Men Tse Geba

AMTI (2010/11) WEE-3175 Water Supply and Treatment
Lecture Note Page 1

CHAPTER ONE

WATER QUANTITY REQUIREMENT

Contents Page No.
1.1. Introduction...........................................1
1.2. Rate of Water Demand..................................................1
1.3. Per capita Demand..............................................7
1.4. Design Period.................................................11
1.5. Population Forecasting...........................................12

1.1. Introduction

In the design of any water supply scheme for a town or city it is necessary to determine the
total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city. As a matter of fact the first
duty of the engineer is to determine this quantity of water and then finding out the suitable
water sources from where the demand can be satisfied. But as there are so many factors
involved in demand of water, it is not possible to accurately determine the actual demand.
Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules are employed in determining the water demand,
which is near to the actual demand.
Actually the determination of the quantity of water is dependent upon the size of the
community and the purpose for which it is needed.
Based on this information three items need to be determined for calculating the total quantity of
water required for a town or city, these are:
Rate of water demand (water consumption for various purpose)
Design period
Design population
1.2. Rate of Water Demand
In order to arrive at a reasonable value of rate of demand for any particular town, the demand
of water for various purposes is divided under the following categories.
1.Domestic water demand
2.Commercial water demand
3.Industrial water demand
4.Institutional water demand
5.Fire fighting water demand
6.Unaccounted for water

Lecture Note Page 2

1. Domestic Water Demand
It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, washing hands
and face, flushing toilets, washing cloths, floors, utensils, etc.
In developed countries the domestic water demand may be as high as 350l/cap/day. In many
cases water demands are fixed by governmental agencies. Water demand data provided by
ministry of water resources of Ethiopia are given in tables below.

Table 1 Estimation of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population of
greater than 30,000(urban and rural)

Table 2 Estimate of per capita demand for piped water in l/c/d (1997) for population of less
than 30,000(for urban between 2500 and 30000).
No. Activity House
Connection
Yard
Connection
Public fountains
(Stand pipes)
Rural
Schemes
1 Drinking 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 Cooking 5.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
3 Ablutions 15 10 6 5
4 Washing dishes 5 2 2 2
5 Laundry 15 8 7 3
6 House cleaning
7 Bath and shower 4 1
8 Toilets 20 4

Total 70 30 20 15

No. Activity House
Connection
Yard
Connection
Public fountains
(Stand pipes)
Rural
Schemes
1 Drinking 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
2 Cooking 7.5 5.5 4.5 3.5
3 Ablutions 17 12 7 5
4 Washing dishes 5 4 4 3
5 Laundry 15 8 7 4
6 House cleaning 7 3 2 2
7 Bath and shower 20 4 3
8 Toilets 6 1

Total 80 40 30 20
Lecture Note Page 3

Table 3 Estimate of per capita demand for rural schemes in l/c/d (1997)
No. Activity Minimum Average Maximum
1 Drinking 1.5 1.5 3.5
2 Cooking 2.5 3.5 4.5
3 Ablutions 4 5 5
4 Washing dishes 2 2 4
5 Laundry 3 3
6 House cleaning
7 Bath and shower
8 Toilets

Total 10 15 20

2. Commercial Water Demand
It is the water required for commercial buildings & centers include stores, hotels, shopping
centers cinema houses, restaurants, bar airport, automobile service station, railway and bus
stations, etc (table 4).
3. Institutional Water Demand
This is also known as public demand. It is the water required for public buildings and
institution such as schools, hospitals, public parks, play grounds, gardening, sprinkling on rods,
etc, (table 4).
Table 4 Commercial and institutional demand

Categories Typical rate of water use per day
Day school 5lit/pupil
Boarding school 100lit/pupil
Hospitals 100lit/bed
Church/Mosque 5lit/visitor
Cinema houses 5lit/visitor
Public paths 100lit/visitor
Abattoir 300lit/cow
Hotels 100lit/bed
Restaurant-bar 15lit/seat
Offices 5lit/person
Bus terminals 10lit/visitor
Prison 30lit/person
Lecture Note Page 4

4. Industrial Water Demand
The water requirements for this purpose defend up on the type and size of the industry (table 5)

Table 5 Typical values of water use for various industries
Industry Range of flow (*Gal/ ton Product)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cannery
Green beans 12000-17000
Peaches & pears 3600-4800
Other fruits & vegetables 960-8400
Chemical
Ammonia 24000-72000
Carbon dioxide 14400-21600
Lactose 144000-192000
Sulfur 1920-2400
Food and beverage
Beer 2400-3840
Bread 480-960
Meat packing 3600-4800
Milk products 2400-4800
Whisky 14400-19200
Pulp and paper
Pulp 60000-190000
Paper 29000-38000
Textile
Bleaching 48000-72000
Dyeing 7200-14400
1gal. = 3.7854 lit
5. Fire fighting water demand (Fire demand)
Fires generally break in thickly populated localities and in industrial area and cause serious
damages of properties and some time life of people are lost. Fire may take place sue to faulty
electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions, bad iterations of criminal
people or any other unforeseen happenings. If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished
in minimum possible time, they lead to serious damages and may burn the cities.
Lecture Note Page 5

In cities fire hydrants should be provided on the mains at a distance of 100 to 150m apart. Fire
brigade men immediately connect these fire hydrants with their engines & start throwing water
at very high rate on the fire.
Fire demand is treated as a function of population and some of the empirical formulae
commonly used for calculating demand as follows:

a) John R.Freeman s formula:
Q = 1136.50*( 10
5
+
P
)
Where Q = Quantity of water required in 1/min.
P = population in thousands
He also states that
F = 2.8* P
Where F = period of occurrence of fire in years.
b) Knucklings formula
Q = 3182* P
c) National Boarded of Fire Underwriters formula (widely used in USA)
Q = 4637* P *(1 - 0.01* P )
Example 1
Calculate the fire demand for a population of 100,000 by using formulae of Freeman,
Knuckling and National Board of Fire Underwriters.

Name of Formula Formula Fire Demand in l/min
Freeman
Q = 1136.50 ( ) 10
5
+
P

34,095
F = 2.8 = 100 28 year
Knuckling
Q = 3182* P
31,820
National Board of Fire
Underwriter
Q =
4637* ) 01 . 0 1 ( * P P
41,733

Although the actual amount of water in a year for firefighting is smaller than the rate of use, the
Insurance Service Office (USA) uses the formula
Lecture Note Page 6

Q = 18*C*(A)
0.5

Where Q = the required fire flow in gpm (lit/min/3.78)
C = a coefficient related to the type of construction which ranges from a max of 1.5 for
wood frame to a minimum of 0.60 for fire resistive construction.
A = total floor area ft
2
(m
2
x10.76) excluding the basement of the building
The fire flow calculated from the formula is not to exceed 30,240 lit/min in general, nor
22,680 lit/min for one story construction .The minim fire flow is not to be less than 1890
lit/min. Additional flow may be required to protect nearby buildings. The total for all
purposes for a single fire is not to exceed 45,360 lit/min nor be less than 1990 lit/min.
For groups of single and two-family residences, the following table may be used to determine
the required flow.
The fire flow must be maintained for a minimum of 4 hours as shown in table 7. Most
communities will require duration of 10 hours.
Table 6: Residential fire flows
Distance b/n adjacent units in m Required fire flow in lit/min
> 30.5
9.5 - 30.5
3.4 - 9.2
< = 3.0
1890
2835 - 3780
3780 - 5670
5670 7560*

* For continuous construction use 9450 lit/min
Table 7: Fire flow duration
Required fire flow in l/min Duration in hrs
< 3780 4
3780 4725 5
4725 5670 6
5670 6615 7
6615 7560 8
7560 8505 9
>8505 10

Example 2
In order to determine the max water demand during a fire, the fire flow must be added to the
maximum daily consumption. It is assumed that a community with a population of 22,000 has
an average consumption of 600 lit/capita/day and flow directed by a building of ordinary
Lecture Note Page 7

construction(C = 1) with a floor area of 1000m
2
and a height of 6 stories, the calculation is as
follows:

Average domestic demand = 22,000*600 = 18.2*10
6
lit/day
Maximum daily demand = 1.8*13.2*10
6
= 23.76*10
6
lit/day
F = 18(1) (1000*10.76*6)
0.5
= 17,288 lit/min = 24.89*10
6
lit/day
Maximum rate = 23.76*10
6
+ 24.89*10
6

= 48.65*10
6
lit/day
= 2,211 lit/capita/day for 10 hours
The total flow required during this day would be
= 23.76 + 24.89*10/24
= 34.13*10
6
liters = 1,551 lit/capita/day
The difference between the maximum domestic rate and the above values is frequently
provided from elevated storage tanks.

6) Unaccounted for Water

These include the quantity of water due to wastage, losses, thefts, etc, i.e.
Waste in the pipelines due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty
valves and fittings
Water that is lost when consumers keep open their taps or public taps even when they
are not using water and allow continuous wastage of water.
Water that is lost due to unauthorized and illegal connection
While estimating the total water demand of water for a town or city, allowance for these losses
and wastage should be done. Generally, 15 40% of the total quantity of water is made to
compensate for lose, thefts and wastage of water.

1.3 Per capita Demand

If Q is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year and P is
the population of town, then per capita demand will be
day
litres
P
Q
demand capita Per
365 *
=
For the purposes of estimation of total requirement the water demand is expressed in
liters/capita/day i.e. per capita demand.
The following are the main factors affecting per capita demand of the town:
(i) Climatic condition: The requirement of water in summer is more than that in
winter. The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold
Lecture Note Page 8

countries because of the use of air coolers, more washing of clothes and bathing
etc.
(ii) Size of the community: Water demand is more with increase of size of town
because more water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance
of parks and gardens.
(iii) Standard of living: The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard
of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers,
maintenance of lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
(iv) Industries and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain
industries is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will
enormously increase per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the
water required by the industries has no direct link with the population of the town.
(v) Quality of water: If the quality of water is good, the people will consume more
water. On the other hand, if the water has unpleasant taste or odor, the rate of
consumption will down.
(vi) System of sanitation: If a town is provided with water carriage system of
sanitation, the per capita demand increases because the people will use more
quantity of water for flushing sanitary fixtures.
(vii) Cost of water: The higher the cost, the lower will be the per capita demand and
vice versa.
(viii) Use of water meters: If metering is introduced for the purpose of charging, the
consumer will be cautious in using water and there will be less wastage of water.
So per capita demand may lower down.
(ix) System of supply: The supply of water may be continuous or intermittent. In the
former case, water is supplied for 24 hour and in the latter case water is supplied
for certain duration of day only.
It is claimed that intermittent supply system will reduce per capita demand. But sometimes, the
results are proved to be disappointing, mainly for the following reasons:
During non-supply period, the water taps are kept open and hence, when the supply
starts, water flowing through open taps is unattended and this results in waste of water.
There is tendency of many people to through away water stored previously during non-
supply hours to collect fresh water. This also results in waste of water and increase per
capita demand.

Lecture Note Page 9

Variation in rate of consumption

The per capita daily water consumption (demand) figures discussed above have been based
upon annual and it indicates the average consumption. The annual average daily consumption,
while useful, does not tell the full story.
In practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year.
Climatic conditions, the working day, etc tends to cause wide variations in water use. The
variation may be categorized into two broad classes:

i. Seasonal fluctuation
ii. Daily and hourly fluctuation.

Through the week, Monday will usually have the highest consumption, and Sunday the lowest.
Some months will have an average daily consumption higher than the annual average. In most
cites the peak month will be July or august. Especially hot, dry weathers will produce a week of
maximum consumption, and certain days will place still greater demand upon the water system.
Peak demands also occur during the day, the hours of occurrence depending upon the
characteristics of the city. There will usually be a peak in the morning as the days activities
start and a minimum about 4am. A curve showing hourly variation in consumption for a limited
area of city may show a characteristic shape. But there will be a fairly high consumption
through the working day. The night flow, excluding industries using much water at night, is a
good indication of the magnitude of the loss and waste.

Fig 1 Variation in rate of water consumption throughout the day

Lecture Note Page 10

Fig 2 Seasonal variation of water demand

The important of keeping complete records of water consumption of city for each day and
fluctuations of demand throughout the day cannot be overemphasized. So far as possible the
information should be obtained for specific areas. These are the basic data required for
planning of water works improvement. If obtained and analyzed, they will also indicate trends
in per capita consumptions and hourly demands for which further provision must be made.
In the absence of data it is some times necessary to estimate the maximum water consumption
during a month, weekday, or hours. The maximum daily consumption is likely to be 180 % of
the annual average and may rich 200 %. The formula suggested by R.O Goodrich is convenient
for estimating consumption and is:

p = 180t
- 0.10

Where p = the percentage of the annual average consumption for the time t in days from 2/24 to
360.
The formula gives consumption for the maximum day as 180 percent of the average, the
weekly consumption 148 percent, and the monthly as 128 percent. These figures apply
particularly to smaller residential cites. Other cites will generally have smaller peaks.
The maximum hourly consumption is likely to be about 150 percent of the average for that day.
Therefore, the maximum hourly consumption for a city having an annual average consumption
of 670 lit/day per capita would occur on the maximum day and would be 670*1.8*1.5 or 1809
lit/day.
The fire demand must also be added, according to the method indicated in the above articles.

Peaks of water consumption in certain areas will affect design of the distribution system. High
peaks of hourly consumption can be expected in residential or predominantly residential
sections because of heavy use of water for lawn watering especially where under ground
system are used, air condition or in other water using appliance. Since use of such appliances is
increasing peak hourly consumptions are also increasing.
The determination of this hourly variation is most necessary because on its basis the rate of
pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand in all hours.

1.3. Design Period

Before designing and construction a water supply scheme, it is the engineers duty to assure
that the water works should have sufficient capacity to meet the future water demand of the
town for number of years. The number of years for which the designs of the water works have
been done is known as the design period.
The period should neither should neither be to short or too long. Mostly water works are
designed for design period of 22 - 30 years which is fairly good period. In some specific
components of the project, the design period may be modified. Different segments of the water
treatment and distribution systems may be approximately designed for differing periods of time
using differing capacity criteria, so that expenditure far ahead of utility is avoided. Table 7
gives the design periods for various units of water supply system:
Table 7 Design periods for various units of water supply system
S. No. Name of Unit Design period in years
1
2
3
4
5

6
Storage (dam)
Electric motors & pumps
Water treatment units
Distribution (pipe line)
Pipe connection to several treatment
plants and other appurtenants
raw water and clear water conveyance pipes
50
15
15
30
30

30

In general the following points should be kept in mind while fixing the design period for any
water supply scheme.
Funds available for the completion of the project (the higher the availability of the fund
the higher will be the design period.)
Life of the pipe and other structural materials used in the water supply scheme. (Design
period in no case should have more life than the components and materials used in the

scheme. At least the design period should be nearly equal to the materials used in water
supply works.)
Rate of interest on the loans taken to complete the project.(if the interest rate is less, it
will be good to keep design period more otherwise the design period should be small)
Anticipated expansion rate of the town.

1.4. Population Forecasting

The data about the present population of a city under question can always be obtained from the
records of municipality or civic body. The knowledge of population forecasting is important for
design of any water supply scheme.
When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the population of a town or city
population of a town depends upon the factors like births, deaths, migration and annexation.
The future development of the town mostly depends upon trade expansion, development
industries, and surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of railway stations etc
may produce sharp rises, slow growth and stationary conditions or even decrease the
population.
The following are the common methods by which the forecasting of population is done.
1. Arithmetic increases method
2. Geometric increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decrease rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Master plan curve method
7. Logistic curve method
8. Ration & correlation
1. Arithmetic increase method
This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a constant rate i.e.
the rate of change of population with time is constant.
k
dt
dp
=
P
n

dp/dt

Po

0 n

=
n
o
p
p
dt K dp
n
o

P
n
= P
o
+ nK

Where; Pn
= population at n decades or years
P
o
= present/initial population at the base year
n = decade or year
K= arithmetic increase
This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.
Example 3: The following data has been noted from the statistics authority for certain town.

Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2006.

2. Geometric increase method
This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population remains
constant.

P
1
= P
o
+ K P
o
= P
o
(1 + K)
P
2
= P
1
(1 + K) = P
o
(1 + K)(1 + K)
P
3
= P
2
(1 + K) = P
o
(1 + K) (1 + K) (1 + K)
P
n
= Po (1+K)
n

Where P
o
= initial population
P
n
n = decade or year
K = percentage (geometric) increase
This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast scope of expansion.
Example 4: Forecast the population of example 3 by means of geometric increase method.

Year 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 8000 12000 17000 22500
Po
Pn
Year (decade)

n
0

3. Incremental increase method

This method is improvement over the above two methods. From the census data for the past
several decades, the actual increase in each decade is first found. Then the increment in
increase for each decade is found. From these, an average increment of the increase is
calculated. The population in the next decade is found by adding to the present population the
average increase plus the average incremental increase per decade. Thus, the future population
at the end of n decade/year is given by:
r
n n
nI P P
n
2
) 1 ( +
+ + =
Where P = present population
I = average increase per decade/year
r = average incremental increase
n = number of decades/years
Example 5: Forecast the population of example 3 above using incremental increase method

4. Decrease growth rate method
In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and is subtracted
from the latest percentage increase for successive period. This method is applicable only in
such cases, where the rate of growth of population shown a downward trend. It assumed that
the city has some limiting saturation population and its rate of growth is a function of its
population deficit:

) ( ' ' P P K
dt
dP
s
= P
s

K may be determined from the successive census

0
ln
1
' '
P P
P P
n
K
s
s
= P
0

Where P and P
0
are populations recorded n years apart.
Future population can then be estimated using Year
) 1 )( (
' '
0 0
t K
s
e P P P P

+ =


5. Logistic curve method
When the population of a town is with plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under
normal condition shall be S shaped logistic curve.

P
s

Arithmetic
Geometric
P
0
Decreasing rate

According to P.F. Verhulst, the logistic curve can be represented by the equation

) ( log 1
1
nt e m
P
P
s
+
=
Where Ps = Saturation population
P
0
= Population at starting point
P = Population at any time t from the starting point

0
0
P
P P
m
s

=

s
KP n =
Taking three points from the range of census population data at equal time intervals (t
1,
P
1
), (t
2,
P
2
) and (t
3,
P
3
)
Where t
2
= t
1
+t
t
3
= t
2
+t

2
2 3 1
2 1
2
2 3 2 1
) ( 2
P P P
P P P P P P
P
s
+
=
Example 6: The following data have noted form the statics Authority.
P
1980
= 40, 000
P
1990
= 100, 000
P
1990 =
130,000
Determine the saturation population and the problem population in the year 2010.
Ans. P
2010
= 136,291


6. Graphical extension method
In this method the population of last few years is correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the
graph with respect to years. Then, the curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
population.

Example 7: Solve example 3 above by using graphical extension method
Ans. P
1980
= 29, 400, P
1990
= 36, 000, P
2000
= 41, 600

7. Master plan method
In the method, the master plan of the city or town is used to determine the future expected
population. The population densities for various zones (residential, commercial, industrial and
other zones) of the town are fixed and hence the future population of the city when fully
developed can easily be worked out.
8. Ration and correlation method
In this method, the rate of population growth of a town is related to the rate of population
growth of state or nation. Hence it is possible to estimate the population of a town under
consideration by considering the rate of population growth of state or nation.

Example 8: Country, P
1980
= 1, 000,000 P
2004
= 1,5000,000
Town, P
1980
= 10,000 P
2004
= 15,000


9. Method used by Ethiopians statistic Authority (geometric increase method)

kn
o n
e p p * =
Where, P
n
P
o
= initial population
n = decade or year
k = growth rate in percentage
Example 9:
According to CA the population of certain town is 15,640 in the year 1994. Determine the
probable population in the year 2010 for k = 3%.
Ans. 25,257


2. WATER SOURCES

Contents pages
2.1. Sources of Water Supply ..18
2.1.1 Surfaces Sources...........18
2.1.2 Subsurface Sources..19
2.2 Intakes for Collecting Surface Water....24
2.2.1 Types of Intake structures....24
2.3 Water Sources Selection Criteria.....27

1. 2.1 Sources of Water Supply
The origin of all water is rainfall. Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it reaches the
ground; or as surface water when it flows over the ground; or is pooled in lakes or ponds; or as
ground water when it percolates in to the ground and flows or collects as groundwater; from the
sea/ocean in to which it finally flows.
All the sources of water can be broadly divided into:
1. Surfaces sources and
2. Sub surface sources

2.1.1 Surfaces Sources

The surface sources further divided into
i. Streams and rivers
ii. Ponds and Lakes
iii. Impounding reservoirs etc.

i. Streams and Rivers

Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the quality of
river water is better than monsoon because in rainy season the run-off water also carries with
clay, sand, silt etc which make the water turbid. So, river and stream water require special
treatments. Some rivers are perennial and have water throughout the year and therefore they
dont require any arrangements to hold the water. But some rivers dry up wholly or partially in
summer. So they require special arrangements to meet the water demand during hot weather.
Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers discharge their used water of sewage in the
rivers; therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the river.


ii. Natural Ponds and Lakes

In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious bed by springs and
streams are known as lakes. The quantity of water in the natural ponds and lakes depends
upon the basins capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc. Lakes and
ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without any
treatment. But ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, and railways contains large
amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply purposes.

iii. Impounding Reservoirs

In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of hot weather.
In such cases, the water can be stored by constructing weir or a dam across the river at such
places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and maximum quantity of water
to be stored. In lakes and reservoirs, suspended impurities settle down in the bottom, but in
their beds algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes place which produce bad smell,
taste and color in water. Therefore, this water should be used after purification. When water is
stored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated and chlorinated to kill the microscopic
organisms which are born in water.

2.1.2 Subsurface Sources

These are further divided into
(i) Infiltration galleries
(ii) Infiltration wells
(iii)Springs
(iv) Well

i. Infiltration Galleries

A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water bearing strata for
tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called Infiltration galleries. The
yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 10
4
lit/day/meter length of infiltration gallery.
For maximum yield the galleries may be placed at full depth of the aquifer. Infiltration galleries
may be constructed with masonry or concrete with weep holes of 5cm x 10cm.

Fig 2.2 Infiltration Gallery
ii. Infiltration Wells

In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the blanks
of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick masonry
with open joints as shown in fig. 2.3

Fig 2.3 Infiltration Well Fig 2.4 Jack Well

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The water
filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified
to some extent. The infiltration wells in turn are connected by porous pipes to collecting sump
called jack well and there water is pumped to purification plant for treatment (fig 2.4).

iii. Springs
Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. Springs
generally supply small quantity of water and hence suitable for the hill towns. Some springs

discharge hot water due to presence of sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin
disease patients.
Types of springs:
1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing stratum is
exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in fig.2.5

Fig 2.5 Gravity spring
2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting the
ground water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.2.6

Fig 2.6 Surface spring

3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper impervious
stratum as shown in fig.2.7

Fig 2.7 Artesian Spring
When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between two
imperious stratums, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring.

Fig 2.8 Artesian Spring
iv. Wells

A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping
water.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earths surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers
The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells

1. Shallow Wells

Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earths surface. The diameter of
well varies from 2 to 6m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may be lined or unlined

from inside. Fig. 2.9 shows a shallow well with lining (staining). These wells are also called
draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or drag wells or percolation wells.

Fig 2.9 Shallow well
Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is uppermost
layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are not suitable for
public water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than
the river water but requires purification. The shallow wells should be constructed away from
septic tanks, soak pits etc because of the contamination of effluent.
The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages, undeveloped
municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and bad quality of water.

2. Deep Wells

The deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer as
shown in fig 2.10. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop to
the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the atmosphere. The
rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it reaches to the site of deep
well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore become hard.
In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.

Fig 2.10 Deep Well


The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not very
near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore
deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.

2.2 Intakes for Collecting Surface Water

The main function of the intakes works is to collect water from the surface source and then
discharge water so collected, by means of pumps or directly to the treatment water.
Intakes are structures which essentially consist of opening, grating or strainer through which
the raw water from river, canal or reservoir enters and carried to the sump well by means of
conducts water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to the treatment plant.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake works.
1. Where the best quality of water available so that water is purified economically in less
time.
2. At site there should not be heavy current of water, which may damage the intake
structure.
3. The intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the worst condition, when the
discharge of the source is minimum.
4. The site of the work should be easily approachable without any obstruction
5. The site should not be located in navigation channels
6. As per as possible the intake should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance cost is
reduced from source to the water works
7. As per as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the point of sewage
disposal for avoiding the pollution of water.
8. At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the water-
works.
2.2.1 Types of Intake structures

Depending upon the source of water the intake works are classified as following
1. Lake Intake
2. Reservoir Intake
3. River Intake
4. Canal Intake

1. Lake Intake

For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are
constructed in the bed of the lake below the water level; so as to draw water in dry season also.
These intakes have so many advantages such as no obstruction to the navigation, no danger
from the floating bodies and no trouble due to ice. As these intakes draw small quantity of

water, these are not used in big water supply schemes or on rivers or reservoirs. The main
reason is that they are not easily approachable for maintenance.

Fig 2.11 Lake intake

2. River Intake

Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side, because it is free from the
contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it. It is circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 m in
diameter constructed along the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity of
water can be obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower portion of the intake
known as sump well from penstocks.

Fig. 2.12 River intake


3. Reservoir Intake

Fig 2.13 shows the details of reservoir intake. It consists of an intake well, which is placed near
the dam and connected to the top of dam by Foot Bridge.

Fig. 2.13 Reservoir intake

The intake pipes are located at different levels with common vertical pipe. The valves of intake
pipes are operated from the top and they are installed in a valve room. Each intake pipe is
provided with bell mouth entry with perforations of fine screen on its surface. The outlet pipe is
taken out through the body of dam. The outlet pipe should be suitably supported. The location
of intake pipes at different levels ensures supply of water from a level lower than the surface
level of water. When the valve of an intake pipe is opened the water is drawn off from the
reservoir to the outlet pipe through the common vertical pipe. To reach up to the bottom of
intake from the floor of valve room, the steps should be provided in zigzag manner.

4. Canal Intake

Fig 2.14 shows the details of canal intake. An intake chamber is constructed in the canal
section. This results in the reduction of water way which increases the velocity of flow. It
therefore becomes necessary to provide pitching on the downstream and upstream portion of
canal intake.


Fig. 2.14 Canal intake

The entry of water in the intake chamber takes through coarse screen and the top of outlet pipe
is provided with fine screen. The inlet to outlet pipe is of bell-mouth shape with perforations of
the fine screen on its surface. The outlet valve is operated from the top and it controls the entry
of water into the outlet pipe from where it is taken to the treatment plant.
2. 2.3 Water Sources Selection Criteria
The choice of water supply to a town or city depends on the following:

1. Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as possible.
2. Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet up
all the water demand through out the design period.
3. Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can be easily and cheaply
treated.
4. Cost: The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be minimum.

The selection of the source of supply is done on the above points and the source, which will
give good quality, and quantity at least cost will be selected. This economic policy may lead to
the selection of both surface and ground water sources to very big cities.
For example, the source of the Arba Minch Town water supply is springs.
Surface water sources can be developed for drinking water but special care must be taken to
ensure the quality of the water.
The choice of a method depends on many factors including the source and resources available
and community preferences.
Table 2.1 compares the various methods of developing surface water discussed in this technical
note.

Table 2.1 Summary of methods of developing sources of surface water
Method Quality Quantity Accessibility Reliability Cost
Springs and
Seeps
Good quality; disinfection
recommended after
installation of spring
protection.
Good with little variation
for artesian flow springs;
variable with seasonal
fluctuations likely for
gravity flow springs.
Storage necessary for
community water
supply; gravity flow
delivery for easy
community access.
Good for artesian flow and
gravity overflow; fair for
gravity depression; little
maintenance needed after
installation.
Fairly low cost;
with piped system
costs will rise.
Ponds and
Lakes
Fair to good in large
ponds and lakes; poor to
fair in smaller water
bodies; treatment
generally necessary.
Good available quantity;
decrease during dry
season.
Very accessible using
intakes; pumping
required for delivery
system; storage
required.
Fair to good; need for a
good program of operation
and maintenance for
pumping and treatment
systems.
Moderate to high
because of need to
pump and treat
water.
Streams
and Rivers
Good for mountain
streams; poor for streams
in lowland regions;
treatment necessary.
Moderate: seasonal
variation likely; some
rivers and streams will
dry up in dry season.
Generally good; need
intake for both gravity
flow and piped delivery.
Maintenance required for
both type systems; much
higher for pumped system;
riverside well is a good
reliable source.
Moderate to high
depending on
method; treatment
and pumping
expensive.
Rain
Catchment
Fair to poor; disinfection
necessary
Moderate and variable;
supplies unavailable
during dry season; storage
necessary.
Good; cisterns located in
yards of users; fair for
ground catchments.
Must be rain; some
maintenance required.
Low-moderate for
roof catchments;
high for ground
catchments.


3. WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION
Contents pages
3.1 Water Quality Characteristics. .......29
3.1.1 Physical Characteristics29
3.1.2 Chemical Characteristics...31
3.1.3 Biological Characteristics.....37
3.2 Examination of Water......38
3.3 Water Quality Standards........ 39
3.4 Sources of Water Pollution. ....................................................... 41

Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of impurities in varying
amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure also absorbs various gases, dust and other
impurities while falling. This water when moves on the ground further carries salt, organic and
inorganic impurities. So this water before supplying to the public should be treated and purified
for the safety of public health, economy and protection of various industrial processes, it is
most essential for the water work engineer to thoroughly check, analyze and do the treatment of
the raw water obtained the sources, before its distribution. The water supplied to the public
should be strictly according to the standards laid down from time to time.

3.1 Water Quality Characteristics
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories.

3.1.1 Physical Characteristics

Physical characteristics include:
Turbidity
Color
Taste and odor
Temperature, and
Foam.

1. Turbidity

Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal solids. The suspended solids
may be dead algae or other organisms. It is generally silt, clay rock fragments and metal oxides
from soil.

The amount and character of turbidity will depend upon:
The type of soil over which the water has run and
The velocity of the water
When the water becomes quite, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle quickly, while
the lighter and more finely divided ones settle very slowly. Very finely divided clay may
require months of complete quiescence for settlement. Ground waters are normally clear
because, slow movement through the soil has filtered out the turbidity. Lake waters are clearer
than stream waters, and streams in dry weather are clearer than streams in flood because of the
smaller velocity and because dry-weather flow is mainly ground water seepage. Low inorganic
turbidity (silt and clay) may result in a relatively high organic turbidity (color). The explanation
of this is that low inorganic turbidity permits sunlight to penetrate freely into the water and
stimulates a heavier growth of algae, and further, that organics tend to be absorbed upon soil
fractions suspended in water.
Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Turbidity is
expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or Milligrams
per liter (mg/l).
Turbidity is measured by:
1) Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbidimeter 3) Balis Turbidimeter

The sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and a unit of turbidity
is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display.
Drinking water should not have turbidity more than 10 NTU. This test is useful in determining
the detention time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants required to remove
turbidity. Sedimentation with or without chemical coagulation and filtration are used remove it.

2. Color
Color is caused by materials in solution or colloidal conditions and should be distinguished
from turbidity, which may cause an apparent (not true) color.
True color is caused by dyes derived from decomposing vegetation. Colored water is not only
undesirable because of consumer objections to its appearance but also it may discolor clothing
and adversely affect industrial processes.
Before testing the color of water, total suspended solids should be removed by centrifugal force
in a special apparatus. The color produced by one milligram of platinum in a liter of water has
been fixed as the unit of color. The permissible color for domestic water is 20ppm on platinum
cobalt scale.

3. Temperature
Temperature increase may affect the portability of water, and temperature above 15
0
c is
objectionable to drinking water. The temperature of surface waters governs to a large extent the

biological species present and thereof activity. Temperature has an effect on most chemical
reactions that occur in natural water systems. It also has pronounced effect on the solubility of
gases in water.

4. Foam
Foam form various industrial waste contributions and detergents is primarily objectionable
from the aesthetic standpoint.

5. Tastes and Odor

The terms taste and odor are themselves definitive of this parameter. Because the sensations of
taste and smell are closely related and often confused, a wide variety of tastes and odors may be
attributed to water by consumers. Substances that produce an odor in water will almost in
variably impart a taste as well. The converse is not true, as there are many mineral substances
that produce taste but no odor.
Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use may
import perceptible taste and odor. These include minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, and
products from biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances are
more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odor. Alkaline material imports a bitter taste to
water, while metallic salts may give salty or bitter taste.

Organic material, on the otter hand, is likely to produce both taste and odor. a multitude of
organic chemicals may cause taste & odor problems in water with petroleum-based products
being prime offenders. Biological decomposition of organics may also result in taste-and odor-
producing liquids and gases in water. Principal among these are the reduced products of sulfur
that impart a rotten egg taste and odor. Also certain species of algae secrete an oily substance
that may result in both taste and odor.

Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because water is
thought of as tasteless and odorless, the consumer associates taste and odor with contamination
and may prefer to use a tasteless, odorless water that might actually pose more of a health
threat.

3.1.2 Chemical Characteristics

1. Total Solids

Total solids include the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The quantity of
suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter, drying and
weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating the
filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids
in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the filtered water obtained from

the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids in a water sample can be
directly determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residue of the residue of total
solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic solids will decompose where as only inorganic
solids will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic solids and deducting it from
the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
2. Alkalinity
It is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
Alkalinity is thus the measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids. By far the most
constituents of alkalinity in natural waters are carbonate (CO
3
2-
), bicarbonate (HCO
3
-
) and
hydroxide (OH
-
). These compounds result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil
atmosphere.
Effects:
i) Non pleasant taste
ii) Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation in
pipe.

3. pH
pH is a measure of the concentration of free hydrogen ion in water. It expresses the moral
concentration of the hydrogen ion as its negative logarithm. Water and other chemicals in
solution therein, will ionize to a greater or lesser degree. Pure water is only weakly ionized.
The ionization reaction of water may be written:
HOH H
+
+OH
-
The reaction has an equilibrium defined by the equation:
[H][OH]/ [HOH] = K
w
In which HOH, H, OH is the chemical activities of the water hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
respectively. Since water is solvent, its activity is defined as being unity. In dilute solution,
molar concentrations are frequently substituted for activities yielding
[H][OH) = K
w (
10
-14
at 20
o
C)
Taking negative logs of both sides, Log [H] + Log [OH] = -14
- Log [H] - Log [OH] = 14
Defining Log = p; pH + pOH = 14
In neutral solutions at equilibrium (OH) = (H), hence pH = pOH = 7.
Mathematically it is expressed as; pH = -log [H
+
] = 7
] [
1
log =
+
H

Increasing acidity leads to higher values of (H), thus to lower values of pH. Low pH is
associated with high acidity, high pH with caustic alkalinity.
pH is important in the control of a number of water treatment and waste treatment processes
and in control of corrosion. It may be readily measured potentially by use of a pH meter.

4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen is present in variable quantities in water. Its content in surface waters is
dependent upon the amount and character of the unstable organic matter in the water. Clean
surface waters are normally saturated with DO.
The amount of oxygen that water can hold is small and affected by the temperature. The higher
the temperature, the smaller will be the DO. Gases are less soluble in warmer water.

Temperature (
0
C) 0 10 20 30
DO (mg/1) 14.6 11.3 9.1 7.6

Oxygen saturated waters have pleasant taste and waters lacking in DO have an insipid tastes.
Drinking water is thus aerated if necessary to ensure maximum DO. The presence of oxygen in
the water in dissolved form keeps it fresh and sparkling. But more quantity of oxygen causes
corrosion to the pipes material.
Observing a heated pot of water, one can observe that bubbles form on the walls of the pot
prior to reaching the boiling point. These cannot be filled with only water vapor because liquid
water will not begin to vaporize until it has reached its boiling point. One can surmise that this
gas is oxygen, or at least a mixture of gases from the air, because bubbles of this sort form in
water from virtually every source: what other gas mixture besides air is in constant contact with
water? When these bubbles form, they eventually grow to a sufficient size to leave the surface
of the pot and escape to the air: the dissolved gas in the liquid has decreased. This seems to
support the hypothesis that dissolved oxygen will decrease when temperature is increased.

5. Oxygen Demand

Organic compounds are generally unstable be oxidized biologically or chemically to stable,
relatively inner end produce such as CO
2
, H
2
O & NO
3
. Indicators used for estimation of the
oxygen demanding substance in water are Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC).
An indication of the organic content of water can be by measuring the amount of oxygen
required for stabilization.
BOD is the quality of oxygen required for the biochemical oxidation of the decomposable
matter at specified temperature within specified time. (20
o
C and 5 day)
It depends on temperature and time t.

6. Nitrogen

The forms most important to water quality engineering include;
a) Organic nitrogen: in the form of proton, amino acids and urea.

b) Ammonia nitrogen: nitrogen as ammonium salts. E.g. (NH
4
). CO
3

c) Nitrate- nitrogen: an intimidate oxidation stage. Not normally present in large quantity.
d) Nitrate- nitrogen: final oxidation product of nitrogen.
e) Gaseous nitrogen (N
2
)
The presence of nitrogen compounds in surface waters usually indicate pollution excessive
amount of ammonia and organic nitrogen may result form recent sewage discharges or runoff
contamination by relatively fresh pollution. Therefore, water containing high org-N &
ammonia N levels are considered to be potentially dangerous. While waters in which most of
nitrogen is in nitrate from are considered to somewhat stabilized to constitute prior pollution.

7. Hardness

Hardness is caused by the sum of the alkali earth elements present in water although the major
constituents are usually calcium and magnesium. These materials in water react with soap,
causing precipitation which as scum or curd on the water surface. Until enough soap has been
dissolved to react with all these material s, no lather can be formed. Water that behaves like this
is said to be hard . The hardness compounds are temporary and permanent:

1. Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca (HCO
3
)
2
)
Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg (HCO
3
)
2
)
2. Permanent hardness (non- carbonate hardness)
Calcium sulfate (CaSO
4
)
Magnesium chloride (MgSO
4
)
Calcium chloride (CaCl
2
)
Magnesium chloride (Mg Cl
2
)
The most usual compounds causing alkalinity, calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, happen
also to cause the temporally hardness. Hence, when the alkalinity and hardness are equal, all
the hardness is temporary. If the total hardness is greater than the alkalinity, then the excess
hardness represents permanent hardness. On the other hand, if the total hardness is less than the
alkalinity, the difference indicates the presence of sodium bicarbonate, which adds to the
alkalinity but doesnt increase the hardness.

A generally accepted classification of hardness is as follows:

Soft

<50 mg/1 as CaCo
2
Moderately hard 50 150 mg/1 as CaCO
3

Hard 150- 300mg/1 as CaCO
3

Very hard

>300 mg/1 as CaCO
3

Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/liter is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to the
following effects:

1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures.
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough
5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency
7. Very hard water is not palatable

When softening is practices when hardness exceeds 300mg/lit. Water hardness more than
600mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.

Methods of removal of hardness

1. Boiling
2. Lime addition
3. Lime soda process
4. Caustic soda process
5. Zeolite process
Methods 1 and 2 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 3 to 5 for both temporary
and permanent hardness.
Boiling

Lime soda process
In this method, the lime and is sodium carbonate or soda as have used to remove permanent
hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in this process are as follows.

Zeolite process

This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may be
completely removed by this process.
Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminum and sodium) which replace sodium Ions with
calcium and magnesium Ions when hard water is passes through a bed of zeolites. The zeolite
can be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through the bed. The
chemical reactions involved are:

8. Chloride

The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also presence of
chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water. Excess of chlorides is
dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the water. Chloride may
demonstrate an adverse physiological effect when present in concentration greater than
250mg/l and with people who are acclimated. However, a local population that is acclimated to
the chloride content may not exhibit adverse effect from excessive chloride concentration.
Because of high chloride content of urine, chlorides have sometimes been used as an indication
of pollution.


9. Fluoride

It is generally associated with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks; fluoride is seldom
found in surface waters and appears in ground water in only few geographical regions. Fluoride
is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities, while small concentrations can
beneficial.
Concentrations of approximately 1.0mg/1 in drinking water help to prevent dental cavities in
children. During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride combines chemically with tooth
enamel, resulting in harder, stronger teeth that are more resistant to decay. Fluoride is often
added to drinking water supplies if quantities for good dental formation are not naturally
present.
Excessive intakes of fluoride can result in discoloration of teeth. Noticeable discoloration,
called mottling, is relatively common when fluoride concentrations in drinking water exceed
2.0mg/1, but is rare when concentration is less that 1.5mg/1.
Adult tooth are not affected by fluoride, although both the benefits and liabilities of fluoride
during teeth formation years carry over into adulthood.
Excessive concentrations of greater than 5mg/1 in drinking water can also result in bone
fluorisis and other skeletal abnormalities.

10. Metals and other chemical substances

Water contains various minerals or metal substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead,
barium, cadmium, selenium, fluoride, arsenic etc.
The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow more than 0.3ppm. Excess will
cause discoloration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water mains due to deposition
of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and barium are very toxic, low p.p.m of these
are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous, therefore they must be removed totally. Human
beings are affected by presence of high quantity of copper in the water.

3.1.3 Biological Characteristics

A feature of most natural water is that they contain a wide variety of micro organisms
forming a balance ecological system. The types and numbers of the various groups of micro
organisms present are related to water quality and other environmental factors.
Microbiological indicators of water quality or pollution are therefore of particular concern
because of their relationships s to human and animal health. Water polluted by pathogenic
microorganisms may penetrate into private and or public water supplies either before or after
treatment.
1. Bacterium


Many are found in water. Some bacteria are indicator of pollution but are harmless; other few
in number are pathogenic. Bacterial-born diseases include: typhoid fever, cholera, and bacterial
dysentery:

2. Viruses

These are group of infectious which are smaller that ordinary bacteria and that require
susceptible host cells for multiplication and activity. Viral-born diseases include infectious
hepatitis and poliomyelitis.

3. Algae

These are small, Chlorophyll bearing generally onecelled plants of varying shapes and sizes
which live in water. When present in large numbers they may cause turbidity in water and an
apparent color. They cause trouble in water works by undue clogging of filters, but their most
troublesome characteristics in the taste and odor that they may cause

4 protozoa

They are the lowest and simplest forms of animal life. Protozoaborn diseases include
giardiasis and amebic dysentery.

3.3. Examination of Water Quality

Examination of water is made to help informing an opinion of the suitability of a water supply
for public and other uses.

1.Sampling
Necessary to obtain a representation sample in a quantity sufficient for analysis complete
preservation of sample is practically impossible; however, freezing or adding suitable
preservatives may slow down changes in composition.
Plastic, glass or metal sample containers are able introduce contamination to sample. Normally
plastics are used for chemical analysis (except for oil & grease) and glass for bacteriological
analysis.
2. Standard Tests
i. Titration (volumetric) method
Using burettes, pipits, and other volumetric glass ware, standard solutions are prepared using
analytical and distilled water.
The recommended determinations to be made by titration method are: Chloride (Cl
-
),
carbonates (CO
3
2-
), bicarbonates (HCO
3
), DO, BOD, COD, calcium (Ca
++
), magnesium
(Mg
++
), bromide (Br), hydroxide (OH
-
), sulfide(S
-
), sulfite(SO
3
2
), acidity, alkalinity etc.


ii. Colorimetric method (using color as the basis)
Measuring amount of color produced by mixing with reagents at fixed wavelength (using
spectrophotometer) or comparison with colored standards or discs (comparator).
The recommended determinations made by colorimetric method are: color, turbidity, iron
(Fe
++
), manganese (Mn
++
), chlorine (Cl
2
), flurried (F
-
), nitrate (NO
3
-
), nitrite (NO
2
), phosphate
(PO
4
---
), ammonia (NH
4
+
), arsenic, phenols, etc.

iii. Gravimetric method (using weight as the basis)
Using weight of insoluble precipitates or evaporated residues in glassware or metal and
accurate analytical balance
The recommended determinations made by gravimetric methods are: sulfate (SO4), Oil and
grease, TDS, TSS, TS, etc.

iv. Electrical method
Using probes to measure electrical potential in mill volts against standard cell voltage.
The recommended determinations made by electrical methods are: pH, Fluoride (F
-
), DO,
nitrate (NO
3
), etc.

v. Flame spectra (emission & absorption) method
At fixed wave length characteristics to ions being determined measuring intensity of emission
or absorption of light produced by ions exited in flame or heated sources.
The recommended determinations made by flame spectra methods are: sodium (Na
+
),
potassium (K
+
), lithium (Li
+
), etc.

3.4. Water Quality Standards

Public water supplies are obliged to provide a supply of wholesome water which is suitable and
safe for drinking purposes.
Potable water is water which is satisfactory for drinking, culinary and domestic purposes.
Water quality standards may be set regional, national, or international bodies. Guidelines for
drinking water quality have established by the World Health Organization (WHO) as shown in
table below.


Table WHO Guideline for drinking water quality
Parameter Unit Guideline value
Microbial quality
Fecal coli forms
Coli form organisms

Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Cyanide
Fluoride
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium

Aluminum
Chloride
Color
Copper
Hardness
Iron
Manganese
pH
Sodium
Total dissolved solids
Sulfate
Taste and odor
Turbidity
Zinc

Number/ 100 ml
Number /100 ml

mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1

mg/1
mg/1
True color unit(TCU)
mg/1
mg/1(as CaCO
3
)
mg/1
mg/1

mg/1
mg/1
mg/1

NTU
mg/1

Zero*
Zero*

0.05
0.005
0.05
0.1
0.5 - 1.5(3)
0.05
0.001
10
0.01

0.2
250
5(15)
1.0
500
0.3(3)
0.3
6.5 to 8.5
200
1000
400
Non objectionable
5(10)
5.0

* Treated water entering the distribution system


3.5. Sources of Water Pollution

Following are the main sources of water pollution.
1. Domestic Sewage
If domestic sewage is not properly after it is produced or if the effluent received at the end of
sewage treatment is not of adequate standard, there are chances of water pollution.
The indiscriminate way of hading domestic sewage may lead to the pollution of under ground
sources of water supply such, as wells. Similarly if sewage or partly treated sewage is directly
discharged into surface waters such as rivers, the waters of such rivers get contained.

2. Industrial Wastes
If industrial wastes are thrown into water bodies without proper treatments, they are likely to
pollute the watercourses. The industrial wastes may carry harmful substances such as grease,
oil, explosives, highly odorous substances, etc.

3. Catchment Area
Depending upon the characteristics of catchment area, water passing such area will be
accordingly contained. The advances made in agricultural activities and extensive use of
fertilizers and insecticides are main factors, which may cause serious pollution of surface
waters.

4. Distribution System
The water is delivered to the consumers through a distribution of pipes which are laid
underground. If there are cracks in pipes or if joints are leaky, the following water gets
contaminated by the surrounding substances around the pipes.
5. Oily Wastes
The discharge of oily wastes from ships and tankers using oil as fuel may lead to pollution.
6. Radioactive Wastes
The discharge of radioactive wastes from industries dealing with radioactive substance may
seriously pollute the waters. It may be noted that radioactive substances may not have color,
odour, turbidity or taste. They can only be detected by and measured by the use of special
precise instruments.

7. Travel of Water
Depending upon the properties of ground through which water travels to reach the source of
water supply; it is charged with the impurities. For instance, ground water passing through
peaty land possesses brown color.


4. INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT

4.1 Introduction
Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities and cannot be directly
used by the public for various purposes, before removing the impurities. Therefore, removing
these impurities up to certain extent so that it may not be harmful to the public health is
necessary. The process of removing the impurities from water is called water treatment and the
treated water is called wholesome water.
The degree and methods of treatment depend upon nature of the source, quality of the source
and purpose for which the water is supplied.

The surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities therefore they requires
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination as treatment. If the water contains algae or other
micro organisms, pre-chlorination has to be done. Tastes and odours, dissolved gases like CO
2
,
H
2
S are removed by aeration. During the flood season, the turbidity of the surface water may be
high and flocculation may become necessary to remove turbidity.
Groundwater which is usually clear may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for
the removal of pathogens, iron removal, softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains
dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) carbon dioxide (CO
2
), which gives very bad
odour and requires its removal by aeration.

4.2 Methods of Water Treatment
The common methods/processes of water treatment (water purification) are:
1. Aeration
2. Screening and grit removal
3. Plain sedimentation
4. Coagulation and flocculation
5. Secondary sedimentation
6. Filtration
7. Adsorption
8. Softening
9. Disinfections
4.2.1 Aeration
It is the process of bringing water in intimate contact with air, while doing so water absorbs
oxygen from the air. Aeration may be used to remove undesirable gases dissolved in water i.e.

CO
2
, H
2
S, etc (degasification) or to add oxygen to water to convert undesirable substance i.e.
Iron (Fe
2+
) & Manganese to more manageable form (oxidation).
The Iron and Manganese may be removed as a precipitate after aeration. Chemically, these
reactions may be written as follows:

4Fe
2+
+

O
2
+ 10H
2
O 4Fe(OH)
3
+ 8H
+
4Mn
2+
+ O
2
+ 2 H
2
O 2MnO
2
+ 4H
+

Different types of aerators are available
Gravity Aerator
Spray aerator
Air diffuser
Mechanical Aerator
i. Gravity aerators
a) Cascade towers

b) Inclined apron possibly shaded with plates

Fig. 1 Gravity aerators
c) Tray aerator
In tray aerator water falls through a series of trays perforated with small holes, 5 - 12mm
diameter and 25 - 75mm spacing center to center. They are often built in stacks of 4 - 6 trays
giving a total height of 1.2 - 3m. The trays may be filled with layers of coke or gravel of 50mm
size to insure purification.

Collection
Chamber
Inlet
chamber

Inlet
chamber
Collection
Chamber

Fig. 2 Tray aerator

ii. Spray aerators: - spray droplets of water into the air from stationary or moving orifices or
nozzles. Water is pumped through pressure nozzles to spray in the open air as in fountain to
a height of about 2.5m.

Fig. 3 Spray aerator

iii. Air diffuser
In diffused aeration systems, water is contained in basins. Compressed air is forced into this
system through the diffusers. This air bubbles up through the water, mixing water and air and
introducing oxygen into the water.

Fig. 4 Air diffusion aerator


iv. Mechanical Aerator
Mechanical aeration systems are fairly simple, but they are not among the most common
purification techniques. These aerators work by vigorously agitating source water with
mechanical mixers. As the waters churn, they become infused with purifying air.
Mechanical aeration systems are able to remove most volatile contaminants, but they are
limited to removals of 50 to 80 percent, depending on conditions.

Fig. 5 Mechanical aerator
4.2.2 Screening
Screening usually involves a simple screening or straining operation to remove large solids and
floating matter as leaves, dead animals, fish etc.
a) Bar screens - with openings of about 75mm
b) Mesh screens - with opening of 5 - 20mm
4.2.3 Plain Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the removal of particles (silt, sand, clay, etc.) through gravity settling in
basins. No chemicals is added to enhance the sedimentation process
Principle of plain sedimentation - Discrete particles

The terminal settling velocity of a single discrete particle is derived from the forces
(gravitational force, buoyant force, and drag force) that act on the particle. The classical
discrete particle settling theories have been based on spherical particles. The sedimentation of
discrete spherical particles may be described by Newtons Law, from which the terminal
settling velocity is found to be:

d
s
s
C
gd
V ) (
3
4

=
.(1)
Where V
s
= the terminal settling velocity (L/T)

s
= the mass density of the particle (M/L
3
)
= the mass density of the fluid (M/L
3
)
g = the acceleration due to gravity (L/T
2
)
d = the diameter of the particle (L)
C
d
= is dimensionless drag coefficient defined by
The values of drag coefficient depend on the density of water (), relative velocity (u), particle
diameter (d), and viscosity of water (), which gives the Reynolds number Re.
The value of C
d
decreases as the Reynolds number increases. For R
e
less than 2 or 1, C
d
is
related to R by the linear expression as follows:
....(2)
Substitute eq.(2) into eq. (1)

18
) (
2
d g
V
s
s
=
...(3)
This expression is known as the Stokes equation for laminar flow conditions.
In the region of higher Reynolds numbers (2 < R
e
< 500 - 1000), C
d
becomes
...(4)
The value of V
s
is solved by iteration. First, guess C
d,
compute V
s
and R
e
and with the
computed R
e
compute C
d
until the values of V
s
converges.
In the region of turbulent flow (500 - 1000 < R
e
< 200,000), the C
d
remains approximately
constant at 0.44.


Example 1: Estimate the terminal settling velocity in water at a temperature of 15c ( =
0.00113Ns/m
2
) of spherical silicon particles with specific gravity 2.40 and average diameter of
(a) 0.05mm and (b) 1.0mm

Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
In practice, settling of the particles is governed by the resultant of horizontal velocity of water
and the vertical downward velocity of the particle. The path of the settling particle is as shown
in Fig 6.
The critical particle in the settling zone of an ideal rectangular sedimentation tank, for design
purposes, will be one that enters at the top of the settling zone and settles with a velocity just
sufficient to reach the sludge zone at the outlet end of the tank.
In an ideal sedimentation tank with horizontal or radial flow pattern, particles with settling
velocity less than Vs can still be removed partially.

Fig. 6 Settling of particles

The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are:
1. Velocity of flow
2. Capacity of tank
3. Inlet and outlet arrangements
4. Settling and sludge zones
5. Shapes of tanks
6. Miscellaneous considerations.

(1) Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be sufficient
enough to cause the hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities. It should remain
uniform throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed to exceed 150mm to 300mm
per minute.

(2) Capacity of tank: Capacity of tank is calculated by
i) Detention period
ii) Overflow rate
i) Detention period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry
and exit of a settling tank is known as the known as the detention period. The capacity of tank
is calculated by:
C = Q x T where C Capacity of tank
Q Discharge or rate of flow
T Detention period in hours
The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities present in water. For plain
sedimentation tanks, the detention period is found to vary from 4 to 8 hours.
ii) Overflow Rate: In this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom
of the tank does not depend on the depth of tank and depends upon the surface area of the tank.
Settling time =
s
s
V
H
t =
..(5)
Detention time =
U
L
t
R
=
. (6)
HW
Q
U =
(7)
To get the desired settling with most efficient tank size, t
R
= t
s
which occurs when V
o
= V
s
.

p
o
A
Q
LW
Q
HW
Q
L
H
L
HU
V = = = =
..(8)
Where, L Length of tank
W Width of tank
A
p
Plan area of tank
C Capacity of tank
T Detention period
Q Discharge or rate of flow
V
s
Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom of tank
V
o
overflow rate or surface loading rate = V
s

(3) Inlet and Outlet Arrangements

Inlet zone
The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute the water inside a tank. The two primary
purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the water and to control the
water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act to prevent turbulence of the

water. The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed across the width
of the basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in
which water bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in less than
the normal detention time. It is undesirable since it may result in shorter contact, reaction or
settling times in comparison with the presumed detention time.
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the amount of
water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the out flowing water is
drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in
the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin
and enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to control the water level in the basin.
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has the
minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water is usually found at the very
top of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are usually designed to skim this water off the
sedimentation basin.
Outlet arrangement consists of
i. weir, notches or orifices
ii. effluent trough or launder
iii. outlet pipe
Weir loading rates are limited to prevent high approach velocities near the outlet. Weirs
frequently consist of V-notches approximately 50mm in depth, placed 150 300mm on
centers, with a baffle in front of the weir to prevent floating material from escaping the
sedimentation basin and clogging the filters.


(4) Settling and Sludge Zones
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity is
greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the
largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling zone requires
a slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube
settlers and lamella plates are included in the settling zone. Tube settlers and lamella plates
increase the settling efficiency and speed in sedimentation basins. Each tube or plate functions
as a miniature sedimentation basin, greatly increasing the settling area. Tube settlers and
lamella plates are very useful in plants where site area is limited, in packaged plants, or to
increase the capacity of shallow basins.
Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge
collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent re-suspension of
sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the tank. The
tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In other
plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should be cleaned at
least twice per year or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. Many plants have at least
two sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated while one basin is being
cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
(5) Shapes of Tanks (Reading assignment)

Following are the three shapes of settling tank.
(i) Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
(ii) Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow
(iii) Hopper bottom tanks with vertical flow


The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.

1. Detention period .. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling
2 to 2.5 hours for coagulant settling
1 to 1.5 hours for vertical flow type
2. Overflow rate 15 - 30 m
3
/m
2
/day for plain settling
30 - 40m
3
/m
2
/day for horizontal flow
40 - 50m
3
/m
2
/day for vertical flow
3. Velocity of flow.. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec
4. Weir loading... 300m
3
/m/day
5. L:W .. 3:1 to 5:1
Breadth of tank.. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m
6. Depth of tank. 2.5 to 5m (with a preferred value of 3m)
7. Diameter of circular tank. up to 60m
8. Solids removal efficiency.. 50%
9. Turbidity of water after sedimentation 15 to 20 NTU.
10. Inlet and Outlet zones. 0.75 to 1.0m
11. Free board 0.5m
12. Sludge Zone. 0.5m

Example 2: A water treatment plant has four clarifiers treating 0.175 m
3
/s of water. Each
clarifier is 4.88m wide, 24.4m long and 4.57m deep. Determine: (a) the detention time, (b)
overflow rate, (c) horizontal velocity, and (d) weir loading rate assuming the weir length is 2.5
times the basin width.
4.2.4 Coagulation (Coagulation Aided with Sedimentation)
The hydraulic settling values of small size particles in water are very small and therefore, they
require longer time to settle in plain sedimentation tanks. For example, a slit particle of size
0.05mm will require about 11hrs to settle down through a depth of 3m and clay particle of size
0.002mm will require about 4 days time to settle the same height of 3m at normal temperature
of about 25c. Moreover, water may be containing colloidal impurities which are even finer
than 0.0001mm and which also carry electrical charge on them. Due to electrical charge they
remain continuously in motion and never settle down by gravity in water. Therefore, when
water is turbid due to presence of such fine size and colloidal impurities, plain sedimentation is
of no use.
For dealing water with such impurities a chemical process was evolved. This process removes
all these impurities within reasonable period of 2 3hrs. This chemical process is called

coagulation and the chemical used in the process is called coagulant. The objective of
coagulation is to unit several colloidal particles together to form bigger sized settable flocs
which may settle down in the tank.

The principle of coagulation can be explained from the following two conditions:

1. Floc formation
When coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it, they
produce a think gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as floc and this floc has got the
property of arresting suspended impurities in water during downward travel towards the bottom
of tank. The gelatinous precipitate has therefore, the property of removing fine and colloidal
particles quickly.

2. Electric charges

Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so they tend to repel each other. As a
result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in the water.
The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges on the turbidity
particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other. The amount of coagulant which
should be added to the water will depend on the zeta potential, a measurement of the
magnitude of electrical charge surrounding the colloidal particles. You can think of the zeta
potential as the amount of repulsive force which keeps the particles in the water. If the zeta
potential is large, then more coagulants will be needed.
Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their positive charge, they are attracted to the
negative particles in the water, as shown below.
.
Negatively charged particles repel Positively charged coagulants attract to negatively
each other due to electricity charged particles due to electricity.

The combination of positive and negative charge results in a neutral. As a result, the particles
no longer repel each other.

The next force which will affect the particles is known as van der Waal's forces. Van der
Waal's forces refer to the tendency of particles in nature to attract each other weakly if they
have no charge.

Neutrally charged particles attract due to van der Waal's forces.

Once the particles in water are not repelling each other, van der Waal's forces make the
particles drift toward each other and join together into a group. When enough particles have
joined together, they become floc and will settle out of the water.

Particles and coagulants join
together into floc.
Factors affecting coagulation:
1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
1. Type and quantity of suspended matter
2. Temperature of water
3. pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing
Common Coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant aids.
Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the
particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add
toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes.

In water treatment plants, the following are the coagulants most commonly used:
i. Aluminum sulfate [Al
2
(SO
4
)
3.
18H2O].
It is also called Alum. It is the most widely used chemical coagulant in water purification work.
Alum reacts with water only in the presence of alkalinity. If natural alkalinity is not present,
lime may be added to develop alkalinity. It reacts with alkaline water to form aluminum
hydroxide (floc), calcium sulphate and carbon dioxide. Due to the formation of calcium
sulphate, hardness and corrosiveness of water is slightly increased. .

Chemical Reaction Taking Place

i) Al
2
(SO
4
) 3.18H2O + 3Ca (HCO
3
)
2
2Al(OH)
3
+ 3CaSO
4
+ 6CO
2
+18 H
2
O
ii) Al (SO
4
)
3.
18H2O+ 3Ca(OH)
2
2Al(OH)
3
+ 3CaSO
4
+ 18H
2
O
iii) Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
18H2O+3Na
2
CO
3
2Al(OH)
3
+ 3Na
2
SO
4
+ 3CO
2
+ 18H
2
O
The chemical is found to be most effective between pH range of 6.5 to 8.5. Its dose may vary
from 5 to 30mg/lit, for normal water usually dose being 14mg/l. actually, dose of coagulant
depends on various factors such as turbidity, colour, taste, pH value, temperature etc.
Due to the following reason, Alum is the most widely used chemical coagulant.
1. It is very cheap
2. It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
3. It is very efficient
4. Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
5. It is not harmful to health
6. It is simple in working, doesnt require skilled supervision for dosing

ii. Sodium aluminates (Na
2
Al
2
O
4
)
In the process of coagulation, it can remove carbonate and non-carbonate hardness. It reacts
with calcium and magnesium salts to form flocculent aluminates of these elements.
Chemical reactions:

i) Na
2
Al
2
O
4
+ Ca (HCO
3
)
2
CaAl
2
O
4
+ Na
2
CO
3
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O
ii) Na
2
Al
2
O
4
+ CaSO
4
CaAL
2
O
4
+ Na
2
SO
4

iii) NaAl
2
O
4
+ CaCl
2
CaAl
2
O
4
+ 2NaCl
The pH should be within the range of 6 and 8.5.

iii. Chlorinated Copperas
Combination of Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride
When solution of Ferrous Sulphate is mixed with chlorine, both Ferric sulphate and Ferric
chloride are produced.

6FeSO
4
.7H
2
O + 3Cl
2
2Fe
3
(SO
4
)
2
+ 2FeCl
3
+ 42H
2
O
Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride each is an effective floc and so also their combination.
Both Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride can be used independently with lime as a coagulant
If alkalinity is insufficient, lime is added.
Chemical reaction taking place
2FeCl
3
+ 3Ca(OH)
2
2Fe(OH)
3
+ CaCl
2

Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 3Ca(OH)
2
2Fe(OH)
3
+ 3CaSO
4
Ferric chloride effective pH range 3.5 6.5 or above 8.5 and Ferric sulphate is effective with
pH range of 4 7 or above 9.
iv. Polyelectrolytes
They are special types of polymers. They may be anionic, cationic, and non-ionic depending
upon the charge they carry. Out of these only cationic polyelectrolytes can be used
independently.
Example 3:
Find out the quantity of alum required to treat 18million liters of water per day. The dosage of
alum is 14mg/lit. Also work out the amount of CO
2
released per liter of treated water.

Feeding of coagulant
In order to feed chemicals to the water regularly and accurately, some type of feeding
equipment must be used.
Coagulants may be put in raw water either in powder form or in solution form.
1. Dry-feed Type
Dry powder of coagulant is filled in the conical hopper. The hoppers are fitted with agitating
plates which prevent the chemical from being stabilized. Agitating plates are used to prevent
arching of chemicals. Feeding is regulated by the speed of toothed wheel or helical spring (fig
5). Activated carbon and lime are added to raw water in powder form.

Fig 5 Dry feeding devices

2. Wet feeding type
First, solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared. The solution is filled in the tank
and allowed to mix in the mixing channel in required proportion to the quantity of water. It can
be easily controlled with automatic devices.

Mixing devices

The process of floc formation greatly depends upon the effective mixing (rapid mixing) of
coagulant with the raw water.
Rapid mixing of the mixture of coagulant and raw water is used to:
- Disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the mixing basin
- Allow adequate contact between the coagulant and particles
- Formation of microflocs
The mixing is done by mixing device.
1. Hydraulic jump - flume with considerable slope is developed
2. Pump method - centrifugal pump is used to raise raw water
3. Compressed air method compressed air is diffused from bottom of the mixing tank
4. Mixing channels
Mixing of raw water and coagulant is made to pass through the channel in which flume
has been done. Vertical baffles are also fixed at the end of the flumed part on both
sides of the channel (fig 6).
5. Mixing basin with baffle wall
6. Mechanical mixing basins
Mechanical means are used to agitate the mixture to achieve the objective of thorough
mixing. Flash mixers and deflector plate mixers are used.

Fig 6 mixing channel


A. Flash mixer
The mixing of coagulant in water is achieved by rotating vigorously fans fixed in the mixing
basin. The deflecting wall avoids short circuiting and deflects the water flow towards the fan
blades. Chemical pipe discharges the coagulant just near the rotating fan (fig 7).
Fig 7 Flash mixer
Design criteria of flash mixer:
1. Detention period 30 to 60 sec
2. Velocity of flow 0.9m/sec
3. Depth 1 to 3m
4. Rotation per minute of blade 100
5. Power required 0.041kW/1000m
3
/day
B. Deflector plate mixer
Mixing is achieved by diffusing water through a deflection plate. Water enters from inlet pipe
and comes pout through a hole provided below the deflector plate where it gets agitated.
Chemical pipe discharges the coagulant just near the deflector plate, where it gets thoroughly
mixed with water (fig 8).

Fig 8 Deflector plate mixer


4.2.5 Flocculation

After adding the coagulant to the raw water, rapid agitation is developed in the mixture to
obtain a thorough mixing. Next to rapid mixing, mixture is kept slowly agitated for about 30 to
60min. Slow mixing process in which particles are brought into contact in order to promote
their agglomeration is called flocculation. The tank or basin in which flocculation process is
carried out is called flocculation chamber. The velocity of flow in the chamber is kept between
12 18cm/sec. Activated carbon in powder form can be used to speed up the flocculation
The rate of agglomeration or flocculation is dependent upon
- Type and concentration of turbidity
- Type of coagulant and its dose
- Temporal mean velocity gradient G in the basin
The mean velocity gradient is the rate of change of velocity per unit distance normal to the
section - (meter per second per meter) (T
-1
). The value of G can be computed in terms of power
input by the following equation

Where P power dissipated (watt)
- absolute viscosity (Ns/m
2
)
V - the volume to which P is applied (m
3
)
G - temporal mean velocity gradient (s
-1
)
The flocculation technique most commonly used involves mechanical agitation with rotating
paddle wheels or vertical mounted turbines (fig 9).
The design criteria of a horizontal continuous flow rectangular basin flocculator:


Fig 9 Flocculator
4.2.6 Clarifier (Secondary Sedimentation)
After flocculation, water enters the settling tank which is normally called a clarifier. Water is
retained in the sedimentation tank for a sufficient period to permit the settlement of the floc to
the bottom. The principle of design of clarifier is the same as for plain sedimentation basin
except that its detention period is lower. The detention period commonly adopted is 2.5 to 3hrs
with an overflow rate of 1 to 1.2 m/hr.
Section of sedimentation unit consisting of flash mixer, flocculator and settling basin (fig 10)

Fig 10 Section of secondary sedimentation unit
Flocculent settling
Flocculent particles resulting from coagulation will agglomerate while settling with a resultant
increase in particle size. The density of the composite particle will decrease due inclusion of
water, however, the settling velocity will increase. (0.1 to 3mm best floc size)
The clarification of dilute suspensions of flocculating particle is a function of:
- Settling property of the particles
- Flocculating characteristic of the suspension


Example 4:
Design a settling tank (coagulationsedimentation) with continuous flow for treating water for
a population of 48,000 persons with an average daily consumption of 135lit/head. Take
detention period of 3hrs and maximum day factor of 1.8.
4.2.7 Filtration
The effluent obtained after coagulation does not satisfy the drinking water standard and is not
safe. So it requires further treatments. Filtration is one of the water purification process in
which water is allowed to pass through a porous medium to remove remaining flocs or
suspended solids from the previous treatment processes.
Filtration process assist significantly by reducing the load on the disinfections process,
increasing disinfection efficiency.

Theory of Filtration

Filtration consists of passing water through a thick layer of sand. During the passage of water
through sand, the following effects take place.
i) Suspended matter and colloidal matter are removed
ii) Chemical characteristic of water get changed
iii) Number of bacteria considerably reduced.
These phenomena can be explained on the basis of the following mechanisms of filtration.
1. Mechanical straining Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand pores.
2. Sedimentation and Adsorption
- The interstices between the sand grains act as sedimentation basins in which the
suspended particles smaller than the voids in the filter-bed settle upon the sides of the
sand grains.
- The particles stick on the grains because of the physical attraction between the two
particles of matter and the presence of the gelatinous coating formed on the sand grains
by the previously deposited bacteria and colloidal matter.
3. Electrolytic action
Due to the friction between medium and suspended solids, certain amount of dissolved and
suspended matter is ionized. Suspended matter in water is ionized, carries charge of one
polarity and the particles of sand in filter which are also ionized, possess electrical charges
of opposite polarity. These neutralize each other; change the chemical character of water.
4. Biological Action
The growth and life process of the living cells, biological metabolism. The surface layer
gets coated with a film in which the bacterial activities are the highest and which feed on

the organic impurities. The bacteria convert organic impurities by a complex biochemical
action into simple, harmless compounds purification of water.
Types of filters
Two types of filter:
1. Gravity filter system
i. Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
ii. Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
2. Pressure filter system

i. Slow Sand Filters

The slow sand filter removes particles from the water through adsorption and straining. It also
removes a great deal of turbidity from water using biological action. A layer of dirt, debris, and
microorganisms builds up on the top of the sand. This layer is known as schmutzdecke, which
is German for "dirty skin." The schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water
biologically, and is also very effective in straining out even very small inorganic particles from
water.
Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for small towns. The sand used for
the filtration is specified by the effective size and uniformity coefficient. The effective size,
D
10
, which is the sieve in millimeters that permits 10% sand by weight to pass. The uniformity
coefficient is calculated by the ratio of D
60
and D
10
.

Construction

Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2 to 0.3mm and
uniformity coefficient 2 to 3. The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm. Below the fine
sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit the fine sand to pass
through it. The thickness of this layer may be 30cm. The lowermost layer is a graded gravel of
size 2 to 45mm and thickness is about 20 to 30cm. The gravel is laid in layers such that the
smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer is used to retain the coarse sand layer and is laid
over the network of open jointed clay pipe or concrete pipes called under drainage. Water
collected by the under drainage is passed into the out chamber.

Fig 11 Slow sand filter

Operation

The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a submersible inlet as
shown in fig 11. This water is uniformly spread over a sand bed without causing any
disturbances. The water passes through the filter media at an average rate of 2.4 to
3.6m
3
/m
2
/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference between the water level on
the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the depth of water above the sand. The
difference of water above the sand bed and in the outlet chamber is called the loss of head.
During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay in the pores,
the resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases. When the loss of head
reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3cm from the top of bed is scrapped and
replaced with clean sand before putting back into service to the filter.
The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored for return to the filter at the time
of the next washing. The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes necessary to replace
the sand layer.

Uses

The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw water and
completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow sand filters also
removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not pathogenic bacteria which requires
disinfection to safeguard against water-borne diseases. The slow sand filter requires large area
for their construction and high initial cost for establishment. The rate of filtration is also very
slow.


Maintenance

The algae growth on the overflow weir should be stopped. Rate of filtration should be
maintained constant and free from fluctuation. Filter head indicator should be in good working
condition. Trees around the plant should be controlled to avoid bird droppings on the filter bed,
No coagulant should be used before slow sand filtration since the floc will clog the bed quickly.

ii. Rapid Sand Filter

The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most important of
which are the much greater filtration rate ranging from 100 to 150m
3
/m
2
/day, the ability to
clean automatically using backwashing and require small filter area. The mechanism of
particle removal also differs in the two types of filters - rapid sand filters do not use biological
filtration and depend primarily on adsorption and some straining.
The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows
Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70mm
Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.2 to 1.7
Depth of sand - 60 to 75cm
Filter gravel - 2 to 50mm size
(Increase size towards bottom)
Depth of gravel - 45cm
Depth of water over sand
during filtration - 1 to 2m
Overall depth of filter
including 0.5m free board - 2.5m
Area of single filter unit - 100m
2
in two parts of each 50m
2

Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU

Operation

The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet pipe and
uniformly distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the sand bed is
collected through the under drainage system in the filtered water well. The outlet chamber in
this filter is also equipped with filter rate controller. In the beginning the loss of head is very
small. But as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and the rate of filtration become
very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its washing.


Washing of Filter

Washing of filter is done by the back flow of water through the sand bed as shown in Fig 12.
First the value V
1
is closed and the water is drained out from the filter leaving a few
centimeter depth of water on the top of sand bed. Keeping all values closed the compressed air
is passed through the separate pipe system for 2-3 minutes, which agitates the sand bed and
stirrer it well causing the loosening of dirt, clay etc. inside the sand bed.
Now value V
4
and V
5
are opened gradually, the wash water tank, rises through the laterals,
the strainers gravel and sand bed. Due to back flow of water the sand expands and all the
impurities are carried away with the wash water to the drains through the channels, which are
kept for this purpose.

Fig 12 Rapid sand filter

Construction

Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts:
1. Enclosure tank A water tight tank is constructed either masonry or concrete
2. Under drainage system may be perforated pipe system or pipe and stracher system
3. Base material gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and vegetable matter. Should be
durable, hard, round and strong and depth 40cm.
4. Filter media of sand The depth of sand 60 to 75cm
5. Appurtenances Air compressors useful for washing of filter and wash water troughs for
collection of dirty water after washing of filter.


Washing process is continued till the sand bed appears clearly. The washing of filter is done
generally after 24 - 48hours and it takes 10 minutes and during back washing the sand bed
expands by about 50%.
Rapid sand filter bring down the turbidity of water to 1 N.T.U. This filter needs constant and
skilled supervision to maintain the filter gauge, expansion gauge and rate of flow controller and
periodical backwash.
Table 4.1 Comparison of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter

iii. Pressure Filter

Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in a closed water tight cylinder through which the
water passes through the sand bed under pressure. All the operation of the filter is similar to
rapid gravity filter; expect that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter without
mixing and flocculation. These filters are used for industrial plants but these are not economical
on large scale.

Pressure filters may be vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. Backwash is
carried by reversing the flow with values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m
3
/m
2
/day.

Fig 13 Vertical pressure filters

Example 5:
Design a slow sand filter for a community of 40,000 population. The per capita water demand
of the water supply is 180lit/capita per day and the rate of filtration is 150lit/m
2
/hr. MDF = 1.8.
Example 6:
Design a rapid sand filter to treat water for 240,000 population, the per capital water
consumption of the town is 200lit/head/day. The filter works all the 24hrs. Assume rate of
filtration as 100lit/m
2
/min and maximum day factor is 1.8.
Example 7:
Determine the percentage of filtered water required for wash water based on the following
criteria:
Flow, Q
f
= 300 L/s
Rate of filtration, V
of
= 170m
3
/m
2
/day
Time of washing = 10 min
Rate of washing, V
oBW
= 15 mm/s


4.2.8 Disinfection
The process of killing harmful bacteria from water and making it safe to the consumers is said
to be disinfection. The materials which are used for disinfection of water are called the
disinfectants.
Requirements of Good Disinfectant
1) Destroy bacteria/pathogens within a practicable period of time, over an expected range
of water temperature.
2) Effective at variable compositions, concentration and conditions of water treated.
3) Neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentration.
4) Not change water properties
5) Have residual in a sufficient concentration to provide protection against recontamination
6) Can be determined easily, quickly, and preferably automatically.
7) Dispensable at reasonable cost
8) Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and supply
9) Not form toxic by-products due to their reactions with any naturally occurring materials
in water.
Methods of Disinfection
The disinfection of water can be done by one of the following methods:
a) Boiling of water
b) UltraViolate rays
c) Iodine and bromine
d) Ozone O
3

e) Excess lime
f) Potassium permanganate [KMnO
4
]
g) Chlorine
The most common method of disinfection is the use of chlorine i.e. chlorination. The various
chlorine compounds which are available in the market and used as disinfectants are:
1. Calcium hypo chlorite [Ca (OCl)
2
] power from
2. Sodium hypo chlorite [NaOCl] liquid from
3. Free chlorine Cl
2
- Gaseous form
Chlorination Chemistry

When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical processes take place. The chlorine
reacts with compounds in the water and with the water itself. Some of the results of these
reactions (known as the chlorine residual) are able to kill microorganisms in the water. In the
following sections, we will show the chemical reactions which occur when chlorine is added to
water.

Chlorine Demand

When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the water.
The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will also react
with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions, and nitrite ions.
Let's consider one example, in which chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide in water. Two
different reactions can occur:
Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Oxygen Ion Elemental Sulfur + Water + Chloride Ions
H
2
S + Cl
2
+ O
2-
S + H
2
O + 2Cl
-

Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Water Sulfuric Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
H
2
S + 4Cl
2
+ 4H
2
O H
2
SO
4
+ 8HCl
In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to create elemental
sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of the water and can
cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and water
to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
Each of these reactions uses up the chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or
hydrochloric acid which have no disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine which is
used up in reactions with compounds in the water is known as the chlorine demand. A
sufficient quantity of chlorine must be added to the water so that, after the chlorine demand is
met, there is still some chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the water.

Reactions of Chlorine Gas with Water

At the same time that chlorine is being used up by compounds in the water, some of the
chlorine reacts with the water itself. The reaction depends on the type of chlorine added to the
water as well as on the pH of the water itself.
Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in metal cylinders. The gas is difficult to
handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At high concentrations, chlorine gas
can even be fatal.
When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction occurs:
Chlorine + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
Cl
2
+ H
2
O HOCl + HCl

The chlorine reacts with water and breaks down into hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric
acid. Hypochlorous acid may further break down, depending on pH:

Hypochlorous Acid Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion

HOCl H
+
+ OCl
-


The concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will depend
on the water's pH. A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite ions and results
in less hypochlorous acid in the water. This is an important reaction to understand because
hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free chlorine residual, meaning that it is
chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water. Hypochlorite ions are much less
efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient at a low pH (with large quantities of
hypochlorous acid in the water) than at a high pH (with large quantities of hypochlorite ions in
the water.)

Hypochlorites

Instead of using chlorine gas, some plants apply chlorine to water as a hypochlorite, also
known as a bleach. Hypochlorites are less pure than chlorine gas, which means that they are
also less dangerous. However, they have the major disadvantage that they decompose in
strength over time while in storage. Temperature, light, and physical energy can all break
down hypochlorites before they are able to react with pathogens in water.
There are three types of hypochlorites - sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and
commercial bleach:
Hypochlorites and bleaches work in the same general manner as chlorine gas. They react with
water and form the disinfectant hypochlorous acid. The reactions of sodium hypochlorite and
calcium hypochlorite with water are shown below:

Calcium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OCl)
2
+ 2H
2
O 2HOCl + Ca(OH)
2

Sodium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Sodium Hydroxide
NaOCl + H
2
O HOCl + NaOH

Chloramines

Some plants use chloramines rather than hypochlorous acid to disinfect the water. To produce
chloramines, first chlorine gas or hypochlorite is added to the water to produce hypochlorous
acid. Then ammonia is added to the water to react with the hypochlorous acid and produce a
chloramine.
Three types of chloramines can be formed in water - monochloramine, dichloramine, and
trichloramine. Monochloramine is formed from the reaction of hypochlorous acid with
ammonia:
Ammonia + Hypochlorous Acid Monochloramine + Water
NH
3
+ HOCl NH
2
Cl + H
2
O

Monochloramine may then react with more hypochlorous acid to form a dichloramine:

Monochloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Dichloramine + Water
NH
2
Cl + HOCl NHCl
2
+ H
2
O

Finally, the dichloramine may react with hypochlorous acid to form a trichloramine:
Dichloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Trichloramine + Water
NHCl
2
+ HOCl NCl
3
+ H
2
O

The number of these reactions which will take place in any given situation depends on the pH
of the water. In most cases, both monochloramines and dichloramines are formed.
Monochloramines and dichloramines can both be used as a disinfecting agent, called combined
chlorine residual because the chlorine is combined with nitrogen. This is in contrast to the free
chlorine residual of hypochlorous acid which is used in other types of chlorination.
Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light. Chloramines are effective at
killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they are very ineffective at killing
viruses.
Dosage of Chlorine

(A) Plain Chlorination

Plain chlorination is the process of addition of chlorine only when the surface water with no
other treatment is required. The water of lakes and springs is pure and can be used after plain
chlorination. A rate of 0.8mg/lit/hour at 15N/cm
2
pressure is the normal dosage so as to
maintain in residual chlorine of 0.2 mg/lit.

(B) Super Chlorination

Super chlorination is defined as administration of a dose considerably in excess of that
necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water. About 10 to 15 mg/lit is applied with
a contact time of 10 to 30 minutes under the circumstances such as during epidemic breakout
water is to be dechlorinated before supply to the distribution system.

(C) Brake Point Chlorination

The graph below shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a hypochlorite) is
added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), chlorine reacts with reducing compounds in the
water, such as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up the chlorine, producing no chlorine
residual.

Fig 13 Break point chlorination
Next, between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia which is naturally
found in the water. Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines. Note that if
chloramines were to be used as the disinfecting agent, more ammonia would be added to the
water to react with the chlorine. The process would be stopped at point 3.
In contrast, if hypochlorous acid is to be used as the chlorine residual, then chlorine will be
added past point 3. Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down most of the
chloramines in the water, actually lowering the chlorine residual.
Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point at
which the chlorine demand has been totally satisfied - the chlorine has reacted with all reducing
agents, organics, and ammonia in the water. When more chlorine is added past the breakpoint,
the chlorine reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid in direct proportion to the amount
of chlorine added. This process, known as breakpoint chlorination, is the most common form
of chlorination, in which enough chlorine is added to the water to bring it past the breakpoint
and to create some free chlorine residual.

(D) De-chlorination

Removal of excess chlorine resulting from super chlorination in part or completely is called
De-chlorination. Excess chlorine in water gives pungent smell and corrodes the pipe lines.
Hence excess chlorine is to be removed before supply.

Physical methods like aeration, heating and absorption on charcoal may be adopted. Chemical
methods like sulphur dioxide (SO
2
), Sodium Bi-sulphate (NaHSO
3
), Sodium Thiosulphate
(Na
2
S
2
O
8
) are used.

Points of Chlorination

Chlorine applied at various stages of treatment and distribution accordingly they are known as
pre, post and re-chlorination.

a) Pre-Chlorination

Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration process is known as Pre-chlorination.
This is practiced when the water is heavily polluted and to remove taste, odour, colour and
growth of algae on treatment units. Pre-chlorination improves coagulation and post chlorination
dosage may be reduced.

b) Post Chlorination

When the chlorine is added in the water after all the treatment is known as Post-chlorination.
After chlorination water is sent for distribution to the consumers.
c) Re-Chlorination

In long distribution systems, chlorine residual may fall tendering the water unsafe. Application
of excess chlorine to compensate for this may lead to unpleasant smell to consumers at the
points nearer to treatment point in such cases chlorine is applied again that is re-chlorinated at
intermediate points generally at service reservoirs and booster pumping stations.

4.3. Miscellaneous Treatment of Water (reading assignment)
a. Removal of dissolved gases
b. Removal of Iron and manganese
c. Removal of silica
d. Fluoridation
e. Removal of oil
f. Softening (refer the removal of hardness in chapter three)

4.4. Remarks in Water Treatment

1) The processes selected for the treatment of potable water depend on the quality of raw
water supply.
2) Most ground waters are clear and pathogen-free and not contain significant amounts of
organic materials. Such waters may often be used directly with a minimal does of
chlorine to prevent contamination in the distribution system.

3) Other ground waters may contain large quantities of dissolved solids or gases. When
these include excessive amounts of iron, manganese, or hardness, some treatment
methods described in section 4.2 may be required. Treatment systems commonly used
to prepare potable water from such ground waters are shown in fig 14.
4) Surface waters often contain a wide variety of contaminants than ground water, and
treatment processes may be more complex.
5) Ground waters like springs can directly be used after chlorination, as in the case of Arba
Minch Town Water Supply.

CaCo
3

Process Chemicals added
1
Waste stream
Aeration: Removes
undesirable gases and /or
oxidation of iron and
manganese
M
g
(OH)
2

Soda ash

Lime
Gases to
atmosphere
2
Softening: Removes
calcium and /or magnesium
hardness; may be done in
one or two stages.
Sludge removal and
disposed of possible
recovery and reuse of
line
Disinfection:
Destroys pathogens,
enough added to
provide
Storage: provides contact
time for disinfection and
stores water for peak
demands
5
Distribution system
3 Chlorine
4
Filtration: Removes residual
C
a
Co
3
crystals and M
g
(OH)
2

floc left over from softening;
disinfectant may be added to
prevent biological growth on
filter medium.
Back wash water
decanted; sludge
combined with sludge
from (2) above
Chlorine

5. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers through the
network of pipelines called distribution system. The distribution system also includes pumps,
reservoirs, pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures, flow leak detectors etc. The
cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire scheme. The efficiency of
the system depends upon proper planning, execution and maintenance. Ultimate aim is to
supply potable water to all the consumers whenever required in sufficient quantity with
required pressure with least lost and without any leakage.

5.1 Requirement of Distribution System

1. The system should convey the treated water up to consumers with the same degree of purity
2. The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
3. It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible should not be laid below
sewer lines.
4. Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken
5. The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum hourly demand.

5.2 System of Distribution

For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every consumer with
required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should force the
water to reach at every place. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution
system is classified as the follows:

1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system

1. Gravity System

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can be best utilized
for distribution system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This method is also much
suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at sufficiently
higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces. As no pumping is
required therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water as shown in fig. 5.1

FIG 5.1 Gravity system

2. Pumping System
Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct pumping into mains. Rate of flow
cannot be varied easily according to demand unless numbers of pumps are operated in addition
to stand by ones. Supply can be affected during power failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence
diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be maintained. During fires, the
water can be pumped in required quantity by the stand by units.

Fig 5.2 Pumping system

3. Combined Pumping and Gravity System

This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains as well as elevated
reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated reservoir,
but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution system comes from
the both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. As in this system water comes from
two sources one from reservoir and second from pumping station, it is called dual system. This
system is more reliable and economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets

low as well as maximum demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the
requirements of demand during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.

Fig 5.3 Dual system of distribution

5.3 Methods of Supply of Water

The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two systems.

1. Continuous System

This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This system is possible when
there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this system sample of water is always
available for fire fighting and due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh. In this
system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will be more
if there are leakages in the system.

2. Intermittent System

If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones and each zone is
supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the water is supplied after
intervals, it is called intermittent system. The system has following disadvantages:

1. Consumers have to store water for non-supply hours.
2. Bigger sized pipes are to be laid, because full days supply is to be provided within few
hours of supply.
3. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This increases the
maintenance cost.
4. There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks during non-flow
periods.

5. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more water than required
quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh water each time.

5.4 Layouts of Distribution System

Generally in practice there are four different systems of distribution which are used. They are:
1. Dead End or Tree system
2. Grid Iron system
3. Circular or Ring system
4. Radial system

1. Dead End or Tree System

This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system water flows in one
direction only into sub-mains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases at every tree
branch.

Fig 5.4 Dead End System

Advantages:

1. Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily
2. The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number.
3. The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and economical
4. The laying of water pipes is used are simple.

Disadvantages:

1. There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.
2. During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire downstream end are deprived of
supply

3. The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity

2. Grid Iron System

From the mains water enters the branches at all junctions in either direction into sub-mains of
equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two directions because
of interconnected network of pipes.

Fig 5.5 Grid iron method
Advantages
1. As water is supplied from both the sides at any point, very small distribution area will
be affected during repair.
2. Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher pressure
3. In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the affected area, by
closing the valves of nearby localities.
4. There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution due to
stagnation.

Disadvantages:

1. More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence there is increased cost
of construction
2. Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various points in the
distribution system is laborious, complicated and difficult.

3. Circular or Ring System

Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It has the same advantages as
the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes are needed. The advantages and disadvantages are
same as that of grid-Iron system.

Fig 5.6 Circular of ring system

4. Radial System

This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the reservoirs it
flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. The pressure calculations are easy in this system.
Layout of roads needs to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. This is most economical
system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted.

Fig. 5.7 Radial system

5.5 Pressure in the Distribution System

When the water enters in the distribution main, the water head continuously is lost due to
friction in pipes, at the entrance of reducers, due to valves, bends, meters etc till it reaches the
consumers tap. The net available head at the consumers tap is the head at the entrance of the
water main minus all the losses in the way. The effective head available at the service
connection to a building is very important, because the height up to which the water can rise in
the building will depend on this available head only. The greater the head the more will be the
height up to which it will rise. If adequate head is not available at the connection to the
building, the water will not reach the upper storey (i.e 2
nd
, 3
rd
, 4
th
etc.) to overcome this
difficulty the required effective head is maintained in the street pipe lines.

The pressure in the water supply mains and distribution mains should be such that water may
reach to consumers located at the remotest spots of the locality with adequate pressure. The
pressure in the distribution system depends upon the factors as listed below:
i. The height of highest building where water should reach with adequate pressure,
without boosting
ii. Pressure required for fire hydrant
iii. The distance of the locality from the distribution reservoir.
The following pressures are considered satisfactory in the case of multi-storied buildings.
a. One storey only 7m head
b. Two storey building 12m head
c. Three storey building 17m head
d. 3 to 6 storey heights 2.1 to 4.2kg/cm
2
(21 to 42m)
e. 6 to 10 storey heights 4.2 to 5.2kg/cm
2

f. Above 10 storey 5.27 to 7kg/cm
2

5.6 Service/Distribution Reservoirs

A service reservoir has four main functions:
1. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system, permitting the source
to give steady or differently phased output.
2. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or trunk main
leading to the reservoir.
3. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce pressure fluctuations
therein.
4. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demands.

It is seldom possible or economic for a source to give a fluctuating output in step with demand.
Filtration plants need to be run 24 hours a day with only infrequent, carefully controlled
changes of output. Pumps need to be run near their design point for maximum efficiency,
whilst electricity tariffs may influence their running times; it is not economical for a long
supply main to have an overlarge capacity simply to meet the peak demand of a few hours
duration. A technical and economic study of the capital and operating costs of the various
options available, including possible silting for a service reservoir is necessary before deciding
service reservoir requirements.

Position and Elevation of Reservoirs

If the service reservoir is to be of maximum value as a safeguarded against break down of the
supply to consumers then it should be positioned as near as possible to the area of demand.

From the service storage the distribution system should spread directly with such
interconnection of mains that, should a break of any one main occur, a supply may be
maintained by rerouting the water. It is, of course, not always possible to find a high point
which in the center of the distribution area and the best must be done in the circumstances. If
the high point is remote from the area of demand the aim should be to feed the demand area by
two major mains from the service reservoirs which are interconnected at appropriate points. If
there is some high ground which is not quite high enough, then a water tower or several water
towers may meet the demand. It is also usually necessary to site the reservoir at such elevation
that a steady pressure is maintained at all points of the distribution system, sufficient to give an
adequate flow to the top most storey of three or four storey buildings.
The elevation at which it is desirable to position a service reservoir depends up on both the
distance of the reservoir from the distribution area and the elevation of the highest building to
be supplied.

If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be necessary to use two more service
reservoirs at different levels, so that the lower area does not receive an unduly high pressure.
Wherever possible the use of non-stand pipes for high pressures should be avoided as such
pipes are expensive.

Types of Service Reservoirs

Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)

Fig 5.8 Elevated and surface reservoir

Accessories of Service Reservoirs
The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:
1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for
inspection and cleaning

3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.

LIGHTENINGCONDUCTOR
OUTLET PIPE
INFLOWPIPE
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR
WASHOUT PIPE
DITCH
OVER FLOWPIPE
MANHOLE
LADDER

Fig 5.9 Accessories of service reservoirs

Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

The three major components of service storage are:
i) Equalizing or operating storage
ii) Fire reserve
iii) Emergency reserve
Equalizing or operating capacity: can be obtained:

1) Analytically by finding out maximum cumulative surplus during the stage when
pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate and adding to this maximum
cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the pumping rate is lower
than the demand rate of water.
2) By drawing mass curves (graphical method)

Mass curve method
A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e. supply) or outflow (i.e. demand) versus
time. The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore, first drawn and is superimposed
by the demand curve. The procedure to construct such diagram is as follows:
From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days
(maximum, average and minimum).
Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve of
demand.
Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand
and supply line.
Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and
determine the maximum storage required for the worst day.
Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the storage
preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps, electricity, or
any of the mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total storage capacity of
reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be considered as enough
provision for accounting this storage.
Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 5 to
10% of the total storage is sufficient to meet the requirement.

The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.

Example 1:

A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be supplied water at 150liters per capita
per day. The demand of water during different periods is given in the following table:

Time (hr) 0 - 3 3 - 6 6 - 9 9 - 12 12 - 15 15 - 18 18 - 21 21- 24
Demand(*10
3
liters) 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25

Determine the capacity of a balancing reserve if pumping is done 24 hours at a constant rate.

Solution:
Per capita water consumption = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 = 240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr = 30,000lit/3hr


A. Analytical Method
Time Pumping Demand Cum. Supply Cum. Demand Surplus Deficit
0 - 3 30,000 20,000 30,000 20,000 10,000
3 - 6 30,000 25,000 60,000 45,000 15,000
6 - 9 30,000 30,000 90,000 75,000 15,000
9 - 12 30,000 50,000 120,000 125,000 5,000
12 - 15 30,000 35,000 150,000 160,000 10,000
15 - 18 30,000 30,000 180,000 190,000 10,000
18 - 21 30,000 25,000 210,000 215,000 5,000
21 - 24 30,000 25,000 240,000 240,000 0 0

Maximum cumulative surplus = 15,000 liters
Maximum cumulative deficit = 10,000 liters
Balancing storage = 15000 + 10000 = 25,000lit = 25m
3

If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 3.0 m, m d 4 . 3
3
4 * 25
=

B. Mass curve method

Example 2: Consider example 1, if the pumping is done for:
a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.

Calculate the capacity of the balancing reserve.
Solution:
Total water demand = 240,000lit/hr
Rate of pumping = 240,000/8 = 30,000l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs

a) Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs
A) Analytical Method
Time Pumping Demand
Cum. Supply Cum. Demand
Surplus Deficit
0 - 3 0 20000 0 20000
20000
3 - 6 0 25000 0 45000
45000
6 - 8 0 20000 0 65000
65000
8 - 9 30000 10000 30000 75000
45000
9 - 12 90000 50000 120000 125000
5000
12 - 15 90000 35000 210000 160000
50000
15 - 16 30000 10000 240000 170000
70000
16 - 18 0 20000 240000 190000
50000
18 - 21 0 25000 240000 215000
25000
21 - 24 0 25000 240000 240000
0 0

Maximum cumulative surplus = 70,000
Maximum cumulative deficit = 65,000
Balancing storage, S = 135,000lit = 135m
3

B) Graphical Method

Max.Surplus
Max.Deficit

b) Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.
A) Analytical Method
Time Pumping Demand Cum. Supply Cum. Demand Surplus Deficit
0 3 0 20000 0 20000 20000
3 4 0 8333 0 28333 28333
4 - 6 60000 16667 60000 45000 15000
6 - 8 60000 20000 120000 65000 55000
8 - 9 0 10000 120000 75000 45000
9 - 12 0 50000 120000 125000 5000
12 - 15 0 35000 120000 160000 40000
15 - 16 0 10000 120000 170000 50000
16 - 18 60000 20000 180000 190000 10000
18 - 20 60000 16667 240000 206667 33333
20 - 21 0 8333 240000 215000 25000
21 - 24 0 25000 240000 240000 0 0

Maximum cumulative surplus = 55,000
Maximum cumulative deficit = 50,000
Balancing storage, S = 105,000lit = 105m
3

B) Graphical Method

MASS CURVE
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
TIME (HOURS)
C
U
M
U
L
A
T
I
V
E

S
U
P
P
L
Y

&

D
E
M
A
N
D
Cummulative Demand
Cummulative supply
MAX DEFICIT
Max Surplus

(Graph paper is required)


Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

The following are some notes on the salient features of service reservoirs and the alternatives
that may be adopted.

A. Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given quantity of
water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area may be constructed or,
alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining walls and a smaller floor
area. Depths usually used are as follows:

Size (m
3
) Depth of water (m)
Up to 3500 2.5 to 3.5
3500 to 15,000 3.5 to 5.0
Over 15,000 5.0 to 7.0

These figures dont apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs. Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
1. Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
2. Depth at which the out let main must be laid
3. Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
4. The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the amount
required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material to tip.
5. The shape and size of land available

B. Shape
Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape, giving the least amount of
walling for a given volume and depth: it has the attraction of allowing construction of a thin
reinforced concrete dome shaped roof, free of all supporting columns, resting on ring beam
fixed to the top of the wall for diameters of up to about 60m.
However, this shape is seldom adopted. It is unsuitable for division in to two compartments,
which would allow one half to be drained for maintenance without taking the whole reservoir
out of service.
Its shape frequently does not permit best use of available land, and
Problems of design will arise if it is to be partially buried in sloping ground
A rectangular reservoir with a length to width ratio 1.2 to 1.5:
Usually proves most economical when division walls are incorporated

Floors and roof should be sloped to not flatter than 1:250 for drainage ( such slopes
should be parallel to maintain uniform column and wall heights)
The total depth of the reservoir must be sufficient to allow the maximum inflow
assumed in the design calculation to pass over the over flow weir, with a safety
margin of at least 150mm below the underside of roofing beam.
It is good practice to set the over flow weir slightly higher, say by 50mm, than the top
water level at which the supply is cut off by a ball valve or an electrode.

5.7 Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System
Pipe Materials
Pipe materials used in transmission and distribution systems must have the following
characteristics:
Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand external loads.
High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure
Ability to resist impact loads to water flow suitable for handling and joining facilities
Resistance to both internal and external corrosion
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:

1. Cast iron pipe
2. Steel pipe
3. Concrete pipe
4. Plastic pipe
5. Asbestos cement pipe
6. Copper pipe
7. Lead pipe
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
- Cost
- Type of water to be conveyed
- Carrying capacity of the pipe
- Maintenance cost
- Durability, etc.
Cast iron pipes
Advantages:
The cost is moderate
The pipes are easily joined
The pipes arent subjected to corrosion
The pipes are strong and durable
Service connections can be made
easily
Disadvantage:
The breakage of this pipe is large
Carrying capacity decreases with
increase in life

The pipes become heavy and
uneconomical when their sizes
increase (especially beyond
1200mm)

Galvanized Iron Pipes
Advantages:
The pipes are cheap
Light in weight and easy to handle
and transport
Easy to join

Disadvantage:
These pipes are liable to incrustation
(due to deposition of some materials
inside part of pipe)
Can be easily affected by acidic or
alkaline water
Short useful life

Plastic Pipes
Advantages:
The pipes are cheap
The pipes are flexible and possess
low hydraulic resistance (less
friction)
They are free from corrosion
The pipes are light in weight and it
is easy to bend, join and install them
The pipes up to certain sizes are
available in coils and therefore it
becomes easy to transport
Disadvantage:
The coefficient of expansion for
plastics is high, the pipes are less
resistant to heat
Some types of plastics may impart
taste to the water

5.8 Appurtenances in the Distribution System

The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as appurtences.
In water works, the various types of pipe apparatus such as valves, sluices, sockets, elbows, etc.
are needed to control the flow of water, to release the excessive pressure in the pipeline, to
eliminate the accumulation of air in the summits of the pipe line. Again, in house plumbing
various types of pipe fitting such as taps, sockets, elbows, nipples, stop cocks, gate valves,
check valves, tees, etc are required.
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution system.

(i) Valves
(ii) Fire hydrants and
(iii)Water meter


1. Types of Valves

In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to release or to admit
air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required.

The following are the various types of valves named to suit their function
1. Sluice valves
2. Check valves or reflex valves
3. Air valves
4. Drain valves or Blow off valves
5. Scour valve

Sluice Valves

These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valves control the flow of water
through pipes. These valves are cheaper, offers less resistance to the flow of water than other
valves. The entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these valves at
appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at 150-200m intervals. When two
pipes lines interest, valves are fixed in both sides of intersection. When sluice valve is closed, it
shuts off water in a pipeline to enable to undertake repairs in that particular block. The flow of
water can be controlled by raising or lowering the handle or wheel.

Check Valve or Reflux Valve

These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is an automatic device which
allows water to go in one direction only. The swing type of reflux valve as shown in fig 7.2 is
widely used in practice.

Fig 5.10 Check/ non-return valve

When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around the pivot
and it is kept in open position due to the pressure of water. When the flow of water in this
direction ceases, the water tries to flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents passage
of water in the reverse direction.

Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water directly from pump. When
pump fails or stops, the water will not run back to the pump and thus pumping equipments will
be saved from damage.

Air Valves

These are automatic valves and are of two types namely
1. Air inlet valves
2. Air relief valves

1. Air Inlet Valves

These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that the development
of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure created in the down
streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This situation can be avoided by
using the air inlet valves.

2. Air Relief Valves

Sometimes air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water due to air
lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe lines. This is done
automatically by means of air relief valves.

Drain Valves or Blow off Valves

These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead ends and depression of
pipelines to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by hand.

Scour Valves

These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They are
located at the depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the
complete removal of silt; the value is to be closed.

2. Water Meter

These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the quantity of water flowing
at a particular point along the pipe. The readings obtained from the meters help in working out
the quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can be charged accordingly. The water
meters are usually installed to supply water to industries, hotels, big institutions etc. metering
prevents the wastage of purified water.


3. Fire Hydrants

A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire. They are
located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads.
They are of two types namely.

1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants

The flush hydrants are kept in underground chamber flush with footpath covered by C.I. cover
carrying a sign board.
The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in fig 7.4 They
have long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident, the fire fighting
squad connects their hose to the hydrant and draws the water and sprays it on fire.

A good fire hydrant

1. Should be cheap
2. Easy to connect with hose
3. Easily detachable and reliable
4. Should draw large quantity of water

Fig 5.11 Post fire hydrant


5.9 Determination of Pipe Sizes

Permissible velocities for best results for different pipe sized pipes are within the range of 0.3
to 2m/s. For small size pipes flowing with high velocity of flow, loss of head due to friction is
more. Once the velocity of flow is established loss of head due to friction, bends and other
reasons can be computed. The head required to develop a particular velocity in a particular
sized pipe is then calculated.

The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system or the velocity of flow through the
pipe can be determined by one of the following formulas:
1. Darcy Weisbach formula:
gD
fLV
h
f
2
2
=
2. Hazen-Williams formula:
L
h
S S CD Q
f
= = , 278 . 0
54 . 0 63 . 2

3. Mannings Formula:
n
S AR
Q
2 / 1 3 / 2
=

The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a water distribution
system is the Hazen-Williams formula.

Water supply pipes sizes commercially available are given in the following table:

Metric sizes (mm) 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
English (In) 1/2 3/4 1 11/4 11/4 2 21/2 3 4 6 8 10 12

Metric sizes (mm) 350 375 400 450 500 525 600 675 750 900 950 1050
English (In) 14 15 16 18 20 21 24 27 30 36 38 42

Example 1:
Given
Total population of a town = 80,000
Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day
If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake = 1.5 m/s, determine the diameter of the outlet
pipe.

Solution
Total flow, Q = Demand* Population = 150*80,000 = 12x10
6
lit/day

sec / 1389 . 0
) 10 * 60 * 60 * 24 (
10 12
3
3
6
m
X
=


Required pipe area,
mm
V
Q
D
V
Q D
V
Q
A 343
* 5 . 1
4 * 1389 . 0
4
4
4
2
= = = =

But the pipe size available on the market is 300mm & 350mm, then take D = 350mm

Example 2:
A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be supplied with water from a reservoir
situated at a distance of 6.44km. It is stipulated that one-half of the daily supply of 140lit/capita
should be delivered in 6 hours. If the loss of head is estimated to be 15m, calculate the size of
pipe. Assume f = 0.04.

Solution
Total daily supply =
3
3
000 , 14
10
000 , 100 * 140
m =

Since half of this quantity is required in 6 hours
Maximum flow =
s m / 324 . 0
) 60 * 60 * 6 * 2 (
000 , 14
3
=

According to the Darcy-Weisbach formula:

5
2
1 . 12 d
fLQ
h
f
=
Where, h
f
= 15m, f = 0.04, L = 6440m

mm m d
d
683 683 . 0
10 . 12 * 15
) 324 . 0 ( * 6440 * 04 . 0
* 1 . 12
) 0324 ( * 6440 * 04 . 0
15
2
5
2
= = =

But available pipe sizes 675mm & 750mm, take 750mm diameter pipe

What size of pipe line (L = 1000m) should be used to supply 100l/s so that the head loss does
not exceed 10m. Use both the three formula, C = 100, n = 0.013, f = 0.035, find also the
velocity.

5.10 Energy Losses in Pipes

i. Major head loss
The major energy loss (head loss) in pipes can be found by one of the following formulas:

a. Darcy-Weisbach formula

gD
fLV
h
f
2
2
=

Where, h
f
= head loss (m)
f = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe material & the
fluid flow characteristics)
L = length of pipe (m)

V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity
The term h
f
represents the energy loss that occurs in any distribution system. The major loss of
energy is due to friction between the moving water and pipe material; however, energy losses
also occur from flow disturbance caused by valves, bends in pipes line, and changes in
diameter.

Exercise
Calculate the head loss in 600mm pipe, 1500m long smooth walled concrete ( = 0.001) pipe
line carrying a water of 0.30m
3
/s [Ans, h
f
= 2.43m)

b. Hazen-Williams formula

L
h
S S CD Q
f
= = , 278 . 0
54 . 0 63 . 2

Where, C = Coefficient that depends on the material and age of the pipe
S = Hydraulic gradient (m/m)

Table - Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula
Pipe Material C
Asbestos Cement 140
Cast Iron
Cement lined
New, unlined
5years-old, unlined
20 years old, unlined

130 150
130
120
100
Concrete 130
Copper 130 - 140
Plastic 140 - 150
New welded Steel 120
New riveted Steel 100

Nomographs shown in fig solve the equation for C = 100. Given any two of the parameters
(Q, D, h
f
or V) the remaining can be determined from the intersections along a straight line
drawn across the nomograph.


Exercise 3
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm, C = 100, L = 1500, Find h
f
.
Solution
From nomograph, h
f
= 12.15m
Using the formula, h
f
= 12.30m

c. Mannings Formula
n
S AR
Q
2 / 1 3 / 2
= , R = D/4, S = h
f
/L
Where, n = Coefficient of roughness depending on pipe material, usually
n = 0.013 GI pipes
n = 0.009 Plastic pipes
n = 0.015 Clay concrete pipes
Exercise 4:
For Q = 30l/s, D = 200mm, n = 0.013, L = 1500
( )
550 . 12 1500 *
1000 / 200
) 100 / 30 ( ) 013 . 0 ( 936 . 10
*
936 . 10 936 . 10
3 / 16
2 2
3 / 16
2 2
3 / 16
2 2
= = = = = L
D
Q n
hf
D
Q n
L
hf
S

From Nomograph, h
f
/L = 0.00825
= 0.00825*1500 = 12.38m
ii. Minor head loss
- Loss of head due to bends
- Loss of head due to appurtenances
- Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
- Loss of head due to sudden contraction
- Loss of head at the entrance to pipe

5.11 Procedure of Analyzing Pipe Size and Pressure

The procedures of analyzing pipe sizes and pressure at various points for dead end system of
distribution and grid iron systems.

a. Dead end system

1. Detailed maps are prepared for the area to be supplied with water. Normally the whole area
is sub-divided into small districts or blocs. All the districts should be thoroughly surveyed
and mapped.

2. The layout of pipes is then marked along the main roads, streets and the direction of flow
should be clearly indicated. The expected positions of valves, fire hydrants and other
fittings should be anticipated and marked.
3. The water requirements should then be determined by counting the population to be served
and the other civic requirements on each block length of the pipe. Block length of the pipe
is generally taken as the length between two sluice valves or between adjacent junctions.
By knowing the population concentration on each block length of the pipe and quantity of
water required for other civic uses, the quantity of water to be supplied through each block
can be computed.
4. Analyzing the system. Analysis is started from the tail end and carried out towards the
distribution reservoir. The total quantity of water to be carried by each section of the pipe is
then found out on cumulative basis. This gives the average flow to be carried by the pipes.
5. The peak flow for which pipe is usually designed which is based on the peak hour factor of
the town times the average flow. In the case of intermittent supply the peak flow rate may
be as high as 4 to 5 times the average rate of consumption.
6. The pipe sizes are assumed in such a way that the velocity of flow in the pipes may lie
between 0.6m/s to 2.3m/s. If smaller pipes are used for higher velocities of flow the
pressure drop due to frictional resistance will be excessive.
7. Knowing the pipe diameter, velocity of flow and the lengths, the head lost in friction in
each length of pipe is found out by using Darcys- Wesbach formula or Hazen-Williams
nomograph.
8. After calculating the head lost in friction in various lengths of the pipe, the residual
pressures all along the pipe network can be calculated by deducting these from the initial
pressure heads available at the distribution reservoir. These pressures should be sufficient to
make water to reach the highest building in the locality. If these pressures couldnt be
sufficient, the assumed sizes of the pipes will have to be increased and fresh calculation
should be done until the desired pressure and discharge is obtained.

Example

A typical layout of pipes in dead end patter is given in the figure below. The rate of supply is
180lit/capita/day and the populations in different residential blocks of houses are given in the
table below. The R.L of the bottom of the elevated storage tank is 150, R.L of points A, B, C
and D are 130, 129, 131, 128 respectively. If the minimum pressure head of water is to be 10m,
Design suitable size of pipes AB, BC and CD length are 300, 400 and 500m respectively.
Assume peak rate of demand to be 2.5 times the average demand.

Fig. 5.12 Dead end layout system

Block no. Population Block no. Population Block no. Population
2 500 9 300 16 500
3 600 10 300 17 600
4 600 11 500 18 800
5 700 12 700 19 500
6 700 13 600 20 1000
7 400 14 600 21 700
8 400 15 700 22 200
23 500

Solution:
Population to be served from point D
= population of block 16, 22 and 23
= 500 + 200 + 500 = 1200
Population between local C and D
= Population of blocks 15, 17, 18 and 20
= 700 + 600 + 800 + 1000 =3100
Population to be served from point C
= population of block 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23
= 3100 + 1200 + 300 + 1800 = 6400
Population between B and C points
= population of 11 and 12
= 500 + 700 =1200

Total population to be served from point B
= 6400 + 1400 + 1400 + 1200 = 10400
Population between A and B points (local)
= population of block 4, 5 and 6
= 600 + 700 + 700 = 2000
Total population to be served from point A
= 10400 + 2000 = 12400
Maximum discharge between C and D point
Population to be served = 4300
Per capita supply per day = 180lit
Peak hour factor = 2.5
Total discharge required in a day = 4300*180*2.5 = 1,935,000lit = 22.4lit/sec
Discharge between B and C
= 39.6lit/sec
Discharge between A and B
= 64.6lit/sec
Selection of pipe sizes
Using Nomograph, select sizes for CD 200mm, for BC 225mm and for AB 300mm
Head loss
To determine the head loss in section AB, BC and CD of the pipe line use Hazen-William
diagram or using equations.

Pipe
section
Population Max
Q
Lit/sec
Proposed
pipe dia.
(mm)
Head
loss (m)
Hydraulic
level
Ground
level
Net head
available
(m)
previous local total
CD 1200 3100 4300 22.4 200 2.5 D = 143.2 D = 128 D = 15.2
BC 6400 1200 7600 39.6 225 2.8 C = 145.7 C = 131 C = 14.7
AB 10400 2000 12400 64.6 300 1.5 B = 148.5
A = 150
B = 129
A = 130
B = 19.5
A = 20.0

Minimum head available is 14.7m (> 10m) which is quite sufficient.

b. Grid Iron System

In this system of supply, water reaches different points from different routes. The computation
in this method is of very complex nature. In the analysis of such a distribution system, the first
step will be to calculate the quantity of water flowing through each route. Once the discharges
are known, designs can be carried out on the same basis as dead end system.

Hardy cross method is commonly employed method for the analysis of pressures and pipe
diameters in grid iron system.
The conditions to be satisfied in any network of pipes are as follows:
1. According to the principle of continuity the flow into the junction must be equal to the
flow out of the function.
2. The DarcyWeisbach equation must be satisfied for flow in each pipe.
Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor
losses are large , they must be taken into account by considering them interims of the
head lost due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths
According to Darcy-Weisbach equation the loss of head h
f
though any pipe discharging
at the rate of Q can be expressed as:

n
L
rQ H = -------------------- (1)
Where r = proportionality factor which can be determined for each pipe, knowing the friction
factor f, length L, and the diameter D of the pipe.

5
1 . 12 D
fL
r = ----------------------- (2)
n = an exponent having a numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.0.
3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss around each circuit considering the
head loss in clockwise flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a
correct distribution of flow, the net head loss around each loop should be equal to zero, so
that the circuit will be balanced. However, in most of the cases, for the assumed distribution
of flow the head loss around the circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed flows are
then corrected by introducing a correction Q for the flows, until the circuit is balanced.
The value of the correction Q to be applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be
obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Q
o
is the assumed discharge and Q is the corrected discharge, then:

Q Qo Q + = ---------------------- (3)
and the head loss for each pipe is

n n
L
Q Qo r rQ H ) ( + = = ---------------------- (4)
Thus for the complete circuit:

n n
L
Q Qo rQ H ) ( + = =

------------------------ (5)
By expanding the terms the terms in the brackets in binomial theorem:
...) (
1
+ + =

Q nQo Qo r rQ
n n n
------------------------- (6)
If Q is small, compared with Q
o
, all terms of the series after the second one may be dropped.

Thus,
Q nQo r rQo rQ
n n n
+ =

1
-------------------------- (7)
For the correct distribution the circuit is balanced and hence 0 =
n
rQ .
Therefore,
0
1
= +

n n
nQo r Q rQo 0
1 1
0
= +

n n
Q rn Q Q rQ --------------- (8)
In the above expression Q has been taken out of the summations as it is same for all the pipes
in the circuit. Solving for Q:

0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0 0
Q
nhf
hf
Q rn
rQ
Q rn
Q rQ
Q
n
n
n
n
------------------ (9)
Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loops. For pipes common to
two loops or circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be
applied. Clockwise direction is considered as positive & anticlockwise as negative
direction.
With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all
the loops and process is repeated until the corrections Q become negligible.

Procedures can be expressed as follows:
1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of the flows entering any
junction must equal the sum of the flows leaving
2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an equation or diagram. Conventionally,
clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head losses.
3. With due attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each circuit:
h
L
= KQ
n
.
4. Compute, without regard to sign, for the same circuit, the sum of: KnQ
n-1
.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from equation (9) to the flow in each line. Lines common to
two loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.

Example
1. The pipe network shown in fig. 4 has supply of 5m
3
/s of water at A delivers to other
pipes at B, C, D and E to the extent of 1.5, 1.5, 1.0 and 1.0 m
3
/s respectively. What are the
flows in each pipe, and the pressures at B, C, D and E if the pressure head at A is 35m?
The pipe characteristics and elevation at the nodes are given below.

Take n = 2 and

Elevation of pipe nodes:
Node A B C D E
Elevation (m. o. d)(m) 30 25 20 20 21

Fig. Pipe network
Solution:

Iteration Loop Pipe f L(m) D(mm) r Qo |Qo| rQo|Qo| 2r|Qo| Q Qc
1 1 AB 0.010 1000 300 340 2 2 1361 1361 1.95
BC 0.011 900 250 838 0.5 0.5 210 838 0.45
CD 0.012 700 250 711 -0.5 0.5 -178 711 -0.55
DA 0.011 800 300 300 -2 2 -1198 1198 -2.05
195 4110 -0.05
Pipe Diameter(mm) Length (m) f
AB 300 1000 0.010
BC 250 900 0.011
CD 250 700 0.012
DE 250 700 0.015
AD 300 800 0.011
CE 300 800 0.015
AE 250 750 0.012

2 AD 0.011 800 300 300 2.05 2.05 1257 1228 1.85
DE 0.015 700 250 889 0.5 0.5 222 889 0.30
EA 0.012 750 250 762 -1 1 -762 1525 -1.20
717 3642 -0.2

3 DC 0.012 700 250 711 0.55 0.55 214 783 0.53
CE 0.015 800 300 408 -0.5 0.5 -102 408 -0.52
ED 0.015 700 250 889 -0.30 0.3 -81 534 -0.32
31 1725 -0.02

Iteration Loop Pipe f L(m) D(mm) r Qo |Qo| rQo|Qo| 2r|Qo| Q Qo
2 1 AB 0.010 1000 300 340 1.95 1.95 1296 1327 1.89
BC 0.011 900 250 838 0.45 0.45 171 755 0.39
CD 0.012 700 250 711 -0.53 0.53 -200 754 -0.59
DA 0.011 800 300 300 -1.85 1.85 -1025 1108 -1.91
242 3944 -0.06

2 AD 0.011 800 300 300 1.9 1.9 1088 1138 1.89
DE 0.015 700 250 889 0.32 0.32 91 569 0.30
EA 0.012 750 250 762 -1.2 1.2 -1095 1829 -1.22
85 3537 -0.02

3 DC 0.012 700 250 711 0.59 0.59 248 840 0.55
CE 0.015 800 300 408 -0.52 0.52 -110 425 -0.55
ED 0.015 700 250 889 -0.30 0.28 -74 498 -0.33
64 1762 -0.04
Iteration Loop Pipe f L(m) D(mm) r Qo |Qo| rQo|Qo| 2r|Qo| Q Qo
3 1 AB 0.010 1000 300 340 1.89 1.89 1217 1287 1.89
BC 0.011 900 250 838 0.39 0.39 128 656 0.39
CD 0.012 700 250 711 -0.59 0.59 -248 840 -0.59
DA 0.011 800 300 300 -1.91 1.91 -1095 1145 -1.91
3 3929 -0.001


2 AD 0.011 800 300 300 1.91 1.91 1096 1146 1.90
DE 0.015 700 250 889 0.30 0.30 79 529 0.29
EA 0.012 750 250 762 -1.22 1.22 -1136 1861 -1.23
38 3536 -0.011

3 DC 0.012 700 250 711 0.59 0.59 249 841 0.56
CE 0.015 800 300 408 -0.55 0.55 -126 453 -0.59
ED 0.015 700 250 889 -0.29 0.29 -73 510 -0.32
50 1804 -0.028

Exercise 1
Find the flow distribution in the gravity supply system through the following pipe network
shown below. Use Hazen Williams formula (C= 100). If the pressure at point A is 490.5 KPa,
find the pressures at points B & C. Assume all pipe junctions are at the same elevation.

LOOP I
E
40 l/s
45 l/s
30l/s
F
D
80 l/s
10l/s
C
40l/s
10l/s
45 l/s
LOOP II
75l/s
100l/s
A
250l/s
75l/s
B

Hazen- Williamss formula,
54 . 0 63 . 2
278 . 0 S CD Q =

54 . / 1
63 . 2
) 278 . 0 (

=
CD
Q
S

Exercise 2

Determine the flow rates in all the pipes in the network shown below. Use the DW equation to
relate head losses to flow rates. If the pressure head at point a is 40 m, find the pressure head
at d (which might represent a fire demand, for example).

The friction coefficient f for ab = 0.019, be = 0.025, ed = 0.021, dc = 0.021, ca = 0.021, dg =
0.022, gf = 0.02, fc = 0.022, eh = 0.025 and 0.025.


Fig 2: Nomograph for Hazen-William formula based on C = 100


6. PREPARATION OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS

When a water supply scheme is to be prepared for a newly developed town or city or an already
existing scheme has to be expanded, the following investigations should be conducted for the
preparation of the project.
1. Reconnaissance Survey /Feasibility Study/
During the reconnaissance survey the following points should be noted:
a. Total area to be covered
b. Existing population, habits of the people, type of industries, etc.
c. Existing source of water
d. An index map is to be prepared showing the population densities at different zones
e. Trends of development of the town or city
f. Intensity of public demand for the water supply scheme.
2. Demand of Water
A water supply scheme should be designed to serve the probable population for at least three
decade. So, the total demand of water for the next three decades should be ascertained. For this
purpose, the following points should be considered.
a. Depending upon the present population, the probable population for the next three
decades is estimated by the usual methods
b. The daily rate of demand per capital is worked out depending on the habits of the
people.
c. The demand of water for industries, sewarage system, fire demand, public demand, etc.
should be worked out.
d. The total water demand for the peak hours is estimated considering the system of water
supply (continuous or intermitent)
3. Source of Water
Source of water may be in two forms:
- Surface sources
- Subsurface sources
4. Preparation of Topographical Map
A topographical map of the town has to be prepared. It should indicate the location of roads,
streets, lanes, houses, playground, parks, etc.

5. Layout map of the scheme
On the topographical map, the layout of the scheme is marked by using different colour
convention or any suitable convention so that the work can be conducted in different phases.
The layout should indicate the following information:
a. Position of intake work
b. Position of treatment plant
c. Conveyance route from intake point to treatment plant
d. Position of service reservoir or pump house
e. Network of main and distribution pipe lines
f. The specific points such as position of check valve, fire hydrant, inspection chamber,
junction points, etc.
6. Maps and Drawings to be Prepared
The following maps should accompany the scheme:
a. A topographical map (to suitable scale)
b. A layout map of the scheme (to suitable scale)
c. Detailed drawing of intake work, pump house, deep well tube (if necessary),
distribution reservoir, etc. after design. The design should accompany the drawings.
7. Office Work
The office work includes the design, drawing and detailed estimate of the scheme or project for
the following items:
a. Intake work
b. Treatment plant
c. Conveyance pipe line
d. Sinking of deep tube well (if necessary)
e. Construction of pump house (if necessary)
f. Service reservoir
g. Distribution network of pipe lines
h. Compensation payable (if required)
i. Other allied expenditure
j. Total cost of the scheme including the above items and 20% provision for future
extensions


8. Project Report
When all the investigation works, design, drawing, estimation, etc. have been completed, a
report should be prepared and submited to higher authorities for approval. The report should
contain following information:
a. Introduction
b. Necessity and background
c. Justification of taking up the present scheme
d. Procedure adopted for land acquisition
e. The compensation statement which should include the nature of property, name of
owner, amount of property, amount of compensation according to present market price,
etc.
f. Detailed estimate of the scheme
g. Detail specification for construction work
h. Conclusion and recommendations

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AMTI (2010/11) WEE-3175 Water Supply and Treatment

Lecture Note Page 1

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