
Printer
A/D Converter
Test tubing
Borehole valve
Triple probe
Upper
Packer
Packer Pressure
Shut-in packer
p p
Upper packer
Test interval
Test interval
(P2)
Screen
Isolation packer/
Double packer/
single packer
Lower Packer
Lower
Packer
Flowboard
Flow rate
Pressure
regulator
Injection
Technology
Observation
interval
(P1)
Flow rate
measure-
ment
Injection
pump
Pumping Tests
Technology
Lugeon Tests
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Reasons for Groundwater control: Water inflows during construction
-Heading inflows occur when
a water-bearing zone is
penetrated during tunnelling.
Th i k i di t -The risks are immediate
flooding and ground collapse
associated with water
ingress.
-Critical when the tunnel is
headed downhill or in shafts
-The flow rate can be very y
high (up to 1000 l/s), but
usually slows down quickly
as the water stored is
depleted
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depleted
Reasons for Groundwater control: Water inflows during construction
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Reasons for Groundwater control : Karsts encountered
-In some kind of rocks
(limestones, gypsum, etc)
the water can dissolve
i l f th k minerals of the rock.
-If the water does not move,
the dissolution process stops
as soon as the saturation as soon as the saturation
concentration is reached
-If water flows, the
dissolution process dissolution process
continues, leading to the
formation of karsts or cavities
within the rock mass
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Reasons for Groundwater control : Tunnel Durability problems
-According to surveys, the ingress of water is one of the
main factors that compromise functionality and
durability of tunnels
Technology
Reasons for Groundwater control: Other
-Sub Sea Tunnelling (or below lakes and rivers)
-Tunnelling down slope (water collecting at the face)
Tunnelling through settlement sensitive areas (urban tunnelling) -Tunnelling through settlement-sensitive areas (urban tunnelling)
-For environmental protection (depletion of natural spring, destruction of
ecosystems, etc)
-For poor ground stability reasons
-etc
Technology
Injections
-A countermeasure to prevent water inflows when tunnelling is grouting the
water carrying joints using cement mortars with up to 10% sodium silicate or
polyurethan foams polyurethan foams
-A succesful grouting may require the reduction of the water inrush by
pressure relief
I h th t l it i t hi h th b di b bl t -In cases where the water velocity is too high, the bonding can be unable to
take place
-This technique can also be used for filling karstic cavities and fault zones with
high permeability high permeability
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Drainage and Umbrella Solution
-Above the groundwater table, a tunnel has to be protected
against downwards percolating water This is achieved with a against downwards percolating water. This is achieved with a
so-called umbrella solution, by means of a crown + sides
waterproofing and a drainage system that collects the water
at both sides of the tunnel
-Drainage affects the distribution of hydraulic head by attracting
groundwater and relieving the lining from hydrostatic pressure.The
groundwater is then collected and discharged
-Drainage must be achieved in a permanent way and
maintenance must always be possible
Technology
The drainage path
1. Groundwater penetrates the shotcrete shell through fissures and ad
h b d h l hoc bored holes
2. Water reaches the interface drainage systems, placed between
shotcrete and concrete lining/waterproofing lining. Higher water
discharges can be caught with separate pipes embedded in the discharges can be caught with separate pipes embedded in the
shotcrete. Water infiltrated from the crown and the sides of the tunnel
is guided downwards to the longitudinal drainage pipes, at both sides.
3 Transversal slots which guide the groundwater from the side pipes to 3. Transversal slots, which guide the groundwater from the side pipes to
the main collector underneath the carriageway
4. Longitudinal collection of water by means of a granular filter with
perforated pipe
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perforated pipe
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Danger of environmental impacts:
Depletion of Natural Springs and Thermal Water Springs
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Danger of impact on existing infrastructures: Settlements
Technology
Clogging problems in drainage system due to calcareous
concretions
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Waterproofing: Submarine Solution
-When the tunnel is below the groundwater table, groundwater is
pressurized so that an all-embracing waterproofing must be applied
-Water tight concrete: Water pressure <3 bars
-Watertight membranes: Water pressure of 3 to 15 bars
-Grouting: Used in addition, when water pressure is higher than 15 bars
Technology
Water tight concrete
-A properly fabricated cast concrete is watertight if some conditions
are fulfilled (water to ciment ratio, granulometry, thickness of shell,etc)
-Even in the case of a theoretically watertight concrete, the
permeability can increase if fissures appear due to large shrinkage,
hydration heat dissipation, etc
Longitudinal reinforcement reduces the spacing and the width of -Longitudinal reinforcement reduces the spacing and the width of
fissures, but does not avoid them.
-It is important to keep short sections of concreting but also trying to
minimise the number of joints (in practice, compromise at 12-20 m)
-The shotcrete and concrete must be separated with a foil
-The advantage of concrete waterproofing is that leakages are easily
localised
Technology
Water tight membranes
-Geosynthetics applied for waterproofing,
mounted directly on the rough concrete
lining with a geotextile between them to lining, with a geotextile between them to
prevent tearing and dammage of the
geomembranes. They are welded to each
other.
-Polyester should not be used as it can
be destroyed by hydrolysis
-PVC should not be used, as it is toxic
when burnt when burnt
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Grouting
-When very large water pressures and/or very high water
inrush velocity are expected, grouting techniques should be
applied in addition. In this way, the created reinforced and pp y
impermeable vault of rock will withstand the water pressures
(Alpine tunnels)
-Grouting is performed in advance, so that the tunnel stretch is
previously treated before it is excavated
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Introduction
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Temporary and permanent Support Methods
Basic Idea of Support
- Since the deformation of the ground is connected with
the deformation of the lining it follows that the load acting the deformation of the lining, it follows that the load acting
upon the lining depends on its own deformation: We must
consider the interaction between support and rock mass.
- The questions is not which is the pressure acting upon
the lining , but rather which is the relation between g
pressure and deformation
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Temporary and Permanent Support
In sufficiently strong rock (Scandinavia) permanent lining is not In sufficiently strong rock (Scandinavia) permanent lining is not
provided for,as the temporary support is enough for the long-term.
However, usually conventionally driven tunnels obtain a permanent
lining of cast concrete in addition to the temporary lining of shotcrete- lining of cast concrete in addition to the temporary lining of shotcrete-
rockbolts-steel girders, etc
Some prevailing idea is that the loads exerted on the initial lining are
initially reduced due to arching but then slowly increase It is also initially reduced due to arching but then slowly increase. It is also
believed that the primary lining decays with time (shotcrete alteration,
rockbolts rusting, etc), so that an inner lining of cast concrete
becomes necessary.
On some occasions, the final lining accomplishes a functional goal
(aerodynamics, ventilation, ilumination, etc)
In the case of segmental lining, there is usually no inner lining of cast
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g g, y g
concrete: The temporary and final support coincide.
Temporary Support
This kind of support warrants the stability of the This kind of support warrants the stability of the
underground opening through the process of its
excavation
Different methods of temporary support exist:
-Shotcrete
Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete -Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete
-Rock-bolts and dowels
-Steel meshes -Steel meshes
-Timbering
-Steel girders
Technology
Steel girders
Temporary Support Methods
Shotcrete
-Shotcrete is a sprayed concrete with very similar
characteristics as those of conventional concrete characteristics as those of conventional concrete,
but with a lower E and smaller size of aggregates
-It can be used to seal freshly uncovered surfaces,
t f iti t th i f th k support of cavities, strengthening of the rock mass
and creation of a suporting shell.
-Up to the age of 28 days the stiffness and strength g y g
of shotcrete develop approx. As they do with cast
concrete. Afterwards, the strength increases due
to post-hydration.
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Shotcrete: functions
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o
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o
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Shotcrete: application methods
DRY METHOD
o
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DRY METHOD
o
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WET METHOD
o
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WET METHOD - Advantages
-Reduced dust production
-Reduced rebound
-Reduced scatter of concrete properties
-Higher capacity
o
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Comparison of methods
o
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Shotcrete: Influence of angle and distance to rebound
o
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Shotcrete: Conditions for a Good Shotcrete
o
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Manual
-Dry System most of all
-The operator skill is
essential
-The operator can change
the water to ciment ratio:
dangerous
o
Technology
Mechanized Manual operated
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Mechanized Shotcreting Boom
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Mechanized
Shotcreting Boom
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Mechanized TBM robot
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Shotcrete: practical aspects
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Reinforced Shotcrete
-Adding steel fibers increases the tensile strength,
ductility and stiffness of shotcrete
-It also improves the distribution of cracks and the
capacity to handle bending loads
The lenght of the fibers should not exceed 2/3 of -The lenght of the fibers should not exceed 2/3 of
the minimum hose diameter
-Usual sizes are 45-50 mm lenght, 0.8-1.0 mm
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diameter.
-The steel content should be > 30 kg/m3
Water/cement ratio should not exceed 0 5
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-Water/cement ratio should not exceed 0.5
Reinforced Shotcrete: Advantages
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Reinforced Shotcrete: Fibers
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Reinforced Shotcrete: Advantages
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Reinforced Shotcrete: Shotcrete Consumption
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Steel Meshes
St l h b ll -Steel meshes can be manually
mounted and should not be too heavy.
-Normally, they are >100 mm of mesh
i di t <10 d d size, diameter<10 mm and need a
concrete cover > 2 cm
-Mesh installation is labour intensive
and hazardous as the personnel is and hazardous, as the personnel is
exposed to rock falls.
-Nowadays, it tends to be less used in
favour of fiber reinforced shotcrete
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favour of fiber-reinforced shotcrete
-Very good when the ground is very
poor and the adhesion of the shotcrete
to the rock is not good enough
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to the rock is not good enough
Rock Bolts and Dowels
-The main objective is the improvement of the rock properties in terms
of stiffness and strenght
-Difference between Dowels and RockBolts: Difference between Dowels and RockBolts:
-Dowels: They depend upon movement in the rock to activate the
reinforcing action, so they do not strenghten the rock mass from
the moment of their installation. So, in order to be effective, they , , y
must be installed before the rock mass has experienced large
deformations. They normally inhibit the relative slip of two
adjacent rock blocks.
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-Rockbolts: From the very moment of their installation they
strengthen the rock mass. They are always tensioned and
compress the rock mass.
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Rock Bolts and Dowels: Reinforcing Actions
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Rock Bolts and Dowels: Reinforcing Actions
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Rock Bolts and Dowels: Applications
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Rock Bolts: Mechanically Anchored RockBolts
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Rock Bolts: Mechanically Anchored RockBolts
These bolts are anchored by means of a wedge force at the
tip end of the rockbolt
They can be used when the rock is sufficiently strong (UCS >
100 MP ) d h it i t j i t d 100 MPa) and when it is not very jointed
They run the risk of getting loosen with shocks and vibrations
They do not need any grouting. However, for durability y y g g y
reasons, if the bolts are to be used as permanent support
grout should be injected
Tensioning is important to ensure that all of the components
i d h i i f i li d h k
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are in contact and that a positive force is applied to the rock.
When just safety bolts, the tension is not critical, but when
required to carry big loads, they must be tensioned at 70% of
their capacity
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their capacity
Rock Bolts: Resin Anchored RockBolts
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When mechanically anchored bolts are not suitable, resin
anchored bolts might be used. They work in soft rocks,
jointed rocks and when shocks are to happen (blasts)
R i i d f t t t id t i i Resin is made up of two component cartridges containing a
resin and a catalyst in separate compartments. When the
cartridges are broken the mix sets within a few minutes
If th j t f t t f t tti i If they are just for temporary support, a fast setting resin
cartridge at the tip is enough. For permanent support, slow
setting cartridges are set behind for protection
The procedure is: Installation of fast and slow setting resin
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The procedure is: Installation of fast and slow setting resin
cartridges - insertion of steel rod - spinning of rod - fast
setting of end cartridges prestressing slow setting of rear
cartridges and fixation of rockbolt
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cartridges and fixation of rockbolt
Dangers
Process of mixing the resin is quite delicate, the operator
must be experienced p
When set in very broken rock, the resin might seep into
the surrounding rock, leaving voids: Better option the use
of cement grout in this case
In argillaceous rocks the clay might cause slipping of the
resin cartridges during rotation, without correct mixing
There is some uncertainty about the long-term corrosion
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protection of resin with aggressive groundwater. So, for
permanent support measures, it might be better the use of
cement grouts instead of resin
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Dowels: Grout Anchored Dowels
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Dowels: Grout Anchored Dowels
They consist on a corrugated steel bar or cable that is fixed
with grout within the rock mass
The procedure of installation is: A thick grout is pumped into The procedure of installation is: A thick grout is pumped into
the hole by inserting the grout tube to the end and slowly
withdrawing the tube - the dowel is then inserted - a face
plate and nut are fitted onto the end plate and nut are fitted onto the end
They are cheap to install
When flexibility with impact and abrasion resistance is
d d th b b h d b bl
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needed, the bar can be changed by a cable
They can be used as temporary and permanent support, and
the risk of corrosion is minimised
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Dowels: Friction Split-Set stabilisers
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Dowels: Friction Split-Set stabilisers
They consist of a slotted high strength steel tube and a face plate
It is installed by pushing it into a slightly undersized hole and the radial
spring force generated provides the frictional anchorage along the entire
lenght of the hole lenght of the hole
The correct diameter of the hole is of capital importance
Quick and simple to install: Very used in mining
U f l f kb t i t (d til ) Useful for rockburst environment (ductile)
The main problem is corrosion, so they are just suitable for temporary
support
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Dowels: Friction Swellex
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Developed and marketed by Atlas Copco
No pushing force is needed during insertion and the dowel is activated by
injection of high pressure water (30 MPa) which inflates the tube into
intimate contact with the walls of the borehole intimate contact with the walls of the borehole
They are sold in two sizes: Swellex (25.5 mm) and SuperSwellex (36 mm)
They are very ductile, most of all in its version Mn-enriched, and so very
well adapted to rockburst, large convergences and plastic deformations
f They can be set very quickly. They are very suitable for mechanized
installation (rockbolters)
Although they are dowels, they can be slightly prestressed at 20 KN
They present as well as the split-set system the problem of corrosion
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They present, as well as the split-set system, the problem of corrosion,
that might make them not suitable for permanent support. However,
corrosion-resistant versions of Swellex have been created by the
manufacturer.
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Dowels: Self Drilling Anchors SDA
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Dowels: Self Drilling Anchors SDA
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Cables
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Cables
Grouted cables can be used when a
very flexible solution is needed
As the cable pulls out of the grout the As the cable pulls out of the grout, the
cable causes dilation - a confining
pressure friction or shear resistance
They are very used in large excavations
(caverns) and rock slope stabilisation
Special care must be taken with the
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Special care must be taken with the
quality and correct injection of grout
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Fibre-Glass Dowels
They are used mainly for face stabilisation, as they can be
easily broken in the ulterior excavation step
They are made in fibre glass Once put in place they are They are made in fibre-glass. Once put in place, they are
embedded in grout
They are also used for stabilisation of pilot tunnels that are y p
to be widened by TBM
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Fibre-Glass Dowels
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RockBolts and Dowels: Summing up
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RockBolts and Dowels: Application
Semi-Automatic
Drilling with
conventional
boomer rigs
and ulterior
setting of the
kb lt f
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rockbolts from
a platform
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Fully-Automatic
Drilling and
rockbolt
setting is done
automatically
with special
hi
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machines
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Fully-Automatic
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Spot-Bolting
Individual bolts are
placed to stabilise
isolated blocks
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Pattern Bolting
Systematic
installation of a
more or less
regular array of
rockbolts
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RockBolts and Dowels: Quality Control
Checking depth and diameter of holes
Correct cleaning of drillholes Correct cleaning of drillholes
Appropriate grouting
Tensioning tests, non destructive
Destructive pull out tests
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Timbering
-In the early days of tunnelling, timbering eas the only
means for temporary support
-Nowadays it is mainly used for the support of small
and / or irregular cavities
-Wood is easy to handle and indicates imminent
collapse by cracking
H th di ti t t ith th k i
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-However, the discontinuous contact with the rock is
problematic
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Timbering
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Steel Support
-Support arches are composed of segments of rolled
steel profiles or lattice girders
-The arch segments are placed and mounted together
with fixed or compliant joints
-The contact with the adjacent rock is achieved with
wooden wedges or with bagged packing. They can also
be mounted with rockbolts
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-Normally the arches are covered with shotcrete
They can also serve to mount forepoling spiles in
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-They can also serve to mount forepoling spiles in
longitudinal direction
Steel Support
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Steel Support: Some examples
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Support Empirical Recommendations: RMR
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Support Empirical Recommendations: Q
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Permanent Support Methods
Even if some rockbolts can never be taken into account as Even if some rockbolts can never be taken into account as
permanent support (split-set, swellex, anchor-type without grout,
etc), very often their contribution is not taken into account at all,
for security reasons for security reasons
Shotcrete could also be taken, as well as temporary support, as
a contribution to the permanent support. However, because of
durability issues, there is still debate on this issue
That is why when we talk about permanent support measures,
we normally refer to permanent inner concrete linings or the we normally refer to permanent inner concrete linings or the
concrete segments put in place by TBMs
This concrete lining can also be due for functional reasons
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g
(ventilation, lighting, aerodynamics, etc)
Permanent Support Methods: Concrete lining
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Permanent Support Methods: Concrete lining
The usual thickness of a permanent lining is at least 25 cm The usual thickness of a permanent lining is at least 25 cm,
being of 35 cm for reinforced and watertight linings
Blocks of 8 to12 m in lenght are usually separated with extension
j i t joints
Normal concretes type C20/25 are employed, as more resistant
concretes develop higher temperatures and are more prone to
develop fissures
The concrete is poured into rolling formworks and compacted
with vibrators with vibrators
Possibly unfilled parts should be regrouted after concreting,
avoiding a too high pressure that might damage the concrete
lining
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lining
Permanent Support Methods: Reinforced Concrete
Liningg
-Very often the concrete is not reinforced, as the loads
acting on it are not very well known and produce most of all
compression ithin the concrete shell Ho e er steel bars compression within the concrete shell. However, steel bars
will sew construction joints and normally reinforce the
invert, very subjected to high loads
-The loads to be withstand cover those exerted by the rock,
own weight, shrinkage, temperature differences,
aerodynamic pressure etc aerodynamic pressure, etc
-When it is reinforced, the cage is prefabricated in situ
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Introduction
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Instrumentation and Monitoring
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